Lecture Prepared by

Md.Sagir Hossain (Faculty Teacher)

B.sc in public Health Nursing (DU)
M.sc in Nutritional Science &
Food Technology (IU)
Barishal Nursing College, Barishal

Culture

Culture is the sum of human life, values, beliefs, language system, communication, and
behavior. Although culture is a complex concept, it affects every aspect of our lives, both
consciously and subconsciously.

It encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music,
what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we
behave with loved ones and a million other things.

Culture can be defined as a form of human life. For example, a culture is formed by combining
how people in a particular region think, how they act, their behavior, attitudes, dress, their
speech or language, their religious activities, music, literature, etc.

Definition according to different authors:-

E. B. Tylor (1871), “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
moral, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.”

Maclver defines, “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our
thinking, intercourse, in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment.”

Samuel Koenig, “Culture may be defined as the sum-total of man’s efforts to adjust himself
to his environment and to improve his modes of living.”

Types of Culture
Culture can be categorized into various types based on different criteria, such as geographical
location, social characteristics, or the way people interact within their environment. Here are
some common types of culture:

1. Material vs. Non-material culture

  Material culture:
o Refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define
their culture. These include buildings, art, tools, and technology.
o Examples: Clothing, architecture, machinery, art, and cuisine.
 Non-material culture:
o Consists of the intangible aspects of a culture, such as beliefs, values, norms,
language, and traditions.
o Examples: Religion, language, customs, moral codes, and social roles.

2. High culture vs. Popular culture

 High culture:
o Refers to the cultural products and practices that are associated with the elite or
dominant classes in society. It is often seen as sophisticated, refined, and
requiring a higher level of education or taste.
o Examples: Classical music, opera, fine arts, and literature.
 Popular culture:
o Refers to the mainstream, widespread cultural practices and products that are
accessible and appealing to the general population.
o Examples: Pop music, movies, television shows, fashion trends, and social
media.

3. Subculture vs. Counterculture

 Subculture:
o A subculture is a smaller cultural group within a larger culture, characterized by
distinct values, norms, and practices that set it apart from the mainstream
culture.
o Examples: Goth culture, hip-hop culture, skateboarding culture, and gaming
communities.
 Counterculture:
o A counterculture actively rejects and opposes the dominant culture’s norms,
values, and practices. Countercultures often arise as a form of resistance or
protest.
o Examples: The hippie movement of the 1960s, punk culture, and anarchist
groups.

4. Dominant culture vs. Minority culture

 Dominant culture:
o Refers to the cultural practices, values, and norms that are most influential
within a society and are often upheld by social institutions such as government,
education, and media.
o Examples: In many Western countries, the dominant culture might include
values of individualism, capitalism, and democracy.
 Minority culture:
o Refers to the cultural practices and traditions of smaller groups within a larger
society that differ from the dominant culture.
o Examples: Indigenous cultures, immigrant communities, and religious
minorities.
5. National culture vs. Global culture

 National culture:
o Represents the shared customs, traditions, language, and values of people within
a specific country or nation-state. It often includes national symbols, historical
narratives, and a sense of collective identity.
o Examples: American culture, Japanese culture, French culture, etc.
 Global culture:
o Refers to the increasingly interconnected and homogenized cultural practices
and values that are shared across the world due to globalization, often influenced
by media, technology, and multinational corporations.
o Examples: The global spread of fast food chains, the popularity of Hollywood
movies, and the worldwide use of the internet and social media.

6. Folk culture vs. Urban culture

 Folk culture:
o Refers to the traditional practices, customs, and ways of life of rural or
indigenous communities. It is often passed down through generations and is
closely tied to local environments and histories.
o Examples: Traditional music, folk dances, oral storytelling, and handmade
crafts.
 Urban culture:
o Refers to the cultural practices and lifestyles that emerge in urban areas, often
characterized by diversity, innovation, and a fast pace of life.
o Examples: Street art, urban fashion, nightlife, and diverse culinary scenes.

