Unit – 3 Induction Motor

Three Phase AC Induction Motor

The three-phase AC induction motor is a rotating electric machine that is designed to operate on a
three-phase supply. This 3 phase motor is also called as an asynchronous motor. These AC motors
are of two types: squirrel and slip-ring type induction motors. The principle of operation of this
motor is based on the production of a rotating magnetic field.

3 Phase Induction Motor Construction

These three-phase motors consist of a stator and a rotor and between which no electrical
connection exists. These stator and rotors are constructed with the use of high-magnetic core
materials in order to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Stator frame can be constructed using cast iron, aluminum, or rolled steel. The stator frame provides
necessary mechanical protection and support for stator laminated core, windings, and other
arrangements for ventilation. The stator is wounded with three-phase windings which are
overlapped with one another at a 120-degree phase shift fitted into slotted laminations. The six ends
of the three windings are brought out and connected to the terminal box so that these windings are
excited by three-phase main supply.

These windings are of copper wire insulated with varnish fitted into insulated slotted laminations. At
all working temperatures, this impregnated varnish remains rigid. These windings have high-
insulation resistance and high resistance to the saline atmosphere, moisture, alkaline fumes, oil, and
grease, etc. Whichever suits the voltage level, these windings are connected in either star or delta
connections.

The rotor of the three-phase AC induction motor is different for the slip-ring and squirrel-cage
induction motors. The rotor in the slip-ring type consists of heavy aluminum or copper bars shorted
on both ends of the cylindrical rotor. The shaft of the induction motor is supported on two bearings
at each ends to ensure free rotating within the stator and to reduce the friction. It consists of a stack
of steel laminations evenly spaced slots that are punched around of its circumference into which un-
insulated heavy aluminum or copper bars are placed.
A slip-ring-type rotor consists of three-phase windings that are internally starred at one end, and the
other ends are brought outside and connected to the slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. And for
developing a high-starting torque these windings are connected to rheostat with the help of carbon
brushes. This external resistor or rheostat is used at the starting period only. Once the motor attains
the normal speed, the brushes are short-circuited, and the wound rotor works as a squirrel cage
rotor.

Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor

When the motor is excited with a three-phase supply, three-phase stator winding produces a
rotating magnetic field with 120 displacements at a constant magnitude which rotates at
synchronous speed. This changing magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors and induces a current in
them according to the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. As these rotor
conductors are shorted, the current starts to flow through these conductors.

In the presence of the magnetic field of the stator, rotor conductors are placed, and therefore,
according to the Lorenz force principle, a mechanical force acts on the rotor conductor. Thus, all the
rotor conductors force, i.e., the sum of the mechanical forces produces torque in the rotor which
tends to move it in the same direction of the rotating magnetic field.

This rotor conductor’s rotation can also be explained by Lenz’s law which tells that the induced
currents in the rotor oppose the cause for its production, here this opposition is rotating magnetic
field. This result the rotor starts rotating in the same direction of the stator rotating magnetic field. If
the rotor speed more than the stator speed, then no current will induce in the rotor because the
reason for rotor rotation is the relative speed of the rotor and stator magnetic fields. This stator and
the rotor field difference are called slip. This how a 3-phase motor is called an asynchronous
machine due to this relative speed difference between the stator and the rotors.

As we discussed above, the relative speed between the stator field and the rotor conductors causes
to rotate the rotor in a particular direction. Hence, for producing the rotation, the rotor speed Nr
must always be less than the stator field speed Ns, and the difference between these two
parameters depends on the load on the motor.

The difference of speed or the slip of the AC induction motor is given as

When the stator is stationary, Nr=0; so the slip becomes 1 or 100%. When Nr is at synchronous
speed, the slip becomes zero; so the motor never runs at synchronous speed. The slip in the 3 phase
induction motor from no load to full load is about 0.1% to 3%; that’s why the induction motors are
called as constant-speed motors.

Torque speed characteristics of three phase induction motor

Similar to other types of electric machines, a three-phase induction machine can work as a generator
and as a motor. For this machine, however, because the stator must be connected to the three-
phase circuit, the difference between being a motor or functioning as a generator lies in the speed of
the rotor. In general, if the rotor speed is higher than the synchronous speed, then it behaves as a
generator, and if the rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed, it becomes a motor.

The synchronous speed is determined by the line frequency and the number of poles of the stator
winding. The developed rotating magnetic field, after the stator is electrically connected, revolves at
the synchronous speed. This causes the rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field and rotate (thus, a
motor), but, if the rotor shaft is given mechanical energy to rotate faster than the speed of the
magnetic field, then the machine behaves as a generator.

