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Effectiveness of the electrical resistivity method in coastal hydrogeophysical

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 JOURNAL OF
ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY
The Electronic Journal of the International Association for Environmental Hydrology
On the World Wide Web at http://www.hydroweb.com
VOLUME 16 2008

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

METHOD IN COASTAL HYDROGEOPHYSICAL STUDIES

K.F. Oyedele Department of Physics

University of Lagos
Lagos, Nigeria

Electrical resistivity methods were used to study saltwater intrusion and impacts on freshwater
aquifers in the coastal areas of Lagos, Nigeria.. Schlumberger geoelectric sounding was used
with borehole data to provide information on major freshwater units, freshwater-saltwater
interfaces, as well as depths to freshwater units. Resistivity contrasts can be used to provide
data for economic evaluation of groundwater development in coastal areas. The studies have
also shown the method to be an effective tool in the monitoring of saltwater intrusion.

Journal of Environmental Hydrology 1 Volume 16 Paper 16 May 2008

 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

INTRODUCTION
In a coastal region where porosity and permeability of sediments are high, groundwater is
vulnerable to saltwater intrusion. In terms of environmental risks, coastal plains are among the
most vulnerable areas because of the frequent occurrence of groundwater pollution by wastes and
salinity (Roberto, et al. 2003; and Frohlich, et al. 1994).
Geophysical techniques have been preferred for investigating intrusion in coastal areas (Frolich
et al., 1994; Zohdy et al., 1993; and Urish and Frolich, 1990). Availability of groundwater in Lagos
is adequate from wells, but saltwater intrusion has made desalination very expensive, while the
relative depths of the freshwater - saltwater interface at various locations are not well defined. The
adjoining lagoons and the Atlantic Ocean are the sources of saline water and the potential pollutants
pose a serious threat to the economy and development of Lagos as most activities depend on
groundwater.
In this paper, the electrical resistivity technique has been used to provide a wide range of
information on high conductive zones associated with saltwater intrusion to serve as a guide for
groundwater extraction.

GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA

The geology of the study area is made up of sediments from the Abeokuta group, Ewekoro
formation, Ilaro formation, Coastal Plain Sands and alluvium as illustrated by the geological map
of Lagos State (Figure 1). The coastal plain sands and the alluvium constitute the major formation.
The sands are interbedded with soft, very poorly sorted clays, pebbles and rare thin lignites, and are

Figure 1. Geological map of Lagos, Nigeria.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

indistinguishable in the field from much of the Ilaro formation (Rofe and Lapworth, 1987). The
thicknesses increase from north to south up to 2000 m. The alluvial deposits of the major rivers
consist of unconsolidated sands, clays and muds observable in many boreholes drilled in Victoria
Island, Ikoyi, Lekki and Ajar. Coarse, clayey unsorted sands with clay lenses and occasional pebble
beds were observed from borehole logs for correlation purposes. The geoelectric soundings
penetrated these formations.

FIELD INVESTIGATION AND DATA COLLECTION

In view of the relative values of resistivity of subsurface layers in most geological sedimentary
settings, the vertical resistivity sounding (VES) method was considered appropriate for the field
investigation. The spatial extent of the study area required effective monitoring of both fresh and
saline groundwater base flow.
About 80 vertical electrical soundings were conducted to sample in all directions since the
sedimentary environment is underlain by stratified lithologic units, except when there is a
structural geological defect, which is not the case in the area. The sounding locations are in Ogudu,
Onike and Iwaya. The electrode configuration employed was the Schlumberger array with current
electrode spacing of 1 km and potential spacing of 0.25 m to 30 m, with the potential and current
electrodes separated (Sabet, 1985). The equipment used for the surveys was an ABEM Terrameter
Model SAS 4000. A portable DC generator provided sufficient adequate energizing of the
subsurface, thereby giving a reliable signal and ensuring good data quality. Two shallow boreholes
were drilled within the study area for correlation purposes.

DATA PROCESSING
The VES data were initially subjected to an interpretation process using the curve matching
technique, based on a two-layer model master curve alongside auxiliary curves. The visual
evaluation of the plotted field data revealed a smooth geometry of the typical 4-5 layers case or
combined minimum-maximum type characteristic of a sedimentary terrain (Figure 2).
The principle of conversion of geo-resistivity field data to a layered or stratified subsurface was
used in the interpretation of the data. The resulting number of layers and corresponding resistivity

Figure 2. Computer iterated field curves 1-6.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

values were used as input model for the subsequent computer simulation / interpretation using the
resistivity software program model RESIX-IP. Figure 2 shows the model field curves for some
selected sounding data for presentation. In the data processing, the influence of human error in
respect of the manual curve matching interpretation was reduced to a minimum. After two
interpretative iterations, the resulting weighted root mean square error average for the VES
stations was 2.5%.

