B. The Particulate Nature of Matter

Topic 2 & 12 combined (SL & HL)
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2.1: Thermal energy transfers
Phases of matter
In Topic A.3, considerable time was taken in expanding

on the types of energy you will encounter during IB
physics. However, when considering the behavior of
energy and how it transfers between objects, you need
to understand how the particles within objects behave
to store and release energy.
To begin, remember that each object can present itself

as a state of matter (solid, liquid or gas) but can switch
between them. The kinetic theory governs the
properties of each phase: solids, liquids, and gases.
1. Solids have a fixed volume and shape because

their particles vibrates around a fixed position held
there by strong intermolecular forces. This is
typically the densest phase.
2. Liquids have a fixed volume and fill the shape of
their container, because their particles slide over
one another due to weaker intermolecular force.
This phase typically has an intermediate density.
3. Gases do not have a fixed volume and fill the shape
of thier container, because their particles move
randomly in space due to their very weak
intermolecular forces. This phase typically has the
lowest density.
Note that density is the ratio of mass to volume. The

formula for this is:
m
ρ= V
Temperature
Now it is common sense that what separates solids

from liquids from gases is temperature. Relative to one
another, you might assume that a solid is cold, a liquid
is warm, and a gas is hot. What is less obvious is what
temperature means.
An object's temperature (T) is the average kinetic

energy of all its particles. So, the faster particles in an
object move, the warmer the object is, and the colder
particles in an object, the colder the object is.
In day-to-day situations, temperature is commonly

measured in Celsius (°C). This is a scale based o" water,
where 0°C is the melting/freezing point of water and
100°C is the boiling/condensing point of water.
However, this is not a very scientific way to measure
kinetic energy.
As a result, the Kelvin scale was created. This measures

temperature in Kelvin (K), based o" 0 K being absolute
zero, the coldest possible temperature. At this point,
the particle have zero kinetic energy.
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On the Celsius scale, absolute zero occurs at -273°C, so

the Kelvin scale is just the Celsius scale moved by 273.
To interconvert, use the following formulae:
K = °C + 273
°C = K − 273
However, be aware that the Kelvin and Celsius scales

have the same incrementation, meaning that a change
of 4 K is the same as a change of 4°C. This is commonly
a pitfall for students, so make sure not to subtract
changes in temperature by 273.
Internal energy and heat
Now that you understand temperature, it is important

to note it only describes the average kinetic energy of
the particles. Hence, it does not represent the total
energy of a substance.
The total energy of all particles in an object is called the

internal energy. This is taken to be the sum of:
1. Intermolecular potential energy - how loosely

spaced the particles are.
2. Random kinetic energy - how fast the particles are
moving.
Now remember that from solids to liquids to gases, the

particles move faster and become more spaced. This
thus means that their internal energy increases, with
solids having the lowest internal energy and gases
having the highest internal energy.
In order for these phase changes to occur, the

substance needs to be supplied with energy,
colloquially known as heating. Heat (Q) is thus the
thermal energy transferred between two objects with
di"erent temperatures.
It naturally flows from hot objects to cold objects, or

high temperatures to low temperatures. During this:
1. Hot objects release thermal energy, which

decreases the kinetic energy of their particles. As
a result, their temperature decreases.
2. Cold objects absorb thermal energy, which
increases the kinetic energy of their particles. As a
result, their temperature increases.
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Once both objects reach the same temperature, they

have reached thermal equilibrium. At this position,
there is no transfer of heat or heat is transferred
equally to both objects, maintaining the same
temperature.
Phase changes
When discussing heat transfer and the change in

kinetic energy, it is possible for a substance to change
phase. Let's cover the phase changes you need to
remember:
1. Fusion (melting) - the phase change of a solid to a

liquid.
2. Freezing - the phase change of a liquid to a solid.
3. Vaporization - the phase change of a liquid to a
gas. There are two ways this can occur: boiling and
evaporation.
4. Condensation - the phase change of a gas to a
liquid.
5. Sublimation - the phase change of a solid to a gas.
6. Deposition - the phase change of a gas to a solid.
A typical question the IB will ask is to distinguish

between boiling and evaporation. Let's go through this:
1. Boiling is vaporization that occurs when the

liquid's vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure. This occurs at a liquid's boiling point
because particles throughout the liquid have
gained su#cient energy to undergo vaporization.
2. Evaporation is vaporization that occurs when the
liquid's vapor pressure is below atmospher
pressure. This occurs at any temperature
because a particle in a series of collisions may gain
enough su"ucient energy to undergo vaporization
by itself.
Thermal properties of materials
While all substances will undergo heat transfer and

thus change temperature or phase, you will notice
they do so at di"erent rates. For example, heating
water can take a while, but heating metal is typically
quicker.
This is due to their particular properties, which can be

described by two terms: thermal capacity and
specific heat capacity.
1. Thermal capacity (C) - the energy required to

change a substance's temperature by 1 K,
measured in J K-1 or J °C-1. The formula for this is:
Q = C ΔT
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2. Specific heat capacity (c) - the energy required to

change the temperature of 1 kg of substance by 1
K, measured in J kg-1 K-1 or J kg-1 °C-1. The formula
for this is:
Q = mcΔT
Both of these terms refer to temperature changes and

thus look at the energy required to change the kinetic
energy of the particles within a substance while it stays
in one phase.
However, if the heat supply is su!cient to cause the

substance to change phase, the energy is directed at
weakening the intermolecular bonds, not changing the
kientic energy. This is described by the
specific latent heat.
3. Specific latent heat (L) - the energy absorbed or

released by 1 kg of a substance during a phase
change, measured in J kg-1. The formula for this is:
Q = mL
When discussing specific latent heat, you will

encounter two types:
1. Specific latent heat of fusion - the energy

absorbed or released by 1 kg of a substance during
melting or freezing.
2. Specific latent heat of vaporization - the energy
absorbed or released by 1 kg of a substance during
vaporization or condensation.
Remember that during phase changes, the energy is

used to weaken or strengthen intermolecular bonds,
not change kinetic energy. As a result, the
temperature of an object stays the same while it
changes phase.
This means that when observing temperature while

heating a solid, the graph will look like this:
1. Initially, heat is absorbed by the solid to increase

the kinetic energy of its particles, increasing the
temperature.
2. Then, heat is absorbed to weaken the
intermolecular bonds of the solid, causing it to
melt at the same temperature.
3. Lastly, heat is absorbed by the liquid to increase
the kinetic energy of its particles, increasing the
temperature.
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Methods of thermal energy transfer
Awkwardly nestled in the shallows of Topic 8 is the

continuation of thermal energy transfer originally
found in Topic 3. Thermal energy is transferred via four
methods:
1. Evaporation - covered in Topic 3.

