ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN

Ministry of Works & Human Settlement

DEPARTMENT OF ROADS

ROAD MAINTENANCE
MANUAL

First Edition June 2005

 FORWARD

The “Road Maintenance Manual” has been prepared and produced by

the Department of Roads (DoR) through its own in-house capacity. The
manual is more user-friendly and practical than the previous one that
was published in 1988. It is intended to serve as a guide for the Road
Engineers involved in the maintenance of roads in Bhutan.

The manual is simplified in terms of the technical jargons and

presentations. Attempt has been made to cover all the Road Routine
Maintenance scenarios existent in Bhutan. As far as possible, the text
content has been kept at a minimum and more illustrations and
photographs are used.

The manual is prepared with an objective to address Road Maintenance

issues that are existent at present. Therefore, with the changing times
and technology, the manual shall be reviewed from time to time both in
its contents and presentation.

Phuntsho Wangdi
Thimphu Director
Date: June 2005 Department of Roads

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful publication of the Road Maintenance Manual would not

have been possible without the support and assistances of many
officials of the Department of Roads.

Firstly, my deep appreciation goes to our Director, Mr. Phuntsho

Wangdi, who had initiated the concept of publishing the manual. He
had been actively involved during the entire process of this manual
publication. Without his support and guidance this manual would not
have been realized.

Secondly, my thanks goes to the Superintending Engineers of the DoR,

Mr. Kunzang Wangdi, Tshering Wangdi ‘B’ and Mr. M.N.
Lamichaney, for their efforts in editing and providing suggestions and
guidance. Thanks are also due to all the technical staff of the Road
Division of the DoR for providing useful suggestions and constructive
views for the manual and its contents.

The prompt support and financial assistance rendered by EFRC-Support

Project for the publication of this manual is highly appreciated and
acknowledged.

Pravat Rai
Member
Technical Standard Committee
Department of Roads

ii
 International Boundary
Kula Kangri Drawn by: Karma Tenzin
District Boundary Masang Gang 7554m
7194m
A.E (Design)
Highway
Survey & Design Division
District Road
Department of Roads
Feeder Road Gangchey Ta
6794m
Other Roads
Proposed Road in 9th Plan Gangkar Punsum
7239m Chisangang Ri
Road Under Construction 6050m

Town
Pass
Field Division
GASA

Jichu Drake
6794m

Jhomolhari Damji
7314m
(23)

Dungkhar

Trashithang (37)

(28)
Rimchu
LHUENTSE
Sonagatshel
(3)
Dodina PUNAKHA Tashidingkha (12)
Shengana Tangmachu TASHI
(3) Tang
(12) Khuruthang Kurjey Tangmachu Zampa YANGTSE
Talo (13)
(16) Tseshinang (24) (7) (10)
(15.5) (17)
(9) Dungdung JAKAR
(20) NyelsaPelela 3390m Yutongla
Lobeysa Dangshing (28)
Dechencholing Bajothang Samtengang (39) (9) 3425m (30)
(39) (6.5) Lawala
(7) Dochula Chuserbu (28)
3116m (10) (10) Chuzomsa Sheytangla
Drukgyal (18) (40) (49) 3596m
Dzong
THIMPHU WANGDUE Gangte TRONGSA Chumey
(3) Ura Tomzhangtshen
(16) (5) (16) Nahi (11) (11) Hesothankha
(47) Tshenkharla
(7) PARO Semtokha (40) (12) (8)
(4) Tshalunang Gaselo (3) Phobji (32) Duksum
Damthang Bondey (18)
Talung Gumina Khotakha Refee Autsho Ramjar
(36) (13.5) (32)
(10) (7.5) (14) (35) Thumshingla (4) (10)
(26)
Yangthang (6)Yangto Chelayla Khasadrapchu Masakha (28) (29) 3780m (7.4) Sakteng
3822m (17) Galakpa Shershong
HAA Basochu (11.5) Khosala (20) Bartsham
JJ Peak Power house
(14) Rurichu Sengor Jamkhar dang (9) Bidung Phongme
Takchu (6)
(5) (20) (17)
(16) (16) (21) (40) (23) Chazam
Chunzom (15)
(51) Dawakha (12) (21) (18)
Drametse (10) (12) Rangjung
Shari (60) (25) (4) Riju
(24) Kamichu Gangola Themnagbi (22) Yadi TRASHIGANG

Chapchha Wangduegang (17) Korila (11) (17) Sherichu (50)

(23) (22) (12) 2298m
(17) Chaskhar
(14) (37) Buli Lingmithang MONGAR Khaling
(25) ZHEMGANG
Bunakha (15) Dakpai (7) (22)
(8) Waklaytar (20) Gyelpozhing Tsangpo
(10)
Tendu Thimasham Mangdichu (14.5) Thrimshing
(11) Trashiyangphu
(9) (5)
DAGA Burichu (32) Wamrong
(24) CHHUKHA Tamala Tshogonpa
Meta (11) (13) Lobsebotty 1661m (29)
Takti Akochen
PEMA- (8)
(6) Dungna (40) GATSHEL Mukuzor
(43) Chancha (17) DAMPHU (68)
(42) Khodokpa (23)
Sipsu (3) (13)
Dorokha Sunkosh (11)
(19)
(49) (13) Dupidara Surey(33) (9) Gomphu Tshelingkhor