7. Mass culture vs. Elite culture

 Mass culture:
o Refers to the set of ideas, values, and practices that are widely disseminated and
consumed by large segments of the population, often through mass media.
o Examples: Popular TV shows, mainstream movies, advertising, and social
media trends.
 Elite culture:
o Refers to cultural expressions that are associated with the upper classes or
intellectuals, often seen as more sophisticated or highbrow.
o Examples: Fine arts, classical literature, academic research, and haute cuisine.

8. Organizational culture

 Definition:
o Refers to the values, beliefs, and practices that characterize an organization or
workplace. It shapes the behaviour of employees and the overall environment
of the organization.
o Examples: Corporate culture, school culture, and military culture.

9. Religious culture
  Definition:
o Refers to the set of beliefs, rituals, practices, and moral codes associated with a
particular religion. It deeply influences the worldview and lifestyle of its
adherents.
o Examples: Christian culture, Islamic culture, Hindu culture, and Buddhist
culture.

10. Consumer culture

 Definition:
o Refers to a culture where social status, values, and activities are cantered on the
consumption of goods and services. It is often driven by advertising and media.
o Examples: Brand loyalty, the phenomenon of "keeping up with the Joneses,"
and the emphasis on material possessions as a measure of success.

These types of culture interact and overlap in complex ways, shaping how individuals and
groups understand the world and their place within it.

OR

Famous Sociologist W.F. Ogburn divide culture into two types such as material and non-
material culture.

 Material Culture:

Material culture consists of products of human activity which is concrete, tangible and
observable. These objects are manmade and called as ‘artifacts’. It refers to books, chairs,
tables, furniture, tools, telephone.These material culture are external and utilitarian. Material
culture is invented for human convenience. They contribute to the progress of society. It
changes faster.

 Non-material Culture:

Non-material culture consists of intangible and abstract things like customs, values, good will
habits, beliefs, language etc. Non-material culture is something internal and they do not have
physical existence. Non-material culture changes very slowly. It is created taking the
psychological basis of man and reflects the inward nature of man. Non-material culture has
two aspects such as cognitive and normative. Cognitive aspect deals with knowledge whereas
normative aspects consist of norms, rules and values. We can’t see it and touch it.

Beside the above two types, there are some other various types of culture are as follows-

Culture of diversity

It refers to a place where individuals belonging to different gender, race, origin and sexual
orientation live. The diversity culture is prominent because the Community calendar includes
events and festivals belonging to different races.

Popular culture
This type of culture refers to the everyday activities of the individuals in a place. It includes
the bestselling books, top music on the chart etc.

Foreign culture

When an individual travels to another country and comes across people that speak, dress,
interact, behave, eat differently from himself, it is referred to as foreign culture.

Components of Culture
Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses various aspects of human life.
The components of culture can be broadly categorized into several areas, each representing a
different dimension of how people live, interact, and make sense of the world. Here are the key
components of culture:

1. Symbols

 Symbols are objects, gestures, sounds, or images that carry particular meanings
recognized by people within a culture. Examples include flags, religious icons, and
language characters.

2. Language

 Language is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another.
It includes spoken, written, and non-verbal communication (such as gestures and body
language).

3. Values

 Values are deeply held beliefs about what is good, desirable, and proper, or bad,
undesirable, and improper. They guide people's behaviour and serve as a standard for
evaluating the actions of others.

4. Norms

 Norms are the rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its
members. Norms can be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as customs and
traditions. They are typically categorized into:
o Folkways: Everyday norms that may be violated without serious consequences.
o Mores: Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance.
o Laws: Formalized norms that are enforced by the state.

5. Beliefs

 Beliefs are specific ideas that people hold to be true. They may be based on values, but
they are more specific and often provide the foundation for cultural practices and
behaviours.

6. Customs and traditions

  Customs and traditions are established practices and behaviours that are passed down
from generation to generation. They include rituals, ceremonies, and other habitual
actions that are characteristic of a particular culture.

7. Religion

 Religion is a set of beliefs and practices concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of
the universe, often involving a moral code and rituals. It is a significant component of
many cultures and influences other aspects such as values, norms, and customs.

8. Social institutions

 Social institutions are the organized systems and structures that meet the needs of
society, such as family, education, religion, government, and the economy. They shape
and are shaped by the culture in which they exist.

