Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKADDAddiction1360-0443© 2003 Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs98561567MiscellaneousAlexander the

Great’s relationship with alcoholJ. A. Liap-

pas et al.

ADDICTION HISTORY

Alexander the Great’s relationship with alcohol

J. A. Liappas1, J. Lascaratos2, S. Fafouti1 & G. N. Christodoulou1
Departments of Psychiatry1 and History of Medicine,2 Athens National University, Athens, Greece

Correspondence to: ABSTRACT

John Lascaratos
164b Hippocratous Str.
11471 Athens
Aims This study sought to clarify if Alexander the Great indulged pathologi-
Greece cally in alcohol and whether it contributed to his death.
Tel: +30 1 6426486 Design The texts of the historians Diodorus of Sicily, Plutarch, Arrian, Curtius
Fax: +30 1 7796745
Rufus, Athenaeus, Aelian and Justin were studied, with their information con-
E-mail: giannop@power.ece.ntua.gr
cerning wine consumption by Macedonians, and especially Alexander, and
Submitted 18 March 2002; were evaluated. The surviving historical texts, all later than Alexander’s epoch,
initial review completed 14 May 2002; are based on a series of contemporary histories and especially on the ‘Royal
final version accepted 18 December 2002
Journals’, an official diary written in the imperial court.
Findings and conclusions Alexander consumed large quantities of undiluted
wine periodically, reaching pathological intoxication. However, the existing
data do not provide convincing evidence that Alexander the Great manifested
abuse of or dependence on alcohol according to DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria and
it seems unlikely that alcohol was involved in his untimely death.

KEYWORDS Alcohol abuse, alcohol dependency, Alexander the Great,

history of medicine.

INTRODUCTION century and of liberating the occupied Hellenic cities in

Asia Minor.
Alexander the Great ascended to the throne of Macedonia After the decisive battle of Issos against Darius (333
in 336 BC at the age of 20 after the assassination of his BC) he marched against Palestine and Egypt, where he
father, Philip. With the occupation of a large part of the established Alexandria, a town which became the prime
then-known world, he completed an exploratory and cul- cultural centre of the eastern Mediterranean world.
tural achievement, founding a great state containing var- After these victories, his army proclaimed him King of
ious races in which he endeavoured to implant Hellenic Asia; Alexander then redirected the aim of his campaign,
culture. This universal state, despite the fact that it was his new plans being the creation of a universal empire.
broken up into several parts after his death, nevertheless With such a purpose in mind, he proceeded to the occu-
held together as a commonwealth with common forms of pation of eastern satrapies in the heart of Asia and in
science, education, art and civilization. This later influ- India. However, while preparation for his occupation of
enced the Roman and Byzantine empires and, through the Arabian peninsula was in progress, he died suddenly
them, the European civilization that followed (Kalog- in Babylon (Kalogeropoulou 1973; Kanellopoulos
eropoulou 1973; Lucopoulou 1973). 1973).
Alexander reigned for 13 years until his death at the On the basis of historical information from the earliest
age of 33 years. As soon as he began his reign he neutral- sources, some modern historians and physicians have
ized his opponents, established his hegemony in Mace- propounded a wide range of diseases as the possible
donia and succeeded in winning recognition as sovereign causes of Alexander’s death. Among them are pneumo-
of the Hellenic world. Later (in 334 BC) he undertook a nia, pleurisy, abscess of the lung, typhoid fever, hololithi-
campaign against the Persians with the aims of punish- asis, pancreatitis, appendicitis, acute peritonitis, epilepsy,
ing them for their attacks on Greek towns in the previous leukaemia, chirrosis, delirium tremens and so on.

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562 J. A. Liappas et al.