2. Conduction
3. Convection
4. Radiation
Let's explore these in more detail.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy via direct

collisions between molecules. These collisions pass
kinetic energy between molecules of objects in direct
contact with one another.
For this reason, conduction occurs fastest in solids,

followed by liquids and finally gases. This is quantified
by a material's thermal conductivity (k), measured in J
s-1 m-1 K-1 or J s-1 m-1 °C-1.
This allows materials that undergo conduction to be

classified into two groups: thermal conductors and
thermal insulators.
1. Thermal conductors are materials that can

conduct thermal energy well and thus have a high
thermal conductivity. This includes most metals.
2. Thermal insulators are materials that cannot
conduct thermal energy well and thus have a low
thermal conductivity. This includes all gases and
most liquids.
However, note that the rate of thermal transfer (ΔQ/Δt)

is not only dependent on the thermal conductivity. It is
also impacted by:
1. Cross-sectional area (A) - as this increases, more

particles can collide with one another per second,
increasing the rate of thermal energy transfer.
2. Thickness (Δx) - as this increases, the resistance
to conduction increases, decreasing the rate of
thermal energy transfer.
3. Temperature gradient (ΔT) - as the di#erence in
temperatures between the two objects increases,
the cold particles receive more energy per
collision, increasing the rate of
thermal energy transfer.
The formula for this is:
ΔQ
Δt = kA ΔΔTx
Convection is the movement of heat in a fluid,

including air. In this, hotter fluid expands to a lower
density and thus rises, whereas colder fluid condenses
to a higher density and thus sinks. This creates cyclic
movement of fluid, called a convection current.
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Thermal radiation is the absorption and subsequent

emission of electromagnetic waves from an object, felt
as heat.
However, the radiation emitted is dependent on

several factors of the material:
1. Light and shiny materials are poor absorbers and

emitters of thermal radiation. Hence why light
shirts or cars don’t get hot in summer.
2. Dark and rough materials are excellent absorbers
and emitters of thermal radiation. Hence why
dark shirts or cars get very hot in summer.
Black body radiation
All radiation is compared to theoretically perfect

radation, called black body radiation. A substance that
performs this is called a black body. As a result, a
black body is a perfect absorber and emitter of
thermal radiation. Because the material type and
surface is considered perfect, it exists to explore other
factors that influence radiation.
The most important of such factors is temperature,

because it a"ects the radiation intensity and
wavelength, outlined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law and
Wien’s displacement law respectively. Let’s explore
each individually.
1. The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the

radiation intensity is proportional to the fourth
power of temperature in Kelvin. The formula for
this is:
I = σT 4
In this, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x

10-8 W m-2 Kelvin-4.
P
However, note that I= A . Therefore, another
formula that you will commonly see is:
P = σ AT 4
In the IB, when it comes to stars, the power

output or the total energy output per unit time is
termed the luminosity (L). Thus the formula
changes to:
L = σ AT 4
Secondary to this is the concept of apparent

brightness (b), which is the energy per unit time
received by an observer. This follows the inverse
square law, meaning that brightness decreases
with distance (d) from the radiating body. The
L
b= 4π d2
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2. Wien’s displacement law states that the

wavelength at the maximum intensity is inversely
proportional to the temperature. The formula for
this is:
2.9×10−3
λmax = T
You are then expected to be able to use these two laws

to analyse intensity-wavelength graphs of radiation at
di"erent temperatures. Let’s cover the key points:
1. As temperature increases, the radiation intensity

increases – in accordance with the Stefan-
Boltzmann law.
2. As temperature increases, the wavelength at
maximum intensity decreases – in accordance
with Wien’s displacement law.
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2.2: The greenhouse effect
Albedo and emissivity
In Topic B.1, you learned about black body radiation.

However, it is purely theoretical and mostly applies to
stars, so scientists have created additional terms to
describe the radiation of everyday objects. These are:
albedo and emissivity.
An object’s albedo (α) is the ratio of its reflected

radiation power (Pr) to its total incident radiation
power (P0). This can also be put in terms of intensity,
and as such, the formulae are:
Pr
α= P0
Ir
α= I0
Sometimes, questions will ask you to calculate the

transmitted intensity (It) from an object’s albedo. Two
handy formulae for this that are not in your data
booklet are:
It = (1 − α)I0
Pt = (1 − α)P0
An object’s emissivity (e) is the ratio of its emission

intensity to the emission intensity of a black body.
Thus, for non-black body objects, the Stefan-
Boltzmann formula is:
I = eσ T 4
P = eσ AT 4
Earth's energy balance
The reason that these aspects of

thermal energy transfer are found in this topic is
because you need to learn about Earth's energy
balance. This can be summarised into three principal
sections:
1. The sun produces light that is incident on Earth.

2. This light is partly reflected and partly absorbed.
3. The absorbed light is re-emitted as heat.
Now let's go through this in more detail. The sun’s

incident light is termed the solar constant. This is
o"cially defined as the incident solar intensity above
Earth’s atmosphere, often given a value of 1360 Wm-2.
You are expected to calculate this intensity your exam

from provided values for the:
1. Sun’s radius = 6.96 x 108 m

2. Distance from the Sun to Earth = 1.50 x 1011 m
3. Sun’s surface temperature, 5780 K.
When doing this calculation, assume that the Sun is a

perfect black body and use the equation:
P = σ AT 4
To find the surface area of the sun:
SA = 4πr2
SA = 4π(6.96 x 108)2
SA = 6.09 x 1018 m2
Substituting this and other given values into the

equation:
P = (5.67 x 10-8)(6.09 x 1018)(5780)4
P = 3.85 x 1026 W
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The solar constant
Remember that intensity decreases from the Sun to