(39)
(24) Dagapela (4) Suntalay (11)
(13) (15)
Gomphu Manjiwong
(17) Kumjung Lamidara School
(35) (18) (3) Darachu (24)
Ganglakha (31) Darachu
Chengmari Emiray Narphung
(3) (24) (16) Gedu (16.5)
(10) (7) Mirchim (41) Jampani
Dala (40) (29.5) Aie Bridge (37)
SAMTSE
(79) (5) Kharbandi (9) Dalim Samrang Daifam
(10) (7) (9)
Phuentsholing SARPANG Gelephu Deklai
Monitar (12) Panbang Dewathang (10)
Gomtu Pasakha Kawaipani
(47)
(38) (6) Lalai
Shinchula (14.5) (18) (8)
1600m Nganglam Bangtar
SAMDRUP
(33) JONGKHAR
Kerabari
Piping (15) Pinkhua
(23)
Kalikhola
(3)
Last Update 22/08/2003 Source - Department of Roads
 ROAD NETWORK OF BHUTAN DZONGKHAGWISE AS OF SEPTEMBER 2003

National District Road Feeder Road Urban Road Forest Road

Sl# Dzongkhag Total (km)
Highway (km) (km) (km) (km) (km)
1 Sarpang 123.4 0 42.5 0 93.25 259.15
2 Dagana 0 87 31.36 0 0 118.36
3 Tsirang 62 0 37.7 1.5 6.48 107.68
4 Zhemgang 104 38 57.99 1.89 41.6 243.48
5 Trongsa 168 0 36.87 0 10.71 215.58
6 Bumthang 122 0 73.52 0 47.6 243.12
7 Haa 16 25.6 31.523 1.6 36 110.723
8 Samtse 0 89 25.6 8.2 7 129.8
9 Paro 103 36.4 99.57 0 5.19 244.16
10 Chukha 231.89 0 197.79 15.7 30.928 476.308
11 Thimphu 111 0 94.86 71 103.86 380.72
12 Wangdue 150.8 0 110.9 0 19.6 281.3
13 Punakha 9 0 95.82 0 59 163.82
14 Trashigang 141 5 122.31 0 8.5 276.81
15 S/Jongkhar 59 50 60.62 0 29.9 199.52
16 Mongar 177 20 66.26 0 44.8 308.06
17 Pemagatshel 0 23 31.62 0 17.6 72.22
18 Lhunste 0 45 31.95 0 0 76.95
19 Trashiyangtse 0 40 39.87 0 2.2 82.07
20 Gasa 0 0 17.3 0 0 17.3
Total 1578.09 459 1305.933 99.89 564.218 4007.131

ROADS UNDER DOR AS OF SEPTEMBER 2003

National Highway (km) District Road (km) Feeder Road (km) Urban Road (km) Total (km)
1056.16 397.00 693.11 86.50 2232.77
1 GENERAL..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction......................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Maintenance......................................................... 1
1.2.1 Routine maintenance........................................................ 1
1.2.2 Periodic maintenance ....................................................... 2
1.2.3 Restoration Works/Emergency Maintenance ................... 2
2 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE ...................................................... 3
2.1 Objective of Routine Maintenance .................................... 3
2.2 Road Maintenance Activities ............................................. 3
2.2.1 Pavements and Shoulders ............................................... 3
2.2.2 Drainage ........................................................................... 4
2.2.3 Roadside and traffic aids .................................................. 4
2.2.4 Landslides clearance of up to 1.5 m3 ............................... 5
2.2.5 Snow clearance ................................................................ 5
2.3 Emergency Closure of Roads............................................. 5
2.4 Routine Maintenance Calendar......................................... 6
3 BITUMINOUS SURFACES ........................................................ 9
3.1 Common Defects in Bituminous Surfaces......................... 9
3.1.1 Deformations ...................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Cracks................................................................................. 9
3.1.3 Surface Texture Deficiencies............................................ 10
3.1.4 Potholes and Patches....................................................... 10
3.2 BITUMINOUS SURFACE REPAIR METHODS......... 10
3.2.1 Crack Sealing ................................................................. 10
3.2.2 Skin Patches................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Patch Repairs ................................................................. 12
3.2.4 Potholes Repairs ............................................................ 13
3.2.5 Applying sand ................................................................. 14
3.2.6 Fog/Surface Seal emulsion ............................................ 15
4 DRAINAGE................................................................................. 21
4.1 Introduction....................................................................... 21
4.2 Types of Drainage:............................................................ 21
4.2.1 Surface Drainages.......................................................... 22
4.2.1.1 Road Cross Section........................................................ 22
4.2.1.2 Side Drains ..................................................................... 23
4.2.1.3 Cross Drainages............................................................. 25
4.2.2 Sub-Soil Drainage ............................................................. 25
5 SHOULDER MAINTENANCE ................................................ 27