Figure 1 shows a typical characteristic curve of an induction machine. It involves torque and speed
relationships. The curve consists of two almost symmetrical curves, one representing the induction
motor operation and one associated with the generator operation. This curve can be shown
differently (swapping the coordinates) or can be continued from motor side for other characteristics
(such as dynamic braking, where the direction of the developed torque is to the opposite of rotation,
thus, a braking action), but here we are only interested in the following information that can be
observed from the curve:
Figure 1 Torque-speed characteristic curve of a three-phase induction motor & generator

If the rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed (NS), the machine acts as a motor; it delivers
torque to a load. The number of torque changes based on a given speed of the load.

The only part of the curve, which is almost linear, is good for operation. For both functions, as a
motor and as a generator, outside of this linear segment is not suitable for operating the machine.

As a motor, the machine has a starting torque (at zero speed); thus, the machine is a self-starter.

In the linear (operating) region as a motor, as torque increases, the speed decreases, and vice versa.
At the synchronous speed NS, no torque can be delivered by the motor.

Within the linear region as a generator, if speed is increased, torque demand also increases, and vice
versa. This is a self-regulatory behavior; it prevents a machine from going into a runaway state.

If the machine runs at a speed equal to NS, it does not produce any power (because the torque is
zero at this point, and power = torque × speed).

The above observations imply that as a motor the speed is always less than the synchronous speed,
and as a generator, the machine must always be run above the synchronous speed.

Induction Motor Control

There are three main types of control strategies for induction motor drives: the variable-voltage
variable-frequency (VVVF) control, field-oriented control (FOC), and direct torque control (DTC).

Variable-Voltage Variable-Frequency Control

VVVF control has been widely adopted for speed control of induction drives. It is based on constant
volts/hertz control for frequencies below the rated frequency, and variable-frequency control with
constant rated voltage for frequencies beyond the rated frequency. For very low frequencies,
voltage boosting is applied to compensate the difference between the applied voltage and induced
EMF.
For a three-phase induction motor, the voltage equation is expressed as:

E = 4.44 ɸfN (7.29)

where

E is the supply voltage (volts)

ɸ is the air gap flux (webers)

f is the supply frequency (Hz)

N is the number of turns

From Eq. (7.29), it can be shown that during frequency control, the air gap flux ɸ remains unchanged
if the stator voltage is also varied along with frequency such that the ratio E/f is constant. This leads
to constant torque operation below synchronous speed as ɸ is kept constant. Thus,

That is, to control the speed of an induction motor below its rated speed, not only the frequency f
but also the supply voltage V (=E) has to be decreased proportionately to keep the (E/f) ratio
constant.

In order to achieve speed control above the rated speed, the stator voltage is retained at its supply
voltage level but the supply frequency is increased. The air gap flux as a result is decreased resulting
in lesser value of developed torque. Thus, reduced torque at increased speed leads to constant
horsepower operations beyond synchronous speeds. Figure 7.16 depicts the power circuit diagram
of a variable voltage variable frequency control.

It consists of a bridge converter-dc link-inverter configuration. The three-phase bridge converter

converts three-phase ac supply voltage to variable dc voltage. This is followed by the filter circuit.
The output of the filter is then fed to the input of the bridge inverter. The inverter generates a
variable voltage variable frequency supply to control the induction motor. The inverter circuit
contains six thyristors and six diodes. The firing circuits are not shown in the figure. The capacitor C,
as shown in Fig. 7.16 supplies stiff voltage supply to the inverter and the inverter output voltage
waves are therefore not affected by nature of load.

In summary, the torque-speed characteristics of the induction motor drive using VVVF control are
shown in Figure 3.17, and the corresponding torque-speed capabilities are shown in Figure 3.18. It
can be observed that there are three operating regions. The first region is called the constant-torque
region in which the motor can deliver its rated torque for speeds below the rated speed (normally
called the base speed 𝜔b). In the second region, called the constant-power region, the slip is
increased gradually to the maximum value so that the stator current remains constant and the
motor can maintain its rated power capability. When the speed is above the critical speed 𝜔c, the
slip remains constant while the stator current decreases. Thus, the torque capability declines with
the square of speed, the so-called reduced power region.

It should be noted that both the torque and air-gap flux under the VVVF control are functions of
voltage and frequency. This coupling effect is actually responsible for the sluggish response. That is,
the corresponding torque control is not fast and accurate enough for application to high-
performance EVs.

Field Oriented Control

AC Induction motors offer enviable operational characteristics such as robustness, reliability and
ease of control. They are extensively used in various applications ranging from industrial motion
control systems to home appliances. However, the use of induction motors at its highest efficiency is
a challenging task because of their complex mathematical model and non-linear characteristic during
saturation. These factors make the control of induction motor difficult and call for the use of a high-
performance control algorithms such as vector control.