Earth, and radiation spreads as a sphere. Thus, by the
time this power reaches Earth it is radiating in a sphere
of radius 1.5 x 1011m. As a result, to calculate intensity
at Earth, use:
P
I= A
A = 4πr2 =
A = 4π(1.5 x 1011)2
A = 2.83x1023
Thus:
I = 1360Wm-2
This is a long calculation to perform, so practice it for

your exam!
Note that this value is above Earth’s atmosphere, as

much of this intensity does not reach the surface due
to four main factors:
1. Earth’s surface area causes solar light to spread

over a larger area, decreasing its intensity.
a. This is because the incident light that hits
Earth can be approximated to be a circle with
an area of πr2.
b. Even though half the Earth is lit at any time,
the Earth rotates, so the incident light is
spread across the entire surface every day,
with a surface area of 4πr2.
P
c. Remember that I= A so if area increases 4-
fold, intensity decreases 4-fold.
d. Thus, 1/4th of 1360 is 340 Wm-2 spreading
across the entire surface.
2. The e#ect of latitude means that areas further
away from the equator receive a lower solar
intensity because the same rays of sunlight must
travel further through the atmosphere and are
spread over a larger area.
3. Earth’s axial tilt changes the impact of latitude and

thus causes the di#erent seasons.
a. During March/October, there is little tilt. Thus,
the equator receives the highest intensity
sunlight.
b. During June, the northern hemisphere is
tilted toward the sun, and thus receives the
highest intensity sunlight.
c. During December, the southern hemisphere
is tilted toward the sun, and thus receives the
highest intensity sunlight.
4. For atmospheric conditions, clouds mainly reflect

sunlight, the atmosphere absorbs sunlight, and
both scatter sunlight to produce sky radiation, ie
the blue sky colour we observe
As a result, the Earth’s surface on average only receives

roughly 240 Wm-2 of sunlight.
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The greenhouse e!ect
However, this would warm the Earth to only -17°C. The

reason that this is not the case is due to the
greenhouse e"ect. The greenhouse e"ect is the
process by which atmospheric gases absorb infrared
radiation emitted from Earth’s surface and re-emit it.
These gases are termed greenhouse gases, and their

contribution to the greenhouse e"ect can be
explained by their structure. The absorption of radiation
typically either breaks bonds or causes molecules to
vibrate. If the radiation is within the natural frequency
of the molecule, the molecule absorbs the radiation to
increase in energy level and vibrate. When the molecule
is demoted to its original energy level, it re-emits this
radiation
Greenhouse gases have their natural frequency in the

infrared spectrum, and thus are involved in the
greenhouse efect. The greenhouse gases you need to
be aware of are:
1. Methane - naturally found in gas and produced by

the decomposition of dead plants or livestock
flatulencies.
2. Water - naturally found as water vapor in the
atmosphere.
3. Carbon dioxide - naturally produced by forest fires
and volcanic activity.
4. Nitrous oxide - naturally produced by livestock.
You must also recall how humans contribute

greenhouse gases.
1. Methane levels are increased by farming livestock

and crops.
2. Carbon dioxide levels are increased by
deforestation and fossil fuel combustion.
3. Nitrous oxide levels are increased by the
fabrication of Nylon and farming livestock.
The process by which greenhouse gases contribute to

the greenhouse e"ect is described by the resonance
model as follows:
1. To recap, 1360 Wm-2 of sunlight is incident on the

upper atmosphere.
2. As it spreads over the Earth’s surface daily,
sunlight’s intensity is reduced to 340 Wm-2.
a. Of this 340, about 100 is reflected and
scattered by the atmosphere and clouds.
b. Then, 80 is absorbed by the atmosphere and
160 is absorbed by the surface.
c. In addition, greenhouse gases re-emit about
340 down to the surface.
3. So, from this 500 absorbed, a few things occur:
a. About 400 is re-emitted into the atmosphere

as infrared radiation.
b. About 80 is used for evaporation.
c. About 20 produces thermal air currents.
This means that a total of 580 Wm-2 of radiation

exists in the atmosphere
4. From this, 340 is absorbed and emitted back down

by greenhouse gases whilst 240 leaves into
space, repeating the process. This maintains the
Earth’s energy balance and warms the surface.
When reviewing this energy balance, we can

approximate Earth’s albedo and emissivity as 0.3 and
0.6 respectively. Remember these for your exam.
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The enhanced greenhouse e!ect
Greenhouse gases are therefore vital, as without them

no heat would be trapped and so Earth’s surface would
be very cold. However, an excess can cause the
opposite e!ect, overheating, called the
enhanced greenhouse e"ect. This term describes the
increase in greenhouse gases causing an increase in
the greenhouse e"ect:
1. An increase in greenhouse gases causes more

atmospheric absorption of radiation.
2. So less radiation exits the atmosphere and more
returns to the surface.
3. This causes an increase in Earth’s mean
temperature, known as global warming.
Drilling into ice from thousands of years ago, has

definitively shown a strong association between
atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature.
However, debate exists surrounding the source of the
enhanced greenhouse e"ect.
Although it is important to note all evidence has been

analysed by many climate change scientists, who have
almost unanimously concluded that climate change is
an anthropogenic process.
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2.3: Gas laws
Moles
In Topic B.1, you learned about phases, phase changes,

and heat transfer of substances. Whilst it is easy to
perform experiments measuring these phenomena in
solids and liquids due to their finite volume, it
completely changes in gases.
The change is that gases cannot easily be measured by

their mass or volume. As a result, they are measured in
moles (n). This is a measure of the number of particles
given by Avogadro’s number (NA) equal to 6.022 x 1023
particles/mole. It relates to the number of particles that
would make Carbon-12 exactly 12 grams as the
standard element. Therefore, just like one million is
1,000,000, one mole is 6.022 x 1023 particles. For any
number of particles (N), to calculate the number of
moles, use the formula:
N
n= NA
Note that this describes the number of particles so 1

mole of any diatomic molecule, such as H2, has 1.2044
x 1024 atoms because every molecule (and therefore
particle) has two component atoms.
The mass of an atom can be expressed as molar mass

(M), the mass of one mole of a substance in gmol-1.
Calculating molar mass is possible with the formula:
m
M= n
Pressure
Once you know how many moles of gas you have, you
can then start to analyze its behavior when changing
several variables, including pressure, temperature,
and volume.
Whilst we know now what temperature is, and the

concept of volume is straightforward, we don't know
much about what pressure is yet.
In IB physics, you are supposed to understand that the

amount of pressure a gas inside a container
experiences is related to the force of the particle
collisions with the container walls and the number of
collisions per area. To easily digest this concept, think
of getting poked and bumped.
1. If you get poked softly, you don't feel much

pressure. If you get poked hard, suddenly you feel
the pressure. The same occurs with particles -
collisions with little force don't exert much
pressure whereas collisions with high force do
exert considerable pressure.
2. However, now compare poking and bumping with
the same force. A soft bump would result in less
pressure than a soft poke because it is spread out
over a larger area. The same occurs with particles
- less collisions over the same area result in a
lower pressure than many collisions over the
same area.
Therefore, pressure is the force per unit area of the

container. The formula for this is:
F
P = A
However, whenever a force is exerted on the container

to cause this pressure, the particle transfers energy to
the container. This change in energy is related to a
change in speed and thus momentum of the particle.
As a result, pressure can also be defined in terms of
the change of momentum. The formula for this is:
P = 31 ρv 2
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Ideal gases
The trouble with modelling gases, is that di!erent

gases will behave di!erently in certain conditions.
Thus, most scientists created the concept of an "ideal
gas" to predict their behavior. An ideal gas has the
following properties:
1. No forces between particles.