v
 5.1 General............................................................................... 27
5.2 Maintenance ...................................................................... 27
6 UNSEALED WBM ROADS ...................................................... 29
6.1 General Maintenance........................................................ 29
6.2 Method of Maintenance.................................................... 29
6.2.1 Patching potholes and weak areas ................................ 29
6.2.2 Shallow holes.................................................................. 30
6.2.3 Large Holes .................................................................... 30
6.2.4 Reshaping....................................................................... 31
7 SNOW CLEARANCE................................................................ 32
7.1 General Maintenance........................................................ 32
7.2 Snow Clearance................................................................. 32
7.3 Ice on the surface .............................................................. 32
7.4 Use of Chemicals for melting ice...................................... 33
7.5 Use of Grit.......................................................................... 33
8 LANDSLIDES............................................................................. 34
8.1 General............................................................................... 34
8.1.1 Angle of repose of the natural material .......................... 34
8.1.2 Drainage ......................................................................... 34
8.1.3 Vegetation....................................................................... 35
8.1.4 Retaining Structures ....................................................... 35

vi
SECTION 1: GENERAL

1 GENERAL

1.1 Introduction

Maintenance of roads to a satisfactory standard requires

substantial expenditure, often a very significant portion of the
government’s annual expenditure. Often, lack of right
maintenance interventions at the right time, results in higher
expenditure than the cost of the maintenance itself. It is of
paramount importance that the road engineers are well informed
in the field of routine maintenance to discharge their daily
duties. This manual is focused on the routine maintenance of
roads only.

1.2 Types of Maintenance

Maintenance of Roads is broadly divided into three types which

are described below:

1.2.1 Routine maintenance

Routine maintenance is a group of recurrent activities

and which are related to the repair of faults and attention
to the road structure and facilities to ensure the
preservation of the asset and the convenience and safety
of traffic.
Typical activities are:
• Repairing of potholes
• Surface patching
• Drain cleaning
• Grass and scrub cutting
• Maintenance of road structures
• Maintenance of road signs and apparel
1
SECTION 1: GENERAL
• Grading road surface and shoulder

1.2.2 Periodic maintenance

That group of activities which can normally be predicted

and planned for by nature, location and extent and are
carried out periodically.
Typical activities are:
• Resurfacing works (BT surface dressing)
• Surface dressing (Single Surface Dressing, Double
Surface Dressing)
• Overlaying (Asphalt Concrete)
Every stretch of road with 25mm thick Resurfacing is
normally due for the next resurfacing in 4 to 5 years and
may be lesser in extreme climate areas.

1.2.3 Restoration Works/Emergency Maintenance

The group of activities performed to restore the roadway

following damage by events such as monsoon rains
resulting in floods or landslides which would be
unpredictable.
Typical activities are:
• Clearing of landslides
• Culvert and bridge repairs
• Retaining wall reconstruction
• Construction of diversions
• Floodway repairs
• Restoration of road formation width

2
SECTION 2: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

2 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

2.1 Objective of Routine Maintenance

• Keep the road pavement and shoulders in serviceable and safe

condition and where possible improve their riding qualities
• Protect and prevent failure, deterioration or loss of road
pavement and structures
• Ensure that the drainage system functions at all times
• Prevent the growth of harmful vegetation on formation and
drains
• Paint and carry out minor repairs of structures
• Repair and paint road signs & markings.
• Care and control of roadside vegetation (trees, grasses, etc)
• Improve and preserve roadside appearance
• Keep proper records/date of all maintenance activities

2.2 Road Maintenance Activities

The activities of routine maintenance are described in the

following paragraphs:

2.2.1 Pavements and Shoulders

• Grade Water Bound Macadam (WBM) and shoulders

to maintain or restore proper shape and cross-section
including proper super elevation
• Repair potholes and scours in WBM pavements
• Repair potholes, failed, damaged, or other small
defective areas in bitumen surfaced pavements and

3
SECTION 2: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
apply grit/sand should the bitumen bleed in hot
weather
• Repair edges and small built-up depressions in
bituminous pavements
• Grade and add material as necessary to worn
shoulders to bring them flush with edge of pavement
• Maintain smooth junction between pavements and
decks of bridges, culverts and causeways/floodways
• Avoid ponding of storm water on the road formation
and shoulder
• Sweep the bituminous surfaced road to keep them
clean and smooth

2.2.2 Drainage

• Clear drains of rubbish, dry leaves, branches of trees,

silt, landslide debris, vegetation, or any foreign
matter that may obstruct the flow of water
• Prevent scouring of drains, culverts and culvert
aprons and repair the damages promptly
• Deepen the drain if water is stagnant in the drain to
avoid damage to the pavement
• Clearing of drains in watershed areas should be given
priority over other areas
• Clearing of drains should be given priority over other
routine maintenance activities

2.2.3 Roadside and traffic aids

• Clear bushes, scrub, weeds and long grasses which

interfere with sight distance

4
SECTION 2: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
• Remove fallen trees or branches or any branches
overhanging the roadway
• Maintain the sign posts, guide posts, parapet & guard
rails and road markings
• Clear up the roadside of any rubbish and dispose or
burn them at suitable locations

2.2.4 Landslides clearance of up to 1.5 m3

• All landslides of individual volume up to 1.5 m3

should be cleared manually
• The landslide debris should be disposed off at a
suitable location
• Priority should be given to clearing of landslide
debris over other activities where the debris has
blocked the drainages or traffic

2.2.5 Snow clearance

• If snow is expected, a light spray of de-icing salt

should be spread on the road surface to avoid
formation of ice and accumulation of snow
• Snow/ice on the road surface should cleared
immediately after occurrence

2.3 Emergency Closure of Roads

In the event of road becoming blocked by flooding, landslip or

bridge collapse, immediate action is to be taken to place temporary
warning signs and barriers as may be necessary to ensure the safety

5
SECTION 2: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
of traffic. If an alternate route is available, the traffic should be
directed along the alternate route.