RESULTS
For clarity, quick assessment and correlation purposes, the data were presented as contoured
maps, cross-sections and graphs. Table 1 shows the interpreted resistivities at current potential
electrode spacing of 12, 40, 100 and 225 m and the depths to the groundwater table. The data for
the 80 soundings were used as input to the SUFFER program for contour map production. Surfer
is a terrain and surface software program that is used to create a grid-based map from an XYZ data
file. The grid/data file command uses an XYZ data file to produce a grid file. The grid file is then
used by most of the map menu commands to produce maps. This prevents the errors associated with
manual hand contouring method. Figure 3 shows the lithology of the study area to be sand and clay
intercalating with clayey sand and sandy clay in many cases.
Interpretation of resistivity contour maps
Figures 4 and 5 show the resistivity contour maps at electrode spacings of 40 and 225 m and the
lateral and horizontal extent of the saltwater plumes. From Figure 4 saltwater covers almost the
entire part of Ogudu while traces of saltwater occur in Victoria Island and Lekki. On the other hand,
Figure 5 shows saltwater intrusion covering almost the entire part of Victoria Island and Lekki. The
maps serve as a guide in monitoring and predicting of saltwater intrusion into the freshwater
aquifer.
Figure 6 shows a geological section inferred from the geophysical data illustrating the shape
and vertical extent of the low resistivity saltwater intrusion plumes at a northwest to southeast
pattern.
Maps of iso-resistivity surfaces were produced for estimating the depth to a particular water
quality at a location. Good quality water could be found between the water table and the 70 to 100
Ωm iso-resistivity surfaces. Intermediate quality water could be located between the 46 and 70
Ωm iso-resistivity surfaces, while saline water may be found between 2 and 46 Ωm iso-resistivity
surfaces (Figures 7-9).

DISCUSSION
Based on the resistivity contrasts, the nature, characteristics of the aquifer systems, and the
freshwater/saltwater interface have been delineated. The resistivity contour maps at some selected
current electrodes have shown that the coastal areas investigated have saltwater intrusion at
different depths due to their relative positions to the lagoon and the ocean.
Two main geological units constitute the aquifer types based on the correlation of the inferred
geoelectric sections with borehole logs. These are sand and clay. The freshwater layers overlay the
saltwater horizons in most of the locations. Over-pumping might make the freshwater aquifers in
these localities vulnerable to contamination, because it will permit a largely irrevocable advance
of the boundary between fresh and saltwater (Roberto et al., 2003). This situation is observable
during the dry season in some of the boreholes in the study areas.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

Table 1. Interpretation of the 80 vertical electrical soundings

VES ρ at ρ at ρ at ρ at Thickness of Depth to VES ρ at ρ at ρ at ρ at Thickness of Depth to
Station 12 m 40 m 100 m 225 m freshwater Groundwater Station 12 m 40 m 100 m 225 m freshwater Groundwter
No. aquifer table (m) No. aquifer table (m)
01 162 88 8 6 46 5.6 41 86 8 61 79 14 13.6
02 124 50 10 7 66 6.5 42 81 6 58 80 9 9.0
03 144 128 6 4 73 6.0 43 124 48 26 46 89 9.5
04 101 82 11 5 45 4.0 44 102 2 24 32 10 9.6
05 166 58 4 6 51 4.9 45 80 4 30 50 6 5.7
06 102 47 29 32 63 7.4 46 82 2 42 61 65 9.5
07 246 206 21 4 55 11.8 47 41 3 46 54 47 5.3
08 84 42 6 8 42 12.7 48 94 1 16 31 98 8.4
09 110 78 28 20 46 3.8 49 101 36 6 20 10 10.0
10 420 282 12 8 55 4.7 50 24 32 90 100 11 11.1
11 224 212 28 22 57 8.0 51 41 62 180 204 133 7.4
12 231 89 26 21 51 11.2 52 240 62 42 66 92 11.3
13 186 78 20 26 66 9.9 53 100 38 43 52 105 10.0
14 78 32 26 21 58 7.8 54 18 6 82 101 8 7.6
15 102 30 26 20 123 18.9 55 32 7 83 94 10 9.6
16 32 34 33 28 72 8.0 56 28 18 78 84 16 15.5
17 31 35 28 18 48 7.3 57 4 18 101 110 12 11.5
18 32 40 34 30 9 9.4 58 160 56 39 57 68 8.0
19 56 52 8 4 8 7.9 59 99 48 22 30 110 11.7
20 86 48 50 32 92 12.0 60 136 61 84 100 106 11.8
21 66 72 10 6 5 4.5 61 22 41 92 101 30 29.7
22 52 42 46 22 12 11.9 62 24 48 124 132 87 12.6
23 64 54 62 58 89 10.4 63 20 26 132 144 8 7.9
24 46 66 46 36 4 4.5 64 31 28 126 146 6 6.2
25 81 89 52 32 63 7.2 65 32 51 134 137 6 5.9
26 46 51 48 30 10 10.1 66 4 32 110 124 9 9.4
27 30 41 28 26 69 5.2 67 98 4 78 10 12 12.3
28 110 100 20 26 41 12.4 68 114 22 49 62 11 11.3
29 121 88 21 25 16 16.5 69 68 20 66 78 10 9.6
30 118 50 20 26 84 9.8 70 59 34 104 131 5 5.3
31 106 41 18 22 80 11.4 71 52 36 102 128 8 6.3
32 90 71 32 28 84 6.4 72 40 48 100 106 6 7.8
33 50 46 52 48 6 5.5 73 50 48 36 30 4 3.8
34 48 62 46 44 61 6.6 74 64 66 48 36 55 4.6
35 50 62 52 46 70 9.3 75 31 29 27 25 53 3.7
36 10 20 31 28 16 15.6 76 38 42 18 12 49 4.7
37 48 4 21 62 10 11.3 77 88 67 38 27 4 3.9
38 10 8 60 84 11 10.5 78 89 76 74 61 5 4.9
39 8 2 71 96 6 5.8 79 84 42 14 11 48 4.3
40 248 48 20 38 11 11.4 80 51 44 32 26 6 5.9