2. Perfectly elastic collisions.
3. Particles have no volume.
4. One mole occupies 22.7 dm3 at 273 K and 100 kPa.
Note that real gases will only behave like ideal gases at
high temperatures and low pressures.
The ideal gas equation thus relates the main properties

of gases: pressure, volume, moles, and temperature.
P V = nRT
In this formula, the gas constant (R) is 8.314 JK-1mol-1,

whilst pressure is in kPa, volume is in dm3 and
temperature in K. This can also be related to the
number of molecules (N) and the Boltzmann constant
(kb), equal to The Boltzmann constant is the ratio of
Avogadro's number (NA) to the gas constant, equal to
1.38 x 10-23 JK-1. The formula then changes to be:
P V = N kb T
However, most of the time you will find that moles is

kept constant pressure, volume, or temperature are
changed. This changes the equation to:
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
T1 = T2
Ideal gas laws
Together, pressure, volume, and temperature are thus

considered the main factors of gases. Their e!ects on
gas behavior are described by the ideal gas laws. These
are as follows:
1. Boyle's law - this states that the relationship

between pressure and volume is inversely
proportional when temperature stays constant.
Gases exert a higher pressure when contained at
smaller volumes due to an increased frequency of
collisions with the container.
2. Guy-Lussac's law - this states that the
relationship between pressure and absolute
temperature is directly proportional when volume
stays constant. When temperature reaches
absolute zero (0 K or -273°C) both kinetic energy
and pressure is equal to 0.
3. Charles's law - this states that the relationship
between volume and temperature is directly
proportional when pressure stays constant. Gases
have more kinetic energy at higher temperatures
and will collide with more frequency and energy.
This requires more volume to fulfill the
requirement of constant pressure.
Internal energy
Remember from Topic B.1 that internal energy increases

as materials change from solid to liquid to gas. The
primary reason for this is the substantial increase in
kinetic energy despite the decrease in potential energy.
In a monatomic ideal gas, the particles have no
intermolecular forces and thus no potential energy.
Thus, the internal energy is wholly dependent on the
moles of particles and their temperature. The formula
for this is:
U = 32 RnT
This can again be changed to be in terms of the number

of particles by the Boltzmann constant. For this, the
formula changes to be:
U = 32 N kb T
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Pressure-volume diagrams
To end this subtopic, you are expected to be able to use

pressure-volume diagrams to understand the phase
changes of an ideal gas. Let’s review what we know so
far:
1. From Boyle’s law, we know that pressure and

volume are inversely proportional at a constant
temperature, forming a curve during the gaseous
phase.
2. We also know that the phase change to a gas is
pressure related, the liquid’s vapor pressure must
equal atmospheric pressure for vaporization to
occur.
3. However, vapor pressure is only temperature-
dependent, meaning it decreases as temperature
decreases, but is not a!ected by changes in
volume.
This ultimately means that a pressure-volume graph

will look di!erent at di!erent temperatures, and thus
you need to know the di!erent shapes and why this
occurs:
1. At a constant high temperature, a substance will

be in the gaseous phase and behave as an
ideal gas and thus have a characteristic pressure
-volume curve.
2. At a lower temperature, the gas will behave less
like an ideal gas and exhibit a hump in the middle
of the curve.
3. At the critical temperature Tc, the curve has a
saddle point (slope of zero) at the top of a
saturation region. This is the lowest temperature
at which a gas remains a gas throughout its
pressure-volume transitions.
4. Below the critical temperature, the substance will
be in the liquid phase to begin with. This will still
obey the same law – as volume increases,
pressure on the liquid decreases.
a. This causes vapor pressure to become equal
to external pressure, causing a liquid-gas
phase change marked by a horizontal line.
b. Here, as volume increases, more liquid is
changed into vapor, maintaining pressure.
c. Once the liquid is completely changed into a
gas, the curve continues and flattens out as it
would normally.
As temperature decreases, the liquid-vapor region

increases as more liquid needs to be change into a gas
to complete the transition.
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2.4: Current & circuits
Voltage
Topic B.5 primarily focuses on electricity, which is the

movement of charges. Their movement is brought
about by the electric force, and in Topic D.2 you will
learn about electric fields that exert this electric force.
However, you will learn the basics before this.
Remember from Topic A.2 that when an object moves
in the direction of an applied force, work is being done
on the object. So, if a test charge in an electric field
moves in the direction of the exerted electric force,
work is done on the charge.
This is the voltage (V), o#cially defined as the work

done per unit charge and measured in Volts (V). The
W
V = q
However, voltage typically applies to large scale

movements of electrons. When work is done on a single
electron, it is measured in electronvolts (eV). To
convert, moving an electron through 1 Volt is 1eV, which
is equal to 1.6 x 10-19 J.
You may also hear voltage referred to as potential

di!erence (pd), and you can use both terms
interchangeably. However, let's explain the term
nonetheless:
1. If you place test charge right next to a charge

distribution and then move it, we know that work
is being done on the test charge.
2. As a result, the test charge gains energy, called its
electric potential energy or electric potential.
3. Right next to the charge distribution, it had no
electric potential, but further away from it, it now
has electric potential.
4. It is this change in potential that is called the
potential di!erence.
However, this is functionally the same as voltage and

thus both terms can be used. It should be noted that
potential di!erence is more often used when
discussing individual charge movement, whilst voltage
is more often used when discussing circuits.
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Current
The consequence of having a potential di#erence

across an object is that there is a positive charge
distribution at one end and a negative charge
distribution at the other.
As a result, any charge placed within this field will move

through the object. Current (I) is defined as the rate of
flow of charge and measured in Amperes (A). The
Δq
I= Δt
There are two types of current you need to be aware of:
1. Direct current, known as DC, which is current that

flows in one direction only.
2. Alternating current, known as AC, which is current
that constantly switches direction.
SL students only need to consider DC whilst HL

students will learn about AC in Topic D.4.
Conducting materials
Additionally, when considering currents there are two

types of materials:
1. Conductors are materials that allow the flow of

charge, such as graphite and metals.
2. Insulators are such materials that prevent the flow
of charge, such as plastics, rubber, wood, and
glass.
Additionally, conductors are often used to produce

