CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 - 12
FIRST SEMESTER - FINALS – A.Y. 2024-2025
LESSON 1-INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Instrument development is a critical step in quantitative research, involving the creation or adaptation of tools to collect
data. These tools, often referred to as instruments, can be surveys, questionnaires, tests, or scales. The quality and
reliability of the instrument directly impact the validity of the research findings.

Steps in Instrument Development

1. Define Research Objectives:
○ Clearly outline what you want to measure and the specific questions you aim to answer.
2. Literature Review:
○ Examine existing research to identify relevant instruments or scales.
○ Assess their validity, reliability, and suitability for your research.
3. Conceptual Framework:
○ Develop a theoretical framework that connects your research questions to the variables you intend to
measure.
4. Item Generation:
○ Create items that directly measure the variables of interest.
○ Ensure items are clear, concise, and avoid ambiguity.
5. Content Validity:
○ Assess whether the items adequately represent the construct being measured.
○ Seek input from experts in the field to validate the content.
6. Pilot Testing:
○ Administer the instrument to a small sample to identify potential issues.
○ Gather feedback on clarity, length, and relevance.
(note: Apply when the researchers did not adopt/adapt their instrument)
7. Reliability Assessment:
○ Determine the consistency of the instrument's measurements.
○ Use methods like Cronbach's alpha or test-retest reliability.
8. Validity Assessment:
○ Evaluate whether the instrument measures what it is intended to measure.
○ Use methods like construct validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.

Best Practices
1. Keep it Simple: Avoid complex language or jargon.
2. Use Clear Instructions: Provide clear guidelines for participants.
3. Avoid Leading Questions: Ensure questions do not suggest a particular answer.
4. Consider Cultural Sensitivity: Adapt the instrument to different cultural contexts.
5. Pilot Test Thoroughly: Identify and address potential issues before finalizing the instrument.

LESSON 2 - CHAPTER 3: FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION

Collected quantitative data can be interpreted and be given meaning by using either descriptive or inferential
statistics.
Preparing Quantitative Data for Analysis
Quantitative data obtained from the administration of the research instrument, like a survey questionnaire,
should first be encoded and prepared for data analysis. The demographic data can be coded as illustrated below:
VARIABLE CODING SCHEME
Gender 1=male
2=female
Grade Level 1=grade school
2=junior high school
3=senior high school
4=college
Age 1=10-15 years old

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 2=16-20 years old
3=21-25 years old
4=26 and above

Coding the demographic data as a single digit number facilitates data analysis. Instead of typing “male” or
“female,” the data set can be coded as “1” for male and “2” for female. Doing this means that the variables are classified
as numerical variables and a computer software program like Microsoft Excel or SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) treat these variables accordingly.
It is also possible that gender can be treated as a string variables, thus, there is no need to code the data set.
“Male” or “Female” can be encoded and treated as string variable. String variables are variables that are treated as
labels (e.g., male or female; grade school or college) and hold text characters. The “Countif,” “Find,” and “Replace”
commands in Microsoft Excel will enable you to generate frequency counts and percentages of the variables encoded as
string variables. Similarly, data can be encoded as string variables in SPSS without the need of coding.
The table below presents a sample coded data matrix for the first 10 participants who answered the self-
concept inventory presented in the earlier lessons.

Participant Gender Grade Level Age

1 1 1 1

2 1 2 2

3 2 3 3

4 2 4 3

5 1 1 1

6 1 2 2

7 2 3 3

8 2 4 3

9 1 3 3

10 2 3 3

The seven items that illustrate the thinking, feeling, and doing subscales of the self-concept inventory should
also be coded. The table below is the coding scheme for the items in self-concept inventory.

Variables Coding Scheme

Subscale of self-inventory 1=thinking
2=feeling
3=doing
Rating of an item 1=not at all
2=a little bit
3=somewhat
4=very much
5=extremely

Given this coding scheme, the table that follows presents the raw data matrix for the first 10 participants.
Items on the Self-Concept Inventory
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
Participant 1 3 4 3 4 4 4 4
Participant 2 4 3 4 4 5 5 3
Participant 3 5 3 4 5 4 4 4
Participant 4 4 3 3 4 5 3 3

