Marco Polo & his "Travels" to the Imperial

Court of Kublai Khan

By Cynthia Stokes Brown, Big History Project on 06.21.16
Word Count 1,927
Level MAX

TOP: A 14th-century illuminated map depicting the Polos. Images: MIDDLE TOP: A drawing of Marco Polo. Images: Big History Project

At the height of the Mongol Empire, Marco Polo served Emperor Kublai Khan in China. When he
returned home to Venice, his account of his experiences would give Europeans some of their
earliest information about China.

Background

In the thirteenth century, people who lived in Venice, Italy, believed that the Sun revolved around
the Earth and that creation occurred exactly 4,484 years before Rome was founded. As Christians,
they considered Jerusalem, the place of Jesus's crucifixion, to be the so-called navel of the world,
and their maps portrayed this.

Marco Polo was born in Venice, or possibly Croatia, in 1254. Located on the eastern coast of Italy,
Venice served as a gateway to the riches of Asia during this era of increasing trade. Goods flowed
like water through the city. Ships from around the eastern Mediterranean Sea docked at its port.
Merchants and traders set sail from Venice for Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) and the

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Black Sea to fetch goods from Russia and from
merchants who traveled the Silk Roads, a system of
trading routes to and from China that crossed the
mountains and deserts of Central Asia.

At the time of Marco's birth, his father, Niccolo, and

two uncles, all merchants, were away trading.
Supposedly they were visiting cities on the Black Sea,
but their adventures had actually taken them all the
way to the Mongol capital of China, Khanbaliq (city of
the Khan). There they had an audience with the most
powerful ruler of the day, Kublai Khan, grandson of
the founding emperor, Genghis Khan. When the three
Polo men returned to Venice after an absence of 16
years, Niccolo found that his wife had died and that he
had a 15-year-old son, Marco, whom he did not know
existed.

Travels

Two years later, in 1271, Niccolo Polo and his brother, Maffeo, set off again, taking the 17-year-old
Marco with them. This time they aimed directly for the court of Kublai Khan, to bring him
documents from the pope and holy oil from Jerusalem that he had requested. Even with a gold
passport from Kublai Khan, which enabled the travelers to use lodgings and horses posted by the
Mongols along the Silk Road routes, they took 3 1/2 years to arrive. Upon reaching the summer
palace of Kublai Khan in 1275, Niccolo presented his son and offered him in service to the
emperor.

A talented young man, Marco had learned several languages along the way, including Mongolian
(though not Chinese), and had mastered four written alphabets. Two years before Marco's arrival,
Kublai Khan had completed the conquest of all parts of China and needed non-Mongol
administrators in areas that resisted having Mongol authorities. Marco took on various sorts of
diplomatic and administrative roles for the emperor from his base in Dadu, which Kublai Khan
built next to Khanbaliq. Both Dadu and Khanbaliq stood at what is now Beijing.

After more than 16 years in China, the Polos begged

permission from Kublai Khan to return home to
Venice. Apparently they had proved so useful to the
khan that he did not want them to leave. Finally, he
agreed for them to escort a Mongolian princess,
Cogatin, to become the bride of a Persian khan; thus
they headed back west.

This time they traveled by sea in Chinese ships and,

after many difficulties, succeeded in delivering the
princess. Before they could reach Venice, however,
Kublai Khan died on February 18, 1294, which
allowed local rulers to reassert themselves and

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demand payment from traders. Consequently, the Polos were forced to hand over 4,000 Byzantine
coins, a significant portion of their fortune, to the local government of a city on the Black Sea.

Return

The Polos returned to Venice in 1295, having been

away 24 years. Their enthusiastic biographer told
stories, which may have been gossip, that when they
returned they were wearing Mongolian clothing and
could hardly remember their native language. Their
relatives had thought them long dead.

But when they produced a small fortune in gems

(rubies, sapphires, garnets, diamonds, and emeralds),
which had been sewn into the hems of their
Mongolian garments, they were warmly welcomed.