wires, and insulators are used to coat them. Within
these wires, electrons are the charge that move and
create current. It is worth noting here that all of the
aforementioned electric field definitions were based o#
test charges, which are positive. However, electrons are
negatively charged, so they travel in the opposite
direction of the current, ie from negative to positive.
You are expected to be able to calculate the current in

a metal wire using a formula called the drift speed
equation, which relates the number of charges (n),
cross-sectional area of the wire (A) in m2, charge value
(q) in Coulombs, and their speed (v) in ms-1. The formula
for this is:
I = nAvq
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Resistance
Whilst current can thus flow through any object with a

potential di!erence, every object will have a di!erent
resistance to that current.
Resistance (R) is o#cially defined as the ratio of

voltage to current, and is measured in ohms.
Conceptually, it is the degree of opposition to the flow
of current when a material has a potential di!erence
across it.
This is because flowing charges collide with atoms and

impurities, slowing down their flow. Remember that
voltage is the driving force behind current, thus a
material’s resistance determines the value of the
current. The formula for this relationship is given by:
V = IR
This can be rearranged for both current and resistance

into:
V
I= R
V
R= I
Note that all materials resist current in varying degrees.

However, all materials will resist it in some capacity,
even conducting wires!
The amount of resistance in a wire is dependent on

three properties:
1. The wire's resistivity - the degree to which a

material resists current, measured in Ωm.
Insulating materials have a high resistivity and
thus have a high resistance to current, whereas
conducting materials have a low resistivity and
thus have a low resistance to current.
2. The wire's length - as length increases, resistance
increases. This occurs because the charges must
travel through the resisting material for longer,
and thus there is more cumulative opposition to
current.
3. The wire's cross-sectional area - as cross-
sectional area increases, resistance decreases.
This is because more charges can now flow
through the same segment, thus increasing
current.
These are all related by the formula:
RA
ρ= L
Despite wires clearly showing some resistance, it is

much smaller than other materials, so wires are
regarded as having no resistance in the context of
electrical components.
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Heating e!ects and Ohm's law
An important phenomenon to understand is that as

voltage and current increase, some objects will begin to
heat up. This is due to interactions in the wire:
1. As electrons undergo collisions, they generate

heat.
2. This heat increases the vibrations of atoms and
thus increases collisions with electrons.
3. This further increases resistance.
Understandably this has consequences on the

relationship between voltage and current, as described
by Ohm’s law. This states that if the temperature of a
component remains constant, the current flowing
through it is proportional to the voltage. There are two
types of components you need to be able to apply this
to:
1. Ohmic - these obey ohm’s law and so remains at a

constant temperature when a current flows
through it. This means that the current remains
proportional to voltage and resistance remains
constant.
An example of an ohmic component is a resistor,

which maintains a constant resistance.
2. Non-ohmic - these do not obey ohm’s law and so

change temperature when a current flows
through it. This means that the current is not
proportional to voltage and resistance changes
too.
An example is a thermistor, which decreases in

resistance as it heats up.
Electric power
Whether a component is ohmic or non-ohmic is

important to consider when building circuits. A
component with a changing resistance determines the
circuit's power usage. In Topic 2.3, power was
previously introduced as the work done or energy
di!erence over time. When discussing electricity, we
redefine power (P) as the energy di!erence per charge
flow. The formulae for this are:
P =VI
P = I 2R
V2
P = R
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Circuits
Finally, all the knowledge surrounding voltage, current,

resistance, and power culminates in the creation of
circuits. Circuits are simply the path a current follows.
In a basic circuit, there are three components:
1. A power supply - this produces the voltage that

induces a current. This is symbolised with a long
line to indicate the positive terminal and a short
line to indicate the negative terminal
2. A loop of wire - this is connected to the power
supply wherein current flows from the positive to
the negative terminal
3. Components - these provide resistance. The most
common component is the resistor, and we will
explore more in our next video.
There are two main states of any circuit: open and

closed. These utilise a switch that breaks or completes
the loop of wire
1. In an open circuit, the loop is broken and thus

there is no flow of current
2. In a closed circuit, the loop is complete and thus
current can flow
In more complex branched circuits, there might be

multiple switches. Note that in these, current only flows
through the completed loop!
It is important to understand that way in which

components are arranged changes the resistance of
the circuit. Let’s cover the two types of circuits: series
and parallel.
1. A series circuit aligns components in one

continuous loop. In this circuit, the total resistance
of the circuit equals the sum of the resistances
of the components. For three components, the
formula is:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
2. A parallel circuit aligns components in branches

parallel to one another. In this circuit, the inverse
total resistance of the circuit equals the sum of
the inverse resistances of the components. For
three components, the formula is:
1 1 1 1
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
An exam trick is that if all the components have

same resistance, the total resistance of the circuit
is the resistance divided by the number of
branches. For three components, the formula is:
R1 +R2 +R3
Rtotal = 3
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Kirchho!'s circuit laws
Exam questions will typically focus on analyzing the

voltages and currents in the whole circuit and in
individual branches. Kirchho!'s two laws should be
followed to do this.
Kirchho!’s first law states that at any junction the sum

of all incoming currents is zero.
To explain this, we can imagine a circuit which divides

into two branches, representing the current before the
junction as A, and the current after as B and C. The law
states that:
IA = IB + IC
Note the current that divides into each branch is

inverse to the resistance. This means that higher
resistance branches have a lower current.
Kirchho!’s second law states that in any loop, the sum

of all voltages across components and power supplies
is zero.
Let’s imagine a circuit with 3 bulbs contained within.

We could represent the voltage across the bulbs as A, B
and C. Kirchho!’s second law states that:
VA + VB + VC = Vtotal
Note that the voltage across each component is

proportional to the resistance. This means that higher
resistance components use more voltage.
In addition, note that the voltage sum in any loop is 0.