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 Participant 5 4 5 4 3 4 3 4
Participant 6 4 4 3 3 3 3 3
Participant 7 4 5 5 4 3 4 4
Participant 8 5 4 3 3 4 4 3
Participant 9 3 3 3 4 3 5 4
Participant 10 3 4 5 4 3 3 3

ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive statistics describes the data or the results from the administration of research instruments.
However, if you want to know whether the data truly represent the population of which the sample is drawn, then
descriptive statistics is not appropriate. To determine whether you can infer the characteristics of the population from
the sample’s characteristics, inferential statistics is used. Inferential statistics is the mathematics and logic of how
characteristics of the sample can be generalized to a larger population. This is made possible by testing the hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing
Analyses and decisions made from collected empirical data, as the necessary consequences of your research
design, are always subjected to some degree of sampling error. For example, if the posttest mean score from the
cooperative learning group is higher than the posttest mean score of the conventional group, what is the extent that we
are attributing this difference? Is it due to chance or to the intervention employed (use of cooperative learning
activities)? The logical arguments and procedures associated with this kind of decision are subsumed under hypothesis
testing.
Steps in Testing

2. State the 3. Set the statistical 6. Draw conclusion

State the null 5. Calculate the test
alternate significance (alpha 4. Collect data. about the null
hypothesis. statistic.
hypothesis. level, α) hypothesis.

Statistical Hypothesis
The null hypothesis assumes that the intervention or any treatment employed by the researcher has no
significant effect on the dependent variable. If researchers fail to reject the null hypothesis, this implies that the
treatment or anything that the researcher wants to prove did not occur. Researchers, more often than not, would want
the treatment or intervention to have an effect on the dependent variable. Thus, the goal of hypothesis testing is to
reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a statement wherein an observed effect is due to chance and not due to
treatment. Examples of this observed effect include the difference between two means of independent or paired
samples, the degree of correlation between two or more variables, or the degree of association between two or more
variables.
Sample Studies Using Inferential Statistics
Problem Statement Research Question Null Hypothesis
Exposing plants to different colored What is the effect of different colored There is no significant difference on
lights will affect plant growth lights (i.e., red, green, or yellow) on the growth of plants exposed to green,
the growth of plants? yellow, or red light as compared to
plants exposed to regular sunlight.

The reduction of anxiety levels of What is the level of anxiety of clients There is no significant difference on
clients will be reduced after several before and after several therapy the level of anxiety of clients before
therapy sessions. sessions? and after several therapy sessions.
There are a number of factors that can What are the factors that influence There is no significant relationship
influence why teenagers engage in teenagers to engage in smoking? Is between the different factors that can
smoking. there a relationship among these influence teenagers to engage in
factors? smoking.
Having a laptop to study, belonging in Is there an association between study There is no significant association
a study group, solving additional factors (i.e., having a laptop, belonging between having a laptop, belonging in
problems, and owning a textbook are in a study group, solving additional a study group, solving additional
associated with academic success. problems, and owning a textbook) problems, and owning a textbook with
with academic success? academic success.

Writing the Research Findings

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 The research findings are the results of the study conducted based on the data that were collected, analyzed,
and interpreted. In writing the summary of findings, a researcher must take note of important points. First, it is not
necessary to include all the data that were collected and gathered in the summary. The researcher makes a judgment
call on which data are considered important and useful and must therefore be incorporated in the discussion of the
research findings. Second, the researcher must ensure that he or she has clearly understood the data results. He or she
must summarize, condense, and simplify the data and discussion in the research findings. Finally, all data presented in
the research findings must be properly explained. The length of the section depends on the amount and types of data to
be presented by the researcher.
A quantitative research paper usually contains a section called Data Results and Research Findings. In this
section, the researcher answers the research problems using the results of the investigations or experiment.

Use of Tables and Figures

In both quantitative research, the data results are explained and presented using statistics, data tables, and
figures. Tables are efficient ways to present large amounts of data using a limited amount of space. They are used to
show (1) the exact numerical values and (2) the arrangement of data organized in a manner that displays columns and
rows.

Things to Remember about using Tables

● Determine which of the data results can be presented using tables
● Tables must be used to supplement and not to duplicate the text
● All tables must be numbered using Hindu-Arabic numerals.
● All tables should have a brief, clear, and explanatory title
● Every column of a table must be given a heading
● When citing tables in the text, refer to them using their numbers. For example, “as shown in Table 1, the
interviewees stated that . . .”
● Cite the source of table if it was lifted from other sources
● Use an explanatory note at the bottom of the table to explain abbreviations or other notations used in the
table.