2.4 Routine Maintenance Calendar

The planning of routine maintenance activities should be guided by

the Routine Maintenance Calendar (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

6
 Figure 1: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE CALENDAR FOR HIGH ALTITUDE ROADS

Month
Sl# Activity
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

1 Vegetation Clearing
2 Brooming of road surface
3 Clearing of Side Drains
4 Berms/Edge Clearing/Repairing
5 Minor Slip Clearance up to 1.5 cu.m
6 White washing
7 Repair/Maintenance/Painting of road furniture
8 Road marking
9 Clearing of cross drainage
10 Snow Clearance
11 Patches/Potholes repairing
12 Nursery maintenance
13 Bio-engineering maintenance
 Figure 2: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE CALENDAR FOR LOW ALTITUDE ROADS

Month
Sl# Activity
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
1 Vegetation Clearing
2 Brooming of road surface
3 Clearing of Side Drains
4 Berms/Edge Clearing/Repairing
5 Minor Slip Clearance up to 1.5 cu.m
6 White washing
7 Repair/Maintenance/Painting of road furniture
8 Road marking
9 Clearing of cross drainage
10 Patches/Potholes repairing
11 Nursery maintenance
12 Bio-engineering maintenance
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

3 BITUMINOUS SURFACES

3.1 Common Defects in Bituminous Surfaces.

The common defects in Bituminous Surfaces are as described

below:

3.1.1 Deformations

These comprise changes in the profile of the surface

from that originally constructed. Deformations manifest
themselves in the following forms and types:

Rutting
Shoving
Depression
Corrugation

3.1.2 Cracks

Cracks are fissures resulting from fracture of the

pavement or surfacing. The causes of cracking of a
bituminous surface are:
1.2.1. Deformations
1.2.2. Fatigue life of the surfacing is exceeded due to
hardening of the bitumen
1.2.3. Shrinkage of the pavement or the sub-grade
1.2.4. Reflection of cracking in the underlying layers
As cracks allow entry of water, they are a primary cause
of a range of secondary defects such as potholes. A
careful examination of crack patterns is useful in
assessing the causes of pavement failure.
9
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

3.1.3 Surface Texture Deficiencies

These are faults in the bituminous surface itself such as

loss of stone aggregates and fines or too much or too less
bitumen in the surface. Types of surface texture
deficiencies are:

1.3.1. Raveling
1.3.2. Polishing
1.3.3. Delamination
1.3.4. Flushing/Bleeding
1.3.5. Stripping

3.1.4 Potholes and Patches

Potholes are depressions in the surface resulting from

loss of wearing coarse material of the surface as well as
the pavement.

3.2 BITUMINOUS SURFACE REPAIR METHODS

Repair methods for bituminous surfaced pavements will

normally be one of the following: crack sealing, skin patches,
patches repair, pothole repairing, surface sanding, and surface
treatments.

3.2.1 Crack Sealing

Crack sealing in bituminous surfaced pavements is used

to prevent the intrusion of water into base-course and
sub-grade.

10
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

Materials:

Bitumen 80/100 or Emulsion and sand

Method:

Apply sand mixed with bitumen or spray of bitumen and

light spray of sand in the crack

3.2.2 Skin Patches

A skin patch is usually placed on the bituminous surface

without removing any damaged surface.

Materials:

Bitumen 80/100 or Emulsion, 10mm aggregates

Method:

• The area should be cleaned with brooms and if

necessary compressed air. A tack coat should be
applied to the area.
• A shallow trench with a vertical face is made around
the patch to help hold it in place.
• The skin patch should be placed with hot mix of
bitumen and 10mm and below densely graded
aggregates or cold mix (aggregates with bitumen
emulsion) may also be used. Coarse particles should
be removed.
• This material should be compacted with any
available equipment. When necessary, compaction

11
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

can be accomplished with the wheels of trucks or

tippers also.

3.2.3 Patch Repairs

Patch repairs are used to replace the damaged portion of

the bituminous surface.

Materials

Bitumen 80/100 or Emulsion, 10mm aggregates

Method

• The edges of the patch should extend at least 30 cm

into satisfactory surface of the pavement. The patch
should be square or rectangular with vertical edges.
The cuts should be made with a crow bar.
• A tack coat of hot bitumen or bitumen emulsion
should be applied to the cleared area. Tack coat
should be allowed to cure till it becomes tacky to
touch.
• Enough hot mix of bitumen or emulsion with densely
graded 10mm down size aggregates should be spread
into the depression so that when compacted, it will
bring the depression back to the original grade. If the
material has been carefully spread, allowance of
approximately 20 to 25 percent overfill should
correct for compaction. If edges of the patch are
feathered, coarse aggregates must be removed from
the edges prior to compaction.
• After the material has been placed, it will be
thoroughly compacted using a hand tamper or roller.
If none of these are available, compaction can be
12
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

achieved by truck wheels. Surface elevation shall be

checked by thread.

