Introduction

to
Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of the
mind and behavior. This presentation
will explore the foundations of
psychology, its methods, and its scope.
 What is Psychology?

Scientific Study Broad Discipline Empirical Approach

Psychology is the scientific study of Psychology covers a wide range of Psychologists use the scientific
the mind and behavior, using topics, from understanding human method, including proposing
empirical methods to acquire cognition and emotions to studying hypotheses, conducting experiments,
knowledge. social interactions and behavior. and publishing results, to explore
psychological phenomena.

Psychology is a multifaceted discipline that utilizes scientific methods

to understand the complexities of the human mind and behavior.
 The Scientific Method

Identify the Formulate a Design the Collect and Share the

Question Hypothesis Study Analyze Data Findings

Psychologists Psychologists Psychologists Psychologists Psychologists

start with a propose a design gather measurable publish or present
question they want tentative observations or data through their their research
to answer about explanation, experiments to observations or findings so that
how or why called a test the validity experiments and others can
something happens. hypothesis, to of their analyze the replicate or build
explain the hypothesis. results. on the results.
phenomenon they
are studying.
 Empirical Method

Empirical Approach Observation and

Psychology uses an empirical approach, Experimentation
which means it relies on observable,
The empirical method involves making
measurable data rather than just logical
careful observations and conducting
reasoning or authority.
controlled experiments to gather data about
psychological phenomena.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process of Measurable Data
acquiring knowledge through formulating
Psychological research focuses on
hypotheses, designing experiments to test
collecting and analyzing measurable data,
them, and analyzing the results.
such as reaction times, brain activity, or
self-reported experiences, to understand
the mind and behavior.
 Psychology's Roots

17th-18th
Ancient Greece Centuries
Early philosophers Philosophers like
like Plato and Descartes and Locke
Aristotle explored continued to
the nature of the investigate the
mind and human workings of the
behavior. mind.

19th Century
Middle Ages
With the rise of
The focus shifted modern science, the
to the study of the study of the mind
soul and its was increasingly
relationship to the seen as a distinct
physical body. field of inquiry.
 Defining Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and
behavior. It explores questions about creativity,
prejudice, discrimination, and consciousness.

Basic psychology is theoretical and focuses on

understanding the mind, while applied psychology
uses this knowledge to solve practical problems in
the real world
 The Empirical Method

Definition Observation Hypothesis

The empirical method is a way Researchers make observations Researchers propose a tentative
of acquiring knowledge that is and collect data about the explanation, called a
based on observation, including phenomenon they are studying. hypothesis, to explain the
experimentation, rather than observed phenomenon.
only on logical argument or
previous authorities.

Experiment Replication
Researchers design and conduct experiments to test Other researchers can replicate the experiment to
the validity of their hypothesis. verify the results, which builds scientific
consensus.
 Psychology

Why Study Psychology? Popularity of Valuable Skills Understanding Human

Students take psychology
Psychology Developed Behavior
courses to help others, Psychology is one of the Psychology students Psychology students learn
understand themselves, and most popular majors on develop critical thinking, about the complex factors
learn about human college campuses, with scientific method skills, that shape behavior,
behavior. around 6% of all and better communication including biology,
bachelor's degrees granted abilities, increasing environment, and
in the US being in their scientific literacy. experiences.
psychology.

An education in psychology provides students with a deeper understanding of

human behavior and valuable skills that prepare them for a variety of careers.
 Wilhelm Wundt and
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt was a German scientist who is considered the
founder of psychology as a scientific discipline. He
established the first psychology laboratory at the
University of Leipzig in 1879 and is known for his work on
the concept of introspection, which he used to study the
contents of the human mind.
 Introspection
Wundt used introspection, where individuals
examine their own conscious experiences as
objectively as possible. This process treats the
human mind like any other aspect of nature that a
scientist would observe.

Example: An individual closely examines their

thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the moment,
striving to describe their inner experiences as
objectively as possible
 Definition Aim of
Structuralism was a school
Structuralism
of psychology developed by The aim of structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt and his was to identify the basic
Structuralism student Edward Titchener.
It focused on the contents
elements of consciousness
and how they are
of mental processes rather organized, rather than
than their function. understanding the function
or purpose of mental
processes.
 Illustrative Example
Stimulus: A rose

Introspection: The participant would describe

the visual sensation (red color, round shape),
the olfactory sensation (sweet fragrance), and
the tactile sensation (smooth petals, thorny
stem). They might also report feelings of
pleasure or thoughts of beauty associated with
the rose.

Outcome: Through detailed introspection, Wundt

aimed to identify the basic elements of
consciousness and understand how these elements
combine to form the complex experiences of the
mind.
 Functionalism
in Psychology
Functionalism, a key perspective in the
history of psychology, was established by
influential figures like William James,
John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce.
They viewed psychology through the lens
of Darwin's theory of evolution, focusing
on how mental activities and behaviors
help organisms adapt to their
environment.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who
lived from 1856 to 1939. He was a highly
influential figure in the field of psychology,
known for his pioneering work on the
unconscious mind, dream analysis, and
psychoanalytic therapy. Freud's theories
about the role of the unconscious in shaping
human behavior and personality had a profound
impact on the development of modern
psychology.
 Hysteria and the Unconscious Mind

Freud's Fascination with The Unconscious Mind as the Accessing the Unconscious
Hysteria Source Freud believed the unconscious could
Freud was intrigued by patients Freud theorized that many of his be accessed through techniques like
suffering from the mysterious patients' problems arose from the dream analysis, free association,
condition of 'hysteria', which unconscious mind, which he believed and examination of slips of the
involved a wide range of physical was a repository of feelings and tongue.
and emotional symptoms with no urges of which we have no awareness.
apparent physical cause.

Freud's ideas about the unconscious mind and its role in shaping behavior and
personality were highly influential, though some remain controversial today.
Freud's Elements of Personality
 Accessing the Unconscious

Dream Analysis Slips of the Tongue

Freud believed the unconscious could be Seemingly innocent verbal mistakes or
accessed through analyzing the content and 'Freudian slips' were seen by Freud as a
symbolism within a person's dreams. window into the unconscious mind.

Associations
Freud also thought examining the first words
or thoughts that came to a person's mind
could reveal unconscious processes.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage Latency Stage

The first stage of psychosexual development, lasting The fourth stage, lasting from 6 years to puberty,
from birth to 18-24 months, where the infant's where the child's sexual interests are repressed
primary source of pleasure and attachment is and redirected towards other activities, such as
through the mouth, such as sucking, biting, and school, friends, and hobbies.
chewing.