The exact cause of his death has not been identified. of their rights with the ‘foreign’ Persian aristocracy.
The ancient historical sources, which are all later than Already many Persians had been appointed as Satraps
Alexander’s own era, lead to a diagnosis either of a patho- (Viceroys) by Alexander.
logical disease or poisoning (Lascaratos 1997). Thus, the atmosphere among both the army and Alex-
Two reliable historians, Plutarch and Arrian, whose ander’s entourage encouraged the possibility of a coup
information is based on the contents of the ‘Royal Jour- d’état, a fact which is consistent with a plot to assassinate
nal’, a diary kept in the court of Alexander, lead us to a Alexander, as the Vulgate sources indicate (Badian 1964;
diagnosis of a feverish disease with fluctuating tempera- Bosworth 1971).
tures, which lasted from the end of May to 10 June, when A third account of his death derives from numerous
Alexander died. According to their version Alexander’s writers, ancient to modern, who have alleged that Alex-
activities, at least during the first days of his illness, were ander consumed large quantities of alcohol and that this
not affected at all. The emperor continued his collabora- might have been a factor in causing pathological health
tion with his closest colleagues for the preparation of problems to himself, even leading to his early death (Sour-
future campaigns, his daily routines and his sacrifices to nia 1987; Maxwell O’Brien 1994; Simopulos 1995).
the gods. At the end of the period, however, a sudden dete-
rioration occurred which rendered him unable to speak
and, soon after, he died (Brunt 1954; Perrin 1971). Based AIMS
on this information, the great Hippocraticist, Littré
(1865) propounded the view that Alexander died as a The aims of this paper are to attempt to clarify:
result of malaria. • Whether Alexander indulged pathologically in alcohol.
A second group of ancient sources, which are called of • If, on the basis of the existing historical evidence, the
the ‘Vulgate tradition’, attribute the death of the emperor diagnosis of alcohol abuse, consumption causing harm
to poisoning. To this group belong the historians to health with resulting dependency, or pathological
Diodorus of Sicily, Justin and all the versions and editions intoxication, as defined by the diagnostic criteria
of the ‘Romance of Alexander’, written by pseudo-Callis- DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association 1992)
thenes (Bradford Welles 1963; Holton 1974; Seel 1985). and ICD-10 (World Health Organization 1992), can
All this historical material supports the view that the fatal be established.
disease of Alexander began with an acute pain of the right • The social and political context of alcohol use in Alex-
hypochodrium which continued until he died, without ander’s time and during his military campaigns.
losing consciousness or contact with his environment • The probable accuracy of the attribution of alcohol as
and without any temperature. These sources maintain Alexander’s cause of death.
that Alexander fell victim to a conspiracy. Antipater, the
Regent of Macedonia, after being in violent conflict with
the emperor’s mother, Olympias, feared losing his posi- SOURCES
tion and decided to poison him. Aristotle, the philosopher
and learned teacher of Alexander, prepared a strong poi- The references to excessive consumption of wine by Alex-
son, being dissatisfied at the fact that Alexander had exe- ander the Great can be found mainly in the surviving
cuted one of his relatives, Callisthenes, a former colleague texts of the historians Athenaeus (1st century AD), Plu-
of the emperor, who fell out of favour. tarch (1st-2nd century AD) and Aelian (2nd-3rd cen-
Some modern historians have adopted the views of the tury AD) (Burton Gulick 1961; Cole Babbit 1969; Dilts
Vulgate sources, providing historical and political argu- 1974). The majority of the information is derived from
ments. Apart from the well-known conflict between Anti- now-lost texts of Alexander’s contemporary historians,
pater and Olympias, the feelings of the army and the new such as Aristobulus, Carystius, Duris, Chares, Lygeus,
Macedonian aristocracy which had been created by Alex- Nicovuli, Ephippus, etc. and the ‘Royal Journals’, an offi-
ander after the deaths or executions of the old members, cial diary written in the court of Alexander (Lascaratos
mainly of the Attalides, were dissatisfied with Alexander’s 1997).
policy of conferring titles on Persian soldiers who had Athenaeus, based on the ‘Royal Journals’ and the con-
been trained according to Macedonian military princi- temporary historians Nicovuli, Aristobulus, Chares and
ples. This equality of the Macedonian and Persian sol- Lygeus, supports the opinion that Alexander was fre-
diery had already led to an unparalleled mutiny of quently drunk, as were his companions, and after the
Alexander’s Macedonians in Ope (324 BC). The aristoc- symposia would sleep for 2 whole days. The same
racy was afraid that the policy of Alexander, which historian, deriving his information from the historians
regarded the Persians and Macedonians as races with Carystius and Duris, states that Alexander organized
equal rights in his empire, would lead to the sharing-out processions in honour of the god Mithras in which he