Example of a Data Table:

Table 1
Total Number of Grade 10 Boys and Girls in Section A, 2013 – 2016
Year Boys Girls
2013 a 34 10
2014 33 11
2015 30 14
2016 35 9
Note: a refers to the June to December 2013
Source: ____________________________________________
Explanation in the text:
As shown in Table 1, the interviewees stated that . . .
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Use of Illustration and Figures
Any form of illustration used in the study other than table is classified as a figure. A figure can be a chart, a photo, a
drawing, or any other related visual representation of data. It should be used in the research to augment the text
and to convey and express essential facts.

Examples of Illustrations
Graphs Graphs are utilized to show relationships in a set of data. They can also show absolute
values, percentages, and index numbers. Examples of graphs are line graph, bar graph,
pictogram graph, circle or pie graph

Charts Charts are used to describe the relationship between parts of a group or object or
sequence of operations in a process. Organizational charts and flowcharts are examples
of charts that can be used for presenting data results and findings

Drawings Drawings are images that can be shown from several views. They must be illustrated by a
professional artist.

Photograph Photographs should be used to augment the text. They must be taken clearly. The
researcher should seek permission from the source of the photo if it is not taken by the
researcher himself or herself.

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What to Remember about Writing the Research Findings
1. Research findings can either prove or disprove the hypothesis of the study. So, do not include data that do not help
answer the research problem.
2. There are two ways to present the research findings. First, provide a summary of the results and an explanation of
the major research findings. Second, present and explain each of the major results thoroughly.
3. The research findings must include the following:
a. A short introduction should restate the research problem so that it properly contextualizes the discussion of
the research findings.
b. The research findings for both quantitative and qualitative research can use data tables and figures to
illustrate, summarize, categorize, and organize the results of the study. Charts, bar, or line graphs, maps,
pictures, and other visual aids can be used to support the text of the data results. The researcher must
incorporate the variables, subjects, and subgroups in the data tables. Tables, graphs, statistics, and figures
that are incorporated in the text (for qualitative research) must be part of the discussion in the paper.
4. Use the past tense when presenting the results of the study.

How to Analyze and Interpret Data Results

Quantitative studies produce different data results because they use diverse methods. The researcher must then
use different analysis and interpretation procedures for each type of research data.

Analyzing Quantitative Data

Creswell, provides simple steps in analyzing gathered data using quantitative research techniques.
1. The researcher must report information obtained from the data. For survey research, he or she must report the
number of respondents who returned and did not return the surveys. A table should be used to show the number
and percentages that describe the respondents and nonrespondents of the study.
2. The researcher must disclose the method used to determine response bias or the result of respondents who did not
reply on the results of the survey estimates. The procedures used to determine response bias must be explained.
3. The researcher conducts a descriptive analysis of data for all independent and dependent variables in the research
study. Descriptive analysis includes the computation of the means, standard deviation, and range of scores for the
variables used in the study. For experimental research, the researcher must report the descriptive statistics
computed during the observations and pretest and posttest stages of the experiment. These statistics involve the
computation of the mean, standard deviation, and range statistics.
4. The researcher does statistical analysis of the data. There are different statistical tests that can be used for the
analysis of the data. For experimental research, the researcher indicates the inferential statistical tests used to
examine the hypothesis of the study.
5. The researcher can use tables, figures, charts, bar or line graphs, maps, pictures, and other visual evidence to
present and explain the data results.
6. When interpreting data, Creswell (2009) suggests that the researcher must report if the statistical test results are
significant statistically or not. He or she must report if the results obtained from the study answer the research
question or if they have proven the hypothesis. For experimental research, the researcher must interpret the data
results in relation to the research hypothesis or questions. When interpreting the data, the researcher must explain
if the result of the experiment supports or negates the hypothesis or answers the research problem. The researcher
can suggest as well the reasons why the results are significant or insignificant using the reviewed literature and the
theory used in the study.