9. Art and aesthetics

 This includes the cultural expressions of beauty, creativity, and symbolism through
various forms such as music, visual arts, dance, literature, and architecture. Art often
reflects and reinforces cultural values and beliefs.

10. Technology and material culture

 Technology encompasses the tools, machinery, and techniques used by a society to

meet its needs and solve problems. Material culture refers to the physical objects and
artifacts that are created and used by a culture, reflecting its level of technological
advancement.

11. Social roles and status

 Social roles refer to the expectations for behaviour associated with particular positions
within a society (e.g., parent, teacher and leader). Status refers to the rank or position
of individuals within the social hierarchy, which can influence their power, prestige,
and access to resources.

12. Cultural change

 Cultures are not static; they evolve over time through processes such as innovation,
diffusion, and acculturation. Understanding cultural change is important for
comprehending how societies adapt to new challenges and opportunities.

13. Cultural identity

 Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular culture or group. It

encompasses aspects such as nationality, ethnicity, religion, and social class, and shapes
an individual’s self-concept and worldview.

These components interact with each other to form the complex tapestry of a culture,
influencing how individuals perceive the world and engage with others.
The basic elements of culture

Culture is the totality of learned and socially transmitted behaviors. It is shared and practicing
in all societies of the world. Basic Elements of culture includes ideas, beliefs, values, customs
which make it a whole configuration. Each culture has some basic elements.

 Language
 Norms
 Beliefs
 Symbols
 Values
 Cognitive Elements

Language: Every culture has a particular language which is passed by the person belongs to
that particular culture to the next generation and the following generation also has to learn the
language. The language can be defined, in a very precise manner, and can be compared, in the
best way, with a vehicle. Language is a medium or an instrument which is used to express one’s
view and to keep forward one’s opinion.

Language is the most basic and most important element in a culture. For example, a person
who speaks nagamese can be judged to be a citizen of Nagaland.

Norms: The very important element of a culture is this norms. This decides the rules and
regulation of a society. Norms define two types of rules one of which it must be followed by
people of that particular society these rules are known as “mos”. The other rule tells the daily
habits of individual of that society it is known as “folkways“.

Beliefs: Before the creation of any culture by a society, society decides their source of
motivation, which they considered as appropriate. For example god Shiva to Hindus, Sikh wear
bangle in one hand, bear a long beard, keeping a dagger. Cross for Christians and a necklace
or a cotton thread around the neck.

Symbols: Importance of Symbols may differ for different people, belonging to a different
culture. For example sign of cross means nothing for Hindus but for Christians, this is a symbol
of Lord Christ.

Values: Anything or any material when collects importance in our daily life it starts having
value. Value of some materials, sometimes, are received and taught by parents to their children.
Some values are explained by society, in this way values of a particular society gets
accumulated and move forward from generations to generations.

Cognitive elements: Cognitive elements are that element of culture which deals with the
management of difficult times or natural calamities. Cognitive elements of culture are
those through which an individual learn how to cope with an existing situation whether natural
or social. These qualities are learned by children and taught, to them, by their parents, so that
their son/daughter can live with peace in a particular situation

Important Functions/Roles of Culture

Man is not only a social animal but also a cultured being. Man’s social life has been made
possible because of culture. Culture is something that has elevated him from the level of animal
to the heights of man. Man cannot survive as man without culture. It represents the entire
achievements of mankind. Culture has been fulfilling a number of function among which the
following may be noted.

 Culture is a treasury of knowledge with instincts they adapt to the environment. But
man adapts to the environment or modifies it to suit his convenience.
 It defines situation – It not only defines but also conditions and determines what we
drink, eats, wears, talks about.
 It defines attitudes, values, and goals.
 It decides our careers. Whether policeman, social worker and so on, is decided by our
culture.
 It provides a behavior pattern.
 It molds the personality of individuals.
 It makes man a human being.
 It provides solution for complicated situation.
 It provides traditional interpretations to certain situation.
 It keeps social relationship intact.
 It broadens the outlooks of the individual.
 It creates new needs.

Characteristics of Culture
Some of the important characteristics of culture has been cited below.

