The Gas Laws

Introduction: What are the Gas Laws?

The gas laws are a group of laws that govern the behaviour of gases by providing relationships between the
following:

 The volume occupied by a gas.

 The pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of its container.
 The absolute temperature of the gas.
 The amount of gaseous substance (or) the number of moles of gas.
 The gas laws were developed towards the end of the 18th century by numerous scientists (after
whom, the individual laws are named). The five gas laws are:

Boyle’s Law, which provides a relationship between the pressure and the volume of a gas.
Charles’s Law, which provides a relationship between the volume occupied by a gas and the absolute
temperature.
Gay-Lussac’s Law, which provides a relationship between the pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of its
container and the absolute temperature associated with the gas.
Avogadro’s Law, which provides a relationship between the volume occupied by a gas and the amount of
gaseous substance.
The Combined Gas Law (or the Ideal Gas Law), which can be obtained by combining the four laws listed
above.
Under standard conditions, all gasses exhibit similar behaviour. The variations in their behaviours arise
when the physical parameters associated with the gas (such as temperature, pressure, and volume) are
altered. The gas laws basically describe the behaviour of gases and have been named after the scientists
who discovered them.

We will look at all the gas laws below and also understand a few underlying topics.

 Boyle’s law
 Charle’s law
 Gay-Lussac law
 Avogadro’s law
 Combined Gas law
 Combined Gas law
 ideal-gas
 Gas Law Table
 Gas Law Problems
Applications of Gas Law

Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s law gives the relationship between the pressure of a gas and the volume of the gas at a constant
temperature. Basically, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of a gas at a constant
temperature.

Boyle’s law equation is written as:

1 1
V ∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 ∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
𝑝 𝑉

1
Where V is the volume of the gas, P is the pressure of the gas and K1 is the constant. Boyle’s Law can be
used to determine the current pressure or volume of gas and can be represented also as;
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Boyle’s Law-Related Problem
1) An 18.10mL sample of gas is at 3.500 atm. What will be the volume if the pressure becomes 2.500
atm, with a fixed amount of gas and temperature?

Solution:
By solving with the help of Boyle’s law equation
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑉1 18.10 x 3.500atm
= 𝑉2 𝑉2 = = 25.34 mL
𝑃2 2.500atm
2) A balloon contains 30.0 L of helium gas at 1 atmosphere, and it rises to an altitude where the
pressure is only 0.25 atm, assuming the temperature remains constant, what is the volume of the
balloon at its new pressure?
𝑃1 𝑉1 30.0 x 1atm
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑉2 𝑉2 = = 120L
𝑃2 0.2500atm
Charle’s Law
Charle’s law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature
(in Kelvin) in a closed system. Basically, this law describes the relationship between the temperature and
volume of the gas.
.

Mathematically, Charle’s law can be expressed as;

𝑉 ∝ T
Where, V = volume of gas, T = temperature of the gas in Kelvin. Another form of this
equation can be written as;
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Charle’s law problem
A sample of Carbon dioxide in a pump has a volume of 21.5 mL and it is at 50.0 °C. When the amount of
gas and pressure remain constant, find the new volume of Carbon dioxide in the pump if the temperature is
increased to 75.0℃.
Solution:
𝑉1 𝑇2 7,485.225
𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 23.16 mL
𝑇1 323.15

Charles’ Law Worksheet

The temperature inside my refrigerator is about 40 Celsius. If I place a balloon in my fridge that
initially has a temperature of 220 C and a volume of 0.5 liters, what will be the volume of the
balloon when it is fully cooled by my refrigerator?
𝑇1 = 22 + 273 = 295𝐾 𝑉1 = 0.5𝐿 𝑇2 = 4 + 273 = 277𝐾 𝑉2 = 𝑋

0.5L X
= 𝑋 = 0.47𝐿
295 K 277K

A man heats a balloon in the oven. If the balloon initially has a volume of 0.4 liters and a temperature of
20.0C, what will the volume of the balloon be after he heats it to a temperature of
250℃?
𝑇1 = 20 + 273 = 293𝐾 𝑉1 = 0.4 𝐿 𝑇2 = 250 + 273 = 523𝐾 𝑉2 = 𝑋
2
 0.4L X
= 𝑋 = 0.71𝐿
293 K 523K

Gay-Lussac Law

Gay-Lussac law gives the relationship between temperature and pressure at constant volume. The law states
that at a constant volume, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the temperature for a given gas.
.

Gay-Lussac Law
If you heat up a gas, the molecules will be given more energy, they move faster. If you cool down the
molecules, they slow down and the pressure decreases.

The change in temperature and pressure can be calculated using Gay-Lussac law and it is mathematically
represented as;
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃 ∝ T =𝐾 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
Where P is the pressure of the gas and T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin.
Gay-Lussac Law related problem
Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 2.00 atm is heated from 30.0 °C to 40.0
°C.
Solution:
𝑃1 = 2.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃2 =?
𝑇1 = 30 + 273) = 303𝐾
(
𝑇2 = (40 + 273) = 313𝐾
According to the Gay-Lussac law
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃 ∝ T =𝐾 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃1 𝑇2 2 x 313
= 𝑃2 = 2.06 atm
𝑇1 303
Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that if the gas is an ideal gas, the same number of molecules exists in the system.
The law also states that if the volume of gases is equal it means that the number of the molecule will be the
same as the ideal gas only when it has equal volume. This above statement can be mathematically expressed
as
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉 ∝ 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑛 𝑛1 𝑛2
Where V is the volume of an ideal gas and n in the above equation represent the number of gas molecules.

Problems related to Avogadro’s Law

At constant temperature and pressure, 6.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.975 mol. If the amount of gas
is increased to 1.90 mol, what new volume will result?
Solution:
𝑉1 = 6.00 L, 𝑛1 = 0.975, 𝑛2 = 1.90 mol

According to Avogadro’s law

𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉 ∝ 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑛 𝑛1 𝑛2
3
 𝑉1 𝑛2 6x1.90
𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 11.69 L
𝑛1 0.975
Combined Gas Law
The combined gas law is also known as a general gas equation is obtained by combining three gas laws
which include Charle’s law, Boyle’s Law and Gay-Lussac law. The law shows the relationship between
temperature, volume and pressure for a fixed quantity of gas.

The general equation of combined gas law is given as;

𝑃𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=𝐾 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
PV / T = k

Ideal Gas Law

Much like the combined gas law, the ideal gas law is also an amalgamation of four different gas laws. Here,
Avogadro’s law is added and the combined gas law is converted into the ideal gas law. This law relates
four different variables which are pressure, volume, no of moles or molecules and temperature. Basically,
the ideal gas law gives the relationship between these above four different variables.

Mathematically Ideal gas law is expressed as;

PV = n RT
Where,
V = volume of gas.
T = temperature of the gas.
P = pressure of the gas.
R = universal gas constant.
n denotes the number of moles.
We can also use an equivalent equation given below.

PV = k NT

Where, k = Boltzman constant and N = number of gas molecules.

Ideal Gas
Ideal gases are also known as a perfect gas. It establishes a relationship among the four different gas
variables such as pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and amount of gas (n).

Ideal Gas Properties and Characteristics

 The motion of ideal gas in a straight line constant and random.
 The gas occupies a very small space because the particle in the gas is minimal.
 There is no force present between the particle of the gas. Particles only collide elastically with the
walls of the container and with each other.
 The average kinetic energy of the gas-particle is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
 The gases are made up of many the same particles (atoms or molecules) which are perfectly hard
spheres and also very small.
 The actual volume of the gas molecule is considered negligible as compared to the space between
them and because of this reason they are considered as the point masses.

Gas Law Formula Table

The following table consists of all the formulas of Gas Law.

Gas Law Formula Description

Charle’s Law 𝑉1 𝑉
⁄𝑇 = 2⁄𝑇 At constant P, as the volume increases the temperature also
1 2 increases.

Boyle’s Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 At constant T, if pressure increases then volume decreases.

Gay-Lussac Law 𝑃1 𝑃 At constant V as pressure increases the temperature also increases.

⁄𝑇 = 2⁄𝑇
1 2

Avogadro’s Law V / n = constant When the amount of gas increases, the volume of the gas also
increases.

4
 Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT

State five properties of gases

 Gases have neither definite shape nor definite volume. They expand to the size of their
container.
 Gases are fluid, and flow easily.
 Gases have low density, unless compressed. ...
 Gases diffuse (mix and spread out) and effuse (travel through small holes).
 They exert pressure, or force per unit area, on the interior surface of their container

Gas Law Problems

A sealed jar whose volume is exactly 1L which contains 1 mole of air at temperature 20-degree Celcius,
assuming that the air behaves as an ideal gas. So what is the pressure inside the jar in Pa

Solution:

By solving with the help of ideal gas equation

PV=nRT
By rearranging the equation we can get,
𝑃 = nRT⁄V
Write down all the values which are known in S.I unit
n= 1
R= 8.314J/K/mol
T= 20℃ = (20+273.15)K=293.15K
V=1L=0.001m3
Put all the values in the equation
P= nRT/V
=(1 x 8.314 x 293.15)/0.001
= 2,437,249
=2.437 x 106 𝑃𝑎
The pressure is almost 24atm.
Application of Gas-law

 Due to physical change, the behavior of the gas particles also changes. ...
 By the gas law we can easily calculate the temperature, pressure, volume of any gas.
 Theses gas laws also have practical application for measuring the tidal volume, respiratory gases.
 They also used also used for weather prediction.

