7.

1 Life Is Cellular
Cells are the basic unit of life

· Robert Hooke was the man to name cells after the chamber-like appearance in 1665

o Looked at a cork

· Around same time Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a single lens microscope to observe pond
waters

· In 1836 Matthias Schleiden stated all plants are made of cells

· One year later Theodor Schwann stated that all animals are made of cells

· 1855 Rudolf Virchow stated that cells divide to produce more: exponential growth

· Cell Theory

o All living things are made of cells

o Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in all living things

o New cells are produced from existing cells

· Microscopes uses lenses to make the image of an object larger by focusing light and/or
electrons

· Compound light

o Allows light to pass through the focus and uses two lenses to focus light

o Can change objective lenses: changes magnification power

o Ocular lens magnifies the image even more

o Microscopes do upto 1,000 times zoom

o Dye cells because they are transparent; dye helps see important parts

o Fluorescence dye helps see certain molecules

· Electron microscope

o Use beans of electrons

 § Focused my magnetic beams

o Higher resolution can see 1 billionth of a meter in size

o Transmission and scanning microscopes

o Transmission makes it possible to explore cell structure

o But electrons pass through thin samples

o Cells and tissues must be cut into ultra thin slices

o Produces 3d images

o Must be placed in vacuum because electrons are easily scattered by

molecules in air

o Scientists artificially dye images

· Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

o Membrane is a thin flexible barrier around the cell

o Nucleus is a large membrane enclosed structure – contains genetic material in

form of DNA

o Prokaryotes don’t enclose DNA in nuclei

o Eukaryotes enclose DNA in nuclei

o Prokaryotes

§ Smaller cells

§ They do not separate their genetic material within nucleus

§ Carry out all activities associated with living things

§ Glides along surface, and swim, reproduce and grow w the environment

o Eukaryotes

§ Contain dozens of structures and internal membranes

§ Inside is more complex

§ Some live solitary and others form large multicellular organisms

 · Protists

7.2 Cell Structure

Cell Organization and Organelles That Store, Clean Up, and Support

· Cytoplasm is the portion of the cell located outside of the nucleus

o They both work together

· Organelles are the main components of a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell, meaning little
organs

Eukaryotic cell is very similar to a modern factory. Different organelles are like the special
machines and assembly lines for each component

The Nucleus

· Nucleus contains almost all of the cell’s DNA and with it the coded instructions for making
proteins and other important molecules.

· Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus but still has DNA with the same instructions

· Has a nuclear envelope that is dotted with thousands of pores. Also built of two membranes.

o The purpose of the pores are to let protiens, RNA, and other molecules go in
and out of the nucleus

· Chromosomes are spread throughout the nucleus in the form of chromatin.

o When a cell divides the chromosones condense and then can be seen under a
microscope

· Nucleolus is location of ribosome construction

Vacuoles and Vesicles

· Vacuoles store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

· Vesicles store and move materials between organelles and to and from the cell surface

Lysosomes
· Small organelles filled w enzymes

o Breaks down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules that can
be used by the rest of the cell. Also involved in breaking down organelles that
have outlived their value

· Basically removes the junk that might otherwise clutter the cell

Cytoskeleton

· Cells are given their shape and internal organization by protein filaments called cytoskeleton

· Certain parts also help materials travel throughout the cell

· The cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involved in movementc

Microfilaments

· Threadlike structure – made up of a protein called actin

· Provide networks and a tough flexible framework

· Assembly and dissasembly are responsible for the movements that allow amoebas to crawl
along surfaces

Microtubules

· Hollow structures made up of proteins known as tubulins

o Critical role in maintaining shape of cell

· Important in cell division

o Mitomic spindle seperates chromosomes

· Centrioles are located near the nucleus and helps organize cell division

· Helps build cillia and flagella

o Arranged in a “9 by 2” pattern

Ribosomes

· Proteins are assembled on ribosomes

· They are small particles of RNA and protein found in the cytoplasm

· Produce proteins by following DNA’s instructions

· Active cells have rbosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum

· Eukaryotic cells have internal membrane called endoplasmic reticulum

· Where the membrane is made

· Part of ER in protein synthesis is called rough ER

· Ribosomes are inserted into rough ER – then they are chemically modified

· Proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be released, or secreted, from the cell
as well as many membrane proteins and lysosome proteins and other specialized locations
within the cell

· Rough ER is abundant in cells that make large amounts of proteins

· Smooth ER does not have ribosomes on its surface

· Smooth ER contains collections of enzymes that perform special tasks ie:

o Membrane synthesis

o Drug detoxification

§ Liver cells have large amounts of smooth ER

Golgi Apparatus

· Proteins produced in the rough ER moves next into the golgi apparatus

· Looks like flattened membranes

· The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other materials from the
endoplasmic reticulum for storage in the cell or outside of the cell

· From the Golgi, proteins are “shipped” to their final area outside/inside the cell.