Culture is learned: Culture is not inherited biologically but it is learnt socially by man in a
society. It is not an inborn tendency but acquired by man from the association of others, e.g.
drinking, eating, dressing, walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.

Culture is dynamic: Culture is not static but dynamic. Simply said, culture evolves when it
interacts with the cultures of others. For example, 40 years ago, it would have been considered
absurd to see ladies wearing trousers in Nigeria. But presently, ladies are increasingly
competing with men in wearing trousers in Nigeria.

Culture is abstract: Culture exists in the minds and actions of members of society. It is an
abstract concept because we can’t see it physically, but we can see its manifestations in the
beliefs and actions of members of society.

Culture is social: It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It develops
in the society through social interaction. It is shared by the man of society. No man can acquire
it without the association of others. It helps to develop qualities of human beings in a social
environment. Deprivation of a man from his company is the deprivation of human qualities.

Culture is shared: Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can passes but
shared by common people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions, values, beliefs are
all shared by man in a social situation. These beliefs and practices are adopted by all equally.
Culture is pervasive: Culture affects every aspect of our lives. It is the foundation on which
social interactions and social living take place in society. Every social action and institution is
infused with culture.

Culture is continuous: It is continuous process. It is like a stream which is flowing from one
generation to another through centuries. “Culture is the memory of human race.”

Culture is accumulative: Culture is not a matter of month or a year. It is the continuous

process and adding new cultural traits. Many cultural traits are borrowed from outside and these
absorbed in that culture which adopt it, as culture is accumulative and combines the suitable
cultural traits.

Culture is integrated: All the cultural aspects are inter-connected with each other. The
development of culture is the integration of its various parts. For example, values system is
interlinked with morality, customs, beliefs and religion.

Culture is changing: It remains changing but not static. Cultural process undergoes changes.
But with different speeds from society to society and generation to generation.

Culture varies from society to society: Every society has its own culture and ways of
behaving. It is not uniform everywhere but occurs differently in various societies. Every culture
is unique in itself is a specific society. For example, values, customs, traditions, ideologies,
religion, belief, practices are not similar but different in every society. However the ways of
eating, drinking, speaking, greeting, dressing etc are differs from one social situation to another
in the same time.

Culture is responsive: Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of a physical world.

It intervenes in the natural environment and helps man from all dangers and natural calamities
e.g. our houses are responsible to give us shelter and safety from storm and heavy rains.

Culture is gratifying: It is gratifying and provide all the opportunities for needs and desires
satisfaction. These needs may be biological or social but it is responsible to satisfy it. Our needs
are food, shelter, clothing and desires are status, fame, money, sex etc are all the examples
which are fulfilled according to the cultural ways. In fact it is defined as the process through
which human beings satisfy their need.

Culture is linked with society: Last but not the least one of the characteristics of culture that
culture and society are one and the same. But if we say that these turn two are twin sister, it
would not be wrong. Society is a composite of people and they interact each other through it. It
is to bind the people within the society.

Culture is a way of life: Culture is the organisation and way of life of members of society. It
influences how members of society communicate, interact, and approach social issues.

Culture is also based on language: Language is a type of symbol used for communication. It
is an essential characteristic of culture because members of a society must interact and
communicate. More so, Language serves as the main vehicle through which culture is
transmitted from one generation to another.
Culture is transmittable: Culture is passed down from generation to generation through the
various agents of socialisation. Furthermore, some cultural characteristics and traits can be
transmitted when one culture interacts with another.

Culture is super-organic: Culture is superior to nature, so it is considered super-organic. It

has a symbolic rather than genetic life of its own. It high a higher level of complexity than the
organics and the individuals that make it up.

Impact of culture on health

Culture significantly impacts health in various ways, shaping people's beliefs, behaviours, and
attitudes toward health and illness. Understanding these influences is crucial for effective
healthcare delivery and health promotion. Here are some key ways culture impacts health:

1. Health beliefs and practices

 Perception of illness: Different cultures have varying beliefs about the causes of
illness, which can influence how people seek treatment. For example, some cultures
may attribute illness to spiritual factors, while others may focus on physical or
environmental causes.
 Preventive practices: Cultural beliefs shape how people engage in preventive
behaviours such as diet, exercise, and vaccination. For instance, traditional remedies or
dietary practices may play a significant role in a community's approach to maintaining
health.
 Healing practices: Cultural practices often include specific healing methods, such as
herbal medicine, acupuncture, or prayer. These practices may be used alongside or
instead of conventional medical treatments.