This applies to every loop in a parallel circuit and so
the total voltage in each branch is always identical.
So, if the circuit was parallel, each bulb uses 6V

regardless of resistance. This equal voltage division in
parallel branches is what causes current to divide
inversely.
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Electrical components
Now that you understand how circuits work and need

to be analyzed, you need to know the types of
components that will be present. These can roughly be
divided into two types:
1. Resistors
2. Monitoring devices
3. Power supplies
Resistors are an integral part of any circuit, as they are

used to limit current, divide voltage, produce feedback
loops, set circuit states, test circuit designs, and alter
an electrical signal’s amplitude.
The di!erent types of resistors you need to be aware

of are:
1. A constant resistor is simply a common resistor,

capable of maintaining a constant resistance.
2. A variable resistor is a length of wire with an
adjustable contact that allows the resistance to
be manually changed.
3. A potentiometer is e!ectively a variable resistor,
but the contact is connected to a new circuit
branch. This gives a greater resistance range than
a variable resistor.
4. A light-dependent resistor is a variable resistor
whose resistance depends on light intensity.
These typically decrease resistance as light
intensity increases.
5. A thermistor is a variable resistor whose
resistance depends on temperature. These
typically decrease resistance as temperature
increases.
6. Lamps are simply light bulbs.
Monitoring devices
You are expected to be able to calculate the voltage

drop and current associated with these resistor types.
However, in certain arrangements, some of these can
also be used as monitoring devices. These are used to
measure electrical parameters of a circuit. The ones
you are expected to know are:
1. Voltmeters
2. Ammeters
3. Variable potential dividers
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A voltmeter measures voltage over a portion of circuit,

but it must be placed in parallel with the monitored
portion. There are two types of voltmeters: ideal and
non-ideal.
1. An ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance and

so does not cause a voltage drop itself whilst
operating. It therefore accurately measures the
voltage drop across a component
2. A non-ideal voltmeter has a constant but finite
resistance, so it will cause a slight voltage drop
when operating. In real life, most voltmeters are
non-ideal.
An ammeter measures current over a portion of a

circuit, but it must be placed in series with the
monitored portion. Like voltmeters, there are two
types:
1. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so it does

not contribute to the circuit resistance.
Therefore, it does not decrease the current.
2. A non-ideal ammeter has a constant but non-
zero resistance, so it does cause a slight drop in
current. In real life, most ammeters are non-ideal.
A variable potential divider is a circuit arrangement

specifically made to divide a range of voltages, with the
end goal being to measure a component’s voltage-
current relationship. This can be made using:
1. A variable resistor potential divider circuit looks

like this. Here, the voltage drop range across the
component is dependent on the minimum and
maximum resistance of the variable resistor.
2. A potentiometer potential divider circuit looks like
this. Here, the voltage drop range can go from 0V
to the power supply value, the maximum possible
voltage drop range. It is for this reason that a
potentiometer potential divider circuit is
preferred.
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Power supplies
The last component to cover are power supplies. The

types of power supplies you need to know of are
chemical cells and solar cells.
A chemical cell is defined as a component that houses

an internal chemical reaction that converts chemical
energy into electrical energy to generate a voltage.
Note that batteries are just one or more connected
chemical cells. There are two types of chemical cells:
primary and secondary cells.
1. Primary cells house internal reactions that are

non-reversible, and thus not rechargeable. Once
the internal reaction is complete, the cell is thrown
away. A common example is a household alkaline
battery
2. Secondary cells house internal reactions that are
reversible, and thus rechargeable by using a
higher voltage DC power source in the opposite
direction of the cell. A common example is a
lithium-ion battery
A solar cell functions di!erently. There are two types of

solar cells: photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels.
In the context of electricity, a photovoltaic cell is used
since solar heating panels are used to heat water. A
photovoltaic cell is composed of a top glass cover, two
metal electrode plates connected to an external circuit
, and an intermediate semiconductor, typically silicon.
1. Sunlight travels through the glass cover and hits

the silicon.
2. The silicon atoms absorb the energy and emits
electrons.
3. The electrons move towards the positive electrode
and cause current to flow in the circuit, producing
electricity that can be stored, distributed, or
immediately used.
The main advantages of this process are that solar

power is clean, renewable, and free.
The main disadvantages are that it can only be used

when it is sunny, and it needs a large area to produce a
substantial amount of energy.
Each cell generally has two properties,

charge capacity and terminal voltage.
1. A cell’s charge capacity is defined as the amount

of electrical energy it can produce in its lifetime
2. A cell’s terminal voltage is the maximum voltage a
cell can produce at any given point in its lifetime
Internal resistance
However, you will be aware that for any electric devices,

neither property is infinite. This is because like all
electrical components, chemical cells also have an
internal resistance (r), which uses up voltage.
So, the actual voltage generated by a cell is the sum of

the voltage used to power the cell and to power the
external circuit. This is called the electromotive force
(emf or ε), which is o#cially defined as the total
potential di!erence per unit charge, also measured in
volts. The formula for this is:
ϵ = I(R + r)
This can also appear as:
ϵ = V + Ir
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The concept of internal resistance is important

because over the cell's lifetime, the internal resistance
increases. In a chemical cell, this is due to corrosion of
the metal causing several changes at the conducting
plates:
1. A decrease in cross-sectional area.

2. Slower reactions.
3. A decrease in charge carriers as they react with
the corroding metal.
4. A clogging of sheet pores by products of corrosion
reactions.
Whilst cell aging can occur in solar cells via a di!erent

mechanism, this is virtually non-existent. Solar cells are
designed to last well past 25 years and retain
approximately 90% of their charge capacity after this
period.
Real and perfect cells
However, because chemical cells exhibit these changes

in a much shorter time frame, chemical cells are often
categorised based on their lifetime activity into two
types:
1. A real cell has a <100% e#ciency in the conversion

of chemical to electrical energy because they have
some internal resistance. Over time, the
internal resistance causes the cell to wear down,
which has several consequences:
a. Its terminal voltage decreases.
b. This also means that real cells have a finite
charge capacity, as they do not function
forever.
2. A perfect cell has a 100% e#ciency in the
conversion of chemical to electrical energy
because there is no internal resistance. Over time,
the lack of internal resistance means there is no
wear down and due to this:
a. The cell’s terminal voltage remains constant.
This also means that perfect cells have an
infinite charge capacity, as they function
forever.
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12.1: Thermodynamics
e
Laws of thermodynamics
In Topic B.1 – B.3, you learned about the basics of

thermal energy transfers and gas laws. For HL
students, you are expected to know more detail,
starting with the four laws of thermodynamics.
0. Zeroth law – if two systems are in thermodynamic

equilibrium with a third system, then they are in
thermodynamic equilibrium with one another. This
is a roundabout way of saying that these two
systems have the same temperature.
1. First law – as per the law of conservation of
energy, a closed system exhibiting a change in
energy converts this into other forms to maintain
total energy. In other words, energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, but only changes forms.
2. Second law – in a closed system, spontaneous
processes are not spontaneously irreversible, and
e consequently increase the disorder (entropy) of
the universe.
3. Third law – when an isolated system reaches a
temperature of absolute zero, its entropy reaches
a constant value.
Within these laws, two terms need to be defined:
1. Closed system – a closed system does not allow

mass to transfer in or out but allows energy to
transfer in and out in the forms of heat or work.
2. Isolated system – an isolated system does not
allow mass or energy to transfer in or out.
The Zeroth law was e!ectively covered in B.1, so does