Genital Stage
Anal Stage The final stage, starting at puberty, where the
The second stage, lasting from 18-24 months to 3-4 individual's sexual interests are directed towards
years, where the child's primary focus is on toilet forming mature, reciprocal relationships with
training and the desire to control their bowel others.
movements, leading to the development of traits
like orderliness and stubbornness.

Phallic Stage
The third stage, lasting from 3-6 years, where the
child's focus shifts to their genitals and they
develop desires for the opposite-sex parent,
leading to the Oedipus complex in boys and the
Electra complex in girls.
 Oedipus Complex
The Oedipus complex is a Freudian
psychoanalytic theory that describes a
child's unconscious desire for the
opposite-sex parent, accompanied by a
rivalry with the same-sex parent. It is a
key concept in Freudian psychology and
has been the subject of extensive debate
and research within the field of
psychology.
 Electra Complex
The Electra complex is a psychological concept
that describes a young girl's unconscious desire
for the opposite-sex parent, typically the
father, along with a degree of resentment toward
the same-sex parent, typically the mother. This
complex is believed to be a crucial stage in a
girl's psychosexual development, as it involves
the child's transition from an exclusive
attachment to the mother to a desire for the
father as a love-object.
 Controversies and Criticisms

Importance of Role of Motivations can Effects of mental Development of

childhood unconscious versus cause conflicts representations of personality over
experiences in conscious that affect ourselves and time
adult motivations motivations behavior others Freud's emphasis on
Freud emphasized the Freud's theory of the Freud's idea that Freud's exploration of the evolution of
significant role that unconscious mind as a internal conflicts how our internal personality throughout
childhood experiences repository of feelings between different representations of an individual's
play in shaping an and urges that drive motivations can ourselves and others lifespan was a
individual's human behavior was a influence an guide our interactions valuable perspective
motivations and groundbreaking individual's actions was a crucial insight. in the field of
behaviors later in concept. was a significant psychology.
life. contribution to
psychology.
The Gestalt Psychologists: Shaping
Perception in the United States
Explore the influential work of Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler, the pioneering Gestalt psychologists who introduced their
revolutionary ideas to the United States in the 20th century.
 Max Wertheimer,
Kurt Koffka, and
Wolfgang Köhler
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka
(1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967)
were three German psychologists who
immigrated to the United States in the early
20th century to escape Nazi Germany. They are
credited with introducing Gestalt principles
to American psychology, which emphasize the
importance of perceiving the whole rather
than just the individual parts.
 The Principles of Gestalt Psychology

Whole vs. Parts Figure-Ground Similarity Continuity Closure

Gestalt emphasizes Relationship We tend to group Our minds prefer to We have a tendency to
that the overall Gestalt principles together elements that perceive smooth, fill in missing
experience is greater highlight how our share similar continuous patterns information and
than the sum of its brains organize visual characteristics, such rather than disjointed complete shapes or
individual components. information, as color, size, or or irregular ones, objects, rather than
The relationship separating the main shape, perceiving them even if the actual perceiving them as
between elements is object (figure) from as belonging together. stimuli are incomplete.
crucial in perception. the background fragmented.
(ground).
Gestalt vs. Structuralism
and Freudian Psychology
The Gestalt psychologists, structuralists, and
Freudians were all concerned with understanding inner
experience, but the behaviorists chose to exclusively
study observable behavior. This contrast illustrates
the differing perspectives on the scope of
psychological inquiry during the early 20th century.
 Gestalt Principles in Action

Gestalt Principle: The

Contradicting
The Melody of a Song Whole is Greater than the
Structuralism
Sum of its Parts

A song is composed of individual The Gestalt psychologists This Gestalt view directly
notes played by different emphasized that how the individual contradicted the structuralist
instruments. However, the true parts of a sensory experience perspective of Wilhelm Wundt,
nature of the song is perceived in relate to each other as a whole is which focused on breaking down
the combination of these notes as often more important than the experiences into their most basic
they form the melody, rhythm, and individual parts themselves. The elements. The Gestaltists argued
harmony. perception of the song as a that the whole cannot be fully
unified, cohesive experience understood by analyzing its
illustrates this key Gestalt individual components in
principle. isolation.
Pavlov,
Watson,
Skinner, and
Behaviorism
This slide provides an overview of the
key pioneers in the field of behaviorism,
including Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson,
and B.F. Skinner, and their
contributions to the understanding of
learned behavior.
John B. Watson and Behaviorism
Known as the father of behaviorism within psychology

Proposed
behaviorism
approach
Early 20th
Studied learned
century
behavior and its
Conducted interaction with
influential research innate qualities
at Johns Hopkins using animal
University experiments

Believed Believed animal

consciousness behavior studies
could not be could be applied to
objectively human behavior
analyzed Stated that everything
Shifted important in psychology
psychology's focus can be investigated
from the mind to through analysis of rat
observable behavior behavior
“Everything important in psychology
(except … such matters as involve
society and words) can be
investigated in essence through the
continued experimental and
theoretical analysis of the
determiners of rat behavior at a
choice-point in a maze.”
TOLMAN (1938)
 Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or
human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to
produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original
stimulus.

Pavlov’s Dogs: The most famous example of classical conditioning is

Pavlov's experiment with dogs. Pavlov noticed that dogs naturally
salivated when they saw food. He then began ringing a bell (a neutral
stimulus) before presenting the food. After several pairings, the dogs
began to salivate in response to the bell alone, even when no food was
presented. In this experiment:

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically

triggers a response without any prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR): An unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after

being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger
a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation in response to the bell after

conditioning.
 Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or
human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to
produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original
stimulus.
Classical Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who
was a major proponent of behaviorism and the
concept of operant conditioning. He is known
for his development of the operant
conditioning chamber, or 'Skinner box,' which
allowed him to study how behavior is shaped
by consequences, such as reinforcement and
punishment.
 The Skinner Box
The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject
from the external environment and allows the delivery
of positive reinforcement or punishment based on the
subject's behavior. This device, developed by
psychologist B.F. Skinner, has remained a crucial
resource for researchers studying the principles of
operant conditioning.
 Skinner's Influence

Focus on Reinforcement Operant Conditioning Lasting Impact

Skinner's research emphasized Skinner's operant Skinner's work had a lasting
the role of positive and conditioning chamber (Skinner influence on psychology,
negative reinforcement in box) allowed for careful despite the growth of
shaping behavior. study of the principles of cognitive psychology in later
reinforcement and punishment. decades.