Chloroplasts

· Plants and some other organisms

· Biological equivalent to solarpower plants

· Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into food that contains chemical
energy in a process called photosynthesis
· Surrounded by two membranes, which contains chlorophyll (green pigment)

Mitochondria

· The powerplants of the cell

· They convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more easy for the
cell to use

· Two membranes surround it

· Most of our mitochondria come from the ovum/egg cell

Cell Wall

· Strong supporting layer around the membrane

· Animal cells do not have cell walls

· Lie outside the cell membrane

· Wall allows water, oxygen, CO2 and other substances to easily pass through

· Provide strength and durability

· Paper and wood use cell walls

Cell Membranes

· Selectively permeable/semi permeable: only lets some substances in and others out.

· Present in all cells

· Made up of a double layered sheet called lipid bilayer

· Gives cell membranes a flexible structure that forms a strong barrier between the cell and its
surroundings

· The cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cells. It also protects and supports
the cell

· Many lipids have fatty acids chained attatched to chemical groups that interact strongly with
water

o Fatty acid portion is hydrophobic

o Opposite end is hydrophilic

7.3 Cell Transport

· Substances enter cells from the membrane

· What is diffusion?

o Diffusion is the process in which particles move from an area with a high
amount of concentration to an area with a low amount of concentration

o Driving force behind movement of substances across membrance

o No additional energy is used for diffusion

· What is equilibrium?

o The concentration from one side of the membrane to the other is the same

· What is passive transport?

o Movement of material across cell membrane without using cellular energy

· Some molecules are unable to use diffusion to pass the cell membrane so they use special
protein channels. This is called facilitated diffusion

· Osmosis

o Since cells are hydrophobic (lipid bilayer), water can’t diffuse through it so the
water has to pass through the cell using passive transport

· Water will tend to move across the membrane until equilibrium is teached

o Aquaporines

o When this happens, the solutions will be isotonic

· Hypertonic is above strength compared to the other side

· Hypotonic is below strength compared to the other side

· Isotonic is the same

· Net movement of water out of or into a cell produces a force known as osmotic pressure
· Osmotic pressure

· Osmotic pressure causes cells in a hypertonic solution to shrink and hypotonic solution to
swell

· Cell might burst

· What is active transport?

o The movement of materials against a concentration difference is known as

active transport. Active transport requires energy

o Generally carried out by transport proteins in the membrane

· Larger molecules and clumps of meterial can also be transported across the membrane in
the process called endocytosis and exocytosis

· Many cells use protein pumps to move calcium, potassium and sodium

Endocytosis

· The process of taking material into the cell by means of infoldings or pockets of the
membrane

· The pocket that results breaks loose from the outer portion of the membrane

· Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which cytoplasm extensions surround a partice and

package it within a food vacuole

· In exocytosis many cells release large amounts of material from itself.

7.4 Homeostasis and Cells

· Sometimes organisms can have only one cell

o Has the same functions of other beings

· Organisms must maintain homeostatis, which regulates internal physical and chemical
conditions even with changes to the environment

· To maintain homeostasis, unicellular organisms grow, respond to the environment, transform

energy, and reproduce

· Unicellular can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic

o Prokaryotes are very adaptable

· Many eukaryotic single cells too

o Yeast (unicellular fungi)

o Plants

· Homeostasis is an issue for unicellular organisms

· Tiny cells still need sources of energy/food to survive

o Also have to keep water and mineral concentration high

· Not like one celled organisms, human/other multicellular animal cells don’t live on their own

· Interdependant on others

· The cells of multicellular organisms become specialized for particular tasks and
communicate with one another to maintain homeostasis

· Cells are specialized

o Difference cells play different roles

· Even the cleanest air is still dirty because of the dust and bacteria in it

o Millions of cells filter this

· Pine tree releases offspring using poolen grains, or specialized cells

· They have two wings that help them float in the breeze
Levels of Organization

· Tissue – group of alike cells that perform a specific function

· When the task is too complicated for one tissue, many tissues work together as an organ

· A group of organs that work together is called an organ system

o Ex. Stomach, pancreas, and intestines work together as the digestive system

Cellular Communication

· Cells communicate using chemical signals

· To receive and to send out signals, cell must have a receptor

8.1 Energy and Life

Chemical energy and ATP

· Energy is the ability to do work

o Almost all activities depend on energy

o Many froms like light, heat, and electricity

o Chemical compounds

· ATP

o provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells

o made of ribose, adenine, and three phospate groups

· ADP is a compound that looks almost like ATP except it has two phospate groups

· ADP is similar to a rechargable battery that powers the cell

o Stores small amounts of energy by adding phospate groups to adp molecules

· Release energy by the controlled breaking of the chemical bonds between the second and
third phospate groups

· ATP can easily release and store energy by breaking and re-forming the bonds between its
phospate groups. This characteristic of ATP makes it exceptionally useful as a basic energy
source for all cells

· Use energy with active transport

· Membranes carry sodium-pottasium pumps and ATP provides energy

· ATP also can power synthesis of proteins and responses to chemical signals at the cell
surface

· Most cells only have a small amount of ATP becauseit is not good at storing energy
long-term

Heterotroph

· Organisms that obtain food by consuming other living things

Autotrophs make their own food using ph