What to Remember about Writing the Research Findings

1. Research findings can either prove or disprove the hypothesis of the study. So, do not include data that do not help
answer the research problem.
2. There are two ways to present the research findings. First, provide a summary of the results and an explanation of the
major research findings. Second, present and explain each of the major results thoroughly.
3. The research findings must include the following:
a. A short introduction should restate the research problem so that it properly contextualizes the discussion of the
research findings.
b. The research findings for both quantitative and qualitative research can use data tables and figures to illustrate,
summarize, categorize, and organize the results of the study. Charts, bar, or line graphs, maps, pictures, and other visual
aids can be used to support the text of the data results. The researcher must incorporate the variables, subjects, and
subgroups in the data tables. Tables, graphs, statistics, and figures that are incorporated in the text (for qualitative
research) must be part of the discussion in the paper.
4. Use the past tense when presenting the results of the study.

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 LESSON 3- CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY
This section reviews and states in capsule form the objectives, respondents, and methods or methodologies
used in the study. It presents the important findings of the research. For clarity of presentation, the findings may be
written according to the order of presentation of the specific research problems. The findings need not to be explained
or elaborated.

Drawing Conclusions
Conclusions in research are “abstractions of the summary of findings into what are most important in relation to
the objectives of the study.” They help readers understand the significance of the study. A conclusion synthesizes the
main points of the research and answers the research questions.
Conclusions are derived from the findings of the study. Good concluding statements do not repeat the data
evidence from which they are based. They are briefly stated but reflective of the findings. De Vaus (2006) states that:
The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why the research should matter to them after they have
finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your
research problem but a synthesis of key points and, if applicable, where one recommends new areas for future research.
For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two or three
paragraph conclusion may be required."

The following are some consideration in writing the conclusion of the research (De Vaus, 2006).

1. Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in the paper. Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your
reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in
your analysis or results or by noting important or unexpected implications applied to practice;

2. Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study. The conclusion is an opportunity to
succinctly answer the "So what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic
you've investigated;

3. Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you the opportunity to elaborate on
the impact of your findings;

4. Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem. This does not refer to introducing
new Information (which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for
framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study;

5. State your conclusions in clear, simple language. State how your findings differ or support those of others and why;

6. Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to
show how these converge to address the research problem or study objectives; and

7. Indicate opportunities for future research, as long as have not already done so in the discussion section of your paper.
Highlighting areas for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in depth awareness of the
research problem you studied.

Sample Case
Conclusions
Based on the summary of findings, the following conclusions were derived:
1. The reading comprehension skills of the Grade 11 students are still way below acceptable standards. Much has to
be done to enhance their skills in the various sub skills;
2. As well, the oral proficiency skills of the Grade 11 students are also below acceptable standards. There is a dire
need to hone their skills in accuracy, fluency and comprehensibility;
3. Certain profile variables like average grades in English, parental support and availability of educational resources
influence the reading comprehension skills and oral proficiency of the Grade 11 students;
4. The reading comprehension skills of Grade 11 students influence their oral proficiency; and
5. The enhancement activities crafted in this study are found to be relevant to help improve the students' reading
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RECOMMENDATIONS
This is written after conclusions have been drawn. To do this, you can start writing the recommendations from
those variables you studied. Moreover, you can also suggest other methods and variables for those who want to do
similar study. The number of recommendations is usually aligned to the number of conclusions that you have drawn.
This part should be derived from the findings and conclusions of the study. They should be specifically and briefly stated.
This part envisions how results could be used for the betterment of situations and life. The enumeration of the
recommendations must be done on a one-to-one basis (per problem) to bring focus and cohesion. In case, there are two
or three recommendations per problem, this can still be done by having sub recommendations per problem.

In case there are other recommendations apart from the specified problems, enumerate these under the
heading: other recommendations (immediately after the last problem).

Sample Case
Recommendations
In this study, the spoiling-inhibiting properties of both antioxidants and citric acid were investigated by creating
a sweet potato peeling powder and lime rind powder composite. The powder mixture was applied to strawberry and
carrot specimens using three trials. However, the experiment yielded unsatisfactory results and the level of details
covered in this study prompts further investigations.

Therefore, the researchers recommend the following:

Further study should be conducted regarding the spoiling inhibiting property of the powder mixture
components (i.e., sweet potato peelings and lemon rinds) individually.

Further investigations must be conducted regarding the delivery method of the SPP & LR powder composite.