Introduction of Field Oriented Control

Scalar control such as the “V/Hz” strategy has its limitations in terms of performance. The scalar
control method for induction motors generates oscillations on the produced torque. Hence to
achieve better dynamic performance, a more superior control scheme is needed for Induction
Motor. With the mathematical processing capabilities offered by the micro-controllers, digital signal
processors and FGPA, advanced control strategies can be implemented to decouple the torque
generation and the magnetization functions in an AC induction motor. This decoupled torque and
magnetization flux is commonly called rotor Flux Oriented Control (FOC).
Field Oriented Control describes the way in which the control of torque and speed are directly based
on the electromagnetic state of the motor, similar to a DC motor. FOC is the first technology to
control the “real” motor control variables of torque and flux. With decoupling between the stator
current components (magnetizing flux and torque), the torque producing component of the stator
flux can be controlled independently. Decoupled control, at low speeds, the magnetization state of
motor can be maintained at the appropriate level, and the torque can be controlled to regulate the
speed.

“FOC has been solely developed for high-performance motor applications which can operate
smoothly over the wide speed range, can produce full torque at zero speed, and is capable of quick
acceleration and deceleration.”

Working Principle of Field Oriented Control

The field oriented control consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector. This
control is based on projections that transform a three phase time and speed dependent system into
a two coordinate (d and q frame) time invariant system. These transformations and projections lead
to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control. FOC machines need two constants as input
references: the torque component (aligned with the q coordinate) and the flux component (aligned
with d coordinate).

The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors can be analyzed in terms of complex
space vectors. If we take ia, ib, ic as instantaneous currents in the stator phases, then the stator
current vector is defined as follow:

Where, (a, b, c) are the axes of three phase system.

This current space vector represents the three-phase sinusoidal system. It needs to be transformed
into a two-time invariant coordinate system. This transformation can be divided into two steps:

(a, b, c) → (α, β) (the Clarke transformation), which gives outputs of two coordinate time variant
system. (a, β) → (d, q) (the Park transformation), which gives outputs of two coordinate time
invariant system.

The (a, b, c) → (α, β) Projection (Clarke transformation)

Three-phase quantities either voltages or currents, varying in time along the axes a, b, and c can be
mathematically transformed into two-phase voltages or currents, varying in time along the axes α
and β by the following transformation matrix:
Assuming that the axis a and the axis α are along same direction and β is orthogonal to them, we
have the following vector diagram:

The above projection modifies the three phase system into the (α, β) two dimension orthogonal
system as stated below:

But these two phase (α, β) currents still depends upon time and speed.

The (α, β) → (d.q) projection (Park transformation)

This is the most important transformation in the FOC. In fact, this projection modifies the two phase
fixed orthogonal system (α, β) into d, q rotating reference system. The transformation matrix is given
below:

Where, θ is the angle between the rotating and fixed coordinate system.

If you consider the d axis aligned with the rotor flux, Figure 2 shows the relationship from the two
reference frames for the current vector:
Where, θ is the rotor flux position. The torque and flux components of the current vector are
determined by the following equations:

These components depend on the current vector (α, β) components and on the rotor flux position. If
you know the accurate rotor flux position then, by above equation, the d, q component can be easily
calculated. At this instant, the torque can be controlled directly because flux component (isd) and
torque component (isq) are independent now.

Basic Module for Field Oriented Control

Stator phase currents are measured. These measured currents are fed into the Clarke
transformation block. The outputs of this projection are entitled isα and isβ. These two components
of the current enter into the Park transformation block that provide the current in the d, q reference
frame. The isd and isq components are contrasted to the references: isdref (the flux reference) and
isqref (the torque reference). At this instant, the control structure has an advantage: it can be used
to control either synchronous or induction machines by simply changing the flux reference and
tracking rotor flux position. In case of PMSM the rotor flux is fixed determined by the magnets so
there is no need to create one. Therefore, while controlling a PMSM, isdref should be equal to zero.
As induction motors need a rotor flux creation in order to operate, the flux reference must not be
equal to zero. This easily eliminates one of the major shortcomings of the “classic” control
structures: the portability from asynchronous to synchronous drives. The outputs of the PI
controllers are Vsdref and Vsqref. They are applied to the inverse Park transformation block. The
outputs of this projection are Vsαref and Vsβref are fed to the space vector pulse width modulation
(SVPWM) algorithm block. The outputs of this block provide signals that drive the inverter. Here
both Park and inverse Park transformations need the rotor flux position. Hence rotor flux position is
essence of FOC.