Question

A gas occupies 75 liters at a pressure of 700 mm of mercury. Calculate the pressure, if volume increases to
100 liters, the temperature remaining constant.
Solution Given data:
Initial pressure (𝑃1 ) = 700 mm Hg
Initial volume (𝑉1 ) = 75litres
Final volume (𝑉2 ) = 100litres
Step 1: Calculate the final pressure by using Boyle’s law.
By Boyle’s law, 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Substituting the value,
700 × 75 = 𝑃2 × 100
𝑃2 = (700×75)/100
𝑃2 =525mmHg

Conclusion:
The pressure, if volume increases to 100litres is 525 mm Hg.
Gas Laws Practice:

5
1) A chemist collects 59.0 mL of sulfur dioxide gas on a day when the atmospheric pressure is
0.989 atm. On the next day, the pressure has changed to 0.967 atm. What will the volume of the
SO2 gas on the second day?
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
(0.989 atm ) (0.0590 L) = (0.967 atm) x
0.0603422958 L = x
0.0603 L = x or 60.3 Ml

2) A can contains a gas with a volume of 56 mL and 20.0 °C. What is the volume in the can if it is
heated to 50.0 °C?
𝑉1 = 𝑉2
0.056 L = x
293 K 323 K
0.0617337884 L = x
0.062 L = x or 62 mL

3) A gas with a volume of 4.0L at a pressure of 90.0 k Pa is allowed to expand until the pressure
drops to 20.0 k Pa. What is the new volume?
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
(90.0 k Pa) (4.0L) = (20.0 k Pa) x
18 L= x
4) At a winter carnival, a balloon is filled with 5.00 L of helium at a temperature of 273 K. What
will be the volume of the balloon when it is brought into a warm house at 295 K?
𝑉1 = 𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑇2
5.00 L = x
273 K 295 K
5.40 L = x
5) The initial temperature of a 1.00 liter sample of argon is 20.0° C. The pressure is decreased from
720 mm Hg to 360 mm Hg and the volume increases to 2.14 liters. What was the change in
temperature of the argon?
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑇2
(720 mm Hg) (1.00 L) = (360 mm Hg) (2.14 L)
293 K x
310 K = x
6) 2.2 L of hydrogen at 6.5 atm pressure is used to fill a balloon at a final pressure of 1.15 atm.
What is its final volume?
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
(6.5 atm)(2.2 L) = (1.15 atm) x
12 L = x
7) The pressure in an automobile tire is 200. kPa at a temperature of 25°C. At the end of a journey
on a hot sunny day the pressure has risen to 223 kPa. What is the temperature of the air in the
tire?
𝑃1 𝑃2
200 k Pa = 223 k Pa
298 K x
330 K = x
GASES KNEC QUESTIONS
1. State five properties of gases
2. State the perfect gas equation
3. State any three engineering applications of gases
4. Derive the ideal gas equation ;PV = MRT, where:
P = Pressure
V = Volume
M = Mass
T = Absolute temperature
5. State the following gas laws, sketch their graphs and write their equations.
I. Boyles law;
II. Charles law;
III. Gas equation;
6. A gas occupies 75 L at a pressure of 700 mm of mercury. The volume is increased to 100litres
while temperatures is kept constant. Determine the value of the new pressure.
6
 7. A gas occupies a volume of 100cm³ at 0°C and 760 mm mercury pressure. The kelvin
1
temperature of the gas is increased by , while pressure is increased by one and half times.
5
Determine the final volume of gas.
8. A gas occupies 1.12 mm³ at a temperature of 127°C and a pressure of 800mm of mercury.
Determine its volume at standard temperature and pressure. (pressure of mercury=760mm/g).
9. A gas at a constant pressure occupies a volume of 600 cm³, at a temperature of -73°C. Determine
its volume at 127°C when pressure is kept constant.
10. An electric bulb with a volume of 200 cm³, contains argon gas at a pressure of 300mm of
mercury, when the gas temperature is 25°C. When the bulb is switched on, it is found that the
pressure of the gas in the bulb reaches a steady value of 520mm of mercury. Determine the
temperature of the argon gas in the bulb in °C.
HEAT
TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE SCALES

Temperature- Is a physical quantity expressing the subjective perceptions of hot and cold.
Temperature is measured with a thermometer, historically calibrated in various temperature scales
and units of measurement,
State the types of temperature scales:
i) Fahrenheit (expressed as °F),
ii) Celsius (°C),
iii) Kelvin (K).
iv) Rankine scales.
The lowest theoretical temperature is absolute zero. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K = −273 °C on the
Celsius scale. So, since we have defined the Kelvin scale (TK) for any gas. We have another
temperature scale is in common use the Celsius scale defined

𝑇𝐶 ° = 𝑇𝐾 − 273 ℃……………….(1)

A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient, using a variety of

different principles.
 The gas thermometer: The thermometric property is the pressure of a constant volume.
 Electric resistance thermometer: The thermometric property is the electrical resistance of a small
coil of wire.
 Thermocouple: The thermometric property is the electromotive force.
 The triple point 𝑃𝑡𝑝 Of a water *** The triple point 𝑃𝑡𝑝 Of a water at which the three phases
(gas, liquid, and solid) of that material exist in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Types of Thermometers;
i) Digital 'stick' thermometers. Ear (tympanic) thermometers
ii) Infrared thermometers.
iii) Strip-type thermometers.
iv) Mercury thermometers.
What is heat?
Heat is the amount of energy that flows spontaneously from a warmer body to a cooler one because of
differences in temperature. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that (if two bodies A and B are each
7
in thermal equilibrium with third body C the thermometer then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with
each other)

Define the following terms:

 Vaporization- vaporization, conversion of a substance from the liquid or solid phase into
the gaseous (vapour) phase. If conditions allow the formation of vapour bubbles within a
liquid, the vaporization process is called boiling. Direct conversion from solid to vapour
is called sublimation.
 Heat capacity - the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given
quantity of matter by one degree Celsius.
 Boiling point- temperature at which the pressure exerted by the surroundings upon a
liquid is equaled by the pressure exerted by the vapour of the liquid;
 Freezing point- the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid when cooled
 Condensation- is the change from a vapor to a condensed state (solid or liquid

Differentiate between freezing point and condensation point.

The key difference between condensation and freezing is that condensation is the conversion of a
vapour state into a liquid state whereas freezing is the conversion of a liquid state into a solid-state.
Condensation and freezing are opposite reactions to boiling and melting, respectively.

Distinguish between fusion and solidification.

The key difference between fusion and solidification is that fusion is the conversion of a solid
into its liquid form, whereas solidification is the conversion of a liquid into a solid.

With the aid of a diagram explain the process/forms of heat transfer by:
 Conduction- process in which heat is transferred from the hotter part to the colder part in
a body without involving any actual movement of the molecules of the body.
 Convection- heat is transferred in the liquid and gases from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature. Convection heat transfer occurs partly due
to the actual movement of molecules or due to the mass transfer.
 Radiation- process in which heat is transferred from one body to another body without
involving the molecules of the medium. Radiation heat transfer does not depend on the
medium. For example: In a microwave, the substances are heated directly without any heating
medium.
Types of temperature scales.
i) Fahrenheit (expressed as °F),
ii) Celsius (°C),
iii) Kelvin (K).
iv) Rankine scales.
Describe the mixture method of determining the latent heat of fusion.
In this experiment the heat of fusion of ice will be determined by using the method of mixtures
(Quantity of heat lost = Quantity of heat gained). Where Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the
solid, M is the mass of the solid and Lf is the latent heat of fusion measured in cal/g (to fuse
means to melt).
Heat (thermal) Capacity C
Heat capacity is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body by one degree (oC or K).

Where,
ΔQ is the heat energy added to the body
Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
C is the heat capacity of the body
8
The units of heat capacity are Joules per degree. Since Kelvin and Celsius degrees are equivalent the units
are: JK-1 or JC-1

Spcific Heat Capacity c,

Specific heat capacity (c) is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass by one degree (
o
C or K).

Where,
ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned
m is the mass of the body
Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
c is the specific heat capacity of the body
The units of specific heat capacity are Jkg-1K-1 or Jkg-1C-1

Determination of Specific Heat Capacity by experiment

These two methods concern the heating up a known mass and measuring the temperature rise for a known
amount of electrical energy used.
Specific Heat Capacity of a liquid by an electrical method

The heat energy supplied by the electrical element is given to the liquid and its container, producing a
temperature rise 𝚫𝜽.
The heater current (I) and voltage (V) are monitored for a time (t).
Energy supplied by heater = V It
Energy absorbed by liquid and container = 𝒎𝑳 𝒄𝑳 𝚫𝜽 + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄Δθ
Where,
𝒎𝑳 - mass of liquid, 𝒎𝒄 - mass of container
𝒄𝑳 - specific heat capacity of liquid
𝒄𝒄 - specific heat capacity of container
Equating the two quantities,

𝒎𝑳, 𝒄𝑳 & 𝒄𝒄 are known and V, I, t, Δθ are all measured. So the specific heat capacity of the liquid (𝒄𝑳 )
can be calculated.
Specific Heat Capacity of a solid by an electrical method

9
The method is very similar to that for a liquid except that there is no container. The solid under test is a
lagged cylinder with holes drilled for the thermometer and the heater element. A little glycerine is added
to the thermometer hole to improve thermal contact.
Heat energy supplied by the electrical element is given directly to the solid, producing a temperature rise
Δθ.

Where,
𝒎𝒔 - mass of solid
𝒄𝒔 - specific heat capacity of solid
𝒎𝒔 - is known and V, I, t, Δθ are measured. So the specific heat capacity of the solid (𝒄𝒔 ) can be
calculated.
Note: more accurate results can be obtained by applying a 'cooling correction'.
This is based on Newton's Law of Cooling,
Which states:
The rate of cooling is proportional to the excess temperature over the environment.
Unfortunately space does not allow a more in-depth treatment of this issue

Latent Heat
Latent heat energy (L) involved when a substance changes state it has two components:
ΔU - the increase/decrease in internal PE
ΔW - the external work involved in expansion (+ΔW) and contraction (-ΔW)
This can be summarized as:

The phase changes involving latent heat energy are:

phase change action symbol

solid to liquid melting LF

liquid to solid fusion LF

liquid to vapour vaporization LV

vapour to liquid condensation LV

solid to vapour sublimation LS

vapour to solid sublimation LS

The graph illustrates the temperature changes when a solid (eg ice) is heated from below its melting point,
to above boiling.

