Euclid, Elements

o. A Treatise on the Differential Calculus.
With numerous Examples. Fourth Edition. Crown

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EUCLID
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:
THE ELEMENTS Or.
EUCLID
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES;
COMPRISIXG THE FIRST SIX BOOKS AND PORTIONS OF THE ELEVENTH

AND TWELFTH BOOKS;
WITH NOTES, AN APPENDIX, AND EXERCISES
BY
I. TODHUNTEE, M.A., F.E.S.
NEW EDITION.
Sontion ant CTambritige
MACMILLAN AND CO.

TORONTO: COPP, CLARK, AND CO.
1869.
[All Bights reserved.]

PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY. 31. A.
AT THE UMVE&SITY PKJiSS.
345(^7
PEEFACE.
In offering to students and teachers a new edition of

the Elements of Euclid, it will be proper to give some ac-
count of the plan on which it has been arranged, and of the

advantages which it hopes to present.
Geometry may be considered to form the real founda-
tion of mathematical instruction. It is true that some
acquaintance with Arithmetic and Algebra usually precedes
the study of Geometry; but in the former subjects a begin-
ner spends much of his time in gaining a practical facility
in the application of rules to examples, while in the latter
subject he is wholly occupied in exercising his reasoning
fiiculties.
In England the text-book of Geometry- consists of the

Elements of Euclid ; for nearly every official programme of
instruction or examination explicitly includes some portion
of this work. Numerous attempts have been made to find
an appropriate substitute for the Elements of Euclid but ;
such attempts, fortunately, have hitherto been made in

vain. The advantages attending a common standard of
reference in such an important subject, can hardly be over-
estimated ; and it is extremely improbable, if Euclid were
once abandoned, that any agreement would exist as to the
author who should replace him. It cannot be denied that
vm PREFACE.
defects and difficulties occur in the Elements of Euclid, and
that these become more obvious as we examine the work
more but probably during such examination the
closely ;
conviction will grow deeper that these defects and diffi-

culties are due in a great measure to the nature of the
subject and to the place which it occupies in a course
itself,
of education and it may be readily believed that an equally

;
minute criticism of any other work on Geometry would

reveal more and graver blemishes.
Ofthe editions of Euclid that of Robert Simson has
all
been the most extensively used in England, and the pre-

sent edition substantiallyreproduces Simson's; but his
translation has been carefully
compared with the original,
and some alterations have been made, which it is hoped
will be found to be improvements. These alterations, how-
ever, are of no great importance most of them have been
;
introduced with the view of rendering the language more

uniform, by constantly using the same words when the
same meaning is to be expressed.
As the Elements of Euclid are usually placed in the
hands of yomig students, it is important to exhibit the work
in such a form as will assist them in overcoming the diffi-
culties which they experience on their first introduction to
processes of continuous argument. Xo method appears to
be so useful as that of breaking up the demonstrations into
their constituent parts; this was strongly recommended
by Professor De Morgan more than thirty years ago as a
suitable exercise for students, and the plan has been adopt-
ed more or less closely in some modern editions. An ex-
cellent example of this method of exhibiting the Elements
of Euclid will be found in an edition in quarto, published
at the Hague, in the French language, in 17(j2. Two per-
sons are named in the title-page as concerned in the work,
;
PREFACE. IX
Koenig and Blassicrc. This edition has served as the

model for that which is now offered to the student: some
slight modifications have necessarily been made, owing to
the ditlerence in the size of the pages.
It will be perceived then, that in the present edition
each distinct assertion in the argument begins a new line
and at the ends of the lines are placed the necessary refer-
ences to the preceding principles on which the assertions
depend. Moreover, the longer propositions are distributed
into subordinate parts, which are distinguished by breaks
at the beginning of the lines.
This edition contains all the propositions which are
usually read in the Universities. After the text will be
found a selection of notes ; these are intended to indicate
and explain the principal difficulties which have been
noticed in the Elements of Euclid, and to supply the most
important inferences which can be drawn from the propo-
sitions. The notes relate to Geometry exclusively; they
do not introduce developments involving Arithmetic and
Algebra, because these latter subjects are always studied
in special works, and because Geometry alone presents suf-
ficient matter to occupy the attention of early students.
After some hesitation on the point, all remarks relating to
Logic have also been excluded. Although the study of

Logic ai)pears to be reviving in this country, and may
eventiually obtain a more assured position than it now
holds in a course of liberal education, yet at present few
persons take up Logic before Geometry ; and it seems
therefore premature to devote space to a subject which will
be altogether unsuitable to the majority of those who use a
work like the present.
After the notes will be found an Appendix, consisting of
propositions supplemental to those in the Elements of
Euclid; it is hoped that a judicious choice has been made
X PREFACE,
from the abundant materials which exist for such an Ap-
pendix. The propositions selected are worthy of notice on
various grounds ; some for their simplicity, some for their
value as geometrical facts, and some as being problems
which may naturally suggest themselves, but of which the
solutions are not very obvious.
The work finishes with a collection of exercises. Geo-
metrical deductions afford a most valuable discipline for a
student of mathematics, especially in the earher period of
his course ; the numerous departments of analysis which
subsequently demand his attention will leave him but little
time then for pure Geometry. It seems however that the
habits of mind which the study of pure Geometry tends to
form, furnish an advantageous corrective for some of the
evils resulting from an exclusive devotion to Analysis, and
it is therefore desirable to engage the attention of begin-
ners with geometrical exercises.
Many persons whose duties have rendered them familiar
with the examination of large numbers of students in
elementary mathematics have noticed with regret the
frequent failures in geometrical deductions. Several col-
lections of exercises already exist, but the general com-
plaint is that they are too difficult. Those in the present
volume may be divided into two parts ; the first part con-
tains 440 exercises, which it is hoped will not be found
beyond the power of early students the second part consists
;
of the remainder, which may be reserved for pi-actice at a

later stage. These exercises have been principally selected
from College and Univei-sity examination papers, and have
been tested by long experience with pupils. It svill be seen
that they are distributed into sections according to the
propositions in the Elements of Euclid on which they chiefly
depend. As far as possible they are arranged in order of
difficulty, but it must sometimes happen, as is the case
PREFACE. XI
in the Elements of Euclid, that one example prepares

the way for a set of others which are much easier than
itself. be observed that the exercises relate to
It should
pure Geometry; all examples which would find a more
suitable place in works on Trigonometry or Algebraical

Geometry have been carefully rejected.
It only remains to advert to the mechanical execution
of the volume, to which great attention has been devoted.
The be found to be unusually large and dis-
figures will
tinct, and they have been repeated when necessary, so that
they always occur in immediate connexion with the corre-
sponding text. The type and paper have bev.n chosen so
as to render the volume as clear and attractive as possible.
The design of the editor and of the pultlishers has been to
produce a practically useful edition of the Elements of
Euclid, at a moderate cost and they trust that the design
;
has been fairly realised.

Any suggestions or corrections relating to the work
will be most thankfully received.
I. TODIIUNTER.
St John's College,
October 1862.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introductory Remarks xv
Book I I
Book II 52
Book III 71
Book IV , 113
Book V 134
Book VI 173
Book XI 220
Book XII 244
Notes on Euclid's Elements 2 50
Appendix 292
Exercises in Euclid 340
INTRODUCTOHY REMAKES.
The subject of Plane Geometry is here presented to the

student arranged in six books, and each book is subdivided
into propositions. The propositions are of two kinds, pro-
hlems and theorems. In a problem something is required
to be done; in a theorem some new principle is asserted to
be true.
A "We have first
proposition consists of various parts.
the general enunciation of the problem or theorem; as for
example, To describe an equilateral triangle on a given
finite straight line, or Any tico angles of a triangle are
together less than two right angles. After the general
enunciation follows the discussion of the proposition. First,
the enunciation is repeated and applied to the particular
figure which is to be considered as for example. Let
; AB
he the given straight line : it is required to describe an
equilateral triangle on AB. The construction then usually
follows, which states the necessary straight lines and circles
which must be drawn in order to constitute the solution of
the problem, or to furnish assistance in the demonstration
of the theorem. Lastly, we have the demonstration itself,
which shews that the problem has been solved, or that tho
theorem is true.
Sometimes, however, no construction is required and ;
sometimes the construction and demonstration are com-

bhied.
xvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
The demonstration is a process of reasoning in which
we draw inferences from results ah*eady obtained. These
results consist partly of truths established in former propo-
sitions,or admitted as obvious in commencing the subject,
and partly of truths which follow from the construction
that has been made, or which are given in the S7q')2')osition
of the proposition itself The word hj/pothesis is used in
the same sense as siqjposition.
To assist the student in following the steps of the
reasoning, references are given to the results already ob-
tained which are required in the demonstration. Thus I. 5
indicates that we appeal to the result established in the
fifthproposition of the First Book; Constr. is sometimes
used as an abbreviation of Construction, and Hyp. as an
abbreviation of Hypothesis.
It is usual to place the letters q.e.f. at the end of the
discussion of a problem, and the letters q.e.d. at the end of
the discussion of a theorem, an abbreviation for
q.e.f. is
quod erat faciendum, that is, ichich was

to he done; and
Q.E.D. is an abbreviation for quod erat demonstranduin,
that is, which was to he proved.
EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
BOOK I.
DEFINITIONS.
1. A POi^'T is that -which has no parts, or which has no

magnitude.
2. A line is length without breadth.
3. The extremities of a line are points.
4. A straight line is that which hes evenly between

its extreme points.
5. A superficies is that which has only length and

breadth.
6. The extremities of a superficies arc lines.
7. A plane superficies is that in which any two j^.oints

being taken, the straight line between them lies wholly in
that superficies.
8. A plane angle is the inclination of two lines to one

another in a plane, which meet together, but are not in the
snnio dircr-tiou.
1
EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
9. A plane rectilineal angle is the inclination of two
straight lines to one another, which meet together, but are
not in the same straight line.
Note. "When several angles are at one point B, any

one of them is expressed by three letters, of which the
letter which is at the vertex of the angle, that is,
at the
point at which the straight lines that contain the angle
meet one another, is put between the other two letters,
and one of these two letters is somewhere on one of
those straight lines, and the other letter on the
otlier
straight line. Thus, the angle which is coutamed

by the
E^
straight lines AB, CB is named the angle ABC, or CBA ;
the angle which is contained by the straight lines AB, DB

is named the angle ABD, or DBA
and the angle which
;
is contained by the straight lines DB, CB is named the

angle DBC, or CBD
but if there be only one angle at a
;
point, it may be expressed by a letter placed at that point;

as the angle at E.
10. "When a straight line standing

on another straight line, makes the adja-
cent angles equal to one another, each of
the angles is called a right angle and ;
the straight line which stands on the

other is called a perpendicular to it.
11. An obtuse angle is that which

is greater than a right angle.
12. An acute angle is that which

is less than a right angle.
: : :: :
DEFINITIONS. 3
13. A term or boundary is the extremity of any thing.
14. A figure is that which is enclosed by one or more

boundaries.
15. A
circle is a plane figure
contained by one line, which is
called the circumference, and is
such, that all straight lines drawn
from a certain point within the
fig'ure to the circumference are
equal to one another
16. And this pomt is called the centre of the circle.
17. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn

through the centre, and terminated both ways by the cir-
cumference.
[A radius of a circle is a straight line di-awn from the

centre to the circumference.]
18. A semicircle is the figure contained by a diameter

and the part of the circimiference cut off by the diameter.
19. A segment of a circle is the figure contained by a

straight line and the circumference which it cuts off.
20. Rectilineal figures are those which are contained
by straight lines
21. Trilateral figures, or triangles, by three straight

lines
22. Quadrilateral figures by four straight lines
23. Multilateral figiires, or polygons, by more than

four straight lines.
24. Of three-sided figures,

An equilateral triangle is that wliich
has three equal sides
1—2
; : : , :
4 EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
25. An isosceles triangle is that
which has two sides equal A
26. A scalene triangle is that

which has three unequal sides
27. A right-angled triangle is that

\vhich has a right angle
/
[The side opposite to the right
angle in a right-angled triangle is fre-
quently called the hj-potenuse.]
28. An obtuse-angled triangle is

that which has an obtuse angle :
29. An acute-angled triangle is

that which has three acute angles.
Of four-sided figures,
30. A square is that which has

all its sides equal, and all its angles
a right anglefe : ,^
31. An oblong is that which lias