not need further evaluation. However, you are expected
to know the first and second laws in depth, so let’s
cover these one-by-one.
The first law of thermodynamics

e
The first law essentially rephrases the law of
conservation of energy in the context of
thermal energy transfer. Here, a few types of energy
are at play:
1. Heat (Q) – the thermal energy transferred in or out

of a system.
2. Internal energy (U) – the system’s energy as a sum
of its particles’ kinetic energy and the potential
energy between particles. Remember that for
,
temperature-dependent changes in
internal energy, the formulae are:
ΔU = 32 N kb ΔT = 32 RnΔT
3. Thermodynamic work (W) – the energy exerted on

a system by its surroundings (negative) or by a
system on its surroundings (positive) that causes a
macroscopic force to act on the system. The
macroscopic force is quantified by change in
volume of the system. Thus, if there is no volume
change due to a resultant external force, there is
no work being done. The formula for this is:
W = P ΔV
The three quantities above are invariably related to one

another as the exertion of work by a system on its
surroundings would decrease its internal energy,
whereas heat supplied to the system increases its
internal energy. The formula for this is:
ΔU = Q − W
This equation can be adjusted algebraically to isolate

any one of the other two variables. The IB prefers to
label it as the heat transfer being equal to the change
in internal energy and work exerted. The formula for
this is:
Q = ΔU + W
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Ideal gas processes
For thermodynamics, you will typically only have to

consider these laws in the context of ideal gases. Due
to their special nature, they can undergo four di"erent
reversible processes that you need to consider with
regards to the first law. These are represented using
pressure-volume diagrams. Remember here that
W = P ΔV , so the area under the curve equals the

work done by a gas.
1. Isochoric (isovolumetric) – the gas has a constant

volume, and pressure increases or decreases. If
pressure increases:
a. By definition, volume is constant.

b. Q > 0, as heat must have transferred into the
system to increase particle kinetic energy and
thus the forces of the collisions with the
container.
c. ΔU > 0, as the increase in particle kinetic
energy constitutes an increase in
internal energy.
d. W = 0, as volume has not changed and thus
no work has been exerted.
If pressure increases:
a. By definition, volume is constant.

b. Q < 0, as heat must have transferred out of
the system to decrease particle kinetic
energy and thus the forces of the collisions
with the container.
c. ΔU < 0, as the decrease in particle kinetic
energy constitutes a decrease in
internal energy.
d. W = 0, as volume has not changed and thus
no work has been exerted.
2. Isobaric – the gas has a constant pressure, and

volume increases or decreases. If volume
increases:
a. Q > 0, as heat must have transferred into the

container. This increase in forces has exerted
work on the surroundings to increase the
system’s volume proportionally and maintain
the same pressure.
b. ΔU > 0, as the increase in particle kinetic
internal energy.
c. W > 0, as volume has increased and thus work
has been exerted by the system on the
surroundings.
If volume decreases:
a. Q < 0, as heat must have transferred out of

with the container. This decrease in forces
means the surroundings exert work on the
system to decrease volume proportionally
and maintain the same pressure.
b. ΔU < 0, as the decrease in particle kinetic
internal energy.
surroundings.
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3. Isothermal – the gas has a constant temperature,

meaning PV is constant. If volume increases:
a. Q > 0, as heat must have transferred into the

container. This increase in forces has exerted
work on the surroundings to increase the
system’s volume proportionally and maintain
the same pressure.
b. ΔU > 0, as the increase in particle kinetic
internal energy.
surroundings.
If volume decreases:
a. Q < 0, as heat must have transferred out of

with the container. This decrease in forces
means the surroundings exert work on the
system to decrease volume proportionally
and maintain the same pressure.
b. ΔU < 0, as the decrease in particle kinetic
internal energy.
surroundings.
4. Adiabatic – there is no thermal energy transfer

between the gas and the surroundings. This is
approximated in rapid compression and expansion
as this does not allow su"cient time for thermal
exchange to occur. Like isothermal processes, this
requires an external force to impact the system. If
an external force causes volume to increase:
a. Q = 0, as the short time interval does not

allow heat transfer.
b. ΔU < 0, as the system has exerted work on its
surroundings, decreasing its internal energy.
surroundings.
If an external force causes volume to decrease:
a. Q = 0, as the short time interval does not

allow heat transfer.
b. ΔU > 0, as the surroundings have exerted
work on the system, increasing its
internal energy.
c. W < 0, as volume has decreased and thus
work has been exerted by the surroundings
on the system.
Due to the lack of heat transfer in adiabatic processes

and the speed at which they occur, the ideal gas
equation is not applicable in this situation. You need to
remember a new formula that applies to monatomic
gases undergoing adiabatic expansion:
5
PV 3 = constant
Since questions commonly ask how one variable will

change when another is manipulated, a more useful
version of this formula is:
5 5
P1 V1 = P2 V2
3 3
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Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics touches on a new

concept, entropy (S). This is essentially a measure of
distribution of available energy amongst the particles,
measured in JK-1 mol-1. It is also colloquially known as a
measure of the disorder of energy, meaning a greater
energy distribution means there is a higher entropy or
disorder. The easiest example of this is the change of
phase from solid to liquid to gas. During these changes,
the structure of the system degrades as the particles
gain random motion and thus disorder increases,
meaning entropy increases.
However, in this topic you will only consider entropy in

processes involving ideal gases. Here, the change in
entropy can viewed macroscopically or microscopically.
On a macroscopic scale, the system’s entropy is
dependent on heat transfer and temperature:
1. Heat transfer – as heat is transferred out of a

system, the entropy of the system decreases as
the particles lose kinetic energy and thus
randomness. However, the heat has transferred to
another object, increasing the kinetic energy of its
particles and thus its entropy. Alternatively, the
heat has transferred to the surroundings with the
same e"ect. In both cases, the heat is now
released and irretrievable, called degraded.
Degraded energy cannot be reused and thus
increases the overall entropy of the universe.
2. Temperature – the e"ect of temperature is
counterintuitive, as we know hotter objects will
have more randomness and disorder. However,
hotter objects release more heat and thus have a
decrease in entropy themselves, whereas colder
objects will absorb heat and have an increase in
entropy.
ΔQ
ΔS = T
On a microscopic scale, the system’s entropy is

dependent on the distribution of the available energy,
called a microstate. Each microstate is equally probable
and is often described as the more ways the particles in
the system can be arranged. A mental analogy is to
treat each particle as a coin and seeing the number of
ways the coins can be arranged to have only heads,
only tails, and in between. Thus, the higher the number
(Ω) of microstates of the system, the higher its entropy.
S = kb lnΩ
To consolidate all this information about entropy: in any