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 Alexander the Great’s relationship with alcohol 563

paraded, drunk, on a chariot, imitating the Persian kings. characteristic symptoms of tolerance, withdrawal and
He further passes on the information of the historian compulsive alcohol-taking behaviour (Schuckit 2000).
Nicovuli that, at his last feast, Alexander challenged his Moreover, both DSM-IV and ICD-10 provide a thorough
dinner companions and led them to drink excessively. set of criteria pertaining to alcohol intoxication. Thus, the
Athenaeus also states that Alexander, after heavy drink- essential feature of this condition is the presence of patho-
ing at his last banquet, collapsed into unconsciousness logical behavioural or psychological changes that develop
and died after a few days from an alcohol-related disease during, or shortly after, the ingestion of alcohol; these
(Burton Gulick 1961). changes are evidenced by slurred speech, incoordination,
Plutarch writes that his own contemporary and unsteady gait, nystagmus, impairment in attention or
friend, Philinus, believed that Alexander had experienced memory or stupor or coma that are not due to another
drowsiness and sleepiness the day following each ban- general medical condition (American Psychiatric Associ-
quet; this is again derived from the ‘Royal Journals’ (Cole ation 1992; World Health Organization 1992).
Babbit 1969). Special efforts have been made in preparation of DSM-
Aelian, deriving his information from the ‘Royal Jour- IV and ICD-10 manuals to incorporate an awareness that
nals’, maintains that a few months before his death, Alex- these are used in culturally diverse populations interna-
ander was accustomed to excessive drinking at almost tionally. Clinicians have been called on to evaluate indi-
daily symposia which caused him to sleep during the next viduals from numerous different ethnic groups and
day. These were continued for a period of 1 month, the cultural backgrounds. The wide international accep-
Macedonian Dius (October–November). The historian, tance of DSM-IV and ICD-10 suggests that these classifi-
however, has doubts about the reliability of the source cations are useful in describing mental disorders as they
and regards such information as a mere rumour (Dilts are experienced by individuals throughout the world.
1974). Furthermore, there is historical evidence that alcohol
Further, Antipater, the Regent of Macedonia after the abuse was a social problem in the ancient world. People
death of Alexander, adhered to the accusation that Alex- who committed antisocial or criminal acts while drunk
ander was a drunkard (Jacoby 1962). were punished more strictly than others. On Mytilene
The information about the supposed alcoholism of Island the legislators doubled the penalties in cases of
Alexander, even from antiquity, was rebutted by some lawlessness and, in Athens, Solon changed the misde-
authors, mainly Plutarch, Arrian (1st-2nd century AD), meanour of insulting behaviour to a public criminal fel-
Curtius Rufus (1st century AD) and Justin (3rd century ony. In other ancient Greek cities the use of wine was
AD) (Brunt 1954; Rolfe 1962; Perrin 1971; Seel 1985); strictly prohibited for minors (Schmitt Pantel 1992).
the two former also drawing from the ‘Royal Journals’,
which they interpreted differently, and basing their opin-
ions on Alexander’s contemporary historians Ptolemy SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT
and Aristobulus (Lascaratos 1997).
For the purposes of this study, the two sets of diagnos- It must be pointed out at the outset that it is difficult to
tic criteria DSM-IV and ICD-10 were used (American Psy- pose an ex post facto diagnosis of Alexander’s pathological
chiatric Association 1992; World Health Organization condition in relation to his consumption of alcohol and to
1992). Their purpose is to provide clear descriptions of define his degree of dependency based only on historical
diagnostic categories to enable clinicians to diagnose, data which are presented at second-hand.
communicate with, study and treat persons with mental The social conditions of the epoch, with widespread
disorders. consumption of alcohol, must always be taken into
account in examining the particular case of Alexander.
Thus, one must scrutinize the customary use of alcohol
Diagnostic criteria: general remarks
among ancient Greeks and especially in the Macedonian
According to these criteria, the cardinal feature of alcohol military barracks to determine what was considered, at
abuse is a maladaptive pattern of alcohol use, which is that period, abnormal in relation to alcohol consumption.
manifested by recurrent and considerable adverse conse- It is well known that ancient Greek banquets had been
quences related to its repeated use, such as failure to fulfil considered from Homeric times an acceptable and wide-
major role obligations, repeated use in situations in spread general social institution organized with rules and
which it is physically hazardous, multiple legal problems, etiquette, consisting not simply of social gatherings but
and recurrent social and interpersonal problems over a 1- mainly of centres for exchanging and forming intellectual
year period. Alcohol abuse may lead to dependence, i.e. a ideas. The ritual proceedings began with eating and liba-
maladaptive pattern of use, leading to clinically signifi- tions; hymns to the Gods followed, with incense. Then the
cant impairment or distress as manifested by several drinking began.