Soon Venice was at war with its rival city-state, Genoa, on the western coast of Italy. As was
custom for a wealthy merchant, Marco Polo financed his own war galley. He was captured during a
naval battle and ended up in prison in Genoa.

By chance, one of his cellmates, Rusticello from Pisa, had experience writing romantic novels. As
Polo entertained everyone with his tales of traveling to China, Rusticello wrote them down in a
French dialect. This is how Polo's accounts, Europe's primary source of information about China
until the nineteenth century, came into existence.

In 1299, Genoa and Venice declared peace; Polo was

released and returned to Venice to marry Donata
Badoer. The couple had three daughters in quick
succession. He spent his remaining days as a
businessman, working from home. He died there at
almost 70 years of age, on January 8, 1324, and was
buried under the Church of San Lorenzo, though his
tomb has now vanished.

Marco Polo's book

Polo might have been forgotten had his book, The

Travels of Marco Polo, not engaged widespread interest. It could be circulated only one copy at a
time, since printing in Europe did not begin until almost 200 years later. About 120 to 140 early
manuscripts — hand-printed and fragmentary versions of The Travels — survive, and every one of
them is different. The earliest readers were scholars, monks, and noblemen. Soon translations of
The Travels appeared, in Venetian, German, English, Catalan, Argonese, Gaelic, and Latin. It took
more than a century for the book to become part of mainstream European consciousness.

Few texts have provoked more controversy than The Travels of Marco Polo. The authorship is not
clear — is it Polo or Rusticello? Sometimes the text is in the first-person voice, sometimes in the
third-person narrative. How much of the text is based on Polo's firsthand experience and how
much did the author(s) insert secondhand accounts by others? Certainly it's a mix. What was
reported seemed so bizarre to stay-at-home Europeans that the readers often assumed that

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everything was made up. Yet historians have largely confirmed the facts in Polo's account of the
height of the Mongol dynasty.

Polo proved an engaging storyteller. He found Mongolian customs fascinating and reported them
enthusiastically, such as the use of paper for money and the burning of coal for heat (see excerpts
below). Paper money had been used in China for several hundred years, and coal had been burned
in parts of China since the beginning of agriculture.

Polo also missed a few unfamiliar practices, notably the books being sold in Quinsa (now
Hangzhou), the capital city of the earlier Song dynasty in southern China. Books were widely
available there because they were printed with movable type made of wood, clay, or tin. Movable
type was missing in Europe until 1440, when Johannes Gutenberg, a German printer, invented it
there.

When Christopher Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492, hoping to find a route by sea to China, he
carried with him a heavily annotated copy of The Travels of Marco Polo, expecting it to be useful.
He discovered what came to be called the Americas instead.

From The Travels of Marco Polo:

Book 2, Chapter 18

OF THE KIND OF PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY THE GRAND KHAN, AND MADE TO PASS
CURRENT THROUGHOUT HIS DOMINIONS

In this city of Cambalu [another spelling for Khanbaliq] is the mint of the grand khan, who may
truly be said to possess the secret of the alchemists, as he has the art of producing money by the
following process. He causes bark to be stripped from those mulberry-trees the leaves of which
are used for feeding silk-worms, and takes from it that thin inner ring which lies between the
coarser bark and the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and afterwards pounded in a mortar,
until reduced to a pulp, is made into paper, resembling that which is made from cotton, but quite
black. When ready for use, he has it cut into pieces of money of different sizes, nearly square, but
somewhat longer than they are wide...