Behavioral Modification Research Applications

Conditioned learning based on Skinner's The Skinner box and Skinner's operant
principles is still widely used in human conditioning techniques continue to be used in
behavioral modification techniques. contemporary research settings.
 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

Reaction to Behaviorism Emphasis on Human Key Figures: Maslow and

and Psychoanalysis Potential Rogers
Some psychologists were Humanistic psychology emerged, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were
uncomfortable with the limited emphasizing the innate potential two of the most well-known
perspectives of behaviorism and for good in all humans and the proponents of humanistic
psychoanalysis, which they viewed importance of personal control, psychology, which challenged the
as overly pessimistic, intentionality, and self-concept in dominant perspectives of the time.
deterministic, and reductionist. behavior.

Rejection of Reductionism Emphasis on Personal Growth

Humanistic psychologists objected to the simplifying Humanistic psychology emphasized the importance of
nature of behaviorism, which they saw as reducing human personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent
behavior to a mere combination of genetics and drive towards positive development within all
environment. individuals.
Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism
An introduction to the humanistic perspectives of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, which
emphasized the potential for good within all people.
 Introduction to Humanism

Dominance of Behaviorism and Dissatisfaction with Existing Emergence of Humanistic

Psychoanalysis Approaches Psychology
American psychology was dominated by Some psychologists were These psychologists began to form
the limited perspectives of uncomfortable with the pessimism, their own ideas that emphasized
behaviorism and psychoanalysis in determinism, and reductionism personal control, intentionality,
the early 20th century. inherent in behaviorism and and the potential for good in
psychoanalysis. humans.

This led to the development of humanistic psychology, which sought to offer

a more holistic and empowering perspective on human behavior and potential.
 Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist
who proposed a hierarchy of human needs in
motivating behavior. He asserted that so long
as basic needs for survival were met, higher-
level needs would begin to motivate behavior,
with the highest-level needs relating to
self-actualization.
 Maslow's
Hierarchy
of Needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
is a motivational theory in
psychology comprising a five-
tier model of human needs,
often depicted as a pyramid.
The basic needs at the bottom
must be met before
individuals can focus on
higher-level needs.
 Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was an American
psychologist who emphasized the potential for
good that exists within all people. He
developed a therapeutic technique called
client-centered therapy, which involves the
patient taking a lead role in the therapy
session unlike a psychoanalytic approach in
which the therapist plays an important role
in interpreting what conscious behavior
reveals about the unconscious mind.
 Rogers' Client-Centered Therapy
Example: I've been feeling really guilty about not being able to spend more time with my kids
because of work. It's like I'm failing as a parent.

Unconditional Genuineness Empathy

Positive Regard The therapist is The therapist demonstrates
authentic, honest, and a deep understanding and
The therapist accepts the
transparent in their sensitivity towards the
client for who they are,
interactions with the client's experiences and
without any judgement or
client.
I want you to know that I truly perspectives.
conditions. It sounds incredibly
understand how hard this is for challenging to balance work
It's okay to feel this way. you, and I am here to support and family life. Feeling
Your feelings are valid, you through it. Let's work torn between your
and it doesn't make you a together to find a way to manage responsibilities at work and
bad parent. these conflicting demands that your desire to be there for
feels right for you. your kids must be very
painful.
“Rogers' client-centered
approach to therapy is
still commonly used in
psychotherapeutic
settings today.”
CARL ROGERS
 Humanism in Psychology

Influential to psychology as a Rejected reductionist approach Insisted on humanistic

whole Humanistic psychologists rejected
research program
Maslow and Rogers are well-known the reductionist (smaller Instead, they insisted on a
names in psychology, and their ideas components) approach of the physical humanistic research program that is
have influenced many scholars. and biological sciences. largely qualitative, but also
includes quantitative research on
topics like happiness, self-concept,
and the outcomes of humanistic
psychotherapy.

Humanism has had a significant impact on the field of psychology, shaping the
perspectives and approaches of many influential scholars and practitioners.
 Conclusion

Humanistic Perspective Contrast with Deterministic

Emphasizes the potential for good and self-
Views
actualization innate to all humans Differs from the more deterministic
perspectives (factors beyond conscious
control) of behaviorism and psychoanalysis

Maslow and Rogers Lasting Impact

Key proponents of the humanistic approach The humanistic perspective has had a
in psychology lasting influence on the field of psychology
The Cognitive
Revolution in
Psychology
Explore the historical context, key
figures, and interdisciplinary impact of
the cognitive revolution in psychology
 Cognitive psychology
Concerned with understanding mental processes such as perception, memory, language, problem-
solving, and decision-making.

Perception Memory Language Problem-Solving Decision-Making

 Behaviorism's Influence and
the Cognitive Revolution

Behaviorism's Emphasis on Noam Chomsky's Influence

Objectivity Chomsky's dissatisfaction with behaviorism's focus
on behavior and his belief in the importance of
Behaviorism pulled psychologists' attention away
mental functioning were influential in the early
from the mind and focused solely on observable
days of the cognitive revolution.
external behavior.

The Rise of Humanistic Psychology Interdisciplinary Approach

Psychologists began to cooperate with scientists
Humanistic psychologists shifted the focus back to
from other fields, such as anthropology,
the individual human as a conscious and self-aware
linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience,
being.
forming the cognitive sciences.

Emergence of New Disciplines

Linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science
revived interest in the mind as a focus of
scientific inquiry, leading to the cognitive
revolution.
 The Rise of Cognitive Psychology

1950s 1950s-1960s 1928-

Noam Chomsky, an
New disciplinary The cognitive
influential American
perspectives in revolution
linguist, becomes a
linguistics, challenges the
key figure in the
neuroscience, and dominance of
early days of the
computer science behaviorism,
cognitive
emerge, reviving reincorporating
revolution,
interest in the mental functioning
dissatisfied with
mind as a focus of into the study of
behaviorism's focus
scientific inquiry. behavior.
1950s-1960s on external
behavior.
Psychologists begin
to cooperate with
1967 scientists in other
Ulric Neisser fields, such as
publishes the first anthropology,
textbook entitled linguistics, computer
"Cognitive science, and
Psychology", which neuroscience, leading
becomes a core text to the emergence of
in cognitive the cognitive
psychology courses. sciences.
 “Although no one person is
entirely responsible for starting
the cognitive revolution, Noam
Chomsky was very influential in
the early days of this
movement.”
(MILLER, 2003)
 Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky is an American linguist who was
dissatisfied with behaviorism's focus on
behavior and believed psychology should re-
incorporate mental functioning. He played a
influential role in the cognitive revolution,
which revived interest in the study of the
mind as a focus of scientific inquiry.
 The Cognitive Sciences