/ all its angles right angles,4>ut n^t all
A its sides equal ^y pa^tAliiC ^^ ^
32. A rhombus is that which has

all itssides equal, but its angles are
not right angles
z.
: :
DEFINITION'S.
33. A
rhomboid is that which has
itsopposite sides equal to one another,
but all its sides are not equal, nor its
angles right angles
34. All other four-sided figures besides these are

called trapeziums.
35. Parallel straight lines are such _. ^ —

as are in the same plane, and -which
being produced ever so far both ways —
do not meet.
[Note. The terms oblong and rhomboid are not often
used. Practically the following definitions are used. Any
four-sided figure is called a quadrilateral. line joiningA
two opposite angles of a quadrilateral is called a diagonal.
A quadrilateral which has its opposite sides parallel is
called a iiarallelogram. The words square and rhonibus
are used in the sense defined by Euclid and the word ;
rectangle is used instead of the word ohlong*
Some writers propose to restrict the word trapezium

to a quadrilateral which has two of its sides parallel ; and
it would certainly be convenient if this restriction were
universally adopted.]
POSTULATES.
Let it be granted,
1. That a straight line may be drawn from any one
point to any other pomt
2. That a terminated straight line may be produced to

any length in a straight line :
3. And that a circle may be described from any centre,

at any distance from that centre.
(.^n. u j. .c„ î-<^,| ^^
I
6 EUCLWS ELEMENTS,
AXIOMS.
1. Tilings which are equal to the same thing are equal
to one another.
2. If equals be added to equals the wholes are equal
3. If equals be taken from equals the remainders are

equal.
4. If equals be added to unequals the wholes are

unequal.
5. If equals be taken from unequals the remainders

are unequal.
6. Things which are double of the same thmg are

equal to one another.
7. Things which are halves of the same thing are

8. Magnitudes which coincide with one another, that

is, w^hich exactly fill the same space, are equal to one
another.
9. The whole is greater than its part.
10. Two straight lines cannot enclose a space.
11. All right angles are equal to one another.
12.If a straight line meet two straight lines, so as to

make the two interior angles on the same side of it taken
together less than two right angles, these straight lines,
being continually produced, shall at length meet on that
side on which are the angles which are loss than two right
anjrlos.
PROPOSITION 1. PROBLEM.
To dcsrribe an equilateral triangle on a given finite

straight line.
Let AB
be the given straiglit line: it is required to
describe an equilateral triangle on AB,
From the centre A, at the distance AB, describe the

circle BCD. [Postulate 3.
From the centre B, at the distance BA, describe the
circle ACE. [Postulate 3.
From the point C, at which the circles cut one another, draw
the straight lines CA and CB to the points A and B. [Post. 1.
ABC shall be an equilateral triangle.
Because the point A is the centre of the circle BCD,
ACis equal to AB. [Definition 15.
And because the point B is the centre of the circle ACE,

BCis equal to BA. [Definition 15.
But it has been shewn that CA is equal to AB;

thereforeCA and CB are each of them equal to AB.
But things which are equal to the same thing are equal to
one another. [Axiom 1.
Tliercfore CA is equal to CB.

Therefore CA, AB, BC arc equal to one another.
Wherefore t/ie ABC is equilateral,
triangle [Def. 24.
and it is described on the given straight line AB. q.e,f.
;
8 EUOLIU^ ELEMENTS.
From a given 2ôint to draio a straight line equal to a
given straight line.
Let A bo the given point, and BC the given straight
line : it is required to draw from the point A a straight
line equal to BC.
From the point A to -Bdraw
the straight line AB ;
[Post. 1.
and on it describe the equi-

lateral triangle DAB, [I. 1.
and produce the straight lines

L>A, DB
to E and F. \PoU. 2.
From the centre B, at the dis-
tance BC, describe the circle
CGH, meeting i>iât G. [Post. 3.
From the centre D, at tlio dis-

tance DG, describe the circle ^
GKL, meeting DEai L. [Post. 3.
AL shall be equal to BC.
Because the point B is the centre of the circle CGH,
BCis Gqiial to BG. [Definition 15.
And because the point Z> is the centre of the circle GKL^
DL is equal to DG ;
[Definition 15.
and DA, DB parts of them are equal [Definition 24.
therefore the remainder AL \% equal to the remauider

BG. [Axiom 3.
But it has been shewn that BC is equal to BG ;
therefore AL and BC are each of them equal to BG.

But things which arc C(iual to the same thing are equal to
one anothci*. [Axiom 1.
Therefore ^X is equal to BC.

"Wherefore from the given point A a straight line AL
has hee?i drawn equal to the given straight line BC. q.e.f.
From the greater of two given straight lines to cut off
a part equal to the less.
Let AB and Cbc the two given straight lines, of which
BOOK I. 3, 4.
AB is the greater : it is required to cut off from ABy tho

greater, a part equal to 6'the less.
From the point A draw
the straight line AD equal
to (7; LI- i^.
and from the centre A, at

the distance AD^ describe
the circle DEF
meeting AB
at E. [Postulate 3.
AE shall be equal to C.
Because the point A is the centre of the circle DEF,
AE is equal to AD. [Definition 15.
But C is equal to AD. [Construction.
Therefore AE and 6' are each of them equal to AD.
Therefore AE equal to C.
is [Axiom 1.
Wherefore fro?n AB the giyater of two given straight

lines ajyart AE has been cut oj" equal to C the q.e.f. less,
PEOPOSITION 4. THEOREM.
If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two
sides of the other, each to each, and have also the angles
contained hg those sides equal to one another, thcg shall
also have their bases or third sides equal; and (he two
triangles shall be equal, and their other angles shall be
equal, each to each,namclg those to ichich the equal sides
are opjjosite.
Let ABC, DEFhc two triangles which have the two sides
AB,ACcqv[al to the two aidcsDE, DF, each to cacli, nauiclv,
AB to DE, and to AC
DF, and the angle BAO
equal to the angle EDF:
the base -C6' shall be equal
to the base EF, and tho
triangle ABCto the tri-
angle DEF, and the other
angles shall be equal, cacli
to each, to which the equal
sides are opposite, namelv. the angle ABC to the angle
DEF, and the angle AOB
to the angle DFE.
10 EUCLID'S ELEMENTS,
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF,
so that the point Amay be on the point Z>, anil the
straight line ABon the
^ -^
straight line DE, the f\ /\
point Bwill coincide with / \ '
"^
the point E, because AB / \

is equal to DE. [Hyp.
And, AB coinciding with
DE,AGvd\\ fall on Z>i^,
because the angle BAG ^
isequal to the angle EDF. {Ilypotliesis.
Therefore also the point G will coincide with the point F,

because AGi^ equal to DF. [Hypothesis.
But the point B

was shewn to coincide with the point E,
therefore the base BG
will coincide with the base ;
EF
because, B
coinciding with E
and G with F, if the base BG
does not coincide with the base EF, two straight lines will
enclose a space ; which is impossible. [Axiom 10.
Therefore the base BG coincides with the base EF, and is
equal to it. [Axiom 8.
Therefore the whole triangle yl^S 67 coincides with the whole

triangleDEF, and is equal to it. [Axiom 8.
And the other angles of the one coincide with the other
angles of the other, and are equal to them, namely, the
angle ABC io the angle DEF, and the angle to tho AGB
angle DFE.
"Wherefore, if two triangles &c. q.e.p.
at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal
The angles
to one another; and if the equal sides be jî'odticed the
angles on the other side of the base shall be equal to one
another.
Let ABC
be an isosceles triangle, having tho side AB
equal to the side AG, and let the straight Hues AB, AC
be produced to D
and E: the angle ABC
shall be equal to
the angle AGB, and the angle CBD
to the angle BCE.
In BD take any point F,
and fromyl^the greater cwioS AG equal toyl^the less, [1.3.
; ;
BOOK L 5. 11
andjoini^C, G^^.
Because -4iîs equal to ylG^, [Constr.
and AB to AC^ [Hi/pothesis.
the two sidesFA, AC arc equal to the

two sides GA, AB, each to each and ;
they contain the angle FAG common

to the two triangles AFC, AGB ;
therefore the base FC is equal to the

base GB, and the triangle AFC to
the triangle ylG'i?, and the remaining
angles of the one to the remaining
angles of the other, each to each, to
which the equal sides are opposite,
namely the angle ACF to the angle ABG, and the angle
AFC to the angle AGB. [I. 4.
And because the whole AF is equal to the whole AG,

of which the parts AB, AC nvo equal, [Hypothesis.
the remainder BF is equal to the remainder CG. [Axiom 3.

And FC was shewn to be equal to GB
therefore the two sides BF, FC are equal to the two sides
CG, GB, each to each
and the angle î^C was shewn to be equal to the angle CGB ;
therefore the triangles BFC, CGB are equal, and their

other angles are equal, each to each, to wiiich the equal
sides are opposite, namely the angle FBC
to the angle
GCB, and the angle BCFto the angle CBG, [I. 4,
And since it has been sliewn that the whole angle î?^'
is cr|ual to the whole angle ACF,
and that the parts of these, the angles CBG, BCF
are also
equal ;
therefore the remaining angle ABCis equal to the remain-

ing angle ACB, which are the angles at the base of the
triangle ABC. [Axiom 3.
And has also been she^vn that the angle

it is FBC
e<iual to the angle GCB, which are the angles on the other
side of the base.
Wherefore, the angles &c. q.k.d.
Corollai7. Hence every equilateral triangle is also
equiangular.
12 EUCLIUS ELEMENTS.
PROPOSITION 6. THEOREM.
If itco angles of a triangle he equal to one another, the
sides also which suhtend, or are oppo-
site to, the equal angles, shall be equal
to one another.
ABC be a triangle, Laving tlio
Let
angle ABC equal to the angle A CB the :
side AG shall bo equal to the side AB.

For if ^(7 bo not equal to AB, one
of them must be greater than the otlicr.
Let AB\>Q the greater, and from it
cut oflf DB equal to AC the less, [I.
and join DC.

Then, because in the triangles DBC, ACB,
DB is equal to AC, [Construction.
and BC is common to both,
the two sides DB, BC are equal to the two sides AC, CB,
each to each ;
and the angle DBC is equal to the angle A CB [Ili/pothesis.

;
therefore the base DC

is equal to the base AB, and the
triangle DBCifi equal to the triangle ACB, [I. 4.
the less to the greater which is absurd.

; [Axiom 9.
Therefore AB
is not unequal to AC, that is, it is equal to it.
AVherefore, if two angles &c. q.e.d.

Corollary. Uenco every equiangular triangle is also
equilateral.
On the same hase, and on the same side of it, there can-
not he two triangles having their
sides which are terminated at one
extremity of the hase equal to one
another, and likewise those which
are terminated at the other ex-
tremity.
If it be possible, on the same
base AB, and on the same side of
it, let there be two triangles ACB,
ADB, having their sides CA, DA,
which are terminated at the extremity A of the base, equal
BOOK I. 7,8. 13
to one another, and likewise their sides CB^ DB, wliich arc
terminated at B.
Join CD. In the case in which the vertex of each tri-
angle is without the other triangle ;
because ylCis equal to AD, [Hypothesis.

the angle ACD is equal to the angle ADC. [I. 6.
But the angle ACD is greater than the angle BCD, [Ax. 9.
therefore the angle ADC is also greater than the angle

BCD',
much more then is the angle BDG greater than the angle
BCD.
Again, because BC is equal to BD, [IFypothc-us.
the angle BDCis equal to the angle BCD. [I. 5.
But it has been shewn to be greater ; which is impossible.

But if one of the vertices as
Z>,be within the other triangle
ACn, produce AC, AD
to B, F.
Then because AC
\% equal to
^Z), in the triangle ^Ci>, \Hyp.
the angles BCD, FDC, on the
other side of the base CD, are
equal to one another. [I. 5.
But the angle BCD is gi'cator

than the angle BCD, [Axiom 9.
therefore the angle FDC is also greater than the angle

BCD;
much more then is the angle BDC gi'eater than the angle
BCD.
Again, because i?Cis equal to BD, [Hiipot'hesis.
the angle BDC is equal to the angle BCD. [I. 5.
But it has been shewn to be greater which is impossible.