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564 J. A. Liappas et al.

In the circles of sophists in Athens, the table compan- ritual toasts always accompanied them, to honour their
ions consumed wine diluted with water, as they believed dead heroic comrades or to anticipate new victories. In
that the drinking of undiluted wine was an abuse (Sicu- other words, those feasts were inseparable from the col-
tres 1970; Schmitt Pantel 1992). One of the companions, lective organization of the military way of life (Borza
elected by his fellows as leader of the symposium and 1983; Maxwell O’Brien 1994). Feasts took place in the
called symbosiarches, arranged the rules of drinking Macedonian army at every significant social event, such
(when and how much everyone would drink) which all as the marriages of the soldiers to local girls and festivities
the guests obeyed. Usually the companions elected the in honour of Dionysus. The festival in Ecbatana was of
most hardened drinker, whose demands were consider- magnificent extravagance, with importation of 3000 per-
able; thus, the consumption was excessive. The feasts of formers from the Dionysiac guild in Greece (Borza 1983).
the sophists in ancient Athens were famous, the most On some special occasions (marriages, receptions, victo-
noteworthy being the feasts of Socrates and his pupils ries, the King’s recovery from serious wounds, etc.) a
about which Plato’s work The Symposium affords us a great tent of a hundred couches, carried with the expedi-
detailed account. In earlier times at symposia it was man- tion, was used (Tomlinson 1970).
datory to consume large quantities of wine. Later, this Macedonian symposia were lengthy, commencing
primitive system was replaced with one giving guests early in the evening and often lasting until the following
freedom to choose the desired quantity by making a sign morning. The formal Macedonian symposium com-
to the servants when they wanted more wine. However, menced with a flourish of trumpets, a signal to the crowd
the usual end of these symposia, despite their good inten- outside that ritual functions were being properly
tions, was that all the participants were drunk or asleep. observed, thus perhaps enabling the army to share in the
During the drinking, the guests discussed in detail opening sacrifices and libations. Following this, the din-
several topics of significance, gave orations, composed ner was served, with the commencement of drinking, the
impromptu verses, played board games and enjoyed a symposium’s central activity and entertainment. Akratos
rich programme performed by singers, conjurers, jug- wine abuse seems to have been usual (Borza 1983). The
glers, comedians, etc. (Sicutres 1970; Borza 1983; historian Athenaeus maintains, using an earlier source,
Schmitt Pantel 1992). Ephippus, that Macedonians had a marked tendency to
In the area of ancient Macedonia, unlike in Athens, imbibing alcohol and drunkenness, to such an extent
guests consumed the so-called akratos (that is, undiluted) that they collapsed before completing all the dishes due
wine, as the historian Athenaeus confirms from informa- to be served. He refers particularly to the example of a
tion quoted in the texts of the historians Aristobulus, well-built Macedonian named Proteas, who drank
Nicobuli, Lygeus and Chares (Burton Gulick 1961). This repeatedly to the health of Alexander. The author, using
custom, despised by classical Greeks, originated perhaps the history written by Chares, maintains that Alexander
because, as today, the superior quality of the Macedonian approved of the Macedonian tendency to drinking and,
wines compared to those of southern Greece did not when in India, he organized drinking contests because
require dilution to temper the taste of a strongly flavoured the local inhabitants loved wine. In one such contest, in
wine, high in alcohol (Borza 1983). honour of the dead Indian sophist Calanus, 35 competi-
Some historians maintain that noble Macedonians in tors dropped dead while six expired a little later. The
Alexander’s time had a strong habit of drinking, as champion, named Promachus, who won the consider-
archaeological artefacts found in the tombs of Vergina able sum of one talent, died after 4 days (Burton Gulick
(drinking vessels, goblets, pitchers) have verified (Borza 1961).
1990; Maxwell O’Brien 1994). These give evidence of the The close family circle of Alexander had, furthermore,
Bacchanian revels in honour of the god Dionysus and been accused of alcohol abuse. His father, King Philip,
reveal the influence of Dionysus at the highest levels of was accused by the historian Theopompus of being a
society of ancient Macedonia. The worship of Bacchus philopotes (a lover of drink), getting drunk on a daily basis
formed the nucleus of the king’s cult practices, observed and being accustomed to drinking excessively with other
closely by the ruling Argead dynasty (Sicutres 1970). companions at the feasts. The historian Carystius adds
Artefacts similar to these, however, have been discovered that Philip encouraged his drinking companions to
all over Greece, which indicate the pan-Hellenic worship imbibe even more (Burton Gulick 1961). The famous
of the god of wine (Schmitt Pantel 1992). Athenian orator, Demosthenes, who was, however,
A number of symposia, from the great 9-day festival in always hostile to Macedonians, likened Philip to a sponge
Macedonia on the eve of Alexander’s departure for Asia (Perrin 1971). However, there is no historical source sug-
to the emperor’s final drinking bout in Babylon, are gesting that alcohol consumption prevented Philip in any
described in varying detail. Between battles, the Bac- way from performing perfectly his role as sovereign and
chanian festivities were an institution for Macedonians; military leader during his whole reign.