Noam Chomsky Anthropologists Linguists Computer Neuroscientists

American Linguist Scientists studying Scientists studying
Scientists Scientists studying
human culture and human language Scientists studying the nervous system and
behavior computation and brain
information processing
 Key Figures in the Cognitive Revolution

Noam Chomsky George A. Miller Jerome Bruner Alan Turing Margaret Boden
American linguist who Cognitive psychologist Psychologist who British computer Cognitive scientist
was dissatisfied with who published the emphasized the role of scientist and and philosopher who
behaviorism's focus on influential book "The mental processes in mathematician who made has made important
external behavior and Magical Number Seven, learning and significant contributions to the
argued for the Plus or Minus Two" in development, and contributions to the understanding of
importance of studying 1956, which explored helped establish the field of artificial creativity and the
mental processes the limitations of field of cognitive intelligence, which nature of mind
human memory psychology was influential in the
cognitive revolution
 The Shift to Cognitive Psychology

Key Features Description

The cognitive revolution marked a shift away

from the behaviorist focus on observable
Shift from Behavior to Mind external behavior and towards a renewed interest
in the inner workings of the human mind, such as
cognition, perception, memory, and language.
Psychologists began to cooperate with scientists
in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics,
Interdisciplinary Approach computer science, and neuroscience, to study the
cognitive sciences from an interdisciplinary
perspective.

*Based on the provided context

Feminist
Psychology:
Challenging
Bias in the
Field
This presentation examines the historical
dominance of white, male academics in the
field of psychology and how that has shaped
the discipline, often to the detriment of
women, minorities, and diverse
perspectives.
 The Influence of Western,
White, and Male Academics

Dominance in early psychology

Underrepresentation of women
Western, White, and male academics had a
dominant influence in the early Until the 1960s, psychology was largely a
development of the field of psychology.

Experimental subjects
Inherent biases
The experimental subjects in psychology
The biases of these dominant academics were mostly men, reflecting the underlying
were reflected in the development of assumption that gender had no influence on
psychology, often with negative the field.
consequences for non-White and non-male
members of society.

The dominance of Western, White, and male academics in the early history
of psychology led to the development of the field with inherent biases,
often having negative consequences for marginalized groups in society.
 Difficulties for Women and
Minorities in Psychology

1960s-1980s
1960s Ethnic minorities
Few women were able
1960s and LGBTQ+
to practice Male psychologists individuals faced
psychology, constructed the significant barriers
limiting their psychology of women to entering and
influence on the based on their own influencing
field. cultural biases. psychology.

1968
1960s
Naomi Weisstein's
Experimental critique sparked a
subjects were feminist
mostly men, as revolution,
gender was assumed challenging the
to have no male bias in
influence. psychology.
 “We must start with the
realization that, as much as
women want to be good
scientists or engineers, they
want first and foremost to
be womanly companions of
men and to be mothers.”
BRUNO BETTLEHEIM
 The Development of Feminist Psychology

Weisstein's Critique Studying Gender Differences

Naomi Weisstein's 1968 article presented a Feminist psychology also focused on studying
feminist critique of psychology, arguing that psychological gender differences, challenging
male psychologists constructed their the assumption that gender was irrelevant to the
understanding of women based on their own biases field of psychology.
rather than careful scientific study.

Questioning the Scientific

Feminist Psychology's Response Approach
Weisstein's critique laid the foundation for the
Feminist psychologists questioned the male bias
development of feminist psychology, which aimed
present in the traditional scientific approach to
to examine psychology free from the influence of
knowledge, arguing for more inclusive and
male-centric biases and perspectives.
representative research methods.

Reexamining the History

Feminist psychologists began re-evaluating and
discovering the contributions of women to the
history of psychology, which had previously been
overlooked or marginalized.
 Feminist Approaches to Psychology

Re-evaluating and Questioning Male Bias in

Discovering Women's Scientific Approach
Contributions Critically analyzing the predominant male-
centric perspective and assumptions
Examining and highlighting the overlooked
embedded in the traditional scientific
or undervalued contributions of women to
practices and knowledge-building in
the field of psychology throughout history.
psychology.

Studying Psychological
Gender Differences
Investigating the ways in which gender
influences and shapes psychological
processes, experiences, and behaviors.
 The Emergence of
Feminist Psychology
Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was
largely a 'womanless' psychology, meaning that
few women were able to practice psychology, so
they had little influence on what was studied. The
experimental subjects of psychology were mostly
men, which resulted from underlying assumptions
that gender had no influence on psychology and
that women were not of sufficient interest to
study.
The
Multicultural
and Cross-
Cultural
Impact of
Psychology
This introductory slide provides an overview
of how culture impacts individuals, groups,
and society, as well as the contributions of
diverse psychologists in challenging biases
and promoting equitable practices.
Understanding Cultural Diversity in Psychology

Cultural Impacts Cross-Cultural Psychology

Culture influences individuals, groups, and Cross-cultural psychologists compare and
society as a whole. contrast populations across different
countries, providing a broader
understanding of cultural differences.
Overrepresentation of WEIRD
Populations
Pioneers of Diversity in
Research has been dominated by studies on
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Psychology
and Democratic (WEIRD) societies, leading Psychologists from diverse backgrounds,
to misapplication of findings to non-WEIRD such as Francis Cecil Sumner, George I.
populations. Sanchez, and the Clarks, have challenged
biased practices and promoted inclusive
approaches.
Multicultural Psychology
Multicultural psychologists develop
theories and conduct research with diverse
populations within a country, addressing
the lack of representation.
 WEIRD Societies and
Their Limitations
WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and
Democratic) societies have been extensively studied in
psychology, but the findings from these studies have been
wrongly applied to non-WEIRD societies. This has led to
significant cultural differences being overlooked,
resulting in an incomplete understanding of human
behavior and cognition.
Francis Cecil Sumner
Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African
American to receive a PhD in psychology in
the United States in 1920. He established a
psychology degree program at Howard
University, leading to the education of a new
generation of African American psychologists.
 Challenging Intelligence Testing

Early psychologists from George I. Sanchez's work

diverse backgrounds Contested testing with Mexican American
children, highlighting language and
Challenged intelligence testing and
cultural barriers
promoted innovative educational methods for
children
 The Clarks' Influential
Research
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark, renowned African
American psychologists, conducted influential research on
African American children's preference for dolls. Their
findings, which revealed the negative impact of segregation
on children's self-perception, were instrumental in the
landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision
that desegregated public schools.