10
Note that the changes of state occur in the flat areas. There is no temperature rise here and hence no
increase in KE.
Latent heat must be absorbed from the surroundings (and given to the substance) for the substance
to melt or boil.
Latent heat is given out to the surroundings (from the substance) when the substance condenses or
freezes.
Figure below shows change of state graph when ice is heated. Explain the change taking place between
Parts BC and DE of the graph represents the change of state on heating.
The heat energy supplied during the change of state is used to overcome the force of attraction
between the particles or matter. This heat is known as latent heat. [The heat energy is stored in
water at 0∘C in the form of latent heat of fusion and is stored in steam at100∘C in the form of latent
heat of vaporization.]
BC;
CD;

 At phase BC melting of ice to Water & CD

 At phase DE water to water vapour by evaporation
 AB - the ice rises in temperature from −20.0 to 0.00 °C.
 BC - the ice melts at 0.00 °C.
 CD - the liquid water then rises in temperature from zero to 100.0 °C.
 DE - the liquid water then boils at 100.0 °C.
 E - the steam then rises in temperature from 100.0 to ….

Specific Latent Heat Capacity l

The latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy involved in changing the state of unit mass of the
substance at the melting/freezing point.
The latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the energy involved in changing the state of unit mass
of the substance at the boiling point.
This may be summarized by the equation:

Where,
ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned
m is the mass of substance
l specific latent heat of fusion/vaporization
The units of specific heat capacity are Jkg-1.

Determination of Specific Latent heat Capacity by experiment

11
There are a number of different methods for finding l for different substances and different phase
changes.
Here we will briefly look at two methods concerning fusion and vaporization.

The specific latent heat of ice by the 'method of mixtures'

Ice cubes are added to hot water of known temperature in a copper calorimeter. The mixture is stirred
until all the ice has melted and a final reading of temperature taken.

Where,
mL mass of water ,mI mass of ice & mC mass of calorimeter
cL specific heat capacity of liquid water & cC specific heat capacity of calorimeter
θ high temperature of the hot water & θ final temperature of mixture
l specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Hence l can be calculated from the knowns and measured values.
Solved Examples
1. Calculate the estimated latent heat of a 5 kg substance if the amount of heat required for a phase shift
is 300 kcal.
The parameters are as follows: Q = 300 kcal, M = 5 kg
The latent heat formula is as follows:
L = Q / M so;
L = 300 / 5 L = 60 kcal/kg
As a result, the latent heat value is 60 kcal/kg.

2. A chunk of metal seems to weigh 60g around 20°C. 0.5g of the vapour condenses before being
submerged in a steam stream at 100°C. Compute the particular heat of the metal, assuming the latent
heat for steam = 540 cal/g.
Let c become the metal’s specific heat. The metal has gathered heat.
Q = mcΔt
i.e Q = 60 x c x (100 – 20)
Q = 60 x c x 80 cal
The steam’s heat is expelled.
Q=m×L
Q = 0.5 × 540 cal
According to the concept of mixing, the amount of heat provided is equal to the amount of heat
absorbed.
0.5 × 540 = 60 × c ×80
c = 0.056 cal/g ⁰C
As a result, the specific heat value at 0C is 0.056 cal/g.
3. 2000 cal of heat is supplied to 200 g of water. Find the rise in temperature. (Specific heat of water = 1
cal g−1∘C−1)
12
 Solution; Given ,
M = 200g, Q = 2000 cal, Δθ = ?,
specific heat of water c=1cal/g−℃
Now, heat required to raise the temperature of water is given by the definition of specific heat
Q = mc Δθ
or
Δθ = Q / (mc) = 2000 / (200×1) = 10℃

4. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 2 g of mercury (Specific heat
Capacity 0.12 Jg−1 ℃−1) from 10℃ to 30℃:
Heat required to raise the temperature by 30 − 10= 20℃
Heat required = msΔT
= 2 × 0.12 × 20 = 4.8J

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid

Water is heated electrically until it boils. The condensed water (m) is collected over time (t). Heating
element readings of voltage (V) and current (I) are recorded.
In the steady state,
Electrical energy supplied = heat energy to produce steam

Fig below shows a diagram of a refrigerator. Explain its operation.

The basic mechanism of a refrigerator works like this:

 The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. This raises the refrigerant's pressure and
temperature, so the heat-exchanging coils outside the refrigerator allow the refrigerant to dissipate
the heat of pressurization.
 As it cools, the refrigerant condenses into liquid form and flows through the expansion valve.
 When it flows through the expansion valve, the liquid refrigerant is allowed to move from a high-
pressure zone to a low-pressure zone, so it expands and evaporates. In evaporating, it absorbs
heat, making it cold.
 The coils inside the refrigerator allow the refrigerant to absorb heat, making the inside of the
refrigerator cold. The cycle then repeats. This is a fairly standard -- and somewhat unsatisfying --
explanation of how a refrigerator works. So let's look at refrigeration using several real-world
examples to understand what is truly happening.

HEAT KNEC QUESTIONS

13
1. Differentiate between freezing point and condensation point.
2. Define the following:
I. Vaporization
II. Heat capacity
III. Boiling point
IV. Freezing point
V. Condensation
3. State two types of:
I. Temperature scales;
II. Thermometers ;
4. Distinguish between fusion and solidification.
Fig below shows change of state graph when ice is heated. Explain the change taking place
between BC & CD;

5. State four temperature scales.

6. Describe the mixture method of determining the latent heat of fusion.
7. With the aid of a diagram explain the process/forms of heat transfer by:
I. Convection;
II. Conduction;
III. Radiation;
8. 8400 Joules of heat is supplied to 200 g of water. Determine the rise in temperature, (specific heat
capacity of water = 200 J/Kg °C).
9. 106.25 J of heat energy is supplied to a solid substance of specific heat capacity 0.85 Jg −1 C−1 . The
substance temperature rises by 1°C. Determine the mass of the solid.
10. 2g of mercury has a heat capacity of 0.12 Jg −1 C−1 . The temperature is to be raised from 10°C to
30°C. Determine the amount of heat energy required.
11. A cylindrical metal block of mass 0.5kg is heated electrically by a 45 W heater for 10 minutes. The
temperature of metal block rises from 20°C to 85°C during this period. Determine its specific heat
capacity.
12. A steel boiler of mass12kg has 25kg of water at 98°C. When 70kg of water at 16°C was added to the
boiler, a steady temperature of 38.5°C was obtained. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/kg
K. determine the specific heat capacity of steel boiler. Assume heat loss to the surrounding is
negligible.
13. 2.5kg of metal block of specific heat capacity 10.5 kJ/Kg °C was heated to 80°C. The block was then
immersed into a lagged calorimeter containing water at18°C. The maximum temperature attained by
the water was 42°C. The heat capacity of the calorimeter is 10 kJ/Kg °C and the specific heat capacity
of water is 4.18 kJ/Kg °C. Determine the mass of the water in the vessel if:
I. Heat loss to the surrounding are negligible;
II. 10% of the heat is lost to the surroundings;
14. Fig below shows the electrical method of determining specific heat capacity of a solid. Describe its
operation.

14
15. The following data refers to an industrial product:

Melting point = 38°C

Boiling point = 92°C
Specific heat capacity in solid state = 3.24 kJ/Kg °C
Specific heat capacity in liquid state = 4.10 kJ/Kg °C
Specific heat capacity in gaseous state = 5.36 kJ/Kg °C
Specific latent heat of fusion = 260 kJ/kg
Specific latent heat of vaporization = 310 kJ/k

During a process, 20 kg of the product was heated from 25°C to 100°C.

I. Sketch the temperature-time graph for the heating process
II. Neglecting the losses, determine the quantity of heat required.

16. Fig below shows a diagram of a refrigerator. Explain its operation

WORK, POWER ENERGY, AND MACHINES
Work is the product of force and the distance moved in the direction of the force
Work (J) = Force (N) x distance (m)
o Work is a scalar quantity
o SI unit of work is joule (J)
o 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance of 1 m
Worked Example

A crane lifts a load of 2000kg through a vertical distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds. Determinethe work
done

Answer

For a body moving vertically upwards, the force used to lift it up is equal to its weight Force used =
weight of load

= mg

= (2000 x 10)

= 20 000N

Work done = force x distance

Work done = 20000x 3 Work
done = 60 000J

Calculate the work done by a stone mason lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height of 2.0 m. (take
g=10N/kg)
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= (15 × 10) × 2 = 300 Nm or 300 J

Example 2
A girl of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 30 cm high, calculate the work done by
the girl climbing the stairs.
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= (50 × 10) × (12 × 30) ÷ 100 = 500 × 3.6 = 1,800 J
Example 3
A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in stretching this spring by
8.0 cm?
Solution
A force of 7.5 produces an extension of 5.0 cm.
Hence 8.0 cm = (7.5 × 8)/ 5 = 12.0 N
Work done = ½ × force × extension
= ½ × 12.0 × 0.08 = 0.48 J

15
Example 4
A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes and comes to rest
after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate;
a) The breaking force
b) The work done in bringing it to rest
Solution
a) F = ma and a = v – u/t
But 72 km/h = 20m/
a = 0 - 20/8 = - 2.5 m/s
Retardation = 2.5 m/s
Braking force F = 1,250 × 2.5
= 3,125 N
b) Work done = kinetic energy lost by the car
= ½ mv2 – ½ mu2
= ½ × 1250 × 0
2 – ½ × 1250 × 202
= - 2.5 × 105J

ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work
o Energy is a scalar quantity
o SI unit of energy is joule (J)

POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY

KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body in motion
Kinetic energy is calculated as
m – Mass in kg, v – Velocity in m/s, K.E. – kinetic energy in joules (J)

POTENTIAL ENERGY

o Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or state
o There are two types of potential energies:
(i) Gravitational potential energy
(ii) Elastic potential energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

o Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body in a raised
position
o Gravitational potential energy is given by
P.E. = m g h
Where:
m – Mass in kg, g – Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
h – Height in metres, P.E. – gravitational potential energy in joules (J)

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

o The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be destroyed. It is only converted from
one form to another.
o A device which converts energy from one form to another is known as a transducer
Examples of Transducers:
1. Dry Cell : Converts chemical energy to electric energy
2. Microphone: Sound energy to electric energy
3. Loud Speaker: Converts electric energy to sound energy
4. Solar Cell: Converts solar energy to electric energy

Example of energy transformations:

1. Swinging pendulum bob

A swinging pendulum bob is an example of a body whose energy can either be
16
Kinetic, Potential or a Mixture of both:

2. A stone falling from a height

Worked Example

A bob of mass 10 kg is suspended using a string 2.0 m from a support and swings through a vertical
height of 45cm as shown in the figure below.

a) Determine the potential energy of the bob at position A

P.E = mgh

= 10 x 10 x 0.45

P.E = 45J
b) Calculate the velocity with which the bob passes position B
Assuming that all the potential energy at A is converted to kinetic energy at B, and that there is no
air resistance, then:
K.E. at B = P.E. at A
½ mv2 = P.E at A
½ mv2 = 45 mv2 = 2 x 45
10v 2 = 90
v2 = 90
10
Example 6
A person weighing 500 N takes 4 seconds to climb upstairs to a height of 3.0 m. what is the
average power in climbing up the height?
Solution
Power = work done / time = (force × distance) / time
= (500 × 3) / 4 = 375 W
Example 7
A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the force of friction
between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power developed
Solution
Power = Fv
= 2,000 × 12
= 24,000 W = 24 kW.
Question
A body has a kinetic energy of 16 Joules. What would be its kinetic energy if its velocity was
doubled? (Answer = 64J)
17
A bullet of mass 10.0g is fired at a close range into a block of mass 4.99kg suspended from a rigid
support by an elastic string and becomes embedded into the block. The block rises through a height of
2.5cm before momentarily coming to rest. Calculate initial speed of the bullet.

Assumption: All Kinetic energy just after impact is converted to potential energy
½ mv2 = mgh
½ mv2 = mgh
v = √2gh
= √ (2 x 10 x 0.025)
v = √0.5
v = 0.7071 m/s
Velocity of block and bullet just after collision = 0.7071 m/s
By law of conservation of linear momentum,
Momentum of bullet and block before collision = momentum of bullet and block after collision
Momentum before collision = momentum of bullet + momentum of block
10
= (v x 1000+ 4.99 x 0)

Try the following;

1. .A bullet of mass 2.0g is fired horizontally into a block of wood of mass 500g. The block is
suspended from string so that it is free to move in a vertical plane. The bullet buries itself in the
block. The system rises together through a vertical distance of 7.6cm. Determine the speed of the
bullet before the impact with the block. (Answer: v = 309.45m/s

2. A large tank contains water to a depth of 2m. Water emerges from a small hole on the side of the
tank 20cm above the bottom of the tank as shown in the figure below

(i) The speed at which water emerges from the hole. (Answer: 6 m/s)
(ii) The time taken for water to reach the ground. (Answer: 0.4899 seconds)
(iii) The value of x. (Answer: 2.9394 meters)

Elastic Potential Energy

O This is the energy possessed by a stretched material e.g. a spring

Elastic potential energy is calculated as:
𝟏 𝟏
Potential energy = Fe or ke𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Where; F – Applied force in newtons (N) e – extension in m & k – Spring constant in N/m

Worked Example

18
A steel ball of mass 0.10 kg was placed on top of a level ground. The spring was then compressed by
0.20m with an average force of 10N.
State the energy changes that take place when the compressed spring is released and the steel ball moves
to its maximum height.

Answer

Calculate the maximum height the ball attains (Take g=10Nkg-1)

Answer

Gravitational potential energy = elastic potential energy

mgh = 1Fe
2
(0.1x10xh) = 1 x 10x0.2
2
h = 0.2m

POWER
Power is the rate of doing work

𝑤ork done (J) Energy (J)

Power (W) = =
Time taken (s) Time taken (s

o Power is a scalar quantity

o SI units of power is watts (W)

For a body moving with a known velocity, v, due to a force, F, power can also be calculated as:
Power (W) = Force (N) x velocity (m/s)

Worked Example
A pump can raise 0.12 m3 of water to a height of 10 m every minute. What is the power output of
thepump? (Density of water = 1000 kg)
Answer
Mass of water raised every minute = density x volume
= 1000 x 0.12
= 120 kg
Gain in potential energy = mgh
= (120 x 10 x 10)
= 12 000J
Time taken = 1 minute
= 60 seconds
Therefore, power = Energy gained
Time taken
= 12 000
60
Power = 200W

Quick Practice Questions

1) A pump can raise 120 kg of water to a height of 10.0 m every minute. Determine the power of the
pump. (Answer: 200 watts)

19
 2) A body of mass 0.5kg resting on a frictionless surface is acted on by a force of 3.2N for 3.5
seconds. Determine the power developed by the force. (Answer: 71.68 watts)

3) A pump draws water from a tank and issues it from the end of a hosepipe which the water is
drawn. The cross –sectional area of the hosepipe is 1.0 x 10-3m2 and the water leaves the end of
the hosepipe at a speed of 5m/s .Calculate the power of the pump. (density of water = 1000Kkg/
m3) (Answer: 125 watts)

SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device that makes work easier

a) Mechanical advantage
This is the ratio of load to effort
M.A = Load (N)
Effort (N)
b) Velocity ratio
This is the ratio of distance moved by effort to the distance moved by the load
Distance Moved By Effort
𝐕. 𝐑 =
Distance Moved By Load
c) Efficiency
This is the ratio of work output to work input expressed as a percentage
Work output
𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = x 100
Work input
o Work output is the work done on the load, i.e.:
Work output = load x distance moved by the load

o Work input is the work done by the effort, i.e.

Work input = effort x distance moved by the effort

o Efficiency of a machine can also be calculated as

M. A
𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = X 100
V. R
A simple machine has a velocity ratio of 314 and an efficiency of 40%. An effort of 25N is exerted on
the machine.

a) Determine the maximum load that can be raised

b) If the load is raised upward at a constant speed of 0.2 m/s, what is the power output of the
machine?

Answer
M.A M.A 40𝑋314
𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = V.R
X 100 , 40 = 314 X 100 M. A = 100 = 125.6

Load (N) Load (N)

M. A = i. e 125.6 =
Effort (N) 25

Load (N) = 125.6 x 25, Load = 𝟑 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝐍

b)Power = Force x Velocity

Power output = Load x velocity
= 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝐱 𝟎. 𝟐

20
Some simple machines
a) Levers
– this is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments.

b) Pulleys
Example 9
A block and tackle system has 3 pulleys in the upper fixed block and two in the lower moveable block.
What load can be lifted by an effort of 200 N if the efficiency of the machine is 60%?
Solution
V.R = total number of pulleys = 5
Efficiency = (M.A/V.R) × 100 = 60%

21
 0.6 = M.A/5 = 3, but M.A = Load/Effort
Therefore, load = 3 × 200 = 600 N
c) Wheel and Axle
– consists of a large wheel of big radius attached to an axle of smaller radius.

V.R = R/r and M.A = R/r

Example 10
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of the wheel. If the
radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively. Calculate the M.A, V.R and efficiency.
Solution
M.A = 280 / 40 = 7
V.R = R/r = 70/5 = 14
Efficiency = (M.A/V.R) × 100 = 7/14 × 100 = 50 %

d) Inclined plane
V.R = 1/ sin Θ
M.A = Load/ Effort

Example 11
A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. the inclined plane
makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72%, calculate;
a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m. (take g= 10 N/kg)
Solution
a) V.R = 1 / sin C = 1/ sin 300 = 2 M.A = efficiency × V.R = (72/100)× 2 = 1.44
Effort = load (mg) / effort (50 × 10)/ 1.44 = 347.2 N

b) Work done against friction = work input – work output

Work output = m g h = 50 × 10 × 4 = 2,000 J
Work input = effort × distance moved by effort
347.2 × (4 × sin 300) = 2,777.6 J
Therefore work done against friction = 2,777.6 – 2,000 = 777.6 J
e) The screw:
- The distance between two successive threads is called the pitch

V.R of screw = circumference of screw head / pitch P= 2πr / P

Example 12
A car weighing 1,600 kg is lifted with a jack-screw of 11 mm pitch. If the handle is 28 cm from the
screw, find the force applied.
Solution
Neglecting friction M.A = V.R
V.R = 2Πr /P = M.A = L / E
1,600 / E = (2Π × 0.28) / 0.011
E = (1,600 × 0.011 × 7) / 22 × 2 × 0.28 =10 N
f) Gears:
- the wheel in which effort is applied is called the driver while the load wheel is

V.R = revolutions of driver wheel / revolutions of driven

or
V.R = no. of teeth in the driven wheel/ no. of teeth in the driving wheel
22
g) Pulley belts:
-these are used in bicycles and other industrial machines
V.R = radius of the driven pulley / radius of the driving pulley

h) Hydraulic machines
V.R = R2/ r2 where R- radius of the load piston and r- radius of the effort piston