3.2.4 Potholes Repairs

Materials

Bitumen 80/100 or Emulsion, 10mm aggregates

Method

• Potholes repairs require proper preparation and

backfill. All material for filling these holes must be
of the standard equivalent or higher than the original
material used during construction.
• First the hole should be cut and deepened to hard,
firm base. It is important that the sides be cut vertical
and the bottom rest on hard firm base/soil.
• Base material should be replaced with equal or better
material than that removed or by bituminous paving
material. This material will be thoroughly
compacted by use of mechanical or hand tamps.
• The hole will be applied with a tack coat including
the sides and base of the holes and allowed to cure
until the bitumen becomes tacky. The last step is to
replace the bituminous surface material. The hole
will be overfilled approximately 25% the required
thickness of the bituminous surface to allow for
compaction and should be followed by seal coat if
necessary.

13
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

(a) Pothole developed on the surface

(b) Excavate square sides until firm base is reached

(c) Replace base material and compact

(d) Apply tack coat

(e) Place bituminous surface material and compact

(f) Compacted level with surrounding surface level

Figure 3: Method of Pothole Repair

3.2.5 Applying sand

This method is normally used where bleeding/flushing of

asphalt has occurred.
Materials
Sand (Crushed or river sand) or 10mm aggregates
Method

• The surface should be cleaned of all loose debris or

aggregates if any by brooming

14
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

• If possible sand should be heated and placed on the

area at a temperature of 135ºC or above
• Spreading may be done at the rate 0.0075 m3/m2
• Spreading may be accomplished by using tail gate
spreaders or by hand made spreaders or by hand if
small area is involved.
• A rubber tired roller will be used immediately to seat
the hot sand into the softened binder.
• After the surface has been cooled, any loose material
will be swept off.
• The treatment may be repeated if the condition has
not been permanently remedied.

3.2.6 Fog/Surface Seal emulsion

Seal/Fog Seal can be a light application of bitumen

emulsion diluted with water. Most Surface Seals/Fog
Seals are used on sound bituminous surfaces that
weathered, oxidized, fine cracks, and have become
brittle (as soon as finer particles starts dislodging, say
after two years or so if it’s new construction/overlay) at
rate of 0.40kg/sqm to 0.80kg/sqm Bitumen Emulsion.

Materials

Bitumen Emulsion

Method

• The surface should be thoroughly cleaned by

compressed air or hand brooms.
• Slightly damp surface is beneficial if Bitumen
Emulsion is used.
15
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

• If necessary sand should be applied on top of the

bitumen spray.

Figure 4: Polishing

16
 Table 1: TYPES OF DEFECTS AND THEIR REPAIRS
DEFORMATIONS
Sl.# Defect Description Probable Causes Type of remedies
1 Corrugations Transverse undulations closely and regularly spaced wave Inadequate stability of the premix surface or pavement Patch repair
action on the surface
2 Depressions Localized area in a pavement which is lower than surrounding Consolidation of isolated areas of poorly compacted sub-grade. Pothole repairs
area Settlement due to instability of embankment
3 Rutting Longitudinal deformation in a wheel path of a road Inadequate pavement thickness. Poor compaction of pavement or Patch repairs,
sub-grade potholes repairs
4 Shoving Bulging of road surface and horizontal displacement of Inadequate strength in pavement Patch repairs
surfacing materials
CRACKS
Sl.# Defect Description Probable Causes Repair methods
1 Block Interconnected cracks forming a series of blocks approximately Shrinkage cracks in the asphalt surfacing. Fatigue cracking in Crack Seal
rectangular in shape and usually distributed over the full hardened asphalt wearing course.
pavement
2 Crescent Half moon or crescent shaped cracks Poor bond between wearing course and pavement layers. Thin Patch repair
wearing course.
3 Crocodile Interconnected cracks resembling the skin of a crocodile Inadequate pavement thickness. Hardened wearing course. Fog Seal if less
generally in the wheel paths of a road. severe Patch repair if
highly severe
4 Diagonal Unconnected cracks on diagonal across the road. Differential settlement at embankments and cuttings. Crack Seal
5 Longitudinal Cracks running along the road in same direction as vehicles. Differential settlement sometimes along the shoulder edge. Crack Seal
6 Meandering Unconnected irregular crack varying in direction. Weakening of pavement edge. Entry of moisture. Reflection Crack Seal
shrinkage crack. Differential settlement.
7 Transverse Unconnected crack running across the road Construction joint or shrinkage crack in asphalt surfacing Crack Seal
SURFACE TEXTURE DEFICIENCES
Sl.# Defect Description Probable Causes Repair methods
1 Delamination Surface lifting seal break Inadequate cleaning or insufficient tack coat on pavement before Patch repair
placing premix carpet.
2 Flushing Black spot, fatty surface, excess bitumen on surface Too much bitumen with respect to aggregate size. Apply heated sand
and roll
3 Polishing Smoothing/rounding stone aggregates on wheel paths. Stone aggregates too soft therefore polishing and rounding. Use of Apply aggregate and
naturally smooth uncrushed stone aggregates. sand seal coat
4 Raveling Disintegration of pavement surface by loss of bitumen and Deterioration of binder and/or stone aggregates. Inadequate Patch repair, Fog
stone aggregates. compaction, construction during wet weather, insufficient binder, Seal
excessively open graded mix, fracture of stone aggregates during
rolling.
5 Stripping Loss of stone aggregates in sprayed seal leaving only bitumen. Insufficient bitumen application. Inadequate rolling of sprayed seal. Patch repair
6 Potholes Steep deep sided holes in pavement and wearing course. Loss of surface dressing. Water entering pavement through cracks. Pothole repair
SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