African-American children preferred white doll, which they

associated with positive attributes, and a negative
association with the black doll.
 Applying Research to Social Services

The Clarks' Research on Doll Applying Research to Social Services

Preference The Clarks applied their research on the
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark conducted psychological effects of segregation to social
studies on African American children's doll services, opening the first child guidance center
preference, which was instrumental in the Brown v. in Harlem.
Board of Education Supreme Court desegregation
case.

Addressing Segregation through Pioneering Psychologists

Research The Clarks were among the early African American
The Clarks used their psychological research to psychologists who dedicated their work to
challenge segregated educational practices and addressing issues of racial inequality and
advocate for equal opportunities for African promoting innovative educational methods.
American children.
Contemporary Psychology
An overview of the diverse interests and foci within the field of modern psychology, including the structure
and mission of major professional organizations like the American Psychological Association (APA) and the
Association for Psychological Science (APS).
 Psychology's Diversity

American Psychological Association Diverse Membership

(APA) APA members span the spectrum from
The largest organization of psychologists students to doctoral-level psychologists,
in the world, with 54 divisions coming from educational settings,
representing a wide variety of criminal justice, hospitals, the armed
specialties. forces, and industry.

Association for Psychological Ethnic/Racial Associations

Science (APS) Groups like NLPA, AAPA, ABPsi, and SIP
Founded in 1988 to advance the scientific provide networking and collaboration
orientation of psychology, publishes opportunities for professionals of
research journals and engages in specific ethnic or racial backgrounds.
education and advocacy.

The field of psychology is characterized by a wide range of interests,

specialties, and professional associations, reflecting the diverse
perspectives and areas of focus within the discipline.
The American Psychological Association (APA)

Largest organization of Membership spans the

psychologists worldwide spectrum
The American Psychological Association APA members, affiliate members, and
(APA) is the largest organization of associate members include students,
psychologists in the world. doctoral-level psychologists, and
professionals working in educational
settings, criminal justice, hospitals, the
Diverse range of armed forces, and industry.
specialties
The APA has 54 divisions representing a
Founded by G. Stanley Hall
wide variety of specialties, ranging from
G. Stanley Hall, the first president of the
the psychology of religion and spirituality
APA, was an adjunct instructor at
to exercise and sport psychology, and from
Wilberforce University, a historically
behavioral neuroscience to comparative
Black college/university, before earning
psychology.
his doctoral degree and working under
William James.
 G. Stanley Hall
G. Stanley Hall was the first president of the
American Psychological Association (APA).
Before earning his doctoral degree, he worked
as an adjunct instructor at Wilberforce
University, a historically Black
college/university (HBCU), while also serving
on the faculty at Antioch College. Hall later
went on to work under the renowned
psychologist William James, earning his PhD.
He eventually became the first president of
Clark University in Massachusetts when it was
founded.
 Major Areas of Psychology

Neuroscience and Biopsychology Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Focuses on the biological bases of behavior, including the Focuses on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of
structure and function of the brain and nervous system. mental disorders and the promotion of mental health and
well-being.

Cognitive Psychology
Examines mental processes such as perception, attention, Industrial-Organizational Psychology
memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. Applies psychological principles and research to the work
environment, including topics such as employee selection,
training, and organizational behavior.
Developmental Psychology
Investigates how individuals change over the lifespan,
from conception to death, including physical, cognitive, School Psychology
and social-emotional changes. Promotes the educational, behavioral, social-emotional,
and mental health of children and adolescents in school
settings.
Social Psychology
Studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence Community Psychology
of others. Examines the relationships between individuals and their
communities, with a focus on social issues and the
promotion of well-being.
Personality Psychology
Explores individual differences in characteristics
patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
 Diversity in Psychology

G. Stanley William James Student Doctoral-level Psychologist Psychologist Psychologist Psychologist Psychologist
Hall Psychologist in Education in Criminal in Hospital in Armed in Industry
Psychologist Member of the Setting Justice Forces
First under whom G. APA Member of the Member of the Member of the
President of APA Member of the Member of the APA Member of the APA
Stanley Hall
the American APA APA APA
earned his
Psychological PhD
Association
(APA)
 A Diverse and
Dynamic Field
Contemporary psychology is a diverse field that is
influenced by all of the historical perspectives
described in the preceding section. This
diversity is reflected in the American
Psychological Association (APA), the largest
organization of psychologists in the world, which
has 54 divisions representing a wide variety of
specialties.
Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
This slide provides an overview of biopsychology and evolutionary psychology, two related fields that explore the biological and
evolutionary factors influencing human behavior.
 Biopsychology

Explores the link between biology Broad research interests

and behavior Areas of study include sensory and motor
Biopsychology investigates how the systems, sleep, drug use, ingestive
structure and function of the nervous behavior, reproductive behavior,
system contribute to and influence human neurodevelopment, and biological
behavior. correlates of psychological disorders.

Interdisciplinary approach Part of the field of neuroscience

Biopsychology combines research Biopsychology is a component of the
strategies from psychology and physiology broader field of neuroscience, which
to understand the biological basis of involves experts from various
behavior. backgrounds, such as biologists, medical
professionals, physiologists, and
chemists.

Biopsychology provides a scientific understanding of how the structure and

function of the nervous system influence human behavior, offering insights
into the biological underpinnings of our actions and experiences.
 Biological Psychology Research Areas

Sensory and Motor Systems Reproductive Behavior

Examining how the structure and function of the nervous Investigating the hormonal, neural, and genetic
system, including the brain, spinal cord, and sensory mechanisms that underlie sexual and reproductive
receptors, influence the perception and production of behaviors, such as mating, parenting, and courtship.
movement and behavior.

Neurodevelopment
Sleep Exploring how the nervous system develops from
Investigating the biological mechanisms and functions conception through adulthood, and how disruptions in
of sleep, including the role of the circadian system, this process can lead to developmental disorders.
neurotransmitters, and brain regions involved in the
sleep-wake cycle.
Neuroplasticity
Studying the ability of the nervous system to adapt and
Drug Use and Abuse change in response to experience, learning, and
Studying the physiological and neurological effects of environmental factors.
various psychoactive substances, and how they influence
cognition, emotion, and behavior.
Biological Correlates of
Psychological Disorders
Ingestive Behavior
Investigating the physiological, neurological, and
Examining the biological factors that regulate
genetic factors that may contribute to the development
appetite, hunger, satiety, and other behaviors related
and manifestation of various mental health conditions.
to food consumption and energy balance.
 Interdisciplinary Approach