Figure 3. Geoelectric section beneath sounding station 01-11 correlated with borehole log 1.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

Figure 4. Resistivity map at 40m electrode spread. Contour interval is 10Ωm.

Figure 5. Resistivity map at 225m electrode spread. Contour interval is 10Ωm.

Figure 6. Quantitative geological section inferred from geoelectric sections.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

Figure 7. Depth to the 70-100Ωm iso-resistivity surface. The average depth is 18m. Contour interval is 5m.

Figure 8. Depth to the 46-70Ωm iso-resistivity surface. The average depth is 8m. Contour interval is 5m.

Figure 9. Depth to 2-46Wm iso-resistivity surface. Average depth is 69m. Contour interval is 10m.

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 Geophysical study of saltwater intrusion, Lagos, Nigeria Oyodele

Saltwater in the studied areas has resistivity that ranges between 2 and 46Ωm, intermediate
quality freshwater has resistivity that ranges between 46 and 70Ωm, and good quality freshwater
has resistivity that ranges between 70 and 100Ωm. The depths to freshwater layers at Iwaya vary
from 4 to 124 m, while saltwater interfaces have depths that vary from 9 to over 124 m. In Ogudu,
the freshwater layers have depths that vary from 5 to 99 m, while saltwater layers have depths that
vary from 6 to more than 111 m. The depths to freshwater layers in Onike vary from 4 to 77 m and
also vary from 5 to more than 133 m for saltwater layers.

CONCLUSION
The electrical resistivity method has been found to be useful for a saltwater intrusion study. The
information on resistivity contrasts was used to determine depth to the freshwater/saltwater
interface, thickness of each aquifer unit, and the prevailing hydrogeophysical and hydrogeochemical
parameters concerning aquifer salination. The depth to freshwater bearing layers ranges between
3.6 to over 29.6 m (with the lowest at Ogudu) while the depth to the interface ranges from 5 to more
than 155 m.
In Iwaya and Onike, the saltwater interface underlies a freshwater layer, whereas in Ogudu, two
situations were observed, namely (i) a saltwater layer sandwiched between two freshwater units and
(ii) saltwater underlying the freshwater unit. Sand and clay were found to constitute the lithological
units that make up the aquifer types. The shallow aquifers are mostly unconfined while the deeper
aquifers are partly confined.
The persistent saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifers in the coastal areas of Lagos is
directly related to over-pumping of the freshwater and poor borehole design.

REFERENCES
Roberto, B., G. Enrico, A. Federica, and G. Giorgio. 2000. Geophysical approach to the environmental study of
a coastal plain. Geophysics. Vol. 68, Paper 5. pp 1446-1458.
Frohlich, R.K., D.W., Urish, J. Fuller, and M.O. Reilly, 1994. Use of geoelectrical method in groundwater pollution
surveys in a coastal environment. Journal of Applied Geophysics, Vol.32. pp 139-154.
Rofe, K. and P. Lapworth. 1987. Victoria Island water supply. Interim Report 1, Borehole 3. Report submitted
to the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, 256pp.
Sabet, M.A. 1985. Vertical electrical sounding to locate groundwater resources: A feasibility study. Virginia
Polytechnical Institute, Water Resources Bulletin, 73, 63pp.
Urish, D.W. and R.K. Frolich. 1990. Surface electrical resistivity in coastal groundwater exploration. Geoexploration.
Vol. 26, pp 267-289.
Zohdy, A.A., R.P. Martin, and R.J. Bisdorf. 1993. A study of saltwater intrusion using direct-current soundings
in the southeastern part of the Oxnard Plain, California. Open-File Report 93-524. US Geological Survey. 139
pp.

ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE

K.F. Oyedele
Department of Physics
University of Lagos
Akoka-Yaba, Lagos
Nigeria

Email:kayodeunilag@yahoo.com

Journal of Environmental Hydrology 8 Volume 16 Paper 16 May 2008

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