;
The case in which the vertex of one triangle is on a side

of tlic other needs no demonstration.
AVherefore, on the same base &c. q.e.d,
If ttco triangleshare two sides of the one equal to two
sides of the other, each to eadi,^ and have liketcise their
14 EUGLIUi^ ELEMENTS.
bases equalf the angle which is contained by the two sides
of the one shall be equal to the angle which is contained by
the two sides, equal to thein, of the other.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles, having the two sides
AB, AC equal to the two sides DE, DF, each to each,
namely ^^ to DE, and AC to DF, and also the base BC
equal to the base EF: the angle BAC be equal to the
sl\2ill
angle EDF.
For if the triangle ABC

he applied to the triangle DEF,
so that the point B may be on the point E, and the straight
line BC on the straight line EF, the point C
will also coin-
cide with the point F, because BCis equal to EF. [Hyp.
Therefore, BC coinciding mth EF, BA and AC will coin-
cide with ED and DF.
For if the base BC coincides with the base EF, but the
sides BA, CA do not coincide with the sides ED, FD, but
have a different situation as EG, FG then on the same
;
base and on the same side of it there will be two triangles

having their sides which are terminated at one extremity
of the base equal to one another, and likewise their sides
which are terminated at the other extremity.
But this is impossible. [I. 7.
Therefore since the base BC

coincides M-ith the base EF,
the sides BA, AC
must coincide with the sides ED, DF.
Therefore also the angle BACcoincides with the angle
EDF, and is equal to it. [Axiom 8.
"Wherefore, if two triangles &c. q.e.d.
To bisect a given rectilineal angle, that is to divide it
into two equal angles.
;
BOOK I. 9, 10. 15
Let BACho the given rectilineal

angle ; it is required to bisect it.
Take any point I> in AB, and

from AC cut off AB equal to
AB ; [I. 3.
joinBE, and on BE, on the side

remote from A, describe the equi-
lateral triangle BEF. [1. 1.
Join AF. The straight line AF shall bisect the angle BAG.
Because AB is equal to AE, [Construction.
and AFis common to the two triangles BAF, EAF,
the two sides BA, AF Si,Ye equal to the two sides EA, AF,
each to each
and the base BF is equal to the base EF; [Definition 24.
therefore the angle BAF is equal to the angle EAF. [I. 8.
AVherefore the given rectilineal angle BAG is bisected

hg the straight line AF. q.e.f.
PEOPOSITION 10. PROBLEM.
To bisect a given finite straight line, tJiat is to divide it
into tico equal parts.
Let -^^ be the given straight
line : it is required to divide it into
two equal parts.
Describe on it an equilateral
triangle ABG, [I. 1.
and bisect the angle AGB by the

straight line CB, meeting AB at
B. [r. 9.
AB shall be cut into two equal parts at the point B.

Because AG equal to GB, is [Definition 24.
and GB is common to the two triangles AGB, BGB,
the two sides AG, GB are equal to the two sides BC, CB,
each to each ;
and the angle AGB is equal to the angle BGB ;

[Comtr.
therefore the base AB is equal to the base BB. [T. 4.
"Wherefore tJie given straight line AB is divided into

tico equcd parts at the point B. q.e.f.
;
PROPOSITION n. PROBLEM.
To draw a straight line at right angles to a gicen
straight line, from a gieen F
point in the same.
Let ABbe the given
straight line, and C tiio given
point in it it is required to
:
draw from the point C a

straight line at right angles . --^ ,,-^ ,^ -^
\.oAB. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Take any point I> m AC, and make CE equal to CD. [I. 3,
On DE describe the equilateral triangle DFE, [I. 1.
and join CF.

The straiglit line CF drawn from the given point C shall
be at right angles to the given straight line AB.
Because EC is equal to CE, [Construction.
and CF\^ common to the two triangles DCF, ECF \
the two sides DC^ CF are ecpial to the two sides EC, CF,
each to each
and the base DFh equal to the base EF-, [Definition 24.
therefore the angle DCF is equal to the angle ECF; [I. 8.
and they are adjacent angles.

But when a straight line, standing on another straight
line, makes the adjacent angles ctjual to one another, each
of the angles is called a right angle ; [Definition 10.
therefore each of the angles DCF, ECF is a right angle.
Whereforey5'0?M the gicen 2'>oint C in tlie given straight
line AB, CF has been drawn at right angles to AB. q.e.f.
Corollary. By the help of this problem it may be shewn
that two straiglit lines cannot
have a common segment. E
1 If it be possible, let the
'
two straight lines ABC, ABD

have the segment AB com-
mon to both of them. D
From the point B draw
B C
BE at right angles to AB.
Then, because ABC is a straight line, [Ilnpotlicsis.
the angle CBE is equal to the angle EBA. [Definition 10.

BOOK I. 11, 12. 17
AlsOj because ABD a straight line,

is [ffijpotheîs.
the angle DBE is equal to the angle EBA.

Therefore the angle DBE equal to the angle CBE, [Ax.
is 1.
the less to the greater; which is impossible. [Axiom 9'.
Wherefore t2co straight lines cannot have, a common

segment.
PKOPOSITION 12. PROBLEM.
To draio a straight line /?^>7?<^wîV?<for to a gieen
straight line of an unlimited length, from a given point
without it.
Let î? be the given straight line, which may be pro-
duced to any length both ways, and let C be the given jwint
without it it is required to draw from the point C a
:
straight line perpendicular to AB,

Take any point on D
the other side of AB., and
from the centre G, at the
distance (7i>, describe the
circle EGF^ meeting AB at
F and G. [Postulate 3.
Bisect FG at //, [I. 10.
and join Off.

The straight line CH
drawn from the given pomt C
shall be perpendicular to the given straight line AB.
Join CF, CG.
Because FH
is equal to HG, [Consimction.
and HC is common to the two triangles FITC, GHO;
the two sides FH, HG are equal to the two sides GH, HG,
each to each ;
and the base GF is equal to the base GG [Pcfinkion 15.

;
therefore the angle GHF

is equal to the angle [1. 8. GHG \
and they are adjacent angles.

But when a straight line, standing on another straight lino,
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of the
angles is called a right angle, and the straight line which
stands on the other is called a perpendicular to it. [D^f. 10.
Wherefore a perpendicular GH has been drawn to
the given straight line AB from the given point G icith-
OUt it. Q.E.F.
;

The angles which one straight line makes with another
straight line on one side of it, either are two right angles,
or are together equal to two right angles.
Let the straight line ABmake with the straight line
CD, on one side of it, the angles CBA, ABD
: these either
are two right angles, or are together equal to two right

angles.
D B D B
For if the angle CBA is equal to the angle ABD, each

of tliem is a right angle. [Definition 10.
But if not, from the point B draw BE at right angles to
CD- [I. 11.
therefore the angles CBE, EBD are two right angles. [Dr/lO.
Now the angle CBE is equal to the two angles CBA, ABE;
to each of these equals add the angle EBD ;
therefore the angles CBE, EBD are equal to the three

angles CBA, ABE, EBD. [Axiom 2.
Again, the angle DBA is equal to the two angles DBE,
EBA;
to each of these equals add the angle ABC;
therefore the angles DBA, ABC are equal to the three
angles DBE, EBA, ABC [Axiom 2.
But the angles CBE, EBD have been shewn to be equal
to the same three angles.
CBE, EBD are equal to the angles

Therefore the angles
DBA, ABC [Axiom 1.
But CBE, EBD are two right angles

therefore DBA, ABC are together equal to two right
angles.
AVherefore, t/ie angles &c. q.e.d.
BOOK L 14, 15. 19

Tj\ at a point in a straight line, ttco other straight lines,
on the opposite sides of it, make the adjacent angles toge-
ther equal to two right angles, these two straight lines
shall he in one and the same straight line.
At the point Bin the straight line AB, let the two
straight lines BC, BD, on the opposite sides of AB, make
the adjacent angles ABC, ABD together equal to two
right angles : BD shall be in the same straight line with CB.
For if BD be not in _/V.
the same straight line with /
CB, let BE be in the same /

straight line with it.
Then because the straight

line AB makes with the
straight line CBE, on one _
side of it, the angles ABC, (3 B*''^' D

ABE, these angles are to-
gether equal to two right angles. [I. 13.
But the angles ABC, ABD are also together equal to two
right angles. [Hypothesis.
Therefore the angles ABC, ABE are equal to the angles

ABC, ABD.
From each of these equals take away the common angle
ABC, and the remaining angle ABE
is equal to the remain-
ing angle ABD, {Axiom 3.
the less to the greater ; which is impossible.
Therefore BE is not in the same straight line >vith CB.
And in the same manner it may be she^^^l that no other
can be in the same straight line with it but BD ;
therefore BD
is in the same straight line with CB.
Wherefore, if at a point &c. q.e.d.
If ttco straight lines cut one another, the vertical, or

opposite, angles shall be equal,
2—2
;
20 EUCLUJiS ELEMENTS.
Let the two straight lines AB, CD cut one another at
the point i5J; the angle AEG shall be equal to the angle
DEB, and the angle CEB
to the angle ED.A
Because the straight line
yl^ makes with the straight A E\^ 13
line CD the angles CEA,

-4jE'Z>,these angles are toge- S
\
ther equal to two right angles. [I. 1.3,
Again, because the straight line DE
makes with tiie straight
line AB the angles AED, DEB, these also are together
equal to two right angles. [1. 13.
But the angles CEA, AED
have been shewn to be toge-
ther equal to two right angles.
Therefore the angles CEA, AED
are equal to the angles
AED, DEB.
AED, and the remaining angle CEA is equal to the re-
maining angle DEB. [Axiom 3.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the angle
CEB is equal to the angle AED.
Wherefore, if two straight lines &c. q.e.d.
1. From this it is manifest that, if two straight
Corollary
lines cutone another, the angles Avhich they make at the
point where they cut, are together equal to four right angles.
Corollary 2. And consequently, that all the angles made
by any number of straight lines meeting at one point, are
together equal to four right angles.

If one side of a triangle be j^rodiiced, the exterior angle
shall he greater than either of the interior oj)posite angles.
Let ABC be a triangle, and let one side BC be pro-
duced to D
the exterior angle A CD shall be
: gi'cater than
cither of the interior opposite angles CBA, BAC.
Bisect AC ^t E, [1. 10.
join BE and produce it to F, making EF equal to EB, [I. 3.
and join EC.

Because ^^
is equal to EG, and to EF [Comtr.BE ;
the two sides AE, EB are equal to the two sides CE, EF^
each to each
;
BOOK I. 16, 17. 21
and tho angle AEB is equal to the angle CEF^

because they are opposite ver- ^
tical angles [I. 15.
therefore the triangle AEB

is equal to the triangle CEF^
and the remaining angles to / y^Y'
the remaining angles, each to / y \ /
eacli, to Avhich tlie equal sides //' \ /
are opposite ;
[I. 4, jj- (¥ jj
therefore the angle BAE is \
equal to the angle EOF. \
But the angle EGD is greater \

than the angle EOF. [.1 xiom 9. G\
Therefore the angle xiCD is greater than the angle BAE.
In the same manner if ^6' be bisected, and the side ylC
be produced to G, it may be she^vn that the angle BCG^
that is the angle ACD, is greater than the angle ABC. [1. 15.
Wherefore, if one side &c. q.e.d.

Any ttco angles of a triangle are together less than two
right angles.
Let ABC be a triangle any two of its angles are
:
together less than two right angles.

Produce i?(7 to D.
Then because A CD is the exte-
rior angle of the triangle ABC, it
is greater than the interior oppo-
site angle ABC [I. 10.
To each of these add tlie angleÎ CB

Therefore the angles ACD, ACB
are greater than the angles ABC, ACB.
But the angles ACD, ACB
are together equal to two right
angles. [I. 13.
Therefore the angles ABC, ACB are together less than

two riglit angles.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the angles
BAC, ACB, as also the angles CAB, ABC, are together
less tlian two right angles.
AVlierefore, a)ig tico angles &c. q.e.d.
;;
The greater side of every triangle has the greater
angle opposite to it.
Let ABC he a triangle, of which the side ACh greater
than the side AB the angle ABC is also greater than the
:
angle ACB.
Because ^C is greater than
AB, make AD equal to AB, [I. 3.
and join BD.
Then, because -<4i>-5 is the ex-
terior aii^'^lo of the triangle BDC,
it is greater than the interior op-

posite angle DCB. [I. 16.
But the angle ADB is equal to the angle ABD, [I. 5.
because the side ^Z> is equal to the side AB. [Comtr.

Therefore the angle ABD is also greater than the angle
ACB.
Much more then is the angle ABO greater than the angle
ACB. {Axiom 9.
Wherefore, the greater side &c. q.e.d.

The greater angle of every triangle is siibtended by the
greater side, or has the greater side opposite to it.
Let ABC
be a triangle, of which the angle is ABC
greater than the angle the side ACB
is also greater
: AC
than the side AB.
For if not, A C must be cither
equal to ^^ or less than AB.
But AC ia not equal to AB,
for then the angle ABC would
be equal to the angle -4 (7^; [1.5.
but it is not [H/pothesls.
therefore AC is not equal to AB.
Neither is ylCless than AB,
for then the angle ABC would be less than the angle
ACB; [1.18.
but it is not [Hypothesis.
; ;
BOOK I, 19, 20, 21. 23
therefore AG\$, not less than AB,

And it has been shc>vn that AG\% not equal to AB.
Therefore AC'\^ greater than AB.
Wherefore, the greater angle &c. q.e.d.

Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than
the third side.
Let ABChevi triangle : any two sides of it are together
gi'eater than the tliird side
namely, BA^ AC greater than
BC ; and AB, BC greater than
AC; and BC, CA greater than
AB.
rroducc BA to Z>,
making AD
equal to AC,
and join BC.
Then, because AD is equal to AC, [Construction.
the angle ADC is equal to the angle ACD. [I. 5.
But the angle BCD is greater than the angle ACD. [Ax. 9.
Therefore the angle BCD is greater than the angle BDC.
And because the angle BCD of the triangle BCD is
greater than its angle BDC, and that the greater angle is
subtended by the greater side [I. 19.
therefore the side BD is greater than the side BC.

But BD is equal to BA and AC.
Therefore BA, AC are greater than BC
In the same manner it may be shewn that AB, BC are
greater than AC, and BC, CA greater than AB.
Wherefore, any two sides &c. q.e.d.

Iffrom the ends of the side of a triangle there he draicn
two straight liiies to a point within the triangle, these
shall he less than the other two sides rf the triangle, hut
shall contain a greater angle.
:
Let ABGbe a triangle, and from the points B^ C,
the ends of the side BC,
let the two straight lines
BD, CD be drawn to the
point D
witliin the triangle
BD, DC shall be less
than the other two sides
BA, AG of the triangle,
but shall contain an angle
BDC greater than the
angle BAC.
Produce BD to meet AC ai E.
Because two sides of a triangle are greater than the
third side, the two sides Bxi, AE
of the triangle are ABE
greater than the side BE. [I. 20.
To each of these add EC.

Therefore BA, ^(7 are greater than BE, EC.
Again ; the two sides CE, ED of the triangle CED are
greater than the third side CD. [I. 20.
To each of these add DB.

Therefore CE, EB are greater than CD, DB.
But it has been shewn that BA, AC are gi-eater than
BE, EC',
much more then are BA, ^(7 greater than BD, DC
Again, because the exterior angle of any triangle is
greater than the interior opposite angle, the exterior
angle BDC of the triangle CDE
is greater than the angle
CED. [I- 1<^'-
For the same reason, the exterior angle CEB of the tri-
angle ABE is greater than the angle BAE.
But it has been shewn that the angle BDC

is greater than
the angle CEB ;
much more then is the angle BDC

greater than the angle
BAC.
Wherefore, iffrom the ends &c. q.e.d.
BOOK I. 22. 2j

To make a triangle of which the sides shall be equal to
three given straight lines, but any two whatever ojf these
7nust be greater than the third.
Let A, B, Che the three given straight lines, of which
any two whatever are greater than the third; namely,
B
A and greater than C A and C greater than ; and B ;
B and G greater than A it is required to make a triangle

:
of which the sides shall be equal to A, B, C. each to each.

Take a straight line
DB terminated at the X
point Z>, but unlimited
towards B, and make
£>F equal to A, FG
equal to B, and GH
equal to C. [I. 3.
From the centre F,

at the distance FD,
describe the circle
DKL. {Po&t. 3.
Fromthe centre G, at the distance GH, describe the circle

HLK, cutting the former circle at K.
Join KF, KG. The triangle shall have KFG its sides
equal to the three straight lines A, B, G.
Because the point F is the centre of the circle DKL,
FD is equal to FK [Dejiniiiun 15.
But FD is equal to A. [Construction.
Therefore FK is eiiual to yl. [Axiom 1.
Again, because the point G is the centre of the circle HLK,

GH is equal to GK [Definition 15.
But GH is equal to G. [Constn(ctio)i.
Therefore GK is equal to G. [Axiom 1.
And FG is equal to B. [Construction.

Therefore the three straight lines KF, FG, GK are equal
to the three A, B, G.
Wherefore t/ie triangle KFG hajf its three sides
KF, FG, GK equal to the three given straight line.-i
A,B,G. Q.E.F.

At a given point in a given straight line, to make a
a given rectilineal angle.
rectilineal aiigle equal to
Let AB be the given straight line, and A

the given
point in it, and DCE the given rectilineal angle it is :
required to make at the given point ^,in the given straight

line AB, an angle equal to the given rectilineal angle
DCE.
In CD, CE take any
points D, E, and join DE.
Make the triangle AFG the
sides of which shall be equal
to the three straight lines
CD, DE, EC', so that ^F
shall be equal to CD, AG io
CE, and EG to DE. [I. 22.
The angle FAG shall be
equal to the angle DCE.
Because FA, AG are equal to DC, CE, each to each,
and the base EG equal to the base DE {Construction.
;
therefore the angle FAG is equal to the angle DCE. [I. 8.
Wherefore at the given point A in the given straight

line AB, the angle FAG has been made equal to the given
rectilineal angle DCE. q.e.f.
If two triangles liave tico sides of the one equal to two

sides of the other, each to each, hut the angle contained hy
the two sides of one of thcni greater than the angle con-
tained hy the two sides equal to them, of the other, the base
of that which has the greater angle shall be greater than
the base of the other.
Let ABC, DEF

bo two triangles, which have the two
sides AB, AC, equal to the two sides DE, DF, each to
each, namely, AB
io DE, and AC
to DF, but the angle
Z>^ (7 greater than the angle EDF: the base BC shall be
BOOK I. 24, 25. 27
greater than the base

EF.
Of the two sides
DE, DF, let DE be
the side which is not
gi'eater than the other.
At the point in D
the straight line DE,
make the angle EDG
equal to the angle
BAC, [I. 23.
and make DG
equal to ^C or DF, [1.3.
and join EG, GF.
Because ABis equal to DEj [ITypothesM.
2ind AC to DG; [Construction.
the two sides BA^ AC are equal to the two sides ED, DG,
each to each ;
and the angle BACis equal to the angle EDG ;

[Constr.
therefore the base ^Cis equal to the base EG. [I. 4.
And because DG is equal to DF, [Con^ruction.

the angle DGFis equal to the angle DFG. [I. 5.
But the angle DGF is greater than the angle EGF. [Ax. 9.
Therefore the angle DFG is greater than the angle EGF.
Much niore then is the angle EFG

greater than the angle
EGF. [Axiom 9.
And because the angle EFG of the triangle EFG is
gi'eater than its angle EGF, and that the greater angle is
subtended by the greater side, [I. 19.
therefore the side EG is greater than the side EF.

But EG was shewn to be equal to BC;
therefore BC is greater than EF.
'Wherefore, if two triangles &c. q.e.d.

If two triangles hare two sides rf the one equal to two
sides of t/ic other, each to each, but the base of the o7i«
;
28 EUCLIirS ELEMENTS.
greater than the base of the other, the angle contained by
the sides of that which has the greater base, shall be
greater than the angle contained by the sides equal to
them, of the other.
Let ABC, DEF
be two triangles, which have the two
sides AB, equal to the two sides DE, DF, each to
AG
each, namely, AB
to DE, and AC
to DF, but the base
BC greater than the base EF\ the angle shall BAG
be greater than the angle
EDF.
For if not, the angle
^^Cmust be either equal
to the angle EDF or less
than the angle EDF.
But the angle BAG \& not
equal to the angle EDF,
for then the base BG
would be equal to the base EF; [!• 4.
but it is not; [Hypothesis.
therefore the angle BAG is not equal to the angle EDF.

Neither is the angle BAGle^s than the angle EDF,
for then the base ^C would be less than the base EF ; [1. 24.
but it is not {Hypothesis.
therefore the angle not less than the angle EDF.

BAGis
And it has been shoAvn that the angle is not equalBAG
to the angle EDF.
Therefore the angle is greater than the angle EDF.
BAG
Wherefore, if tico tria)igles &c. q.e.d.
PKOPOSITIOX 26. THEOREM.

If two ij'iangles have two angles of the one equal to two
angles cf the other, each to each, and one side equal to
one side, namely, either the sides adjacent to the equal
angles, or sides which are ojjjôsite to equal angles in each,
then shall the other sides be equal, each to each, and also
the third angle of the one equal to the third angle of the
other.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles, which have the
angles ABC, BCA equal to tiie angles DEF, EFD, each
;
BOOK I. 2G. 2\)
to ciicli, to
iiaiiicly, ADC and DEF,
to JET/'Z) and BOA ;
let them havealso one side equal to one side and first let ;
those sides be equal which are adjacent to the equal angles

in the two triangles, namely, to BC
the other sides EF:
shall be equal, each to each, namely, to DE, and AB
AC to DF, and the third
angle BACequal to the A
third angle EDF.
"
N
For if AB bo not
equal to DE, one of them
must be greater than the
other. Let AB be the
greater, and make BG
equal to DE, [I. 3.
and join GC
Then because GB is equal to £>E, [Constmction.
and BC to EF ; VlypotTiesis.
the two sides GB, BC are equal to tlie two sides DE, EF^
each to each ;
and the angle GBC is equal to the angle BEF \

[Hypotliesis,
therefore the triangle GBC

is equal to the triangle DEF,
and the other angles to the other angles, each to each, to
which the equal sides are opposite [I. 4.;
therefore the angle GCB is equal to the angle DFE.

But the angle DFE is equal to the angle ACB. [HypotTiesis.
Therefore the angle GCB is equal to the angle ACB, [Ax. 1.
Therefore AB \% not unequal to DE,
that is, it is equal to it
and BCis, equal to EF; [IL/potJicsis.
therefore the two sides AB, BC arc equal to the two sides
DE, EF, each to each ;
and the angle ABC is equal to the angle DEF; [Hypothms.

therefore the base AC
\s equal to the base DF, and the
third angle BAC
to the third angle EDF. [I. 4.
10 EUCLID'^ ELEMENTS.
Next, let sides which are opposite to equal angles in"
each triangle be equal to one another, namely, to AB
DE likewise in this case the other sides shall be equal,
:
each to each, namely, to EF, and BG

to DF, and AC
also the third angle J5^C equal to the third angle EDF.
For if BC be not
equal to EF, one of them
must be greater than
the other.
Let BG be the greater,
and make BH
equal to
EF, [I. 3.
and join î7. ^ ^ C

Then because BH is equal to EF, [Construction.
and AB to DE ;
[ffypothesis.
the two sides AB, BHare equal to the two sides Z>^, EF,
each to each ;
and the angle A BH is equal to the angle Z>î^ ^Hypothesis. ;
therefore the triangle ABH

is equal to the triangle DEF,
which the equal sides are opposite {I. 4.
;
therefore the angleBHA is equal to the angle EFD.

But the angle EFD equal to the angle BGA. [Hypothesis.
is
Therefore the angle BHA is equal to the angle BGA;[Ax.l.

that the exterior angle BHA of the triangle AHG is
is,
equal to its interior opposite angle BGA ;
which is impossible. [!• 16.
Therefore BG is not unequal to EF^

that is, it is equal to it j
and AB\s equal to DE ;

[Hypothesis.
therefore the two sides AB, BG are equal to the two sides
DE, EF, each to each ;
and the angle ABG is equal to the angle DEF; [Hypothesis,

therefore the base AG
ia equal to the base DF, and the
third angle BAG
to the third angle EDF, 4. [I.
"Wherefore, iftico triangles &c. q.e.d.

BOOK I. 27, 28. 31

ff a straight line falling on two otJier straight lines,
make the alternate angles equal to one another, the two
straight lines shall he parallel to one another.
Let the straight line EF, which falls on the two straight
lines AB^ CD, make the alternate angles AEF, EFD
equal to one another : AB shall be parallel to CD.
For AB and CD, being produced, will meet
if not,
either towards B,D or towards A, C. Let them be pro-
duced and meet towards B, D at the point O.
Therefore GEF
is a triangle, and its exterior angle AEF
isgreater than the interior opposite angle [1. 16,EFG ;
But the angle AEF

is also equal to the angle ;
[Hyp. EFG
which is impossible.
Therefore AB
and CD being produced, do not meet to-
wards B, D.
In the same manner, it may be shewn that they do not
meet towards A, C.
But those straight lines which being produced ever so far
both ways do not meet, are parallel. [Definition 35.
Therefore ^^ is parallel to CD.
Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.e.d.

If a straightline falling oii tico other straight lines,
make the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite
angle on the same side of the line, or make the interior
angles on the same side together equal to two right angles,
the tico straight lines shall be 2)(fi'<^l^cl to one another.
;;
32 EUCLID'S ELEMEjSTi:^.
Let the straight lino EF, which falls on the two
straight lines AB, CD, make the exterior angle EGB
equal to the interior and opposite angle GHD
on the same
side, or make the interior angles on the same side BGH,
GHD together equal to two right angles AB
shall be
:
parallel to CD.
Because the angle EGB is
equal to the angle GHD, \_Hyp.
and the angle -E'(x^ is also equal

to the angle ^G^^, [1.15.
therefore the angle AGH is
equal to the angle GHD; {Ax.l.
and they are alternate angles
therefore AB is parallel to
CD. [I. 27.
Again; because the angles BGH, GHD

are together
equal to two right angles, {Hijpothesis.
and the angles A GH, BGH

are also together equal to two
right angles, [1. 13.
therefore the angles AGH, BGH are equal to the angles

BGH, GHD.
Take away the common angle BGH
therefore the remaining
;
angle yl(rZr is equal to the remaining angle GHD', {Axiom 3.

therefore A Bis parallel to CD. [I. 27.
If a straight line fall on tico j(?«ra//(?^ straight lines,

it makes the alternate angles equal to one another, and
the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle
on the same side; and also the two interior angles on
the same side together equal to two right angles.
Let the straight line EF

fall on the two parallel
straight lines AB, CD
the alternate angles
:
AGH, GHD
shall be equal to one another, and the exterior angle
EGB shall be equal to the interior and opposite angle
BOOK I. 29. S3
On the same side, GHD, and the two interior angles on

the same side, BGII, GIID, shall bo together equal to two
right angles.
For if the angle AGH bo
not equal to the angle GIID,
one of them must be greater
than the other let the angle
;
A Gil be the greater.