Dr. Samantha Williams Dr. Michael Patel Dr. Olivia Nguyen Dr. Emilia Gonzalez
Neurobiologist Neurosurgeon Physiologist Biochemist
 Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology seeks to understand the ultimate
biological causes of behavior, focusing on how behaviors
have adapted to the environment over the course of human
evolution. By studying the genetic and evolutionary origins
of psychological traits, evolutionary psychologists aim to
explain why certain behaviors and cognitive processes have
emerged and persisted in the human species.
 Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin was a renowned British
naturalist and biologist who is best known
for his theory of evolution by natural
selection. He published his groundbreaking
work 'On the Origin of Species' in 1859,
which presented evidence for the evolution of
species and proposed the mechanism of natural
selection as the driving force behind this
process. Darwin's ideas revolutionized the
understanding of life on Earth and laid the
foundation for the study of behavior in the
context of evolution.
 Evolutionary Psychology Approach

Evolutionary Evaluating
Predicting Empirical Refining the
Psychology the
Behaviors Testing Theory
Approach Predictions

Evolutionary Evolutionary Evolutionary The results of the Based on the

psychologists psychologists use psychologists then empirical studies findings,
predict the the principles of design studies, are compared to evolutionary
outcomes of evolutionary such as the initial psychologists may
behaviors based on theory, such as observations or predictions made refine their
evolutionary natural selection, experiments, to based on theoretical models
theory and then adaptation, and test whether the evolutionary and make new
conduct genetic predicted theory. This predictions to be
observations or inheritance, to behaviors and allows tested through
experiments to make predictions traits are evolutionary further empirical
test their about human observed in human psychologists to investigations, in
predictions. behaviors and populations, assess the an iterative
traits. across different validity of their process.
cultures. hypotheses.
 Challenges in Evolutionary Psychology
Difficulty in quantifying the degree to which a trait is genetically determined vs. culturally
influenced

60%
45%
35%

Demonstrating Genetic Understanding Past Predicting Adaptability

Basis Conditions
 Examples of Evolutionary Psychology

Memory Mate Choice Relationships Between Kin

Evolutionary psychology predicts that Evolutionary psychology suggests that Evolutionary psychology proposes that
memory processes would be adapted to mate preferences would differ between people would have psychological
enhance survival and reproduction, men and women, with women valuing cues mechanisms to recognize kin and
such as better recall for fitness- to resource acquisition (like earning preferentially cooperate with and
relevant information like locations of potential) and men valuing cues to invest in close genetic relatives.
resources or threats. fertility (like youth and
attractiveness).

Friendship and Cooperation Parenting Social Organization

Evolutionary psychology expects that Evolutionary psychology predicts that Evolutionary psychology suggests that
people would have adaptations to form parents would exhibit care-giving people would have psychological
cooperative alliances and friendships, behaviors and emotions adapted to mechanisms to navigate social
as these would have enhanced survival promote the survival and reproduction hierarchies and acquire status, as
and reproduction in the ancestral of their offspring. this would have impacted access to
environment. mates and resources in the ancestral
past.
Sensation
and
Perception
An exploration of how our senses gather
information from the external world and
how our brains interpret those signals
to create our conscious experience of
reality.
 Introduction to Sensation and Perception

Definition of Importance of Sensory Systems Perceptual Processes

Sensation and Sensation and The human body has several Perceptual processes involve the
Perception Perception sensory systems, including organization, interpretation,
vision, audition, touch, taste, and integration of sensory
Sensation refers to the process Sensation and perception are and smell, each of which plays a information to create a coherent
of detecting physical stimuli, fundamental to our understanding crucial role in our perception and meaningful representation of
while perception is the of the world around us, allowing of the world. our surroundings.
interpretation and organization us to interact with our
of those sensations into environment and make sense of
meaningful experiences. the information we receive.

Understanding the principles of sensation and perception is essential

for comprehending how we interact with and make sense of our
environment, and is a foundational topic in the field of psychology.
 Perception: Making Sense of the World

What is Perception? Sensation vs. Perception The Stages of Perception

Perception is the process of Sensation is the physical process Perception involves three main
interpreting and organizing of detecting stimuli through our stages: selection, organization,
sensory information to create a senses, while perception is the and interpretation. Our senses
meaningful understanding of the interpretation and organization gather information, our brain
world around us. of those sensations into a organizes it, and we interpret it
meaningful experience. to make sense of the world.

Perceptual Selectivity Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing

We don't perceive everything in our environment Perception involves both top-down processing (using
equally. Perceptual selectivity is the process of prior knowledge and expectations) and bottom-up
focusing our attention on certain stimuli and ignoring processing (analyzing sensory information). These two
others based on our needs, interests, and processes work together to create our final perception
expectations. of the world.
 Factors Influencing Perception
Comparison of the impact of various factors on perception (0-100 scale)

80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
Cultural Attention Emotional State Past Experiences Expectations
Background
 Perceptual Illusions

Café Wall Illusion Müller-Lyer Ponzo Illusion Hering Illusion Hermann Grid
A classic optical
Illusion Larger objects higher Straight lines appear
Illusion
illusion where the Two lines of equal up in the image appear to curve outwards, Ghostly gray spots
mortar lines between length appear to be of to be larger than illustrating the appear at the
the bricks appear to different lengths due smaller objects lower brain's attempt to intersections of the
be slanted, even to the arrow-like in the image, even interpret the image as white lines,
though they are shapes at the ends of though they are the a 3D scene. demonstrating the
actually straight. the lines. same size. brain's interpretation
of contrast.
Developmental
Psychology:
Understanding
Growth and
Change
This introductory slide provides an overview
of developmental psychology, a field that
examines the changes and growth that occur
throughout an individual's lifespan,
including physical maturation, cognitive
skills, moral reasoning, and social behavior.
Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Lifespan Development Cognitive Development

Developmental psychology examines how They also examine how an individual's
people change and grow throughout their thinking, reasoning, and intellectual
entire life, from birth to death. capabilities evolve throughout life.

Physical Changes Socioemotional Changes

Developmental psychologists study the Developmental psychologists investigate
physical maturation and aging processes shifts in social behavior, emotional
that occur as people grow older. expression, and moral reasoning as people
develop.
“Object permanence is the
understanding that objects
continue to exist even when
they cannot be observed.”
JEAN PIAGET
 Key Areas of Study

Cognitive Development Moral Development Social Development

Examining changes in an Studying how people's Investigating how an individual's
individual's thinking, reasoning, understanding of right and wrong, interactions, relationships, and
and problem-solving skills over as well as their ability to make social behaviors change as they
time, such as memory, attention, ethical judgments, evolve mature, including the development
and language acquisition. throughout their lifespan. of empathy, cooperation, and
communication skills.