Figure 5: Crocodile Cracks

Figure 6: Pothole created by seepage of drain water

SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

Figure 7: Pothole

Figure 8: Pothole and Longitudinal Cracks

SECTION 3: BITUMINOUS SURFACES

Figure 9: Flushing/Bleeding

Figure 10: Flushing/Bleeding and shoving

SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

4 DRAINAGE

4.1 Introduction

Drainage is the most important consideration in the construction

and effective maintenance of all types of road pavements. Its
main objectives are:

• Interception and removal of water on and under the roadway

• To prevent inconvenience to traffic
• To ensure that the road pavement and its structures are not
unduly weakened or damaged

Poor drainage conditions such as blockage of culverts or drains and

ponding of water can cause damage to roads in many ways such as:

• Scouring of WBM on unsealed roads, shoulders and drains

• Loss of pavement and surface materials
• Softening of sub grade or soil formation resulting in
distortion and failure of pavement
• Causing landslides on both cuttings and embankments

The results of bad drainage conditions are not always immediately

apparent, and considerable damage and unnecessary expense can be
caused through neglect.

Inspections should be made immediately after a heavy rainfall to

check if all the drainage components of the road are working to their
full capacity and if not the matter should be attended to
immediately.

4.2 Types of Drainage:

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SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

The following means are adopted to protect the road from

damage or deterioration by surface water:

4.2.1 Surface Drainages

4.2.1.1 Road Cross Section

The cross section of the road pavement is maintained

with sufficient crown during construction so that water is
quickly shed to the sides.

Hill-Side Slope
Parapet
Road
Shoulder Premixed Carpet 2-5% Crossfall
WBM Side Drain

Stone Soling

Retaining Wall Stone Edging

Figure 11: Road Cross Section

The following are essential in the maintenance of the

road cross section:

• As far as practicable water is not to be allowed to

flow longitudinally along the pavement or shoulders,
particularly at the junction between the pavement and
shoulder.

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SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

• It is essential that the surface of the road be

maintained free of depressions and to correct cross
fall.
• Except during construction and at super-elevated
curves, shoulders are not to be higher than, or extend
over, the edge of the pavement, as otherwise
impounded water may soak down and soften the
shoulder material.
• Shoulders should have slightly more cross fall than
the adjoining pavement.

4.2.1.2 Side Drains

Side Drains are provided along the pavement on

the hillside to intercept surface water from
catchments and road surface. The DoR has
encouraged the construction of L-shaped drains
along all types of roads. The following are
important considerations in the maintenance and
construction of side drains:
• The drains are to be graded to ensure free
flow of water to culverts or water courses.
• Particular attention is also to be given to
drains along the higher sides of the super-
elevated curves to prevent water spilling over
the pavement and in locations where the
grade is only slight, such as on level sections
along the road, on sags in the longitudinal
grade. In such places, it is often necessary to
deepen the drain in order to secure
satisfactory drainage conditions. Such
sections are to be checked after every storm
and remove silt as necessary.
23
SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

As far as practicable, these drains are to be kept

free of debris or any foreign matters at all times.
Soil debris from the drains should be disposed off
properly.

300 mm
RRM 1:4

150 mm
300 mm

150 mm CC 1:3:6 20mm Agg.

900 mm

LOW RAINFALL AREA

300 mm
RRM 1:4
150 mm
300 mm
CC 1:3:6 20mm Agg.
150 mm
1100 mm

HIGH RAINFALL AREA

300 mm

RRM 1:4
150 mm
450 mm

CC 1:3:6 20mm Agg.

150 mm
1100 mm

HIGH RAINFALL AREA (As per site conditions)

Figure 12: Side Drains

24
SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

4.2.1.3 Cross Drainages

The water from the drains are collected and

drained into culvert, bridges and open storm
water crossings.

• These cross drainages are to be kept free of

silt, debris, stones and all the drains are to be
connected thereto in a satisfactory manner.
• The culvert or crossing should receive all the
drainage from the catchments for which it
was designed, otherwise structures further
along the road may be seriously overtaxed
resulting in flooding and damage to road or
private property.
• Attention is also to be given to open storm
water crossings after each rain, removing any
obstructions tending to pond water.
• Particular attention is to be given to
prevention of water lodging on or near the
pavement. Should any repair be considered
necessary to the crossings, excessive scouring
be taking place, it should be attended
promptly.

4.2.2 Sub-Soil Drainage

This drainage is required to prevent the water from

entering into the sub-grade soil and softening the soil and
rendering it unstable and resulting in failure or distortion
of the pavement. The sub-grade soil softened by the
water is unstable to withstand the loads transmitted to it.