2. Communication and health literacy

 Language barriers: Language differences can hinder effective communication

between healthcare providers and patients, leading to misunderstandings,
misdiagnoses, or non-compliance with treatment.
 Health literacy: Cultural background influences a person’s health literacy, including
their ability to understand medical information and navigate the healthcare system. This
affects their ability to make informed health decisions.
 Non-verbal communication: Cultural norms around non-verbal communication, such
as eye contact, personal space, and touch, can impact the patient-provider relationship
and the effectiveness of care.

3. Diet and nutrition

 Cultural dietary practices: Cultural traditions dictate food choices, preparation

methods, and meal patterns, which directly impact nutrition and health. For example,
some cultures emphasize plant-based diets, while others may have high-fat or high-
sugar diets, influencing rates of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
 Food restrictions and preferences: Religious or cultural dietary restrictions (e.g.,
fasting, avoiding certain foods) can impact nutritional status and need to be considered
in dietary counselling and medical treatment.
4. Attitudes toward healthcare

 Trust in healthcare systems: Cultural history and experiences, such as past

discrimination or mistreatment, can influence trust in healthcare providers and
institutions. This can affect whether individuals seek medical help and follow
prescribed treatments.
 Role of family: In many cultures, family plays a central role in decision-making about
health. Family members may be involved in discussions about treatment options and
care, influencing the patient’s choices and adherence to medical advice.

5. Mental Health

 Stigma: Cultural stigma associated with mental health issues can prevent individuals
from seeking help or discussing their struggles openly. In some cultures, mental illness
may be seen as a personal or family failing, leading to underreporting and untreated
conditions.
 Cultural expressions of distress: The way people express and experience mental
health symptoms can vary by culture. Some cultures may express psychological distress
through physical symptoms, such as headaches or fatigue, rather than emotional
language.

6. Reproductive and sexual health

 Cultural norms: Cultural beliefs about gender roles, sexuality, and reproduction can
influence attitudes toward sexual health, contraception, and family planning. In some
cultures, discussions about sexual health may be taboo, leading to lower awareness and
use of reproductive health services.
 Maternity and childbirth practices: Cultural preferences for childbirth methods (e.g.,
home birth vs. hospital birth) and postpartum practices can impact maternal and child
health outcomes.

7. Healthcare Access and Utilization

 Cultural barriers: Cultural differences can create barriers to accessing healthcare

services, including fear of discrimination, lack of culturally competent care, and
mistrust of the healthcare system.
 Health-seeking behaviour: Cultural norms influence when and how people seek
medical care. Some cultures may prioritize traditional healers over Western medicine,
delay seeking care until an illness is severe, or prefer home remedies.

8. End-of-Life Care

 Cultural attitudes toward death: Beliefs about death and dying vary widely across
cultures and can influence decisions about end-of-life care, such as the use of life-
sustaining treatments, hospice care, and funeral practices.
 Advance directives: Cultural beliefs may affect whether individuals complete advance
directives and how families make decisions about end-of-life care.

9. Public health responses

  Cultural Sensitivity in Health Campaigns: Public health campaigns that do not
consider cultural differences may be less effective. Culturally tailored interventions are
more likely to resonate with target populations and encourage healthy behaviours.
 Global health initiatives: In global health, understanding cultural contexts is essential
for successful implementation of health programs, particularly in areas such as
vaccination, disease prevention, and health education.

10. Social determinants of health

 Cultural influences on social determinants: Culture interacts with social

determinants of health, such as education, income, and social support, which in turn
influence health outcomes. Cultural norms may affect educational attainment,
employment opportunities, and social networks, impacting overall health and well-
being.

Understanding the impact of culture on health is crucial for providing effective, equitable, and
culturally competent healthcare that meets the diverse needs of individuals and communities.