Emotional Development Personality Development

Exploring the changes in an individual's ability to Examining how an individual's unique characteristics,
recognize, express, and regulate their emotions over traits, and patterns of behavior evolve and become
time, as well as the factors that influence emotional more stable over the course of their life.
well-being.
 Lifespan Approach

Early Adulthood Late Adulthood -

Middle Childhood - 19 to 40 years 66 years and older
Birth - 0 years - 6 to 11 years
Achieving Adjusting to
Rapid physical and Refinement of motor independence, retirement, coping
cognitive skills, expansion establishing with physical and
development, of attention span, careers and cognitive declines,
including the and development of relationships, and and finding meaning in
emergence of object moral reasoning. starting a family. life.
permanence.

Middle Adulthood
- 41 to 65 years

Adolescence - 12 Balancing work and

Early Childhood
family
- 1 to 5 years to 18 years
responsibilities,
Major gains in Dramatic physical addressing midlife
language, social changes, identity transitions, and
skills, and formation, and maintaining
problem-solving increased cognitive physical and mental
abilities. flexibility. health.
Erikson's
Stages of
Development
An overview of Erik Erikson's theory
outlining the eight distinct stages of
psychosocial development that
individuals go through from infancy to
late adulthood.
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

Age Range Developmental Task Successful Resolution

Birth to 18 months Develop a sense of trust or Acquisition of the virtue of
mistrust in the world hope

Feeding and Trust Feeding and Mistrust Failure

If the caregiver is reliable, Conversely, if the caregiver This could lead to a belief in
consistent, and nurturing, the fails to provide consistent, an inconsistent and
child will develop a sense of adequate care and affection, unpredictable world, fostering
trust, believing that the world the child may develop a sense a sense of mistrust, suspicion,
is safe and that people are of mistrust and insecurity. and anxiety.
dependable and affectionate.
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Developmental Stage Focus of the Stage Autonomy

This stage occurs between 18 Children in this stage are If encouraged and supported
months to 3 years of age. focused on developing a sense in their increased
of personal control and independence, children will
independence. become more confident and
secure in their ability to
survive.

Shame and Doubt Successful Resolution

On the other hand, if children are overly The child is developing physically and becoming
controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel more mobile, discovering that he or she has many
ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes
abilities. and shoes, playing with toys, etc.Such skills
illustrate the child’s growing sense of
independence and autonomy.
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Age Range Developing Initiative Experiencing Guilt

This stage occurs between the When caregivers encourage and If caregivers discourage or
ages of 3 and 6 years old. support children to take the criticize children's
initiative, they can start initiatives, they may start
planning activities, to feel guilty about their
accomplish tasks, and face desires and attempts at
challenges. independent action.

Successful Navigation Unsuccessful Navigation

Exploration allows children to assert their If children are overly restricted or criticized
power and control over their environment. for their initiatives, they may develop a sense
Through exploration, children engage with their of guilt that undermines their confidence and
surroundings, ask questions, and discover new willingness to take charge of their environment.
things. This can result in feelings of inadequacy and a
diminished sense of purpose.
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Industry vs. Inferiority Positive Feedback and Negative Feedback and

Occurring from ages 6-11, this Skill Development Feelings of Inadequacy
stage involves children comparing Positive feedback and opportunities Negative feedback can lead to
themselves to peers and developing to learn new skills promote a sense feelings of inferiority, as
a sense of competence or of industry, as children feel children doubt their own abilities
inferiority. confident in their abilities and and feel they cannot measure up to
believe they can accomplish goals. their peers.

Successful Completion of the Stage Role of School Experiences

Successfully completing this stage leads to the virtue of Children's experiences at school, including feedback from
competence, where children feel capable and confident in teachers and opportunities to demonstrate their
their skills. abilities, can significantly influence their development
during this stage.
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence (Ages 12-18) Identity Formation Role Confusion

Adolescents undergo an intense Adolescents are supported in If adolescents are restricted
exploration of personal values, their exploration their and not given the space to
beliefs, and goals as they search interests, values, and goals, explore. They may struggle to
for a sense of self and personal which helps them form their own identify their purpose or path,
identity. unique identity. leading to confusion about their
personal identity.

Importance of Social Relationships Successful Resolution and the Virtue of Fidelity

Peer groups become highly influential, as adolescents Successfully navigating this stage develops the
often place more value on their friends' opinions virtue of fidelity, which involves being able to
than their parents'. Feeling accepted and fitting in commit oneself to others based on accepting them,
with peers can significantly impact their self-esteem even with ideological differences. Adolescents who
and identity formation. establish a strong sense of identity can maintain
consistent loyalties and values.
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Psychosocial Stage Conflict Intimacy

Occurs during young Forming intimate, loving Ability to form close bonds,
adulthood, around ages 18-40 relationships with others be open and share oneself,
and commit to relationships

Isolation Outcome Importance

Inability to form meaningful Success leads to strong Supportive social networks
relationships, leading to relationships, while failure and diverse interactions are
loneliness and alienation results in loneliness and crucial for developing
isolation. intimate relationships and
identity
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity Stagnation Work

If individuals feel they are making If individuals feel they are not Meaningful work allows adults to
valuable contributions to the making a positive impact or are not feel productive and contribute to
world, for instance, through involved in productive or creative the world, developing a sense of
raising children or contributing to tasks, they may experience generativity. Dissatisfaction with
positive changes in society, they stagnation. work can lead to feelings of
will feel a sense of generativity. stagnation.

Success and Failure Virtue of Care

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of Successful navigation of this stage leads to the
contribution through these roles, they are more likely to development of the virtue of care, where individuals feel
develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of a sense of contribution and satisfaction in their role
productivity and fulfillment. We become stagnant and feel within society.
unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These
individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with
their community and with society as a whole.
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Late Adulthood (Ages Ego Integrity Despair

65+) If individuals feel they have if individuals feel regretful
Individuals reflect on their lived a fulfilling and about their past, feel they
lives and experiences in this meaningful life, they will have made poor decisions, or
stage. experience ego integrity. believe they’ve failed to
achieve their life goals,
they may experience despair.