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 Alexander the Great’s relationship with alcohol 565

Alexander’s mother, Olympias, had been initiated into duties which he performed until the last days of his life.
the worship of Dionysus and she was possibly an official Furthermore, reference is made to the fact that, in the last
priestess of the god; she took part in the Bacchic mysteries period of his life, the feasts took place on days of rest and
during which wine was freely imbibed (Perrin 1971). holiday after tiring activities such as hunting, military
Hephaesteon, the bosom friend of Alexander, died of parades, trials and other activities which demanded full
excess alcohol consumption, according to Diodorus of mental and physical endeavour (Perrin 1971; Brunt
Sicily (1st century BC), Plutarch and Arrian. His death 1954).
must have taken place at a banquet in a series of feasts in
the presence of Alexander in Ecbatana during the Mace-
Alcohol dependence
donian month of Dius (Brunt 1954; Bradford Welles
1963; Perrin 1971). It would be useful to discuss the possible alcohol depen-
From the above information it appears that consider- dence of Alexander, due to the fact that more recent
able consumption of undiluted wine was the rule at the authors mention that Alexander manifested delirium tre-
feasts between battles and at the court. Normally this had mens which was implicated, among other factors, as a
no pathological after-effects on their daily life, with few cause of death (Maxwell O’Brien 1994; Simopoulos
exceptions. This excess alcohol consumption did not 1995). Evidence for alcohol dependence is provided by
result in a persistent and recurrent maladaptive pattern historical sources which refer to the use of alcohol by
of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impairment Alexander. However, there is no source which maintains
or distress in fulfilling major role obligations at work, that, during his last year, he developed a maladaptive pat-
social life or interpersonal problems. tern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impair-
ment as manifested by three (or more) of the criteria
referred to above, occurring at any time in the same 12-
ANALYSIS
month period.
The above signs are thought to be essential for the
Harmful use
diagnosis of alcohol dependence according to the diag-
The instances of intoxications and undesirable social con- nostic criteria DSM-IV and ICD-10.
sequences, referred to during the last year of Alexander’s On the contrary, there are historical references
life, do not constitute sufficient evidence to pose the diag- against such a diagnosis, supporting the fact that Alex-
nosis of harmful use, because such instances were not ander was generally moderate and usually drank during
accompanied by evidence that the alcohol use ‘was the feasts without reaching excesses of consumption.
responsible for (or substantially contributed to) physical Plutarch in particular writes that Alexander drank mod-
or psychological harm including impaired judgement or erately, conversing for long hours with his friends and
dysfunctional behaviour which may lead to disability or only when his busy routine permitted it, because he
have adverse consequences for interpersonal relation- never abandoned his duties either for wine or sleep or
ships’. According to ICD-10 criteria, ‘pattern of alcohol spectacles and ceremonies (Cole Babbit 1969; Perrin
use has to persist for at least 1 month or has to occur 1971). Arrian agrees that Alexander made moderate use
repeatedly within a 12-month period’. of wine, considering it to be social drinking, due to his
courtesy towards his companions (Brunt 1954). Curtius
Rufus also considers him generally moderate and
Alcohol abuse
restrained in his consumption of wine while Justin writes
On the basis of information derived from the above- that Alexander, like his father, simply loved wine (Rolfe
mentioned historians Athenaeus, Aelian and Plutarch 1962; Seel 1985). Among modern writers, Hammond
(in the view of Philinus), there appears to be no evidence (1994) maintains that the number of symposia was
to support the idea that Alexander, in the last period of his small for a king (three or four a month). Maxwell O’Brien
life, had a maladaptive pattern of alcohol abuse leading to (1994) believes that, during Alexander’s reign, symposia
clinically significant impairment or distress as manifested were social events providing relaxation from the pres-
by one (or more) of the criteria referred to above. Espe- sures of war, as they took place between campaigns with
cially, recurrent substance use did not result in a failure to ritual drinking of wine; they expressed the collective
fulfil major role obligations at his work (e.g. repeated function of the army and the common struggle: the king
absences or poor performance of duties as king and mili- was thus able to investigate both himself and his com-
tary leader, related to substance use). panions because the wine held a glass to one’s soul. The
On the contrary, there are references which contradict same writer maintains that Alexander’s drinking ‘proba-
the theory of alcohol abuse; these state categorically that bly elicited almost as much admiration from his men as
Alexander was capable of carrying out his heavy daily his heroics on the battlefield’ and ‘refusing to participate