The evaluation of the rotor flux position is different if we consider the synchronous or induction
motor.
In case of synchronous motor(s), the rotor speed is equal to the rotor flux speed. Then rotor flux
position is directly determined by position sensor or by integration of rotor speed.

In case of asynchronous motor(s), the rotor speed is not equal to the rotor flux speed because of
slip; therefore a particular method is used to evaluate rotor flux position (θ). This method utilizes
current model, which needs two equations of the induction motor model in d,q rotating reference
frame.

Advantages of Field Oriented Control

i. Improved torque response.

ii. Torque control at low frequencies and low speed.
iii. Dynamic speed accuracy.
iv. Reduction in size of motor, cost and power consumption.
v. Four quadrant operation.
vi. Short-term overload capability.

On the other hand, FOC has some drawbacks including the fact that a sensor is needed for
determining the exact rotor position. This information is required to generate the magnetic field
resulting in maximum torque. In most cases, an electro-mechanical sensor or a complex software
algorithm (observer) is used.

Direct Torque Control

Variable frequency drives control AC induction motors through one of several control schemes.
Scalar control (also referred to as V/Hz or V/f control) varies both the voltage and frequency of
power supplied to the motor to maintain a fixed ratio between the two. This keeps the strength of
the magnetic field at a constant level so that torque production remains stable. Scalar control is a
simple, inexpensive control method, but it doesn’t allow precise control of motor speed.
Vector control (also referred to as field oriented control, or FOC) controls the magnetizing and the
torque-producing components of the stator current independently to control both motor speed and
torque.

Another control method, known as direct torque control (DTC), is similar to field oriented control, in
that it decouples torque and flux and controls them independently. But DTC controls motor torque
directly, without a modulator, so torque response is much faster.

Direct torque control uses two control loops — a speed control loop and a torque control loop —
that work together, along with an advanced motor model, to precisely predict stator flux and motor
torque. Here’s how it works:

1 – Two motor phase currents and the DC bus voltage are measured, along with the inverter’s switch
positions. (Motor voltage is determined from the DC bus voltage and the inverter’s switch positions.)

2 – Motor current and voltage are fed to the motor model, which uses advanced mathematical
algorithms to produce exact values of the stator flux and motor torque, along with shaft speed,
every 25 μs (as fast as 12.5 μs in some drives).

3 – The actual torque and flux values are fed to the torque and flux comparators, which compare
them to torque and flux reference values that are provided by the speed control loop (see #6).
The goals of the comparators are to hold the magnitudes of the torque and flux vectors within a
narrow hysteresis band around the reference values. This is a primary factor in DTC’s ability to
achieve fast torque response without overshoot.

4 – Torque and flux status signals are fed to the optimum pulse selector.

5 – The optimum pulse selector chooses the optimum voltage vector from a lookup table and, based
on this, sends pulses to the inverter’s semiconductor switching devices to maintain or change the
motor torque as required.

The lookup table provides the optimum voltage vector based on three parameters: whether torque
and stator flux each need to be increased or decreased (or, for torque, held constant), and in which
sector (60 degree segment) of the space vector plane the stator flux resides.

The semiconductor switching in the inverter again determines motor voltage and current, which
determines motor torque and flux, therefore closing the control loop.

6 – The speed control loop contains a speed controller (which consists of a PID controller and an
acceleration compensator), a torque reference controller, and a flux reference controller.

The output of the speed controller is fed to the torque reference controller, whose output is the
internal reference value for the torque comparator in the torque control loop.

The flux reference controller determines an absolute stator flux value and provides this as the
internal reference for the flux comparator in the torque control loop. The flux reference controller is
also where flux is controlled and modified to enable inverter functions such as energy optimization
and flux braking.

When direct torque control is compared to field-oriented control, which also allows tight control of
motor speed and torque, two primary differences stand out. First, direct torque control is sensorless
— no speed or position encoders are required. It only requires voltage and current measurements.
This reduces cost and improves reliability.

The second difference is that direct torque control doesn’t require a modulator (pulse-width
modulator, or PWM), so processing time is reduced by a factor of 10, which improves torque
response, typically to less than 2 ms. This means torque and speed can be accurately controlled even
at low speeds, and full start-up torque is available all the way down to zero speed.