Balance of Integrity and Despair Virtue of Wisdom

Wise individuals experience both ego integrity Successful resolution of this stage leads to a
and despair, reflecting on their lives with both sense of meaning, acceptance, and wisdom in the
satisfaction and regret. latter part of their lives.
 Strengths and Weaknesses
Strenght Weaknesses

Many people find they can relate Erikson is rather vague about the causes of
development. What kinds of experiences must
to his theories about various
people have to successfully resolve various
life cycle stages through their psychosocial conflicts and move from one
own experiences. stage to another

has reconceptualized how the later periods Erikson also does not explain what propels
of life are viewed. Middle and late the individual forward into the next stage
adulthood are no longer viewed as once a crisis is resolved.
irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are
now considered active and significant times
of personal growth.
The Big 5
Personality
Traits
An overview of the five core personality
dimensions that shape our behavior and
tendencies.
 Introduction

5 Basic Personality Dimensions The Big 5 Personality Traits Understanding the Big 5
Contemporary personality These five personality dimensions are Knowing where you fall on the
psychologists believe there are five commonly referred to as the 'Big 5' spectrum for each of the Big 5
core personality traits that serve and include: openness, traits can provide valuable insights
as the building blocks of human conscientiousness, extraversion, into your own personality and how
personality. agreeableness, and neuroticism. you interact with others.

The Big 5 personality framework offers a comprehensive and widely accepted

model for understanding the core dimensions of human personality.
 Openness
Openness refers to an individual's degree of
intellectual curiosity, creativity, and
preference for novelty and variety. Those high
in openness are more likely to hold
unconventional beliefs and engage in
imaginative and abstract thinking. In contrast,
individuals low in openness tend to be more
traditional, practical, and resistant to
change.
 Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is a personality trait that
reflects an individual's tendency to be organized,
dependable, and achievement-oriented. Highly
conscientious people are often meticulous,
disciplined, and focused on their goals, while those
low in conscientiousness may be more spontaneous and
less concerned with details.
 Extraversion
Individuals high in Extraversion are often
described as outgoing, energetic, and
sociable. They tend to seek out social
interaction, enjoy being the center of
attention, and feel comfortable expressing
their thoughts and emotions. In contrast,
individuals low in Extraversion, or
introverts, are more reserved, prefer to work
alone, and tend to be more inward-focused.
 Agreeableness
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in
concern for cooperation and social harmony.
Agreeable individuals value getting along with
others, and they are generally compassionate,
trusting, and cooperative. Those low in
agreeableness tend to be more competitive,
suspicious, and individualistic, while those high
in agreeableness are more altruistic, nurturing,
and empathetic.
 Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a fundamental dimension of
personality that reflects individual differences in
the tendency to experience negative emotions, such
as fear, sadness, anxiety, guilt, and shame.
Individuals high in neuroticism are more likely to
be emotionally reactive, experience more frequent
and intense negative emotions, and have difficulty
returning to a calm state after experiencing stress
or distress.
 Social Psychology

Focuses on interactions and Investigates prejudice and

relationships attraction
Social psychology examines how we Social psychology research covers topics
interact with and relate to others, like prejudice, stereotyping, and the
including how our behaviors and thought factors that contribute to interpersonal
patterns are influenced by the presence of attraction and relationship formation.
other people.

Examines group dynamics

Explores explanations of behavior Social psychologists also study how being
Social psychologists study how we tend to part of a group can influence our
explain our own behaviors differently individual behaviors, emotions, and
than the behaviors of others, a thought processes.
phenomenon known as attribution bias.

Social psychology provides valuable insights into the complex web of

social interactions and relationships that shape our everyday lives.
 Stanley Milgram and
Obedience Experiments
Stanley Milgram was an American social psychologist who
conducted research on obedience to authority after the
Holocaust. His experiments revealed that a surprising
number of people were willing to inflict harm on others
simply because they were instructed to do so by an
authority figure.
 Introduction to Industrial-
Organizational Psychology

What is Industrial- Roles and Applying Psychological

Organizational (I-O) Responsibilities of I- Principles to the
Psychology? O Psychologists Workplace
I-O psychology is the study I-O psychologists work in I-O psychologists use
of how people behave in the areas such as employee psychological theories and
workplace, focusing on selection, training, research methods to
improving employee leadership development, and understand and address
productivity, job organizational development. issues related to employee
satisfaction, and well- motivation, team dynamics,
being. and organizational culture.

In summary, Industrial-Organizational Psychology is a specialized field that

applies psychological principles and research methods to understand and enhance
the workplace, ultimately improving employee and organizational outcomes.
 Sport and Exercise Psychology

What is Sport and Performance Well-being and Health Group Dynamics

Exercise Psychology? Enhancement Benefits Examining the social and
The study of the Techniques and strategies The positive impact of interpersonal processes that
psychological factors that that can help athletes and physical activity on mental occur in team sports and
influence and are influenced by exercisers improve their health, including reduced exercise settings, such as
participation and performance mental skills, such as goal stress, improved mood, and team cohesion and leadership.
in sport, exercise, and other setting, imagery, and self- increased self-esteem.
physical activity contexts. talk.

Sport and Exercise Psychology explores the complex interplay between

the mind and physical activity, providing valuable insights to
enhance performance, well-being, and overall human functioning.
 Clinical Psychology

What is Clinical Psychology? Education and Training

Clinical psychology is a branch of Clinical psychologists typically have a
psychology that focuses on the doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) in
assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of clinical psychology, along with
mental, emotional, and behavioral supervised clinical experience and
disorders. licensing requirements.

Areas of Focus Treatment Approaches

Clinical psychologists work with Clinical psychologists use a variety of
individuals, families, and groups to evidence-based treatment methods, such as
address a wide range of issues, including cognitive-behavioral therapy,
depression, anxiety, trauma, addiction, psychotherapy, and medication management.
and neurological disorders.

In summary, clinical psychology is a critical field that plays

a vital role in understanding, diagnosing, and treating
mental health conditions, and promoting overall well-being.
 Forensic Psychology

What is Forensic Psychology? Forensic Assessment

Forensic psychology is the application of Forensic psychologists conduct
psychological principles and practices to assessments to determine an individual's
the legal and criminal justice system. mental state, competence to stand trial,
and risk of recidivism.

Role of Forensic Psychologists

Psychological Profiling
Forensic psychologists work in various
capacities, such as evaluating Forensic psychologists create
defendants, providing expert testimony, psychological profiles of criminals to aid
and assisting with criminal in investigations and apprehension.
investigations.

Forensic psychology is a crucial field that bridges the gap

between psychology and the legal system, providing valuable
insights and expertise to the criminal justice process.
 Careers with Psychology Graduates

Clinical Psychologist Market Researcher

Diagnose and treat mental health issues, Analyze consumer behavior, preferences, and
provide therapy, and work in hospitals or trends to help businesses make informed
private practice. decisions.

Counselor Educator
Help individuals, families, or groups Teach psychology courses at the high school
navigate emotional, behavioral, or social or university level, develop curriculum,
challenges. and mentor students.

Human Resources Specialist

Recruit, select, and manage employees,
develop training programs, and handle
employee relations.