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566 J. A. Liappas et al.

in the festivities might cast doubt on one’s manliness, ture of Alexander’s fatal disease, as described by both
amiability, or even allegiance’. groups of historical sources. Neither of them confirms
confusional state, transient visual or auditory hallucina-
tions or illusions and severe tremor (Lascaratos 1997).
Pathological intoxication

There are numerous historical references which could

support the view that Alexander became drunk during CONCLUSIONS
the feasts he organized. There are references to incidents
of maladaptive, aggressive or violent behaviour, The references in existing sources concerning Alex-
psychological changes, instability of mood, impairment ander’s relationship with alcohol are based mainly on the
of judgement and social functioning, slurred speech ‘Royal Journals’ and on the interpretations later given
and uncoordinated gait (Burton Gulick 1961; Maxwell from time to time to the events described in these journals
O’Brien 1994). These instances always occurred under (Bosworth 1971, 1988; Lascaratos 1997). However, the
the influence of alcohol and were not permanent opinion has been expressed by current historians that the
symptoms. journals promoted the view intentionally that Alex-
Supporting the diagnosis of Alexander’s pathological ander’s death was the result of a disease in which con-
intoxication are the following references: sumption of alcohol was a factor, creating a locus minoris
• very frequent consumption of alcohol during the last resistentiae, as the journals wanted to divert attention
period of his life (Aelian); from the then widespread rumours of poisoning (Bos-
• consumption of alcohol at symposia followed by a 2- worth 1971, 1988).
day period of sleep (Athenaeus); Another element which puts in doubt the reliability of
• in a drunken state Alexander paraded on a donkey, in some historians contemporary to Alexander is the fact
honour of the god Mithras (Athenaeus); that the writers of these histories seem to have had a per-
• the burning-down of the palace of Persepolis and the sonal grudge against Alexander, such as Ephippus, Nico-
murder of Cleitus while intoxicated. Plutarch, Arrian, vuli and Antipater (Pearson 1960; Lascaratos 1997).
Curtius Rufus and Justin stress that Alexander regret- Furthermore, many accusations made against Alexander
ted these acts when he was sober again (Brunt 1954; were due to the hostile feelings of many Greek cities
Rolfe 1962; Perrin 1971; Seel 1985). towards the Macedonians in the period of the Lamian
The contradictory behaviour of Alexander when War. These cities claimed their independence and thus
drunk and sober is possibly explained to a great extent by anti-Macedonian sentiments would be expected (Pearson
the fact that the emperor, drinking even relatively small 1960; Badian 1987).
quantities of alcohol, very soon reached a condition of Finally, other evidence which one could use against
pathological intoxication. the hypothesis of Alexander’s alcohol dependence and
With regard to the possible cause of Alexander’s death abuse is found in the opinions of Plutarch, Arrian and
from alcohol, this view was propounded in the 19th cen- Curtius Rufus. These authors, interpreting the evidence
tury by Bosc, who stressed the inherited nature of Alex- presented in the ‘Royal Journals’ differently from other
ander’s drinking and came to the conclusion that he died historians and based on reliable authors contemporary