Example 13
The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 1.4 cm while that of the load piston is 7.0 cm. This
machine is used to raise a load of 120 kg at a constant velocity through a height of 2.5 cm. given that the
machine is 80% efficient, calculate;
a) The effort needed
b) The energy wasted using the machine
Solution
a) V.R = R2/ r2 = (7 × 7) / 1.4 × 1.4 = 25
Efficiency = M.A / V.R = (80 /100) × 25 = 20
But M.A = Load / Effort = (120 × 10) / 20 = 60 N

b) Efficiency = work output / work input = work done on load (m g h) /80

= (120 × 10 × 2.5) / work input
80 / 100 = 3,000 / work input
Work input = (3,000 × 100) /80 = 3,750 J
Energy wasted = work input – work output
= 3,750 – 3,000 = 750 J
What is a lever?
A lever is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a
rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself.
According to where the load and effort are located with respect to the fulcrum, there are three types or
classes of lever:
 First-Class Lever
 Second Class Lever
 Third Class Lever

First Class Lever

This is a type of lever which has the fulcrum in between the weight and the force applied. Its order is
represented as force-fulcrum-weight. This is the most basic type of lever.
Example:
 Our hand pushing an object or seesaws, crowbars.
 Using scissors represents the use of two first-class levers.
 A wheel and axle is also an example.
 Pulling a nail out of a wooden plank also represents a first-class lever.
Second Class Lever
In this, the fulcrum is at one end and the force applied is on the other end. The weight is situated in the
middle of these two. The order of this would be fulcrum-weight-force. The application of force at one end
will result in some work done on the other end.

Example:
 Wheelbarrow
 Staplers
 Doors or gates
 Bottle openers
 Nutcracker
 Nail clippers

Third Class Lever

23
These are the levers in which the fulcrum is at one end and the force is applied in the middle and the
weight is on the other end. The order is represented as a weight-force-fulcrum. In this case, we have to
apply more energy to displace the weight to a longer distance.

Example:
 Fishing rod
 A broom
 A baseball bat
 A bow and arrow
 Human jaw

WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND MACHINES QUESTIONS

1. State two uses of simple machines
2. Define each of the following terms giving SI units in each;
I. Power
II. Efficiency
III. Mechanical advantage
IV. Velocity ratio
V. Potential energy
VI. Kinetic energy
3. State any two sources of energy and any two forms of energy
4. State three characteristics of second order levers
5. Outline three differences between first order and second order levers
6. Outline four characteristics of potential and kinetic energy of a body.
7. Distinguish between each of the following with respect to simple machines;
I. Screw and Levers
II. Mechanical advantage and velocity ratio
8. Outline precaution taken to ensure proper maintenance of physical machines
9. State three examples of each of the following classes of levers
I. 1st order lever
II. 2nd order lever
III. 3rd order lever
10. A lever has a load arm of 4m, an effort arm of 8m and efficiency of 75%. A load of 60N is lifted.
Determine the:
I. Velocity ratio
II. Mechanical advantage
III. Effort applied
11. An effort of 200N is supplied to a pulley system at a distance of 4m and a load is moved for a
distance of 2m. Determine the:
I. M.A
II. Load
12. Table show the values of the effort required to raise various loads using a simple machine whose
V.R is 4.
Load W (N) 5.0 12.5 15.0 22.5 25.0 30.0
Effort E (N) 2.50 4.75 5.5 7.75 8.5 10.0

I. Draw the effort-load graph, hence determine the law of the machine
II. Determine the efficiency of the machine while it raises a load of 20N.
13. A single movable pulley is used to lift a load of 800N. determine the:
I. Mechanical advantage
II. Effort

14. A load has a lever arm 2m and effort arm 6m. It is able to lift a load of 60N. determine the:
I. Mechanical advantage
II. Effort
15. A simple lifting machine has a velocity ratio of 4. It can lift a load of 100kg from the ground. The
applied effort is 327N. The gravitational force is 9.81N/kg. determine :
24
 I. Efficiency
II. Effort required
16. A force acting on a 20kg mass change its velocity from 5m/s to 2m/s. Determine the resultant
work done by force.
17. A body has a mass M and velocity V. The mass is increased four times while velocity is
decreased two times. Determine the:
I. Initial kinetic energy
II. Final kinetic energy
III. Ratio of final to new kinetic energy
18. An aircraft of mass 2tonnes flies at a speed of 300km/h and a height of 1.2km above the ground.
Determine the total energy of the air craft.
19. A car weighing 1tonne and a truck weighing 3tonnes have the same speed of 30m/s. determine
the:
I. Kinetic energy of the car
II. Kinetic energy of the truck
III. Ratio of the Kinetic energy of the car and the truck
20. A space instrument of mass 4x10³kg is launched at a vertical velocity of 1Km/s at an altitude of
50km. determine;
I. Potential energy
II. Kinetic energy
21. The table below shows types of machines. Complete the table by matching them to their
corresponding order.

Order
S. NO. Machines

1st 2nd 3rd

1. Forceps
2. Wheel barrow
3. seesaw
4. Fishing rod
5. nutcracker
6. pliers

FOUNDATON OF CHEMISTRY

Basic properties

Atomic number
 The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom gives us the atomic number of that atom.
 It is represented with the letter ‘Z.’
 All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons, and hence the same
atomic number.
 Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers.
 For example, all carbon atoms have the atomic number of 6, whereas all atoms of Oxygen have 8
protons in their nucleus.
 For example, in a sodium atom, there are 11 electrons and 11 protons. Thus the atomic number of
Na atom = number of electrons = number of protons = 11.

Mass Number
 The number of protons and neutrons combine to give us the mass number of an atom.
 It is represented using the letter ‘A.’
 As both protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom, they are together called
nucleons.
 For example, an atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Thus, its mass number is 12.
 While the number of protons remains the same in all atoms of an element, the number of neutrons
can vary. Thus, atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers, and these are called
isotopes.
 The weight of an electron is almost negligible. Thus, the atomic mass of an atom is almost the
same as its mass number.
25
Atomic mass and isotopes

Nuclei with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are said to be isotopes of each
other. All chemical elements have many isotopes. It is usual to characterize different isotopes by
giving the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus—a quantity called the atomic
mass number.

Notation of Atom

To write the notation of an atom, we need to know the symbol of the element, the atomic number and the
mass number. The mass number of the atom goes above the symbol and the atomic number is written as a
subscript.

Solved Example
Question:
An atom has an atomic number of 9 and a mass number of 19.
1. Determine the number of protons present
2. Determine the number of neutrons present
3. Determine the number of electrons present
Solution:
1. There are 9 protons because the atomic number is always equal to the number of protons
present.
2. There are 10 neutrons because the number of neutrons is always obtained by subtracting
the atomic number from the mass number.
(protons + neutrons) – protons = neutrons
3. There are 9 electrons because the number of protons and the number of electrons are
always the same in an atom.

a) Draw the atomic structure of an atom whose atomic number is 16.

Q11) Draw the atomic diagrams of the following elements showing the distribution of - protons, neutrons
& the electrons in various shells of the atoms.
a. Carbon - 126𝐶
b. Oxygen - 168𝑂
c. Phosphorus - 31
15𝑃
40
d. Argon - 18𝐴𝑟
e. Calcium - 40
20𝐶𝑎
The upper number represents the - mass number & the lower number the - atomic number.

a. Carbon - 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝑪
Atomic number = 6, Mass Number = 12
No. of protons = 6, No. of electrons = 6
No. of neutrons = 12 - 6 = 6
Electronic configuration - (K, L) = (2, 4)

b. Oxygen - 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝑶
Atomic number = 8, Mass Number = 16
No. of protons = 8, No. of electrons = 8
No. of neutrons = 16 - 8 = 8
Electronic configuration - (K, L) = (2, 6)

26
c. Phosphorus - 𝟑𝟏
𝟏𝟓𝑷
Atomic number = 15, Mass Number = 31
No. of protons = 15, No. of electrons = 15

No. of neutrons = 31 - 15 = 16

Electronic configuration - (K, L, M) = (2, 8, 5)

𝟒𝟎
d. Argon - 𝟏𝟖𝑨𝒓

Atomic number = 18, Mass Number = 40

No. of protons = 18, No. of electrons = 18

No. of neutrons = 40 - 18 = 12

Electronic configuration - (K, L, M) = (2, 8, 8)

e. Calcium – 𝟒𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝑪𝒂
Atomic number = 20, Mass Number = 40
No. of protons = 20, No. of electrons = 20
No. of neutrons = 40 - 20 = 20
Electronic configuration - (K, L, M, N) = (2, 8, 8, 2)

With aid of a sketch, describe the formation of covalent bond in hydrogen molecule.

Atomic number = 20, Mass Number = 40

No. of protons = 20, No. of electrons = 11
No. of neutrons = 40 - 20 = 20
Electronic configuration - (K, L, M, N) = (2, 8, 8, 2)
Thus, in the above-mentioned way the hydrogen molecule formation can be explained.

27
Thus, in the above-mentioned way the hydrogen molecule formation can be explained.

Define each of the following with respect to atomic structure

 Orbital- An orbital is a three dimensional description of the most likely location of an
electron around an atom.
 Electro negativity- the tendency of an atom participating in a covalent bond to attract the
bonding electrons
 Periodicity- means that if elements are arranged in an order, the properties of elements
would repeat after some period
 Electron affinity- is the energy change that results from adding an electron to a gaseous
atom.
 Atom- is a particle that consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by a
cloud of electrons
 Matter- is anything that takes up space and can be weighed
 Solute- the substance that dissolves in a solvent to produce a homogeneous mixture.
 Covalent bond- the interatomic linkage that results from the sharing of an electron pair
between two atoms
 Co-ordinate bond- is a type of alternate covalent bond that is formed by sharing of
electron pair from a single atom.
 Metallic bond- is the force of attraction between these free-moving (delocalised)
electrons and positive metal ions.