Then the angle A Gil is greater
than the angle GIID ;
to each of them add the angle

BGH',
therefore the angles AGH, BGH are greater than the
angles BGH, GIID.
But the angles AGH, BGH are together equal to two
right angles ;
[I. 13.
therefore the angles BGH, GHD are together less than

two right angles.
But ifa straight line meet two straight lines, so as to
make the two interior angles on the same side of it, taken
together, less than two right angles, these straight lines
being continually produced, shall at length meet on that
side on which are the angles which are less than two
right angles. [Axiom 12.
Therefore the straight lines AB, CD, if continually pro-
duced, will meet.
But they never meet, since they are parallel by hypothesis.
AGH not unequal to the
Therefore the angle is angle
GIID that
; equal to
is, it is it.
But the angle AGH equal to the angle EGB.

is [I. 15.
Therefore the angle EGB is equal to the angle GHD. [Ax. 1.
Add to each of these the angle BGH.

Therefore the angles EGB, BGH are equal to the angles
BGH, GIID. [Axiom 2.
But the angles EGB, BGH are together equal to two

right angles. [I. 13.
Therefore the angles BGH, GHD arc together equal to

two right angles. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, if a straight line &c. <^.^.i)*

;
34 EUGLIUS ELEMENTS.
Straight lijies which arc parallel to the same straight
line are parallel to each other.
Let AB, CD be each of them parallel to EF\ AB

shall be parallel to CD.
GHK
Let the straight line
cut AB, EF, CD.
Then, because GHK cuts
the parallel straight lines AB,
EF, the angle AGH equal is
to the angle GHF. 29. [I.
Again, because GK cuts

the parallel straight lines EF,
CD, the angle is equal GHF
to the angle GKD, [I. 29.
And it was shewn that the ^

angle AGK is equal to the angle GHF.
Therefore the angle A GK is equal to the angle GKD ;
[Ax. 1.

therefore AB i^ parallel to CD. [T. 27.
Wherefore, straight lines &c. q.e.d.

To draw a straight line through a given point paralUl
to a given straight line.
Let A be the given point, and BG the given straiglit
line : it is required to draw a straight line through the
point A parallel to the straight line BC*
In BG take any point
2), and join AD \ at the
point A in the straight
line AD, make the angle
DAE equal to the angle
ADC', [L23.
and produce the straight line EA to F.
EF%\\'dS\ be parallel to BC.
;
BOOK I. 31, 32. 35
Because the straight line AD^ which meets the two

straight lines BC^ EF^ makes the alternate angles BAD,
ADC equal to one another, \Comiruciion.
EF is parallel to BG, [I. 27.
Wherefore the straight line is EAF drawn through the

gii'enpoint A, parallel to the given straight line BC. q.e.f.

If a of any triangle he ijroduced, the exterior
side
angle is to the two interior and opposite angles
equal
and the three interior angles of every triangle are toge-
Let be a triangle, and let one of its sides BG

ABC
be produced to D
the exterior angle A CD shall be equal
:
to the two interior and opposite ^n^GsCAB, and ABC ;
the three interior angles of the triangle, namely, ABC,

BOA, CAB
shall be equal to two right angles.
Through the point (7draw î //

"^
i ^ ^-^ *
(7^ parallel to î?. [1.31.

Then, because A Bis par- ^* *
allel to CE, and
them, the alternate angles
BAC, ACE are equal.
AC falls on ^
B CD
^
[I. 29.
Again, because AB is parallel to CE, and BD falls on

them, the exterior angle ECD is equal to the interior and
opposite angle ABC. [I. 29.
But the angle ACE was shewn to be equal to the angle

BAC;
therefore the whole exterior angle ACD is equal to the
two interior and opposite angles CAB, ABC. [Axiom 2.
To each of these equals add the angle ACB ;
therefore the angles ACD, ACB are equal to the three

angles CBA, BAC, ACB. [Axiom 2.
But the angles ACD, ACB are together equal to two right
angles ;
[I. 13.
therefore also the angles CBA, BAC, ACB are together

equal to two right angles. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, if a side of any triangle &c. q.e.d.
3—2
Corollary 1. All the interior angles of any recti-
lineal figure, together with four right angles, are equal to
twice as many right angles as the figure has sides.
For any rectilineal figure ABODE

can be divided into
as many triangles as the figure has sides, by drawing
straight lines from a point F
mtliin the figure to each of
its angles.
And bythe preceding proposition,

all the angles of these triangles are
equal to twice as many right angles
as there are triangles, that is, as the
figure has sides.
And the same angles are equal to the
interior angles of the figure, together
with the angles at the point F, which
is the common vertex of the triangles,
that is, together with four right angles. [I. 15. Corollary 2.
Therefore all the interior angles of the figure, together with
four right angles, are equal to twice as many right angles
as the figure has sides.
Corollary 2. All the exterior angles of any recti-

lineal figure are together equal tofmr right angles.
Because every interior angle
ABC, with its adjacent exterior
angle ABD, is equal to two
right angles ;
[I. 13.
therefore all the interior angles

of the figure, together with all
its exterior angles, are equal to
twice as many right angles as
the figure has sides.
But, by the foregoing Corollary all the interior angles of the
figure, together with four right angles, are equal to twice
as many right angles as the figure has sides.
Therefore all the interior angles of the figure, together with
all itsexterior angles, are equal to all the interior angles of
the figure, together with four right angles.
Therefore all the exterior angles are equal to four right
angles.
;
BOOK I. 33, 34. 37

The straight lines which join the extremities of two
equal and parallel straight lines totcards the same jmrts^
are also themselves equal and parallel.
Let AD
and CD bo equal and parallel straight lines,
and let them be joined towards the srno parts by the
straight lines AC and AC and BD shall be equal
: BV
and parallel.
JoinBC.
Then because AB h par-
allel to CD, [Hypothcm.
and BC meets them,
the alternate angles ABC,
BCD are equal. [I. 29.
And because AB is equal to CD, [Hypothesis,
and BC is common to the two triangles ABC, DCB ;
the two sides AB, BC are equal to the two sides DC, CB,
each to each
and the angle ABC was shewn to be equal to the angle
BCD;
therefore the base AC
is equal to the base BD, and the
triangle ABCto the triangle BCD, and the other angles
to the other angles, each to each, to which the equal sides
are opposite ;
[I. 4.
therefore the angle ACB is equal to the angle CBD.

And because the straight line BC meets the two straight
lines AC, BD, and makes the alternate angles ACB, CBD
equal to one another, AC is parallel to BD, [I. 27.
And it was shewn to be equal to it.
"Wherefore, the straight lines &c. q.e.d.
PEOPOSITION U. THEOREM.
The and angles of a parallelogram are
ojjposite sides
equal to one another, and the diameter bisects the par-
allelogram, that is, divides it into two equal parts.
Note. A
parallelogram is a four- sided figure of which the
opposite sides are parallel ; and a diameter ia the straight line
joining two of its opposite angles.
;
Let AGDB
be a parallelogram, of which is -a BC
diameter the opposite sides and angles of the figure shall
;
be equal to one another, and the diameter shall bi- BG

sect it.
Because AB is parallel
to CD, and BG meets them,
the alternate angles ABG,
BGD are equal to one an-
other. [I. 29.
And because AG i% parallel

to BD, and BG meets them,
the alternate angles AGB, GBD are equal to one
another. [I. 29.
Therefore the two triangles ABG, BGD

have two angles
ABG, BGA in the one, equal to two angles DGB, in GBD
the other, each to each, and one side BG
is common to the
two triangles, which is adjacent to their equal angles;
therefore their other sides are equal, each to each, and
the third angle of the one to the third angle of the other,
namely, the side AB
equal to the side GD, and the side
AG equal to the side BD, and the angle equal to the BAG
angle GDB. . [1. 26.
And because the angle ABG is equal to the angle BGD,

and the angle GBD to the angle AGB,
the whole angle ABD
is equal to the whole angle A GD. \A x. 2.
And the angle BAG has been shewn to be equal to the

angle GDB.
Therefore the opposite sides and angles of a ixirallelogram
are equal to one another.
Also the diameter bisects the parallelogram.
For AB being equal to GD, and common, BG
the two sides AB, BG are equal to tlie two sides DG, GB
each to each
and the angle xiBG has been shewn to be equal to the
angle BGD ;
therefore ihcirismgleABGis equal to the triangle i?CZ>, [1. 4.
and diameter
tlie BG divides the parallelogram AGDB
into two equal parts.
Wherefore, the op2)osite sides &c. q.e.d.
; ;
BOOK I. 35. î)

PayaUelograms on the same base, and between the same
parallels, are equal to one another.
Let the parallelograms ABCD, be on the same EBCF
base BC, and between the same parallels AF, the paral- BC :
lelogram ABCDshall be equal to the parallelogram EBCF.

If the sides AD, DF of A B T
the parallelograms ABCD,
DBCF, opposite to the base
BC, be terminated at the same
point D, it is plain that each of
the parallelograms is double of B C
the triangle BDC; [I. 34.
and they are therefore equal to one another, [Axiom 6.

But if the sides AD, EF, opposite to the base BC
of the parallelo-
grams ABCD,
EBCF be not
terminated at
the same point,
then, because
ABCD is a par-
allelogram AD is equal to BC [I. o\.
for the same reason EFis equal to BC ',
therefore ^Z> is equal to EF] [Axiom 1.
therefore the whole, or the remainder, AE is equal to the

whole, or the remainder, DF. [Axioms 2, 3.
And AB is equal to Z>6' ;
[I. 34.
therefore the two sides EA, AB are equal to the two sides
FD, DC each to each ;
and the exterior angle FDC is equal to the interior and

opposite angle EAB ;
[I. 20.
therefore the triangle EAB is equal to the triangle

FDC. [1.4.
Take the triangle FDC from the trapezium ABCF,
and from the same trapezium take the triangle EAB,
and the remainders are equal [Axiom 3.
that is, the parallelogram ABCD is equal to the parallelo-
gi-am EBCF.
^\\Qxc^QYC, parallelograms on the same base &c. q.e.d.
Parallelograms on equal bases, and between the same
2Kirallels, are equal to one another.
Let ABCD, EFGH be parallelograms on equal bases
BG, FG, and between the same parallels AH, BG : the
parallelogram ABCD shall be equal to the parallelogram
EFGH.
Join BE, CH. A D Y. H
Then, because ^(7 \ \^\ \
is equal to FG, {Hyi^.
2iXi^FGioEH,\l.Zi.
BG is equal to
EH', \Âxiom\. B C F G
and they are parallels, [Hi/jwthesie.
and joined towards the same parts by the straight lines

BE, CH.
But straight lines Avhich join the extremities of equal and
parallel straight lines towards the same parts are them-
selves equal and parallel. [I. 33.
Therefore BE, CH are both equal and parallel.

Therefore EBCHis a parallelogram. [Definition.
And it is equal to ABCD, because they are on the same
base BG, and between the same parallels\5(7,.4Zr. [I. 35.
For the same reason the parallelogram EFGH is equal
to the same EBGH
Therefore the parallelogram ABCD is equal to the par-
allelogi-am EFGH. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, parallelograms &c. q.e.d.

Triangles on the same base, and beticeen the same 2iar-
allels, are equal.
Let the triangles ABC,

DBG be on the same base
BG, and between the same
parallels AD,BG: the tri-
angle ABC
shall be equal
to the triangle DBG.
Produce AD both ways
to the points E, F [Post.
;'
2.
BOOK I. 37, 38. 41
through B
draw BE
parallel to CJ, and through G draw
C/^ parallel to ^Z>. [1.31.
. Then each of the figures EBGA, DBCF
is a parallelo-
gram ;
[Dejinition.
and EBCA is equal to DBCF, because they arc on the same

base BC, and between the same parallels BC, EF. [I. 35.
And the triangle yl^Cishalf of the parallelogram EBCA,

because the diameter J jB bisects the parallelogram; [I. 34.
and the triangle DBC is half of the parallelogram DBCF,
because the chametcr DC bisects the parallelogram. 34. [I.
But the halves of equal things are equal. {Axiom 7.
Therefore the triangle ABC is equal to the triangle DBG,

AVherefore, triangles &c. q.e.d.