25
SECTION 4: DRAINAGE

The entrance of water into the sub-grade soil could be

due to one or more of the following situations:

1. Water directly percolating through the road surface

from above or through the shoulders
2. Seepage from higher ground or natural springs
3. Water rising from below by capillary action in low
lying grounds or swamps
4. Leakages from water pipes and irrigation channels
and spillages from paddy fields

Measures

Situation 1: By making the pavement more

impervious and proper maintenance of
shoulders.
Situation 2&3:It is necessary to lower the level of
ground water by sub-soil drains or deep
side ditches, or alternatively, raising the
level of the road. In some cases it is
usually cheaper to construct and maintain
deep side drains than to install sub-soil
drains.
Situation 4: The fourth case can be best overcome by
repairing the pipe or irrigation channel.
However, when leak can not be exactly
located, especially in case of underground
pipes, it may be necessary to install sub-
soil drains in order to collect the water
from leakages.

26
SECTION 5: SHOULDER MAINTENANCE

5 SHOULDER MAINTENANCE

5.1 General

Shoulders provide support to the pavement and can be used by

the traffic in an emergency. Shoulders can be constructed of the
same material as the pavement, but in Bhutan are of lesser
quality, smaller size of stone and not as thick as the pavement.

Stone aggregates (50-20mm) make suitable material for road

shoulders.

5.2 Maintenance

The maintenance of shoulders involves:

• Keeping the shoulders even or flush with the pavement edge
and at slopes which permit drainage of surface water away
from the pavement.
• Shoulders are maintained by grading, replenishing and
compacting the shoulder material. The frequency of these
operations depends on the level of deterioration of the
shoulders.
• Grading of shoulders can be done either by use of motor
grader or manually. While using a motor grader care should
be taken not to damage the pavement by the grader blades
and any loose material that goes to the pavement surface
should be cleaned off immediately.
The action of rain and traffic causes the shoulder material to be
lost and new materials will be required to be spread and
compacted to bring the shoulder flush with the edge of the
pavement.
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SECTION 5: SHOULDER MAINTENANCE

Figure 13: Method of Shoulder Restoration

28
SECTION 6: UNSEALED WBM ROADS

6 UNSEALED WBM ROADS

6.1 General Maintenance

All the Feeder Roads and few stretches of National Highways

and District Roads are constructed without bituminous surfaces
(unsealed). Satisfactory maintenance of surfaces on these
pavements involves:
• Regular attention to corrugations, potholes, depressions and
scours, by grading or patching
• The elimination of loose, harsh or slippery conditions
• Occasional reshaping so that water will quickly shed to
avoid excessive softening
• Strengthening of weak sections
• Attention to shoulders
• Attention to drainages

6.2 Method of Maintenance

The Water Bound Macadam (WBM) pavement consists of

crushed rock particles of 20-50mm size with voids filled with
finer materials (binding materials). Such courses are constructed
as a base course and are usually 100mm in thickness.

6.2.1 Patching potholes and weak areas

If the surface is adequately maintained by grading,

patching of the pavement is usually required at isolated
points only. Where there is a depression too large to be
eliminated by grading and not due to weakness in the
pavement or sub-grade, it is to be filled with material
similar to that in the adjoining pavement. If necessary

29
SECTION 6: UNSEALED WBM ROADS

the existing pavement is to be lightly scarified to bond

with the new material. Compaction and smoothing are
then effected by traffic and normal grading.

6.2.2 Shallow holes

• Shallow holes in the WBM pavements are preferably

patched after rain, when the patch gets more readily
bound into the adjacent pavement.
• After removal of loose material the holes should be
cut square and filled with material similar to that in
the existing road.
• The filling material should be covered with damp
binding material and then tamped until firm.
• The tamping could be done using the mechanical
rammer, rollers, heavy hand tampers or by truck
wheels.

6.2.3 Large Holes

Large potholes and areas damaged because of

weaknesses in the pavement or the sub-grade are to be
repaired by excavating and placing pavement as follows:
• Mark out a rectangular area large enough to cover the
whole of the pothole or other weakness, then
excavate and remove all unsatisfactory material. Cut
the sides vertically into firm pavement. Provide
necessary subsoil or shoulder drainage to avoid
pockets of water in sub grade, remove inferior sub
grade and replace with sound material such as gravel,
sand, loam and fine crushed rock. Before adding new
material, the bottom of the excavation is to be well
rammed.
30
SECTION 6: UNSEALED WBM ROADS

• All pavements are to be restored in layers not

exceeding 100mm depth. The new material is to be
similar to that in the existing pavement or of superior
quality.
• All the patching materials must be compacted in
layers so that the final surface is smooth and
conforms to the level of adjoining sound pavement.
A motor grader or drag will generally be required to
level large patches particularly in fine grained
materials. Where the compaction is to be effected by
traffic, the surface is to be kept about 15mm above
the adjacent pavement, kept under observation and
topped up and smoothed as necessary.