Show elements forming chemical bonds

element Name of Chemical Anion

compound formulae
Lithium and fluorine Lithium 𝐹−
fluoride
Calcium and 𝐶𝑎3 𝑃𝑜4
phosphorous
Sodium and chlorine Sodium
chloride

Chemical symbols and formulae

Chemical symbols
Each element is represented by its own chemical symbol. The periodic table shows the names
and symbols of the elements. A chemical symbol:
 consists of one or two letters
 always starts with a capital letter, with any other letter in lower case
For example, the element mercury is shown as Hg. You must not show it as HG, hg or hG.
Formulae of elements
A chemical formula represents an element or compound in balanced equations. The formulae for
most elements is just their symbol.
Some non-metal elements exist as simple molecules with two atoms joined together. We say that
these elements are diatomic. To show this, their formulae contain a subscript number 2. For
example:
 hydrogen, H2
 nitrogen, N2

28
  oxygen, O2
 fluorine, F2
 bromine, Br2
 chlorine, Cl2
 iodine, I2
Formulae of ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of oppositely charged ions joined together by ionic bonds. They
almost always contain at least one metal element and at least one non-metal element.

Properties of Acids & Bases

Properties of Acids
i) Acids have pH values of below 7, have a sour taste (when edible) and are corrosive
ii) Acids are substances that can neutralise a base, forming a salt and water
iii) When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
iv) The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic

Example: Hydrochloric Acid

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Typical reactions of acids
Acids and metals
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.
When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
The name of the salt is related to the name of the acid used, as it depends on the anion within the
acid.
Examples of the names of salts from specific acids and metals are:
 Examples of the names of salts from specific acids and metals are:

Acids with bases

 Metal oxides and metal hydroxides (alkalis) can act as bases
 When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs
 In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
 Examples of reactions between acids and bases:

Acids with metal carbonates

29
  Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon dioxide and
water:

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

 Examples of reactions between acids and carbonates:

Indicators

 Two colour indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis
 Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common one
is litmus which is extracted from lichens
 Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity and appear
different colours in acids and alkalis
 Thymolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in acid-alkali
titrations

Describe two acid-base indicators

 An indicator is a ‘dye’ that shows a change in colour when brought in contact with acids and
bases. This tells us whether the substance we are testing is an acid or base with respect to the
change of colour.

 The three most common indicators to test for acids and bases are:

o Litmus
o Methyl orange
o Phenolphthalein.

 Litmus is a natural indicator. It is a purple dye which is extracted from a type of plant called
‘lichen’.

 There are two types of litmus paper: red litmus paper and blue litmus paper.
 Blue litmus paper turns red if the substance is acidic.
 Red litmus paper turns blue if the substance is basic or alkaline.
 Litmus turns red in acidic solutions and blue in basic solutions.

 Turmeric is also a natural indicator. Turmeric (Haldi) contains a yellow dye, which turns red
in basic solutions.

 The red cabbage extract obtained from red cabbage leaves is also a natural indicator. It remains
red in acidic solutions but turns green on adding to basic solutions.

COLOUR OF INDICATOR IN ACID/BASE:

Colour in Colour in base(pH
Indicator acid (pH < 7) Colour at pH = 7 > 7)
Red cabbage water Red, pink Purple Blue, green, yellow
Turmeric water Yellow Yellow Red

30
 Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink, red
Red litmus Red Red Blue
Blue litmus Red Blue Blue
Universal indicator Red, orange, yellow Green Blue, violet, purple

Two Colour Indicators Table

 Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very sharp change
of colour when an acid has been neutralised by alkali and vice-versa

 Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the colour change is not sharp and it goes through a purple
transition colour in neutral solutions making it difficult to determine an endpoint

 Litmus is very useful as an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for dipping into
solutions or testing gases

Properties of Bases & Alkalis

 Bases have pH values of above 7

 A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali
 In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue, methyl orange indicator
turns yellow and thymolphthalein indicator turns blue
 Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
 Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals
 When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)
 The presence of the OH- ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali

Example: Sodium Hydroxide

NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Typical reactions of bases

Bases and acids

 When bases react with an acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs

 Acids and bases react together in a neutralisation reaction and produce a salt and water:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Examples of reaction between bases and acids:

Alkalis and ammonium salts

31
  Ammonium salts undergo decomposition when warmed with an alkali
 Even though ammonia is itself a weak base, it is very volatile and can easily be displaced from
the salt by another alkali

Positive ions Negative ions

lithium Li+ copper(II) Cu2+ chloride Cl-

sodium Na+ iron(II) Fe2+ bromide Br-

potassium K+ lead(II) Pb2+ iodide I-

silver Ag+ magnesium Mg2+ oxide O2-

barium Ba2+ zinc Zn2+

calcium Ca2+ aluminium Al3+

iron(III) Fe3+
 A salt, water and ammonia are produced

Example:

NH4Cl + NaOH →NaCl + H2O + NH3

 This reaction is used as a chemical test to confirm the presence of the ammonium ion (NH4+)
 Alkali is added to the substance with gentle warming followed by the test for ammonia gas using
damp red litmus paper
 The damp litmus paper will turn from red to blue if ammonia is present

The formula of an ionic compound can be deduced from the formulae of its ions. Remember that for the
metal elements in groups 1, 2, and 3 the charge on the ion can be deduced by how many outer shell
electrons there were in the neutral atom. Similarly, the non-metal elements in groups 6 (IUPAC group 16)
and 7 (IUPAC group 17), the ionic charge can be deduced by working out how many electrons must be
gained to fill the outer shell.

Deducing a formula
Although ionic compounds contain electrically charged ions, they are neutral overall. The formula for an
ionic compound must give the same number of positive and negative charges. Here are some examples.
Example 1

Sodium chloride contains Na+ and Cl- ions:

 this is one positive charge and one negative charge

 the number of charges are already the same
 so the formula is NaCl

Example 2
Magnesium oxide contains Mg2+ and O2- ions:
 this is two positive charges and two negative charges
 the number of charges are already the same
 so the formula is MgO

Example 3

Aluminium oxide contains Al3+ and O2- ions:

 this is three positive charges and two negative charges

 to make the number of charges the same, we need two Al3+ ions and three O2- ions
 so the formula is Al2O3

Compound ions

Polyatomic ions are formed from groups of two or more atoms.

If the formula of an ionic compound needs more than one polyatomic ion, the formula of this ion is
written inside brackets.
32
Example

Calcium hydroxide contains Ca2+ and OH- ions:

 this is two positive charges and one negative charge

 to make the number of charges the same, we need one Ca2+ ion and two OH- ions
 so the formula is Ca(OH)2

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae of a substance.

The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of the number of different atoms present,
whereas the molecular formula gives the actual number of each different atom present in a molecule.

What is Molecular formula?

 The molecular formula is the formula derived from molecules and is representative of the total
number of individual atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
 A molecular formula uses a subscript that reports the actual number of each type of atom in a
molecule of the compound.
 Molecular formulas are associated with gram molecular masses that are simple whole number
multiples of the corresponding empirical formula mass.

What is Empirical formula?

 The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound which is defined as the ratio of
subscripts of the smallest possible whole number of the elements present in the formula. It is also
known as the simplest formula.
 An empirical formula for a compound is the formula of a substance written with the smallest
integer subscript.
 The empirical formula gives information about the ratio of numbers of atoms in the compound.
The percent composition of a compound directly leads to its empirical formula.

Empirical Formula Vs Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula Molecular Formula

An empirical formula represents the The molecular formula shows the exact number
simplest whole-number ratio of various of different types of atoms present in a molecule
atoms present in a compound. of a compound.

Example: For Acetylene the empirical Example: For Acetylene the empirical formula
formula is CH is C2H2

Example ; The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 and the empirical formula of glucose is CH2O.
We can derive a relation between the Molecular formula and the empirical formula of glucose.

Empirical Formula & Molecular Formula of Butane & Octane

C6H12O6 = 6 × CH2O
We can derive a general expression as,
Molecular formula = n × empirical formula where n is a whole number
Sometimes, the empirical formula and molecular formula both can be the same.

Question-1:

The empirical formula of Boron Hydride is BH 3. Calculate the molecular formula when the
measured mass of the compound is 27.66.

Solution
The atomic mass is given by = B + 3(H) = 10.81 + 3(1) = 13.81u
But, the measured molecular mass for Boron atom is given as 27.66u
By using the expression, Molecular formula = n × empirical formula

33
 n = molecular formula/empirical formula =27.6613.81=2
Putting the value of n = 2 in the empirical formula we get molecular formula as
Molecular formula = 2(BH3) = B2H6.

Question-2:

The empirical formula of a compound is COCl2 and its molecular mass is 90.00u. Find out the
molecular formula of that compound.

Solution
COCl2 = C + O + 2(Cl) = 12 + 16 + 2(35.5) = 99 u
Empirical formula is the same as molecular mass as n=1, this means molecular formula is COCl 2.