Triangles on equal bases, and hetwcen the same par-
allels, are equal to one another.
Let the triangles ABC, DEF be on equal bases BG,
EF, and between the same parallels î^, AD the triangle
:
ABC shall be equal to the triangle DEF,

Produce x4i> both
ways to the points ^^ ^ ^ H
Cr,H;
through B draw BG
parallel to GA, and
through F
draAv FH
parallclto7:;i>.[I.31.
Then each of the
figures GBGA, DEF11 is a parallelogram. [Dcfiiiition.
And they are equal to one another because they are on

equal bases BG, EF, and between the same parallels
BF, GH. [1. 36.
And the triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram GBGA,

because the diameter u4i? bisects the parallelogram [I. 34. ;
and the triangle DEF

is half of the parallelogram DEFH,
because the diameter DF
bisects the parallelogram.
But the halves of equal things are equal. {Axiom 7.
Therefore the triangle ABC is equal to the triangle DEF.
"Wherefore, triangles &c. q.e.d.
Equal triangles on the same base, and on the same
side of it,are between the same parallels.
Let the equal triangles ABC, DBC be on the same
base BC, and on the same side of it : they shall be be-
tween the same parallels.
Join AD.
AD shall be parallel to BC
For if it is not, through A draw
AE parallel to BC, meeting BD
at E. [I. 31.
and join ^(7. B C

Then the triangle ABC
equal to the triangle EBC,
is
because they are on the same base BC, and between the
same parallels BC, AE. [I. 37.
But the triangle ABCis equal to the triangle i)^(7. [ffyp.

Therefore also the triangle DBC is equal to the triangle
EBC, [Axiom 1.
the greater to the less ; which is impossible.
Therefore AE is not parallel to BC.
In the same manner it can be shewn, that no other
straight line through but A AD
is parallel to BC ;
therefore AD is parallel to BC
Wherefore, equal triangles &c. q.e.d.

Equal triangles, on equal bases, in the same straight line,
and on the same side of it, arebelii'cen the same parallels.
Let the equal triangles ABC, DEF

be on equal bases
BC, EF, in the same straiglit line BF, and on the same
side of it they shall be between the same parallels.
:
Join AD.
^2) shall be parallel to BF.
For if it is not, through A
draw AG parallel to BF,
meeting ED
at G [I. 31.
_\.
and join GF.
;
BOOK I. 40, 41. 4.S
Then tlie triangle ABC is equal to the triangle GEF,

because they are on equal bases BC, EF, and ])ctwcen
the same parallels. [I. 38.
But the triangle ABC is equal to the triangle DEF. [IL/p.

Therefore also tiie triangle DEF is equal to the triangle
GEF, [Axiom ].
the greater to the less ; which is impossil^le.
Therefore AG is not parallel to BF.

In the same manner it can be shewn that no other
A but î> is parallel to
straight line through BF
therefore AD is parallel to BF.
Wherefore, equal triangles &c. Q.e.d.

If a parallelogram and a triangle he on the same base
and between the same parallels, the parallelogram shall be
double of the triangle.
Let the paralleloâm ABCD

and the triangle be EBC
on the same base BC, and between the same parallels
BC, AE the parallelogram
: ABCD
shall be double of the
triangle EEC.
Join A C. A U K
ABC \~
Tlien the triangle \/
is ecpial to the triangle EBCy \ ^
/ /(
because they are on the same
\\
base BC, and between the same
parallels i?(7,yl^.
But the parallelogram
[I. 37.
ABCD VB Nj C
isdouble of the triangle ABC,
because the diameter yl (7 bisects the parallelogram. [!. 34.
Therefore the iârallelogram ABCD is also double of the

triangle EBC.
Vrhcrcfore, if a paralldogram &c. q.k.d.
;
PROPCSITION 42. PROBLEM.

To describe a imrallelogram that shall he equal to a
given triangle, and have one of its angles equal to a given
rectilineal angle.
Let ABC hQ the given triangle,

and the given recti-D
lineal angle required to describe a parallelogram that
: it is
shall be equal to the given triangle ABC, and have one of
its angles equal to D.
Bisecti?(7at^:[1.10.
join AE, and at the point
E, in the straight line EC,
make the angle Cî^ equal
ioD-y [1.23.
through A draw AFG
parallel to EC, and through
G draw CG
parallel to
EF. [I. 31.
Therefore FECG is a parallelogram. [Definition.
BE is equal to EC,
And, because [Construction.
the triangle ABE is equal to the triangle AEC, because

they are on equal bases BE, EC, and between the same
parallels BC, AG. [I. 38.
Therefore the triangle ABC is double of the triangle ^jE'(7.

But the parallelogram FECG is also double of the triangle
AEC, because they are on the same base EC, and between
the same parallels EC. AG. [I. 41.
Therefore the parallelogram FECG is equal to the triangle

ABC [Axiom 6.
and it has one of its angles CEF equal to the given angle
D. [Construction.
"Wherefore a parallelogra77i FECG has been described

equal to the given triangle ABC, and having one of its
angles CEF equal to the given angle D. q.e.f.
BOOK I, 43, 44. 45
The comjjlemcnts of the parallelograms which are ahout

tJie diameter of any parallelogram^ are equal to one
another.
Let A BCD be a parallelogram, of which the diameter

isylC; and EH, Gî'^ i)arallelograms about AC, that is,
through which A C passes and BK,
; KD
the otI>er paral-
lelograms which make up the whole figure A BCD, and
which are therefore called the complements the comple- :
ment BKshall be equal to the complement KD.
Because ABCD is a
parallelogram, and AC its
diameter, the triangle ABC
is equal to the triangle
ADC. [I. 34.
Again, because AEKH is

a parallelogram, and AK
its diameter, the triangle
AEK is equal to the triangle
AHK. [I. 34.
For the same reason the triangle KGC is equal to the

triangle KFC
Therefore, because the triangle AEK
is e(iual to the tri-
angle AHK, and the triangle KGC to the triangle KFC ;
the triangle -4 jEJA" together with the triangle KGC

is equal
to the triangle yl//^ together with the triangle KFC. \_Ax.2.
But the whole triangle ABC was shewn to be equal to the
whole triangle ADC.
Therefore the remainder, the complement BK, isequal to
the remainder, the complement KD. [Axiom 3.
^Vhercfore, the complements &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION 44. PHOBLEM.
Yo a giveri straight line to apply a parallelogram,

ichich shall he equal to a given triangle, and hare one
of its angles equal to a given rectilineal angU.
Let AB he the given straight line, and C the given
triangle, and D
the given rectilineal angle it is required
:
to apply to the straight line AB

a parallelogram equal to
the triangle C, and having an angle equal to D.
Make the parallelogi-am BEFG equal to the triangle

C, and having the angle EBG equal to the angle D, so
that BE may be in the same straight line with AB [1. j
42.
produce FG to H;
through A draw AH parallel to BG or EF, [I. 31.
and join HB.

Then, because the straight line HF falls on the parallels
AH, EF, the angles AHF, HFE are together equal to
two right angles. [I. 29.
Therefore the angles BHF, HFE are together less than

two right angles.
But straight lines Avhich with another straight line make the
interior angles on the same side togetlier less than two right
angles will meet on that side, if produced far enough, [Âx. 12.
Therefore HB and FE will meet if produced ;
letthem meet at K.
Through K
draw KL parallel to EA or FH ;
[I. 31.
and produce HA, GB to the points L, M.

Then HLKF
is a parallelogram, of which the diameter
is HK; and AG, ME
are parallelograms about HK; and
LB, BF are the complements.
Therefore LB is equal to BF, [I. 43.
But BF is equal to the triangle C. [Construction.

Therefore LB is equal to the triangle G [Axiom 1.
BOOK I. 44, 45. 47
And because tlic angle GBE is equal to the angle A BM, [1.15.
and likcmse to the angle D ;
[Construction.
the angle x\.BM\& equal to the angle D. [Axiom 1.
"Wherefore to the given straight line A B

the parallelo-
gram LB is applied^ equal to the triangle C, and having
the angle ABM
equal to the angle D. q.e.f.

To describe a parallelogram equal to a given rectilineal
figure, and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal
angle.
Let ABCD be the given rectilineal figure, and the E
given rectilineal angle: it is required to describe a par-
allelogram equal to ABCD, and having an angle equal to E.
H Af
Join DB, and describe the parallelogram FLI equal to

the triangle ADB, and haviug the angle FKH equal to the
angle E ;
[1. 42.
and to the straight line GH

apply the parallelogram GM
equal to the triangle DBC, and having the angle GHM
equal to the angle E. [I. 44.
The figure FKML shall be the parallelogram required.

Because the angle E is equal to each of the angles FKH,
GHM, [Construction.
the angle FKH'\^ equal to the angle GHM. [Axiom 1.
Add to each of these equals the angle KHG ;
FKH, KHG are equal to the angles

therefore the angles
KHG, GLIM. [Axiom 1.
But FKH, KHG are together equal to two right angles [1.29. ;
therefore A' ^(T,GZrJ/arc together equal to two right angles.

A , D r
And
Be H
because at the point
K
in the straight line GH, the
two straight lines KH, HM, on the opposite sides of it,
make the adjacent angles together equal to two right angles,
KH is in the same straight line with H3L [I. 14.
And because the straight line HG meets the parallels

KM, FG, the alternate angles MHG, HGFare equal. [1. 29.
Add to each of these equals the angle HGL ;
therefore the angles MHG, HGL, are equal to the angles

HGF, HGL. [Axiom 2.
But MHG, HGL are together equal to two right angles [ 1. 29. ;
therefore /r(?i^, HGL are together equal to two right angles.

Therefore FG is in the same straight line with GL. [I. 14.
And because KFi?> parallel to HG, and HG to ML,[ConsU\
KF is parallel to 3IL ;
[I. 30.
and KM, FL are parallels ;

[Construction.
therefore KFL3Iis a parallelogram. [Definition.
And because the triangle ABD is equal to the parallelo-

gram HF, [Construction.
and the triangle DBG
to the parallelogram G3f [Constr. ;
the whole rectilineal figure ABCD is equal to the whole

parallelogram KFLM. [Axiom 2.
Wherefore, the parallelogram KFLM

has heen de-
scribed equal to the giren rectilineal figure ABCD, and
having the angle FKM
equal to the given angle E. q.e.f.
Corollary. From
this it is manifest, how to a given
straight line, to apply a parallelogram, which shall have an
angle equal to a given rectilineal angle, and shall be equal
to a given rectilineal figure namely, by applying to the
;
given straight line a parallelogram equal to the first tri-

angle ABD,and having an angle equal to the given angle ;
and so on. [I. 44.
;
BOOK I. 4G. 49
PROPOSITION 4G. PROBLEM.

To describe a square on a given straight line.
Let AB
be the given straiglit line : it is required to
describe a square on AB.
From tlic i)oint A draw AC
at right angles to AB; [1. 11.
AD equal to ^jS
and make ; [1. 3.
D draw DE parallel to
through
AB and through B draw BE
;
parallel to AD. [I. 31.
ADEB shall be a square.

For ADEB by construction is
a parallelogram
therefore AB h equal to DE,
and AD to BE. [I. 34.
But A Bis equal to AD. [Construction.

Therefore the four straight lines BA, AD, DE, EB aro
equal to one another, and the parallelogram ADEB is
equilateral. [Axiom 1.
Likewise all its angles are right angles.

For since the straight line AD meets the parallels AB,
DE, the angles BAD, ADE are together equal to two
right angles ; [I. 29.
but BAD is a right angle ;
[Cmstruction.
therefore also ADE is a right angle. [Axiom 3,
But the opposite angles of parallelogi'ams are equal [T. 34.
Therefore each of the opposite angles ABE, BED is a

right angle. [Axiom I.
Therefore the figure ADEB

is rectangular;
and has been shewn to bo equilateral.

it
Therefore it is a square. [Definition 30.

A7id it is described on the gieen straight line AB. q.e.p.
Corollary. From the demonstration it is manifest that

every parallelogram which has one right angle has all its
angles right angles.
4
In any right-angled trimigle, the sq\iar6 which is do-'
scribed on the side stihtending the right angle is equal to
the squares described on the sides which contaiii the right
angle.
Let ABC
be a right-angled triangle, having the right
angle BA
C the square described on the side
:
shall be BC
equal to the squares described on the sides BA, AC.
On BC describe
the square BDEC,
and on BA, AC de-
scribe the squares
GB,HC; U. 40.
through A draw AL
parallel to BD or
CE) [1.31.
and join AD, FC.
Then, because the
angle BA
C is a right
angle, [Hypoth cs is.
and that the angle
BAG is also a right
angle, [Definition 30.
the two straight lines AC, AG, on the opposite sides of
A
AB, make with it at the point the adjacent angles equal
to two right angles ;
thereforeCA is in the same straight line with AG. [I. 14.