random spontaneous process, the disorder of the
system will tend to increase. However, this depends on
the type of system involved:
1. Closed system – as energy can transfer in or out,

spontaneous processes are reversible by the
application of energy. This means that it is
possible for the entropy of a system to decrease
but it requires the surroundings to increase in
entropy by an equal or greater amount.
2. Isolated system - as energy cannot transfer in or
out, spontaneous processes are irreversible and
the entropy of the system always increases.
Whilst it is possible for the entropy of the system to

decrease, it requires the entropy of the surroundings to
increase to make this possible. As a result, overall
entropy stays the same or increases, which is phrased
as:
“The entropy of the Universe never decreases.”
However, despite the degradation of thermal energy in

most processes, thermal energy can still be harnessed
for conversion into useful work. This is because any
process cannot continue indefinitely due to the
physical limits of the system. Thus, continuous
conversion of thermal energy into work can be done via
cyclical processes. This takes two forms: heat engines
and heat pumps.
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Heat engines
A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy

into work. Prime example of heat engines are the
internal combustion engines of cars and generator
turbines of power stations that generate electricity. A
diagram of a heat engine is shown below, which is
composed of:
1. Hot reservoir – a constant source of high

temperature which releases thermal energy
without decreasing in temperature.
2. Cold reservoir – a constant source of cold
temperature which absorbs thermal energy
without increasing in temperature. This creates a
constant transfer of thermal energy across the
reservoirs.
3. Engine – an ideal gas in the middle serves as the
heat engine. It absorbs thermal energy from the
hot reservoir and uses part of it to undergo an
ideal gas process and perform work. The rest is
released to the cold reservoir.
The pressure-volume diagram of the ideal gas might

look as follows in a heat engine:
1. The gas absorbs thermal energy from the hot

reservoir to undergo an isochoric increase in
pressure, which does not do work.
2. It then absorbs more energy to undergo an
isobaric expansion in volume, which performs
work on the surroundings.
3. Subsequently, it releases thermal energy to the
cold reservoir to undergo an isochoric decrease in
pressure, which does not do work.
4. Lastly, it releases thermal energy to undergo an
isobaric compression in volume, which performs
work on the surroundings.
This forms a cyclical process with the total work done

by the gas represented by the internal area of the cycle.
Heat pumps
A heat pump is a reverse heat engine, meaning it

converts mechanical work into thermal energy. It does
this by moving thermal energy from the cold reservoir
to the hot reservoir. Here, the ideal gas can also be
used as the heat pump but undergoes the same
processes in reverse.
The pressure-volume diagram of the ideal gas might

look as follows in a heat pump:
1. Mechanical work is exerted to cause an isobaric

expansion of the gas, absorbing thermal energy
from the cold reservoir.
2. It then causes an isochoric increase in pressure,
absorbing further thermal energy from the cold
reservoir.
3. Next, isobaric compression releases thermal
energy to the hot reservoir.
4. Lastly, an isochoric decrease in pressure releases
thermal energy to the hot reservoir.
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Carnot cycles
In both the heat engine and heat pump complete

conversion is impossible. This is stated by two
formulations of the second law:
1. Kelvin-Planck formulation – no heat engine

working in cycles can take in heat from its
surroundings and totally convert it to work.
2. Clausius formulation – no heat pump can transfer
thermal energy from a cold reservoir to a hot
reservoir without work being done on it.
The ultimate e!ciency (η) of a heat engine is described

by the formula:
useful work
η= input energy
A theoretically ideal engine has a perfect e!ciency, but

this is not possible. However, e!ciency can be
maximized and an engine with maximum possible
e!ciency (ηCarnot) is called a Carnot engine. It does this
by manipulating both pressure and volume via
adiabatic and isothermal processes, meaning no
thermal energy goes to waste. The cycle of these
processes for a theoretical engine with a maximum
possible e!ciency is called the Carnot cycle, shown
below.
However, adiabatic processes need to occur quickly,

which can only occur with a high temperature gradient
driving the rapid thermal energy absorption and
release. Thus, the overall e!ciency is dependent on the
temperatures of the reservoirs. The formula for this is:
Tcold
ηCarnot = 1 − Thot

B. The Particulate Nature of Matter

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Topic 2 & 12 combined (SL & HL)

2.1: Thermal energy transfers

In Topic A.3, considerable time was taken in expanding

To begin, remember that each object can present itself

1. Solids have a fixed volume and shape because

Note that density is the ratio of mass to volume. The

Now it is common sense that what separates solids

An object's temperature (T) is the average kinetic

In day-to-day situations, temperature is commonly

As a result, the Kelvin scale was created. This measures

On the Celsius scale, absolute zero occurs at -273°C, so

However, be aware that the Kelvin and Celsius scales

Internal energy and heat

Now that you understand temperature, it is important

The total energy of all particles in an object is called the

1. Intermolecular potential energy - how loosely

Now remember that from solids to liquids to gases, the

In order for these phase changes to occur, the

It naturally flows from hot objects to cold objects, or

1. Hot objects release thermal energy, which

Once both objects reach the same temperature, they

When discussing heat transfer and the change in

1. Fusion (melting) - the phase change of a solid to a

A typical question the IB will ask is to distinguish

1. Boiling is vaporization that occurs when the

Thermal properties of materials

While all substances will undergo heat transfer and

This is due to their particular properties, which can be

1. Thermal capacity (C) - the energy required to

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2. Specific heat capacity (c) - the energy required to

Both of these terms refer to temperature changes and

However, if the heat supply is su!cient to cause the

3. Specific latent heat (L) - the energy absorbed or

When discussing specific latent heat, you will

1. Specific latent heat of fusion - the energy

Remember that during phase changes, the energy is

This means that when observing temperature while

1. Initially, heat is absorbed by the solid to increase

Methods of thermal energy transfer

Awkwardly nestled in the shallows of Topic 8 is the

1. Evaporation - covered in Topic 3.

Let's explore these in more detail.

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy via direct

For this reason, conduction occurs fastest in solids,

This allows materials that undergo conduction to be

1. Thermal conductors are materials that can

However, note that the rate of thermal transfer (ΔQ/Δt)

1. Cross-sectional area (A) - as this increases, more

The formula for this is:

Convection is the movement of heat in a fluid,

Thermal radiation is the absorption and subsequent

However, the radiation emitted is dependent on

1. Light and shiny materials are poor absorbers and

Black body radiation

All radiation is compared to theoretically perfect

The most important of such factors is temperature,

1. The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the

In this, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x