Question-3:
What is the molecular formula of a compound which has an empirical formula of CH 2 and a
relative molecular mass of 70?
Solution
Relative molecular mass = 70
Empirical formula mass = 12 + 2 = 14
The relative molecular mass is 5 x the relative empirical formula mass
The molecular formula is 5 x the empirical formula
The molecular formula is C5H10

A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contains 40%carbon and 6.7%hydrogen by mass. Its
relative mass is 120. (Atomic numbers: carbon=6, hydrogen=1, oxygen=8). Determine its;
a) Empirical formulae
b) Molecular formulae
Table shows sub-atomic particles. Complete the table.
S. NO. Sub-atomic Relative charge Location of an Relative
particle atom mass(proton)
1. proton +1 inside the nucleus 1
2. neutron 0 inside the nucleus 1
3. electron -1 outside the nucleus 0.00055

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds stating example in each case.
Types of compounds
Compounds are said to be of two types, namely:
i) Organic compounds
ii) Inorganic compounds

Difference Between Organic and Inorganic Compounds

There are key differences between organic and inorganic compounds that are listed below

Organic Compound Inorganic Compound

Organic compounds are composed of carbon, hydrogen and Inorganic compounds are composed of atoms usually
oxygen primarily other than carbon

The nature of organic compounds is covalent due to C-H The nature of inorganic compounds can be
bonding electrovalent, ionic, or covalent

Melting and boiling points of inorganic compounds

Melting and boiling points of organic compounds are low
are higher

Their solubility in water is low Their solubility in water is high

They are bad conductors of heat and electricity Inorganic compounds are usually good conductors

34
Some organic compounds are volatile in nature There are almost no inorganic volatile compounds

Only some inorganic compounds have catenation

They have catenation property due to C
properties

Most of these compounds are colorless Inorganic compounds generally have colors

Their rate of reactions is generally slow Their rate of reaction is fast

These compounds are mostly found in non-living

These compounds are mostly found in living things
things

Inorganic compounds are generally environment un-

Most organic compounds are biodegradable
friendly

Examples of organic compounds are; enzymes, protein, Examples of inorganic compounds are; metals, non-
DNA, RNA, and fuels, etc metals, salts, etc
Steps To Balance Ionic Equations
i) Write the net ionic equation for the unbalanced reaction.
ii) Separate the net ionic equation into the two half-reactions. ...
iii) For one of the half-reactions, balance the atoms except for O and H. ...
iv) Repeat this with the other half-reaction.
v) Add H2O to balance the O atoms. ...
vi) Balance charge.
Example
The net ionic equation for the reaction you get mixing 1 M HCl and 1 M NaOH is:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
Even though sodium and chlorine exist in the reaction, the Cl- and Na+ ions are not written in the net
ionic equation because they don't participate in the reaction.
State the properties of covalent bond.
 The boiling/melting points of covalent compounds are low.
 They are soft in nature and relatively flexible.
 These compounds do not possess electrical conductivity.
 They have lower values of enthalpy of fusion/vaporization.

35
 LIGHT AND SOUND
SOUND
Sound is a type of energy made by vibrations. When an object vibrates, it causes movement in
surrounding air molecules. These molecules bump into the molecules close to them, causing them to
vibrate as well. This makes them bump into more nearby air molecules.
Sound sources can be divided into two types:
 Natural- Examples of natural sources are animals, wind, flowing streams, avalanches and
volcanoes.
 Artificial –Examples are automobiles, airplanes, helicopters, trains, explosions, factories, and
home appliances such as vacuum cleansers and fans.
 Human-made- Examples are vehicles, factories, fans, explosions

Fig: Vibrating tuning fork just touching the suspended table tennis ball

Describe with the help of a diagram, how compressions and rarefactions are produced in the air
near a source of sound. (propagation in air)
When you hit a turning fork, it moves forward and backwards producing compression and rarefaction due
to vibrations. When it moves forward, it creates high pressure in its surrounding area. This high-pressure
region is known as compression. When it moves backwards, it creates a low-pressure region in its
surrounding. This region is called rarefaction.

An experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for its propagation (liquids)
Take an electric bell and hang it inside an empty bell-jar which is fitted with a vacuum pump (as shown in
the figure below).

36
Initially, one can hear the sound of the ringing bell. Now, pump out some air from the bell-jar using the
vacuum pump. You will realize that the sound of the ringing bell decreases. If you keep on pumping the
air out of the bell-jar, then glass-jar will be devoid of any air after some time. Now try to ring the bell. No
sound is heard but you can see bell prong is still vibrating. When there is no air present in the bell jar, a
vacuum is produced. Sound cannot travel through vacuum. Therefore, this experiment shows that sound
needs a material medium for its propagation.
Describe an experiment to show that sound can travel in a solid.
Make a small hole at the bottom of each cup and pass a long thread (about 20m long) through them. Tie a
knot or match-stick at each end of the thread so that the thread does not slip out through the holes. This
makes a toy –telephone. Now use the toy telephone as shown in figure and talk to your friend.

How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?
When an object vibrates, it necessitates the surrounding particles of the medium to vibrate. The particles
that are adjacent to vibrating particles are forced to vibrate. Hence, the sound produced by a vibrating
object in a medium is transferred from particle to particle till it reaches your ear.

Describe the following Properties of sound

a) Amplitude – The loudness of the sound and its amplitude is directly related to each other. Larger
the amplitude louder is the sound.
b) Frequency – The pitch of the sound and its frequency is directly related to each other. If the pitch
is high then the frequency of sound is also high.
c) Time period – The time period is defined as the time required to produce one complete cycle of a
sound wave.
d) Wavelength – Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two consecutive rarefactions
or two consecutive compressions. The SI unit of wavelength is meter (m).
e) Sound Board: These are basically curved surfaces (concave), which are used in auditoria and
halls to improve the quality of sound. This board is placed such that the speaker is at the focus of
the concave surface. The sound of the speaker is reflected towards the audience thus improving
the quality of sound heard by the audience.
f) Ear trumpet: Ear trumpet is a hearing aid, which is useful by people who have difficulty in
hearing. In this device, one end is wide and the other end is narrow. The sound from the sources
fall into the wide end and are reflected by its walls into the narrow part of the device. This helps
in concentrating the sound and the sound enters the eardrum with more intensity. This enables a
person to hear the sound better.
g) MegaPhone: A megaphone is a horn-shaped device used to address a small gathering of people.
Its one end is wide and the other end is narrow. When a person speaks at the narrow end, the
sound of his speech is concentrated by the multiple reflections from the walls of the tube.
h) Reverberation: is the persistence of sound after it has been stopped due to multiple reflections
from surfaces such as furniture, people, air, etc., within a closed surface.

37
The laws of reflection of sound are as follows:

Law 1: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Law 2: The incidence wave, the reflected wave, and the normal lie in the same plane.

How are the wavelength and frequency of a sound wave related to its speed?
Wavelength, speed, and frequency are related in the following way:
Speed = Wavelength x Frequency
v=λν
Calculations of sound
1. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave whose frequency is 220 Hz and speed is 440 m/s in a
given medium.
Solution:
Frequency of sound wave = 220 Hz.
Speed of sound wave = 440 m/s.
Calculate wavelength.
We know that, Speed = Wavelength × Frequency
v=λν
440 = Wavelength × 220
Wavelength = 440/220
Wavelength = 2

Therefore, the wavelength of the sound wave = 2 meters.

2. A person is listening to a tone of 500 Hz sitting at a distance of 450 m from the source of the
sound. What is the time interval between successive compressions from the source
The time interval between successive compressions from the source is equal to the time period
and time period is reciprocal of the frequency. Therefore, it can be calculated as follows:
T= 1/F
T= 1/500
T = 0.002 s.
3. An echo is heard in 3 s. What is the distance of the reflecting surface from the source, given that
the speed of sound is 342 ms-1?
Solution:
Speed of sound (v) = 342 ms-1
Echo returns in time (t) = 3 s
Distance travelled by sound = v × t = 342 × 3 = 1026 m
In the given interval of time, sound must travel a distance which is twice the distance of reflecting
surface and source.
Therefore, the distance of reflecting surface from the source =1026/2 = 513 m.

4. A person has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What are the typical wavelengths of sound
waves in air corresponding to these two frequencies? Take the speed of sound in air as 344 m
s−1.
Solution:
For sound waves,
Speed = Wavelength × frequency
v=λ×v
Speed of sound wave in air = 344 m/s
For v = 20 Hz
λ1 = v/v1 = 344/20 = 17.2 m
For v2 = 20,000 Hz
λ2 = v/v2 = 344/20,000 = 0.0172 m

Therefore, for human beings the hearing wavelength is in the range of 0.0172 m to 17.2 m.

38
 LIGHT
Light comes from different sources called light sources; our main natural light source is the sun. Other
sources include fire, stars and man-made light sources such as light-bulbs and torches.

1. Reflection:
The process through which light rays fall on the surface and gets bounced back.
Experiment

The laws of reflection

 The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray are all in the same plane.
 Changing the direction of the incident ray changes the angle of the plane.
 The incident ray, the normal line and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

2. Refraction
Refraction: Is the change in direction of a wave travelling from one medium to another induced by a
change in speed.
According to Snell's laws or the law of refraction:

 The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence ‘i’ to the sine of the angle of refraction ‘r’ is
constant for the pair of given media is always constant.
 This constant is called the refractive index of the second medium w.r.t. the first medium and can
be expressed as:

39
  Incident ray: The ray which falls on the surface of separation(or interface) to enter into
the new medium.
 Refracted ray: The ray in the second medium, obtained after refraction.
 Normal: Imaginary straight line perpendicular to the refracting surface at the point of
refraction.
 Angle of incidence (i): Angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 Angle of refraction (r): Angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

Representation of Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams

Terminologies

There are a few basic terminologies that one needs to know while studying spherical mirrors, and
they are:

 Center of Curvature
The point in the centre of the mirror passes through the curve of the mirror and has the same tangent
and curvature at that point.

 Radius of Curvature
It’s the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.

 Principal Axis
The imaginary line passes through the optical centre and the centre of curvature of any lens or a
spherical mirror.