For the same reason, AB and ^âre in the same straiglit
line.
Now the angle DBC is equal to the angle FBA, for each
of them is a right angle. [Axiom 11.
Add to each the angle ABC.
Therefore the whole angle DBA is equal to the whole angle
FBC [Axiom 2.
And because the two sides AB, BD
are equal to the two
sides FB, BC, each to each ; [Definition 30.
and the angle DBA
is equal to the angle FBC ;
therefore the triangle ABD

is equal to the triangle
J^Ô, [I. 4.
;
BOOK L 47, 48. 51
Now the parallelogi'am BL

is double of the triangle
ABD, because they are on the same base BD, and between
the same parallels BD, AL, [I. 41.
And the square GB

is double of the triangle FBC, because
they are on the same base FB, and between the same
GC.
parallels iî?, [I. 4^
But the doubles of equals are equal to one another. {Ax. 6.
Therefore the parallelogram BL is equal to the square GB.
In the same manner, by joining AE., BK, it can be
shewn, that the parallelogram CL is equal to the square CH.
Therefore the whole square BDEC is equal to the two
squares GB, HC. [Axiom 2.
And the square BBECis described on BC, and the squares
GB, HC on BA, AG.
Therefore the square described on the side BC is equal to
the squares described on the sides BA, AC,
Wherefore, in any right-angled triangle &e. o.e.p,

If the square described on one of the sides of a tri-
angle be equal to the squares described on the other two
sides of if, the angle contained by these two sides is a
right angle.
Let the square described on BC, one of the sides of
the triangle ABC, be equal to the squares described on
the other sides BA, AC
the angle : BAC
shall be a right
angle.
From the point A draw AD at
right angles to AC [I. 11.
and make AD
equal to BA; [T. 3.
and join DC.
Then because DA is equal to
BA, the square on DA is equal to
the square on BA.
To each of these add the square
on AC.
Therefore the squares on DA, AC are equal to the sauares
on B
A, AC. {Axiom 1.
4—2
;
But because the auglo DAG is a right angle, [Constmction.
the square ou DCia equal to the squares on DA, AC. [I. 47.
And, by hypothesis, the square on BCis equal to the squares
on B A, AC.
Therefore tlie square on Z>Cis equal to thesquare on BC.[Ax.l.
Therefore also the side DC equal to the side BC.
is
And because the side DA is equal

to the side AB ;
[Constr.
and the side A C is common to the
two triangles DAC, BAC
the two sides DA, AC are equal to
the two sides BA, AC, each to each ;
and the base DC

has been shewn to
^
be equal to the base BC; ^
therefore the angle DACis equal to the angle BAC. [I. 8.
But DACis a right angle ; [Construction.
therefore also BAC ia a right angle. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, if the square &c. q.e.p.
BOOK II.
DEFINITIONS.
^
1. Every right-angled parallelogram, or rectangle, is
said to be contained by any two of the straight lines
which
contain one of tiie right angles.
2. In every parallelogram, anv of the parallelograms
about a diameter, together with the two complements, is
called a Gnomon.
BOOK II. 1.
Thus the parallel ogram HG^

together -withcomplements
tlie
AF, FG, is the gnomon, which is
more briefly expressed by tlie let-
ters A GK, or EHC, which are at
the oj^posite angles of the parallelo-
grams which make the gnomon.
he tico straight lines, one of 2chich is divided
If there
into any numher of jmrfs, the rectangle contained hg the
tico straight lines is equal to the rectangles contained by
the undivided line, and the several 2)arts of the divided line.
Let A and BC be two straight lines ; and let BG be

divided into any mimber of parts at the i)oints D, the E :
rectangle contained by the straight lines A, BG, shall be

equal to the rectangle contained by A, BD, together with
that contained by A, DE, and that contained by A, EG.
From the point B draw BF
at right angles to BG ; [1. 11.
and make BG equal to A ;

[I. 3.
through G draw Gil parallel

to BG', and through D, E, G
dra^v DK, EL, GH, parallel
to BG. [I. 31.
Then the rectangle BIl

is equal to the rectangles
BK, DL, EIL
IkitBU is contained by A, BG, for it is contained by
GB, BG, and GB is equal to A. [Const rKclion.
And BJC is contained by yl, BD, for it is contained by
GB, BD, and GB is equal to A ;
and DL is contained by A, DE, because DK is equal to

BG, which isequal to yl ;
[I. 34.
and manner EH\s> contained by A, EG.

in like
Therefore the rectangle contained by A, BG is equal to the
rectangles contauied by A BD, and by A,DE, and by A, EG.
,
"Wherefore, if there he two straight lines &c. q.e.d.

O-i EVVLIU^ ELEMENTS,
PROPOSITION 2. THEOREM,
If a straight line he divided into any two jârts, the

rectangles contained by the whole and each of the j^^rts,
are together equal to the square on the whole line.
Let the straight line AB

he divided into any two parts
at the point (7: the rectangle contained by AB, BGy toge-
ther witli the rectangle AB, AC, shall be equal to the
square on AB.
[Note.To avoid repeating the word
contained too frequently, the rectangle
contained by two straight lines AB, AC
is sometimes simply called the rectangle
AB, AC]
On AB describe the square
A DEB ; [I. 46.
and through C draw CF parallel
toAD or BE. [1.31.
Then AE equal to the rectangles AF, CE.
is
But AE is the square on AB.

And AF the rectangle contained by BA, AC, for
is it is
contained by DA, AC, of which DA is equal to BA ;
and CE is AB, BC, for BE is equal

contained by to AB.
Therefore the rectangle AB, AC, together with the rect-
angle AB, BC, is equal to the square on AB.
If a straight line he divided into any two parts, the
rectangle contained hy the whole and one of the parts, is
equal to the rectangle contained by the tico p>(i^^ts, together
with the square on the aforesaid part.

be- divided into any two parts
at the point C
the rectangle AB,
\ BC
shall be equal to
the rectangle AC, CB, together with the square on BC
;
BOUK If. 3, 4. bb
On BC describe the
square CDEB \
produce JUD to F, and through A

^vay,- AF\}'AY^\\dioCDov BE.\l.?A.
Then tlie rectangle AE is equal

to the rectangles AD, CE.
But AE is the rectangle contained
by AB, BC, for it is contained
hy AB, BE, of which BEis equal [^
to BC; -^
and AD is contained by AC, CB, for CD is equal to CB ;
and CE is the square on BC.

Therefore the rectangle ^1 -5, BC
is equal to the rectangle
AC, CB, together with the square on BC.
If a straightline he dicided into any two parts, the
square on the whole line is equal to the squares on the two
2)arts, together with twice the rectangle contained hy the
two parts.
Let the straight line î5 be divided into any two parts
at the point C\ the square on AB
shall be equal to the
squares on AC, CB, together with twice the rectangle con-
tained by AC, CB.
On xiB describe the square
ADEB B
join BD; through
AD or BE, and through G
parallel to
draw //A'parallcl to AB or DE. 31.
C draw
[I. 40.
CGF
[1.
A^
H G / K
Then, because CF is parallel
to
the
AD, and
exterior angle
BD falls
CGB
on them,
equal
is
//
to the interior and opposite an- E
gle ADB ;
[I. 29.
but the angle ADB

is equal to the angle ABD, [I. 5.
because BA is equal to AD, being sides of a square ;
therefore the angle CGB is equal to the angle CBG ',[Ax.l.

and tlierefore the side CG is equal to the side CB. [I. 6.
But CB is also equal to GA', and CG io BK; [I. Si.
therefore the figure CGKB is equilateral.

It is likewise rectangular. For since CG is parallel to
BK, and GB meets them, the angles KBGy GGB are toge-
ther equal to two right angles. [I. 29.
But KBG is a right angle. [I. Definition 30.
Therefore GGB\s2i right angle. [Axiom 3.
And therefore also the angles GGKj GKB oppo^site to

these are right angles. [I. 3^. and 'Ixioni 1.
Therefore CGKB is rectangular; c tj

and it has been shewn to be equi-
/
'
'
^
lateral therefore it is a square^ and
;
it is on the side CB.

G
'^ K
\\\
For the same reason HF

is also a
square, and it is on the side HG^
which is equal to AG. [I. 34. ^ .
Therefore HF, GK are the squares ^

on AG, GB.
And because the complement AG is equal to the com-
plement G^JE'; [1.43.
and that AG \% the rectangle contained by ^(7, GB, for
GG is equal to GB ;
therefore GE is also equal to the rectangle AG, GB. \Ax. 1.
Therefore ^G', GE^cve equal to tmce the rectangle -4(7, GB.

And HF, GK are the squares on A G, GB.
Therefore the four figures HF, GK, A G, are equal to GE
the squares on AG, GB, together with twice the rectangle
AG, CB.
But HF, GK, AG, GE make up the whole figure ADEB,
which is the square on AB.
Therefore the square on AB
is equal to the squares on
AC, CB, together with twice the rectangle AC, GB.
Corollary. From the demonstration it is manifest,
that parallellograms about the diameter of a square are
likewise squares.
If a straight line he divided into two equal j^ftrfs and
also into tico uneqiuil j^ciyts, the rectangle contained hy the
; ;
BOOK II. 0. 57
unequal 2)arts, together icith the square on the line hetween

the jfoiuts of section, is equal to the square on Jialf the line.
be divided into two equal
parts at tlie point C, and into two uncqunl parts at the
point D : the rectangle AD^DB, together -with the square
on CD, shall be equal to the square on CB.
On CB describe the
A C D B
square CEFB [I. 46.
join BE; through Z> draw i

L
Li. h/,
iiiz tm;
DHG parallel to CB or BF; K

through ^draw A'ZJf paral-
lel to CB or EF; and through
A draw AK parallel to CL 1] a ¥
or B3f. [I. 31.
Then the complement CII is equal to the complement

IIF; [I. 43.
to each of these add D3f; therefore the whole CM is equal

to the whole BF. [Axiom 2.
But (73/ is equal to AL, [I. 36.
because .^1 6' is equal to CB. [Hypothesis.

Therefore also AL is equal to BF. [Axioiyi 1.
To each of these add CII; therefore the whole î:? is equal

to BF
and CH. [Axiom 2.
But AHis the rectangle contained by AB, BB, for BII is
equal to BB [II. 4, Coi-oUary.
and BF together with CH is the gnomon CMG ;
therefore the gnomon (73i 6^ isequal to the rectangle.4 Z>, 2)^.

To each of these add LG, which is equal to the square on
CD. [II. 4, Corollary, and I. 34.
Therefore the gnomon CMG, together with LG, is equal to

the rectangle AD,DB, together with the square on CD. [Ax.^l.
But the gnomon CMG and LG make up the whole figure
CEFB, which is the square on CB.
Therefore the rectangle AD,DB, together with the square
on CB, is equal to the square on CB.
"Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.e.d.
From
this proposition it is manifest that the difference of
the squares on two unequal straight lines AC, CD, is equal
to the rectangle contained by their sum and difference.
;
If a straight li?ie be bisected, and produced to any
point, the rectangle contained hg the whole line thus ^.)ro-
duced, and the part of it produced, together with the
square on half the line bisected, is equal to the square on
the straight line ichich is made up of the half and the
part produced.
Let the straight line AB hQ
bisected at the point G,
and produced to the point D
the rectangle AD, DB,
:
together with the square on CB, shall be equal to the

square on CD.
^ f. B
... .
D
On CD describe the /
square CEFD [I. 46.
;
L
join DE; through B draw K M
BIIG parallel to CE or
DF; through // draw
IsTLAI parallel to or AD /
EF and through A draw
; I: (j
AK parallel to CL or DM. [r. 31
Then, because ACis equal to CB, [Ili/pothcsis.
the rectangle AL
is equal to the rectangle CH-,
[I. 36.
but CHis equal to HF-,
[I, 43^
therefore also AL is equal to HF. [Axiom 1.
To each of these add CM
therefore the whole A Mis equal to the gnomon CMG. [Ax.2.
But AM is the rectangle contained by yiD DB
for D3Ih equal to DB. [II. 4^ Corollary.
Therefore the rectangle AD, DB is equal to the gnomon
^'^^- [Axiom 1.
To each of these add LG, which isequal to the square on
^^- [n. 4, Corollary, and I. 34.
Therefore the rectangle AD, DB, together with the square
on CB, is e(iual to the gnomon CMG
and the figure LG.
But the gnomon CMG^nH LG
make up the whole figure
CEFD, which is the square on CD.
Therefore the rectangle ^Z),Z>i?, together with the square
on CB, is equal to the square on CD.
"Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.e.p.
BOOK II. 7. 59
PUO POSITION 7. THEOREM.