The coinage of this paper money is authenticated with as much form and ceremony as if it were
actually of pure gold or silver; for to each note a number of officers, specially appointed, not
only subscribe their names, but affix their signets also; and when this has been regularly done by
the whole of them, the principal officer, deputed by his majesty, having dipped into vermilion the
royal seal committed to his custody, stamps with it the piece of paper, so that the form of the seal
tinged with the vermilion remains impressed upon it, by which it receives full authenticity as
current money, and the act of counterfeiting it is punished as a capital offence. When thus coined
in large quantities, this paper currency is circulated in every part of the grand khan's
dominions; nor dares any person, at the peril of his life, refuse to accept it in payment. All his
subjects receive it without hesitation, because wherever their business may call them, they can
dispose of it again in the purchase of merchandise they may have occasion for; such as pearls,
jewels, gold, or silver. With it, in short, every article may be procured. ... All his majesty's armies
are paid with this currency, which is to them of the same value as if it were gold or silver. Upon
these grounds, it may certainly be affirmed that the grand khan has a more extensive command
of treasure than any other sovereign in the Universe. (pp. 145–147)

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Book 2, Chapter 23

OF THE KIND OF WINE MADE IN THE PROVINCE OF CATHAY — AND OF THE STONES
USED THERE FOR BURNING IN THE MANNER OF CHARCOAL

The greater part of the inhabitants of the province of Cathay [now China] drink a sort of wine
made from rice mixed with a variety of spices and drugs. This beverage, or wine as it may be
termed, is so good and well-flavored that they do not wish for better. It is clear, bright, and
pleasant to the taste, and being made very hot, has the quality of inebriating sooner than any
other.

Throughout this province there is found a sort of black stone, which they dig out of the
mountains, where it runs in veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal, and retains the fire much
better than wood; insomuch that it may be preserved during the night, and in the morning be
found still burning. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when first lighted, but during
their ignition give out a considerable heat. It is true there is no scarcity of wood in the country,
but the multitude of inhabitants is so immense, and their stoves and baths, which they are
continually heating, so numerous, that the quantity could not supply the demand; for there is no
person who does not frequent the warm bath at least three times in the week, and during the
winter daily, if it is in their power. Every man of rank or wealth has one in his house for his own
use; and the stock of wood must soon prove inadequate to such consumption; whereas these
stones may be had in the greatest abundance, and at a cheap rate. (p. 155)

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Quiz

1 Read the following selection from the article.

When Christopher Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492, hoping to find a route by sea to China,
he carried with him a heavily annotated copy of The Travels of Marco Polo, expecting it to be
useful. He discovered what came to be called the Americas instead.

Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from the selection above?

(A) Marco Polo's book gave Christopher Columbus valuable information, which helped him to navigate to
China.

(B) Marco Polo's journey inspired Christopher Columbus, and the book was useful in finding a sea route to
Asia.

(C) Marco Polo's book was not useful since Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered the Americas
instead of a route to Asia.

(D) Marco Polo's book must have been important to Europeans at the time since Christopher Columbus
brought it with him on his famous journey.

2 Which of the following aspects of the article is NOT thoroughly discussed?

(A) whether Marco Polo's book was actually written by Marco, or by his cellmate Rusticello

(B) whether Marco Polo's book is truly accurate in its stories about Chinese inventions

(C) which text succeeded Marco Polo's book in providing accurate information about China after the 1800s

(D) whether Marco Polo enjoyed his expedition to China and his service to Kublai Khan

3 The article suggests that each of the following has contributed to the popularity of Marco Polo's book EXCEPT:

(A) Marco Polo is an engaging and enthusiastic storyteller.

(B) Marco Polo told stories of interesting, untold inventions by the Chinese empires.

(C) Historians have largely confirmed the facts in Marco Polo's stories.

(D) Rusticello helped Marco Polo write his stories.

4 Which sentence BEST summarizes how the publication of Marco Polo's book affected Europe?

(A) The book gave Europeans previously unknown knowledge about Chinese empires and engaged with
people's imaginations.

(B) The book gave Europeans hope that Christopher Columbus could sail to Asia and make more
discoveries.

(C) The book made Europeans suspicious of the Chinese empires as well as envious of their many
inventions.

(D) The book gave Europeans a firsthand, trustworthy account of how Marco Polo was treated during his
time in China.

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