Name : Yuvraj Gupta

Class :XI MED

Sub :Biology
Name : Yuvraj Gupta
Class :XI MED
Sub :Physics
Name : Yuvraj Gupta
Class :XI MED
Sub :Chemistry
Name : Yuvraj Gupta
Class :XI MED
Sub :Psychology
Name : Yuvraj Gupta
Class :XI MED
Sub :Hindi
 Acknowledgement

I want to express my gratitude to my teacher,

_____ for their encouragement, insightful
suggestions, and mentorship. I’d also like to extend my
thanks to my principal, _______ for granting
me this wonderful opportunity to be part of this
project.

Also, I would like to express my appreciation to all

those who have supported and contributed to the
completion of this project. Your assistance, guidance,
and encouragement have been invaluable. Thank you
for being a part of this project.

Lastly, I want to thank my family & friends for their

understanding and support during this project.
 Aim

To study about blood and blood group

and check if they can be used for legal
paternity test.
 Blood
Blood is a specialised biological fluid of red blood cells ,
white blood cells and platelets suspended in a fluid medium
known as blood plasma . Blood plasma is liquid component
of blood in which the blood cells are suspended .It makes up
about 55% of total blood volume

Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels

by the pumping adion of the heart. Blood is pumped from
the strong left ventrical of the heart through arteries and
enter the right atrium of the heart through veins. Blood
then enters the right ventrical and is pumped through
pulmonary artery to lungs .

Most abundant cells in the blood are RBCs. These

contains HB(Which give red colour to blood). T the ion
containing haem portion of HB helps in transportation of
O2 and CO2 and also increases their solubility in blood.
 History of Discoveries
It was not until the year 1900 . When KARL
LANDSTEINER at the university of vierma ,discovered “why
some blood transfusion is successful while others are deadly” .

He discovered the ABO blood group system by mixing the red cells
and serum of each his staff .He demonstrate that the serum of some
people dumped the red cells of others.
Frame these experiments, he fined the three types of blood groups ,
called A,B and C [c was letter renamed by “ O ” for the German
“Ohne , meaning without”].The fourth ,less frequent blood group
was discovered a year later.

He discovered that group A agglutinates with group B , but never

its with own type ,similar group B agglutinates group A. Group C
blood is different in that it agglutinates with both A and B.

Thus was the discovery for which KARL LANDSTEINER

received Noble prize in physiology and Medicine in 1930.
 Karl Landsteiner
Born : 14th June ,1868
Birth Place : Vienna , Austria
Died : 26th June,1943
Location of Death : New york city
Gender : Male
Ethnicity : white
Sexual orientation : Straight
Occupation : Doctor
Nationality :United States
Executive Summary : Discovered blood group
Medical school : MD. University of Vienna
(1891)
Nobel prize for Medicine in 1930
ABO BLOOD

GROUPING
The ABO blood group system is the most important
blood group system in human blood transfusion
.The associated anti –A and anti –B antibodies are
usually JGM antibodies.
The I allele gives type A.
The I allele gives type B.
The i allele gives type o.
I and I both are dominant over I.
I and I both alleles shows co-dominance.
resulting in AB blood group.