6.2.4 Reshaping

The WBM surfaces become irregular (cross fall, grade

and alignment) due to wearing away of the materials by
traffic and the effect of weather. Restoration of the
surfaces to the correct shape is required to be undertaken
from time to time. This process should normally be
undertaken when moist conditions prevail in the
pavement.
Reshaping is normally carried out using a motor grader
for large areas or by hand made wooden drags for small
areas. After correct shape has been obtained, it is often
required to roll adding binding materials and water until
a smooth and dense surface is obtained. In all cases of
pavement reshaping, care must be taken to avoid
disturbing large stone in the base-course and bringing
into the pavement inferior materials from the shoulders
and side drains. Shoulders adjacent to the reshaped
pavement must be built up or reshaped as necessary.

31
SECTION 7: SNOW CLEARANCE

7 SNOW CLEARANCE

7.1 General Maintenance

Keeping road open during and after snow falls require:

• Snow clearing by machines or men

• Spreading of chemicals (salt) to remove ice
• Spreading of grit (fine stone chippings) to provide traction
for vehicles

7.2 Snow Clearance

The mechanical way of clearing snow is by blading it over the

side of the road. The equipments used for snow clearing are:
• Motor grader
• Front end loaders
While deploying these machines for snow clearing, care must be
taken not to damage the pavement by the blades.

7.3 Ice on the surface

A film of ice forms on the surface of the road when snow

freezes or due to low temperatures and frost. The ice on the road
surface reduces the friction between the wheels of the vehicles
and the road surface and vehicles tend to loose control and slip
off the road.

Ice on road requires treatment with chemicals (salt) to melt ice

or by spreading grit (fine stone chippings) to provide traction for
the wheels.
32
SECTION 7: SNOW CLEARANCE

7.4 Use of Chemicals for melting ice

Sodium Chloride (Salt) or Calcium Chloride may be used to

melt ice on road surfaces. De-icing salt works by creating a
brine solution that has a lower freezing temperature than the
temperature of the surrounding snow and ice. This brine gets in
between the road surface and ice, preventing a bond that would
make removal difficult. When salt is spread before snow fall or
drop in temperature, it can prevent snow accumulation or ice
formation. Application of salt is done by throwing by hand.
Though Calcium Chloride also has the same effect as Sodium
Chloride, most countries use the later for melting ice as it costs
lesser than the Calcium Chloride.
It is to be noted that salt should not be used on roads under
construction where bitumen sealing is to be carried out in the
future, as the salt may damage the seal.

7.5 Use of Grit

Where the use of salt as de-icing agent is not permissible, or the

temperature is so low that a complete melt is not possible with
salt application, grit should be spread to increase traction. The
grit may be spread by hand if the area is to be treated in small.

Figure 14: Snow Clearance by machine

33
SECTION 8: LANDSLIDES

8 LANDSLIDES

8.1 General

Clearing landslides is a major task confronting maintenance

crews throughout Bhutan. Many factors contribute to the
instability of the formation cutting which causes earth and rock
to fall and block the roadway.
While a lot of landslides occur for which little can be done,
many slides can be prevented. Some factors to be considered on
the causes and prevention of landslides are:

8.1.1 Angle of repose of the natural material

Rock and firm earth have a steep angle of repose while

decomposed material and sandy gravel have a flat angle.
This means when a formation is constructed through
rock, quite steep batter angles can be tolerated and will
remain stable. However, the same cuttings through softer
material will slip down on the roadway. Because much
of the terrain in Bhutan have steep side slopes it is often
not possible set back a flat batter in the soft material to
produce a stable batter slope. However, where it is
reasonably economic to lay back the batter and obtain
additional width of road, while doing maintenance, this
should be done.

8.1.2 Drainage

Seepage of water during monsoon causes almost all the

landslides that occur in Bhutan. Attention must therefore
34
SECTION 8: LANDSLIDES

be given by maintenance engineers at all times to the

drainages. Catch drains are often required at the top of
the formation cuttings to divert the water towards valleys
and natural springs.

8.1.3 Vegetation

Top soiling of batters and planting grass, shrubs, bushes

and trees will the surface of the cuttings and make them
stable during rain. Local species of vegetation should be
planted as this will have the best chance of growing.

8.1.4 Retaining Structures

Retaining Structures of different types are common and

they are effective ways to retain the batter and the
formation. Construction of small breast walls and
retaining walls, crib walls and boulder walls may be
carried out to retain unstable slopes.

Figure 15: Bitumen Drum Wall

35
SECTION 8: LANDSLIDES

Boulders

Side Drain

Bitumen Drums filled with earth

Front elevation
Side Drain

Timber Crib
Wall

Front elevation
Side Drain

Figure 16: Types of Retaining Structures that can be taken up as Routine Maintenance

36
SECTION 8: LANDSLIDES

Figure 17: Pay Loader clearing landslide

Figure 18: Boulder Wall

37
References

Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporations for Public Works

Department, Ministry of Social Services, Royal Government of Bhutan
(1988), “Field Manual of Road Maintenance”.

Indian Road Congress (1989), “Manual for Maintenance of Roads”,

Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, India.

Indian Road Congress (1997), “Manual on Route Location, Design,

Construction and Maintenance of Rural Roads”, Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi, India.
Department of Roads
Ministry of Works & Human Settlement
Royal Government of Bhutan
Thimphu : Bhutan

Tel : +975-2- 328173 / 326793 / 327451 / 327998 / 322182

Fax: +975-2-321124 / 326110
Email : p_rai20032000@yahoo.com
http://www.dor.gov.bt