Values
According to M. Haralambos, “A value is a belief that something is good and desirable”.

According to H.M. Johnson, “Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher order
norms”.bjective preferences, standards, and aspirations”.

According to Peter Worsley, “Values are general conceptions of “the good”, ideas about the
kind of ends that people should pursue throughout their lives and throughout the many different
activities in which they engage”.

The types of values

There are five types of values we can find in our environment. Each measures how a behavior
benefits us or others within our society, culture, or community.

Some examples of values that fall into different categories:

1. Functional value: Does this behavior or item provide a useful service?

2. Monetary value: Is this behavior capable of generating money?
3. Social value: Does this behavior help us connect with others, or help others connect?
4. Psychological value: Does this behavior allow us to express ourselves more clearly?
5. Cultural value: Do people in my community share this value with me? Does it
share a custom or ritual with the people in my group?

Functions of Value

1) Provides goals or ends for the members to aim for.

2) Provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interaction, hence create sense of
belongingness among people who shared commonly.
3) Bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities.
 4) Help to bring about some kind ‘of adjustment between different sets of rules.
5) Differentiate between right and wrong and what is desirable and undesirable.
6) Build up societies, integrate social relations.
7) Mould the ideal dimensions of personality and range and depth of culture.
8) Influence people’s behaviour and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.
9) Have a great role to play in the conduct of social life.
10) Help in creating norms to guide day-to-day behaviour.

Belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In
epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which
can be either true or false.

Or,

A belief is an idea that we hold as being correct. It is an acceptance that something exists
or is true, whether or not there is proof or evidence. For example, a belief that the earth is
round or that fairies exist.

Types of beliefs
Each set of beliefs measures how a specific behavior benefits us or others within our society,
culture, or community.

List of common types of beliefs:

 Political beliefs: How we think power should be distributed and controlled within a
society

 Social beliefs: How we think people’s personal lives should be structured in relation to
the rest of society
 Religious beliefs: We’re likely all familiar with several dominant religions, but we
can categorize religious beliefs in two ways.

o Monotheistic religions believe in a singular deity. Islam, Christianity, and

Judaism fall into this category.
o Polytheistic religions believe in multiple deities, like Hinduism, Taoism (or
Daoism), and Confucianism.

Similarities and differences

The main similarities and differences between beliefs and values.

Differences:

1. Beliefs are our assumptions about the world. Values are how we attribute worth to
objects and behaviors.
 2. Beliefs stem from our life experiences, spiritual learnings, and culture. Our beliefs
heavily influence our values.
3. Beliefs can teeter into prejudice, and values can manifest that prejudice.
4. Beliefs affect our morals. Values are how we live our morals through behavior,
character, and personality.

Similarities:

1. External environments influence both beliefs and values.

2. Beliefs and values influence our behavior and how we experience the world
3. Both provide a shared sense of identity and community
4. Beliefs and values can change over time

Customs:

Customs can be defined as the something that is a fixed mode of behaviour in society, which
has been established through the years. Customs are framed on the basis of the various
dimensions of the man’s behaviour which has been prescribed by the society. Shaking hands,
bowing, and kissing—all customs—are methods of greeting people. The method most
commonly used in a given society helps distinguish one culture from another

John Salmond

“Custom is the embodiment of those principles which have commended themselves to the
national conscience as principles of justice and public utility.”

C.K. Allen

C.K. Allen defines custom as “legal and social phenomenon growing up by forces inherent in
society—forces partly of reason and necessity, and partly of suggestion and imitation.”

J.L. Austin

“Custom is a rule of conduct which the governed observe spontaneous and not in pursuance of
law settled by a political superior.”

Ritual:

A formalised, predetermined set of symbolic actions generally performed in a particular

environment at a regular, recurring interval. Rituals can have a basic sociological function in
expressing, inculcating, and reinforcing the shared values and beliefs of a society.

According to Ashley Crossman,

A ritual is a formalized mode of behavior in which the members of a group or community
regularly engage. Religion represents one of the main contexts in which rituals are practiced,
but the scope of ritual behavior extends well beyond religion. Most groups have ritual practices
of some kind.

_________________ End ___________________