Red blood cell type

 Antigens
The ABO antigens are located on the surface of the red
blood cells . These antigens are either sugars or proteins
that are attached to various components in RBC
membrane.
The difference between A and B blood antigens is a
single sugar at the end of antigens
 Type O lacles the terminal sugar.
 Type A antigens has a terminal N-
acetylgalactosamine.
 Type B has a terminal galactose.
Type A : If you belong to blood group A . You have a
antigens on the surface of RBC and B antigens in
your plasma .
Type B : If you belong to blood group B , you have B
antigens on the surface of RBC and B antigens in
your plasma .
Type AB : If you belong to blood group AB . You
have both A and B antigens on the surface and no
antibody in your plasma .
Type O : If you belong to blood group O , you have
neither A nor B antigens on surface but you have both
the antibodies in your blood plasma .
Hence individuals with type AB blood group may A
receive blood from individuals( donors ) of type B ,AB
or O.
Type AB blood group is referred to as universal recipient.
Individuals of type O may receive blood only
from donors of type O blood.
Type O blood is called the universal donor group.
 Rh - factor
RH blood group system is the 2nd most important
blood group system Rhesus(Rh) factor is an
inherited protein found on the surface of red blood
cells. If your blood has the protein. You’re Rh +ve .
If your blood locks the protein ,you’re Rh –ve.
Similar to the masking effect of O gene in ABO blood
types , the Rh – gene is also masked by the presence of
Rh+ genotype.
Therefore a person may have Rh + blood type and
can still have an Rh –gene. Furthermore ,2 parents
with Rh+ blood types can have a child with Rh-blood
type.
The Rh antigen poses a danger for the Rh-person ,
who lacks the antigen, if Rh + blood is given in
transfusion . If Rh+ blood is given to the Rh-person ,
antibodies will form which will attack foreign red
blood cell causing them to clump together . This
followed by hemdysis/destruction of RBC ,causing
serious illness and sometimes death
It can also effect sometime in pregnancy

Result :
• If you are Rh+ ,no action is needed.
• But if you are Rh-,and your body is Rh+ , there’s a
potential for your body to produce antibodies that
could be harmful during pregnancy.
 Inheritance
Blood group are inherited from both parents . The ABO blood
type is controlled by a single gene having three alleles .That’s is,
IA ,IB and i. The gene encodes for glycosyltransferase , that
is, an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the
RBC antigens
Autosomal chromosome The genes are located on the
long arm of chromosome 9 .

IA allele gives type of A,,IB

allele gives type of B , and I
gives O.
IA and IB are dominant over
i , so I people have type O.

IA and IB or IAi have type A.

IA and IB or IBi have type B.
IA and IB people have both phenotypes as they express a
specific dominance relationship –”Co-dominance “.Which
means that they A and Type B parents can have AB child.
A type A and type B couple can also have a O
type child if they are both hetrozygous
(Iai,Ibi,).Therefore an O child is not O direct
proof of illegitimacy.
The cis-AB phenotype has a single anzyme that
secretes both A and B antigens .The resulting
RBC do not usually express A or B antigens at
the same level that would be expected on common
group A .or B RBC which can help solve the
problem of an apparently genetically impossible
blood group.
 Population Data
The distribution of the blood A,B,O and AB verses across
the world according to the population.
ABO – can Blood Groups be used
as Legal Paternity Testing?
Mother , father Possible child Impossible
child
A and A O or A AB or B
B and B O or B A or AB
A and B O or A or B or AB -
A and O O or A B or AB
O and B O or B A or AB
O and O O A or B or
AB
A and AB A or B or AB
O
B and AB A or B or AB
O
AB and AB A or B or AB O
AB and O A or B O or AB
 Serology
Serology tests are blood test that look for antibodies in
your blood.
It is the most commonly
Used technique during the blood transfusion which
helps in the direct detection of ABO antigens and also
in diagnosing various disease conditions.
It helps us in:
Determination of the blood type with a crossmatch.
Knowing of ABO group and Rh type.
Screening for possible imfectious agents that could
be transmitted with transfussion.

Serology test are done for:

ABO blood grouping
Predecting human retrouiruses like HIV
Viral hepatits like hepatits B.
 How to Know Your Blood Type
1. Mix the blood with 3 different reagents
including either of the 3 different antibodies
A,B or Rh antibodies.
2. Then you take a took and at what has
happened .In which mixtures has agglutination
occurred? The agglutination indicates that the
blood has reacted with a certain antibody and
so is not compatible with blood containing that
kind of antibody .If the blood does not
agglutination ,it indicates that the blood does
not have antigens brinding the special antibody
in the reagent.
3. If you Know which antigens are in the blood
person’s blood,its easy to figure out which blood
gp he/she belongs to!
 survey

Aim : To verify laws of blood group inheritance.

Experiment: Blood groups reports of various
families collected.
Family number .1
Name Relation
Blood group