CITING SOURCES AND WRITING THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Intellectual honesty should be practiced at all times in research writing. Citing sources is necessary to prevent
plagiarism, an intentional or accidental act of copying the works and writings of another person without properly
acknowledging the author or writer of the source. Plagiarism, according to Gibaldi, is committed if a researcher does the
following:
a. Taking notes that do not distinguished the summarized and paraphrased texts from the directly quoted texts
and present the quoted texts as if they are the researcher’s own words
b. Directly copying and pasting a text from the Internet and including the said text in the research paper without
quotation marks or without citing the source
c. Citing facts without citing the source of the information
d. Summarizing or paraphrasing someone’s wording without acknowledging the source
e. Copying a part of the text (phrase or concept) from the source without acknowledging the source and its author
f. Acquiring a research paper, copying its content, and submitting it to your teacher

Plagiarism can be avoided by identifying the source of every text that is directly quoted, paraphrased, and
summarized in the paper.

There are different ways to cite sources within the body of the research. The American Psychological Association
(APA) style uses the in-text citation. This contains the surname of the author, the publication year of the source, and the
specific pages where the information can be found. It is written at the end of the sentence.

Example:
According to a study, 60% of the people in the community smoke (Sean, 2014, p. 60).

An in-text citation can also be included as part of the text. The name of the author is stated in the sentence, and
it is followed by the publication year of the source and the page number where the information can be found in the
source.
Example:
According to Sean (2014, p. 60), 60% of the people in the community smoke.

When the page of the source is not included, you can cite the year of the publication of the literature.
Example:

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 According to Sean (2014), 60% of the people in the community smoke.

The full citation of the source can be found in the reference list of the paper. In the Modern Language
Association (MLA) style, the sources are acknowledged by placing brief parenthetical citations in the text. The
parenthetical citation contains the surname of the author and the page number where the information can be found in
the source. The full citation of the source used within the text is included in the reference list of the paper.
Example:
In the survey conducted, there are about 60% of the people in the community who smoke (Sean 60).

The other citation format is the footnote system. This is usually used in historical studies that require the
complete citation of a source. The number of footnote indicates the sources cited in the paper. Footnotes are printed at
the bottom of each page of the research paper.
Sometimes, endnotes are used instead of footnotes. The sources which are indicated by numbers within the text
are printed at the end of chapter of a research paper.
Example:
1
Peter Sean, Smoking Problems (Quezon City: S&G Publications, 2014), p. 60.

The following rules must be observed in making a bibliography:

1. Your bibliography or reference list should appear at the end of the paper.
2. Sources cited in the research paper must appear in the reference list.
3. When listing sources in your working bibliography, all the facts of publication must be recorded.
Book
a. Author’s full name (last name, first name)
b. Full title (including any subtitle)
c. Edition (if mentioned in the source)
d. Number of the volume (if the book is a multivolume work)
e. City of publication
f. Publisher’s name
g. Year of publication
4. Each entry in the list of references should end with a period.
Modern Language Association of America (MLA) Style
Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Date.

Chicago Manual of Style

Author’s surname, First name. Title of source. Place of publication: Publishing House, Year.

American Psychological Association Style

Author’s surname, First name. (Year of publication). Title of the source. Place of publication: Publishing House.

5. The bibliographic entry starts with the author’s or authors’ name/s (surname first, followed by the first name,
and the middle initial).
6. The reference list must be alphabetically arranged according to the surnames of the first author of each work
cited.
7. Italicize the title of the books and journals.
8. The four common bibliography citation formats are the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, American
Psychological Association (APA) style, the Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Sociological Association
(ASA) Style.

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 LESSON 4: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PAPER

Note: The Research must contain the following parts

TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
(should contain background of study, the research problem- practical gap, synthesis highlighting the research
gap- literature gap, which is based from literature review, significance of the study, expected output and keywords
should be clearly defined as you used them)
Research Questions
Hypothesis
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
Conceptual Framework
Paradigm of the study
CHAPTER II - METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Research Environment
Research Respondents/Subjects
Research Instrument
Data Gathering Procedure
Treatment of Data
Ethical Considerations
CHAPTER III - FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Present findings/ result - Tabular, graphs, etc. (appropriate)
Corroborate with literature/ support with related literature (no limit as many as possible; include opposite
findings)
State implication
CHAPTER IV – SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES (APA version 7)
DOCUMENTATIONS
APPENDIXES
Literature Grid/Matrix
Observation Checklist/Instruments
Raw Data/Solving
Communication Letter
Curriculum Vitae of each member

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