during an epileptic attack and a crisis of delirium to Alexander (Aristobulus, Ptolemy), attribute the
tremens. emperor’s relationship with alcohol to defects of his char-
Modern historians have suggested the possibility of acter, maintaining that he was a lover of wine, stressing
alcoholic cirrhosis, acute intoxication or alcohol with- that Alexander never exceeded the accepted limits (Brunt
drawal state with delirium tremens. The attribution of cir- 1954; Rolfe 1962; Perrin 1971). Athenaeus ascribes the
rhosis was met with arguments to the contrary by many drinking competitions in India to the social habits of the
historians, the first being Littré (1865), because in no epoch and attributes Alexander’s awarding of a prize to
source is Alexander presented as suffering from chronic reasons of diplomacy, that is to give satisfaction to the
symptoms of or complications from cirrhosis. Acute occupied Indians, who loved wine (Burton Gulick 1961).
intoxication must be excluded, as it would result in death Furthermore, Alexander’s Symposia in Persia did not
some hours after consuming great quantities of alcohol come into conflict with the mentality of the local people,
without previous feverish disease. Maxwell O’Brien because the Persian kings were accustomed to hold sym-
(1994) maintained recently that the evidence of Aristob- posia for a large circle of personalities and even ordinary
ulus that Alexander, when presenting with fever, drank citizens at which events all participants ended up drunk.
wine to bring his temperature down, represents a laconic Consequently, perhaps Alexander’s symposia served,
description of acute alcoholic deprivation syndrome. This among others, a political purpose—the image of a new
opinion does not seem to be supported by the clinical pic- sovereign as heir to the behaviour of that of the previous

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 Alexander the Great’s relationship with alcohol 567

ruler. The successors of Alexander the Great followed the Bradford Welles, C. (1963) Diodorus of Sicily. London:
same policy in the Hellenistic kingdoms, holding lavish Heinemann.
Brunt, P. A. (1954) Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, Vol. 1. London:
and luxurious banquets at every opportunity that was
Heinemann.
offered. The symposia of Ptolemy VIII have remained leg- Burton Gulick, C. (1961) Athenaeus, the Deipnosophists. London:
endary, mainly those held for the priests of Apollo on Heinemann.
occasions such as when Ptolemy himself was elected as a Cole Babbit, F. (1969) Plutarch’s Moralia [Plutarch’s Ethics]. Lon-
priest. The tradition is earlier in Macedonia, where King don: Heinemann.
Dilts, M. R. (1974) Claudii Aeliani Varia Historia [Claudius
Amyndas offered, in honour of the Persian ambassadors,
Aelianus’ Various Historical Works]. Leipzig: Teubner.
a banquet welcoming them in order to show respect to Hammond, N. G. L. (1994) Alexander the Great, King, Commander
Persian laws and customs. In the same way, his father and Statesman. London: Bristol Classical Press.
Philip used his great capacity for heavy drinking as an Holton, D. (1974) The Tale of Alexander, the Rhymed Version.
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[Extracts from Works of Greek Historians]. Leyden: Brill.
person similar to themselves (Schmitt Pantel 1992; Max-
Kalogeropoulou, A. (1973) The first years of Alexander’s reign.
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