 Pole
The midpoint of the spherical mirror.

 Aperture
An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of light actually happens. It also
gives the size of the mirror.

 Principal Focus
Principal Focus can also be called Focal Point. It’s on the axis of a mirror or lens wherein rays of light
parallel to the axis converge or appear to converge after reflection or refraction.

 Focus
It’s any given point, where light rays parallel to the principal axis, will converge after getting
reflected from the mirror.

The two kinds of spherical mirrors are:

 Concave mirror
 Convex mirror

Concave mirror Convex mirror

1. Silver surface is away from the centre of 1. Silver surface is towards the centre of
curvature. curvature.
2. Focal length is negative. 2. Focal length is positive.
3. Reflecting surface is towards the centre of 3. Reflecting surface is away from the
curvature. centre of curvature.

40
Uses of Concave Mirror

 In Vehicle Headlights, Torches, Flashlights, Searchlights: When a headlight, torch, flashlight,

or searchlight bulb is positioned in front of a concave mirror, the light rays from the bulb are
reflected by the concave mirror and appear as parallel rays. These reflected beams have a higher
intensity and cover a broader region. Concave mirrors are used in headlights, torch lights,
spotlights, and searchlights for this purpose.
 In Dental Mirrors: Concave mirrors are widely used in dental clinics. The concave mirrors
allow dentists to magnify and thus more precisely observe the interior of the mouth or teeth.
 In Solar Furnaces: Sunlight can be absorbed by concave mirrors and focused at the focal point.
The solar furnace generates heat from the absorbed sunlight. This focused heat energy is used for
a variety of applications, including cooking, electricity, and heating.
 In Astronomical Telescopes: In observational astronomy, concave mirrors are used extensively
in reflecting telescopes. The light intensity increases because the concave mirrors are converging
mirrors.
 In the ophthalmoscope: Optical instruments such as the ophthalmoscope use concave mirrors..
This allows doctors to see the retina and examine it more easily.
 In Microscopes: As a condenser, a concave mirror is employed as a basis in the microscope. This
allows the mirror to focus the light passing through it, ensuring that the object’s surroundings are
dark. We can clearly see the object/specimen using this method.
 In Shaving Mirror, Makeup Mirror: Concave mirrors are fantastic shaving and makeup
mirrors because of their reflecting and curved surface. The concave shaving mirror enlarges and
produces an erect picture when held closer to the face.

Uses of Convex Mirror

 In ATMs: On top of ATM machines, convex mirrors are commonly used. The mirror’s
placement allows the withdrawer to see if the person behind them is looking at his ATM pin or
other essential facts. With the use of a convex mirror, the withdrawer may also see who is
standing behind them.
 As Rear-View Mirrors: Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in automobiles, buses,
motorbikes, and other vehicles. The diver can use these rear-view mirrors to watch for vehicles
and traffic behind them. It also allows the driver to perceive enormous objects in miniature, such
as trucks and buses.
 In Parking Lots: In parking lots, convex mirrors are also employed. The concave mirrors in the
parking lot assist users in parking their automobiles in the correct location by allowing them to
check the vehicles behind them.
 For Security Purposes: For security reasons, convex mirrors are commonly utilised in hallways
and stores. In a narrower view, it is easier to perceive the larger items behind us.
 Inside Buildings & Offices: Inside buildings, hospitals, and offices, convex mirrors are installed.
These convex mirrors allow individuals to see around corners while avoiding colliding with one
another.

IMAGES FORMED IN A CONCAVE LENS

1. OBJECT OUTSIDE THE CENTRE OF CURVATURE

Position of the image I: Between c and F
Nature of I
 Real
 Diminished
 Inverted
2. OBJECT AT THE CENTRE OF CURVATURE
Position of the image I: At c
Nature of I
 Real
 Same size
 Inverted
3. OBJECT BETWEEN THE CENTRE OF CURVATURE AND THE FOCUS

Position of the image I: Outside c

41
Nature of I
 Real
 Magnified
 Inverted

4. OBJECT AT THE FOCUS
Position of the image I: At infinity
Nature of I
I is at infinity and so is a blur.

5. OBJECT INSIDE THE FOCUS

Position of the image I: Behind the mirror
Nature of I
 Virtual
 Magnified
 Upright

6. OBJECT OUTSIDE THE CENTRE OF CURVATURE

Position of the image I: Behind the mirror

Nature of I

 Virtual
 Diminished
 Upright

IMAGES FORMED IN A CONVEX LENS

1. Object outside 2F

Position of the image I: Between 2F and F

Nature of I

 Real O
 Diminished
F 2F
 Inverted
2F F
2. Object at 2F

Position of the image I: At 2F

Nature of I
F 2F
 Real 2F F
 Same size
 Inverted

3. Object between 2F and F

Position of the image I: Outside 2F

42
 Nature of I

 Real
 Magnified
 Inverted
4. Object at F

Position of the image I: Infinity O

Nature of I
I is at infinity and so is a blur.
F I
5. Object inside F
Position of the image I: Same side of lens
Nature of I
 Virtual
 Magnified
 Upright O
This is how a magnifying glass operates.
F

Position of the image I: Same side of lens

Nature of I

 Virtual
 Diminished
 Upright F I F

What Is Mirror Equation?

Mirror equation is an equation relating object distance and image distance with focal length. It is
also known as the mirror formula.

In a spherical mirror:

 The distance between the object and the pole of the mirror is called Object distance (u).
 The distance between the image and the pole of the mirror is called Image distance (v).
 The distance between the Principal focus and the pole of the mirror is called Focal Length (f).

In ray optics, The object distance, image distance, and Focal length are related as,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
Where,
 u is the Object distance
 v is the Image distance
 f is the Focal Length given by
𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
 R is the radius of curvature of the spherical mirror
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Examples
1. The image of an object placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 12 cm is
formed at a point which is 10 cm more distant from the mirror than the object. The
magnification of the image is:
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
Given 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝒖 𝒖 + 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝒗 𝟑𝟎
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝒎 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒖 𝟐𝟎

2. An object is placed at a distance 2 f from the pole of a convex mirror of focal length f .
The linear magnification is:
Solution:

Given 𝒖 = −𝟐𝒇

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐𝒇
+ = = 𝒗=
𝒗 −𝟐𝒇 𝒇 𝒗 𝟐𝒇 𝟑
𝟐𝒇⁄
−𝒗 𝟑 =𝟏
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝒎 = =
𝒖 (−𝟐𝒇) 𝟑
Power of a Lens
The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of the light rays falling on it.
The power of a lens depends on its focal length.
Smaller the focal length of a lens, greater is its power.

Formula of Power
 The power of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of its focal length in metre.
So,
𝟏
𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫, 𝐏 =
𝐟(𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞)

 As power of a lens is inversely proportional to its focal length, therefore, a lens of short focal
length has more power whereas a lens of long focal length has less power.
 Power of a convex lens (converging lens) is positive as its focal length is positive.
 The power of a concave lens (diverging lens) is negative as its focal length is negative.

SI unit of Power
The SI Unit of Power is Diopter, denoted by “D”.
𝟏
𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫, 𝐏 = = 𝟏𝐃
𝐟(𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞)

Definition of 1 D: 1 Diopter is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 m

Power of a Combination of lenses

If a number of lenses having powers P1,P2,P3……etc are placed in close contact with each other then,
power of the combination of lenses is equal to the algebraic sum of the powers of individual lenses which
is given by:-

P = P1+P2+P3+………
NOTE: Put the power of the lenses with proper sign in the formula.

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 LIGHT AND SOUND
1. Define the following with respect to lenses:
I. Optical Centre
II. Principal of axis
III. Centre of curvature
IV. Power of lens
2. State the two laws of each of refraction and reflection of light.
3. A convex lens forms a real image of four times magnification at a distance of 60cm from the lens.
Determine
I. Focal length
II. Power of lens
4. A student placed an object at a distance C from a concave mirror
I. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formed
II. State three characteristics of the image
5. Job placed an object at a distance, t from a concave mirror. The resulting image is formed directly
below the object. Draw the ray diagram
6. State the law of polarization of light, and state one application.
7. A convex lens and a concave lens of focal lengths 40cm and 50cm respectively are placed in
contact with each other. Determine the:
I. Power of convex lens (𝑃1 )
II. Power of concave lens (𝑃2 )
III. Power of the combined lens (P)
IV. Focal length of the combined lens (F)
8. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formed by each of the following cases:
I. Object placed at the Centre of curvature of a concave mirror;
II. Object placed in front of a convex mirror;
9. An object is placed at a distance of 10cm from a concave lens of a focal length 8cm. determine
the:
I. Image distance
II. Magnification
III. Nature of the image formed
10. An object, 5cm high, is held 25cm from a converging lens of focal length 10cm. determine the:
I. Radius of curvature of the mirror
II. Position of the image
III. Height of the image
11. State the image formed when an object is placed:
I. Between F and 2F of a concave mirror.
II. At 2F of a convex mirror.
12. A concave mirror has a focal length of 4cm. an object, 2cm tall is placed 9cm in front of the
mirror.
I. Using an accurate full size diagram, determine the location of the image and its height.
II. State three characteristics of the image.
13. State all the laws of reflection of sound wave.
14. Describe reverbation as used with respect to sound.
15. Wave formed in a lake due to disturbances of water have period of 0.1 seconds and speed of
1.5m/s. determine the:
I. Frequency
II. Wavelength
III. Distance between the trough and the adjacent crest
16. Sound wave of period 0.01 seconds have a speed of 15m/s. determine the:
I. Frequency
II. Wavelength
III. Distance between the trough and the adjacent crest
17. Explain each of the following devices as used in sound transmission:
I. Megaphone/speaking tube;
II. Ear trumpet/hearing aid
45