Induction Motor Braking

The braking is the process of reducing the speed of an induction motor. In braking, the motor works
as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion of a motor. The braking of an
induction motor is mainly classified into three types. They are

i. Regenerative Braking
ii. Plugging or reverse voltage braking
iii. Dynamic Braking
a. AC dynamic braking
b. Self-dynamic braking
c. DC dynamic braking
d. Zero sequence braking

1. Regenerative Braking

The input power of the induction motor drive is given by the formula shown below

Where φs is the phase angle between stator phase voltage and the stator phase current Is. For
motoring operation, the phase angle is always less than the 90º. If the rotor speed becomes greater
than synchronous speed, then the relative speed between the rotor conductor and air gap rotating
field reverse.

This reverse the rotor induces emf, rotor current and component of stator current which balances
the rotor ampere turns. When the φs is greater than the 90º, then the power flow to reverse and
gives the regenerative braking. The magnetising current produced the air gap flux. The nature of the
speed torque curve is shown in the figure above. When the supply frequency is fixed, the
regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than synchronous speed. With a variable
frequency speed, it cannot be obtained for speed below synchronous speed.
This reverse the rotor induces emf, rotor current and component of stator current which balances
the rotor ampere turns. When the φs is greater than the 90º, then the power flow to reverse and
gives the regenerative braking. The magnetising current produced the air gap flux.

The nature of the speed torque curve is shown in the figure above. When the supply frequency is
fixed, the regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than synchronous speed. With a
variable frequency speed, it cannot be obtained for speed below synchronous speed.

2. Plugging

When the phase sequence of supply of the motor running at speed is reversed by interchanging the
connection of any two phases of the stator on the supply terminal, operation change from motoring
to plugging as shown in the figure below. Plugging is the extension of motoring characteristic for a
negative phase sequence from quadrant third to second. The reversal of phase sequence reverses
the direction of a rotating field.

3. Dynamic Braking

AC Dynamic Braking – The dynamic braking is obtained when the motor is run on the single phase
supply by disconnecting the one phase from the source and either leaving it open or connecting it
with another phase. The two connections are respectively known as two and three lead connection.
When connected to a one phase supply the motor can be considered as to be fed by positive and
negative sequence three phase set of voltage. The total torque produced by the machine is the sum
of torque due to positive and negative sequence voltage. When the rotor has high resistance, then
the net torque is negative, and the braking operation is obtained.

Assume the phase A of the star connected motor is open circuited. Then the current flow through
the phase A becomes zero, i.e., Ia = 0 and current through the other two phases is IB = – IC.

The positive and negative sequence component Ip and In are represented by the equation.

Self Excited Braking Using Capacitor – In this method the three capacitors are permanently
connected to the motor. The value of the capacitor is so chosen that when disconnecting from the
line, the motor works as a self-excited induction generator. The braking connection and self-
excitation process is shown in the figure below.

The curve A is the no load magnetisation curve and line B represent the current through the
capacitor. E is the stator induced voltage per phase of the line. The capacitor supplies the necessary
reactive current for excitation.

DC Dynamic Braking – In this method, the stator of induction is connected across the DC supply.
The method for getting DC supply with the help of a diode bridge is shown in the figure below.
The direct current flow through the stator produces a stationary magnetic field, and the motion of
the rotor in this field produces induces voltage in the stationary windings. The machine therefore
works as a generator and the generated energy is dissipated in the rotor circuit resistance, thus
giving the dynamic winding.
Zero Sequence Braking – In this braking, the three phases of the stator are connected in series
across either a single AC or DC source. Such type of connection is known as zero sequence
connection because the current in all the three phases is co-phase. The nature of speed-torque
curve for AC and DC supply is shown in the figure below.

With the AC supply, the braking could be used only up to one-third of synchronous speed. The
braking torque produces by this connection are considerable larger than motoring. With DC supply
braking is available the entire speed range and the braking are essential a dynamic braking as all the
generated energy is wasted into rotor resistance.

Losses in AC motor

Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I2 R losses are
heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I2R losses are the
function of a conductor resistance, the square of current. Resistance of conductor is a function of
conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of copper conductor size
will reduce the resistance. Reducing the motor current is most readily accomplished by decreasing
the magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the operating flux density and
possible shortening of air gap. Rotor I2R losses are a function of the rotor conductors (usually
aluminium) and the rotor slip. Utilisation of copper conductors will reduce the winding resistance.
Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce rotor I2R losses.

Core Losses

Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysterisis effect and
eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are independent
of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total losses. The hysterisis losses which are a function of flux
density, are be reduced by utilizing lowloss grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux
density is achieved by suitable increase in the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are
generated by circulating current within the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using
thinner laminations.

Friction and Windage Losses

Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and circulating air through the
motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses. These losses are independent of load. The reduction
in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The windage losses also
reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.

Stray Load-Losses

These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux induced by
load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses. These losses are reduced by
careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.