If a straight line he divided into any two parts, the
squares on the whole line, and o?i one of the parts, are
equal to ticice tlie rectangle contained hy the ichole and
that part, together with the square on the other part.
be divided, into any two
parts at the point C the squares on AB,
: shall be BG
equal to twice the rectangle AB, BC^ together witii the
square on AG.
ADEB, and construct the figure
as in the preceding propositions.
Then AG\s equal to GE ;
[I. 43.
to each of these add GIC ;
therefore the whole AK is equal to

the whole GE ;
therefore AK, GE are double of

yiK.
But AK, GE are the gnomon AKF, together with the
square GK;
therefore the gnomon AKF, together with the square GK,
is double of Â".
But t\îce the rectangle AB, BG is double of AK,

forÂ'is equal to BG. [II. 4, CoroUimj.
Therefore the gnomon AKF, together with the square GK,
isequal to twice the rectangle AB, BG.
To each of these equals add HF, which is equal to the
square on AG. [II. 4, Corollari/, and I. 34.
Tlierefore the gnomon AKF, together with the S(]uares

GK, HF, is equal to twice the rectangle AB, BG, together
with the square on AG.
But the gnomon ylA'i^ together with the squares GK, IFF,
make up the whole figure ADEB and GK, which are the
squares on AB and BG.
Therefore the squares on AB, BG, arc equal to twice the
rectangle AB, BG, together with the square on AG.
Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.kd.
If a straight line he divided into any two parts, four
times the rectangle contained hy the ichole line and one of
tlie parts, together with the square on the other part, is
equal to the square on the straight line which is made up
of the whole and that part.
be divided into any two parts
at tlie point 6': four times the rectangle AB, BC, together
with the square on AC, shall be equal to the square on the
straight line made up oi AB
and ^6' together.
Produce AB to D, so
that BD may be equal ^^ ^ ^> ^
/
to CB and
on AD
;
[Post. 2.
describe the
I. 3.
square M G K / M
AEFD',
and construct two figures
X ? A
such as in the preceding
propositions.
Then, because CB equal
/
is e ^ L J*'
to BD, [Construction.
and that CB is equal to GIT, and BD to KN, [I. 34.
therefore GK is equal to A7V. [Axiom 1.
For the same reason PR is equal to BO.

And because CB is equal to BD, and to KN, the rect- GK
angle CK
is equal to the rectangle îV', and the rectangle
Gli to the rectangle RN. [I. 36.
But 6'A'is equal to BN, because they are the complements

of the parallelogram CO ;
[I. 43.
therefore also BNis equal to GB. [Axiom 1.
Tlierefore the four rectangles BN, CK, GR, are equal RN

to one another, and so the four arc quadruple of one of
them CK.
Again, because CB is equal to BD, [Construction.

and that BD
is equal to BK^ [n. 4, Corollary.
that is to CG, [I. 34.
and that CB is equal to GK, [I. 34.

BOOK II. b. 61
that is to GP ;
[II. 4, Corollary,
therefore CG is equal to GP. \Axiom 1.
And because CG
is equal to GP^ and to RO, tho PR
rectangle yl6^ is equal to the rectangle MP, and the rect-
angle PLto the rectangle RF. [I. 36.
But MP is e(|ual to PL, because they arc the complements

of the parallelogram ;
ML [I. 43.
therefore also AGSs, equal RF. to \_Axio))i 1.
Therefore the four rectangles AG, MP, PL, RF are equal

to one another, and so the four are quadruple of one of
them AG.
And it was shewn that the four CK, BN, GR and RN
arc quadruple of CK; therefore the eight rectangles
which make up the gnomon AOH iixo quadruple oiAK.
And because AK is the rectangle contained by AB, BO,
for BK is equal to BC ;
therefore four times the rectangle AB, BC is quadruple

of.lA".
But the gnomon AOH was shewn to be quadruple
oiAK.
Therefore four times the rectangle AB, BO is equal to the
gnomon AOH. [Axiom 1.
To each of these add XH, which is equal to the square on
AO. [II. 4, Corollary, and I. 34.
Therefore four times the rectangle AB, BC, together with

the square on AC, is ecpial to the gnomon AOH and the
square XH.
But the gnomon AOH and the square XII make up the
figure AEFD, which is the square on AD.
Therefore four times the rectangle AB, BC, together with
the square on AC, is equal to the square on AD, that is to
the square on the line made of and BC together. AB
;
(j2 EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
PROPOSITION 9. TUEOREM.
If a straight line he divided into two equals and also
into ttco ttJiequal parts, the squares on the two unequal
parts are together double of the square on half the line
and of the square on tlie line heticeen the points of section.
Let the straight Ime AB
be divided into two equal
l)arts at the point C, and into two unequal parts at tlie
point D the squares on AD,DB shall be together double
:
of the squares on AC, CD.

From the point C draw
CE at right angles to AB, [1. 11.
and make it equal to AC or

CB, [I. 3.
and join EA, EB through

;
D draw DF
parallel to CE, and
through F
draw FG parallel
to BA ;
[I. 31.
and join AF.

Then, because ACis equal to CE, [Construction.
EAC is equal to the angle AEC.

the angle [I. 5.
And because the angle ACE is a right angle, [Construction.
the two other angles AEC, EAGhyq together equal to one

right angle ;
[I. 32.
and they are equal to one another

therefore each of them is half a right angle.
For the same reason each of the angles CEB, EBC is half
a right angle.
Therefore the whole angle AEB is a right angle.
Andbecause tlie angle GEF is half a right an^le, and
the angle EGF
a right angle, for it is equal to the interior
and opposite angle ECB ;
[I. 29.
therefore the remaining angle EFG is half a riglit angle.

Therefore the angle GEF
is equal to the angle EFG, and
the side EG
is equal to the side GF [I. 6.
Again, because the angle at B is half a right angle, and the

;
BOOK II. }). (33
angle FDB a right angle, for it is equal to the interior and

opposite angle ECB ;
[I. 29.
therefore the remaining angle BFD

is half a right angle.
Therefore the angle at B
is equal to the angle BFD,
and the side DF
is equal to the side DB. [I. 6.
And because AGi^ equal to CEy [Construction.

the square on ^-IC is equal to the square on OF ;
therefore the squares on AC, CFu.ro double of the square

on AC.
But the square on A F in equal to the squares on AC, CF,
because the angle ACF is a right angle [I. 47.
therefore the square on AE is double of the square on AC.
Again, because EG is equal to GF, [Construction.
the square on EG is equal to the square on GF;
therefore the squares on EG, GF are double of the square
on GF.
But the square on EFis equal to the squares on EG, GF,
because the angle EGF is a right angle 47. ;
[I.
therefore the square on EF is double of the square on GF.

And GF equal to CD
is ;
34. [I.
therefore the square on EF is double of the square on CD.

But ithas been shewn that the square on AE is also
double of the square on AC.
Therefore the squares on AE, EF are double of the
squares on AC, CD.
But the square on î^ is equal to the squares on AE,
EF, because the angle AEF is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the square on AF double of the
is squares on
AC, CD.
But the squares on AD, DF are equal to the square on
AF, because the angle ADF is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the squares on AD, DF are double of tlie

squares on A C, CD.
And DF is equal to DB ;
therefore the squares on AD, DB arc double of the

squares on AC, CD.
If a straight line he bisected^ and produced to any
2)oint, the square on the whole line thus produced, and
the square on the part of it produced, are together double
of the square on half the line bisected and of the square
on the line made up of the half and the part produced.
Let the straight hue AB ho^ bisected at C, and pro-
duced to Dthe squares on
: AD, DBshall be together
double of the squares on ^4 C, CD,
From the point Cdraw (7^ at right angles to AB, [I. 11.
and make it equal io AC
or CB; [1.3.
andjoin^^, EB through ;
E draw EF parallel to
AB, and through D draw
Z>i^ parallel to CE. [1.31.
Then because the straight
line î^meets the parallels
EC, FD, the angles CEF^ EFD are together equal to two
right angles ; [I. 29.
and therefore the angles BEF, EFD are together less

than two right angles.
Therefore the straight lines EB, FD will meet, if produced,
towards B, D. [Axiom 12.
Let them meet at G, and join AG.
Then because AC\^ equal to CE, [Construction.
the angle CEA is equal to the angle EAG; [I. 5.
and the angle ACE is a right angle ;

[Construction.
therefore each of the angles CEA, EAC is half a right
angle. [1. 32.
For the same reason each of the angles CEB, EBC is half
a right angle.
Therefore the angle AEB is a right angle.
And because the angle EBC is half a right angle,
the angle DBG is also half a right angle, for they are verti-
cally opposite; [I. 15.
but the angle BDG is a right angle, because it is equal to

the alternate angle DCE ;
[I. '29.
therefore the remaining angle DGB ishalf a right angle, [1. 32.
;
BOOK 11. 10. 0,5
and is therefore equal to the angle DBG ;
therefore also the side BD is equal to the side DG. [i. g.
Again, because the angle EGF

is half a right angle
and the angle at F
a right angle, for it is equal to the
opposite angle ;
ECD [I. 34.
therefore theremaining angle i^^(yishalf aright angle, [L 32.

and is therefore equal to the angle EGF;
therefore also the side GF is equal to the side FE. '[I. 6.
Andbecause EG is equal to CA, the square on EC is

equal to the square on CA ;
therefore the squares on EC, CA are double of the square
on CA.
But the square on ^^ is equal tothesquares onEC,CA.[1. 47.
Therefore the square on ^-l-E^ double of the square on AC.
is
Again, because is GF equal to FE, the square on is GF

equal to the square on FE
therefore the squares on GF, FE are double of the square
on FE.
But the square on EG
is equal to the squares on GF, FE.[l. 47.
Therefore the square on EG

is double of the square on FE.
And FE is equal to CD ; [1. 34,
therefore the square onEG is double of the square on CD.

But has been shewn that the square on
it AE is double
of the square on A C.
Therefore the squares on AE, EG are double of the
squares on A C, CD.
But the square on AG is equal to the squares on AE^
EG. [I. 47.
Therefore the square on AG is double of the squares on

AC, CD.
But the squares on AD, DG are equal to the square on
AG. [I. 47.
Therefore the squares on AD, DG are double of the

scjuares on A C, CD.
And DG is equal to DB ;
therefore the squares on AD, DB are double of the squares

on AC, CD.
.5
To divide a gicen straight line into two parts, so that
the rectangle contained hy the whole and one of tlie j>arts
may he equal to the square on the other part.
Let ABhe the given straight line it is required to
:
divide it into two parts, so that the rectangle contained by

the whole and one of the parts may be equal to the scjuare
on the other part.
ABDC; [I. 46.
bisect ^(7 at J5^; [1. 10.
joinBE produce CA to F, and

;
make EF equal to EB ;
[I. 3.
and on AF describe the square

AFGII. '
[I. 46.
AB shall be divided at II so
that the rectangle AB, BH is
equal to the square on AH.
Produce GHtoK.
Then, because the straight line
AC 19. bisected at E, and pro-
duced to F, the rectangle CF, FA, together with the
square on AE, is equal to the square on EF. [II. 6.
But EF is equal to EB, [Constrvdion.

Therefore the rectangle CF, FA, together with the square
on AE, is equal to the square on EB.
But the square on EB
is equal to the squares on AE,AB,
because the angle EAB
is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the rectangle CF, FA, together with the square

on AE, is equal to the squares on AE, AB.
Take away the square on AE, which is common to both ;
therefore the remainder, the rectangle CF,FA, is equal to
the square on AB. {AxiQm 3.
But the figure FK is the rectangle contained by CF, FA^
for EG is equal to FA ;
and AD\% the square on AB ;
therefore FK'is equal to AD.

Take away the common part AK, and the remainder FII
is equal to the remainder IID, {Axiom 3.
BOOK II. 11,12. 67
I3iit HD is the rectangle contained by AB^ BII^ for AB is

equal to BD \
and Fll is the square on AH;

therefore the rectangle ^-li?.i5Zris equal to the squareon AH.
Wherefore t/ie straight line AB is divided at H, so that
the rectangle AB, BH is equal to the square on AH. q.e.f.
PKOPOSITION 12. THEOREM.

In oUusc-angled triangles, if a iêy^pendicular he drawn
from either of the acute angles to the opposite side pro-
duced, the square on the side subtending the obtuse angle is
greater than the squares on the sides containing the obtuse
angle, bij twice the rectangle contained by the side on
which, when produced, the perpendicular falls, and the
straight line intercepted icithout the triangle, between the
perpendicular and the obtuse angle.
Let ABC
be an obtuse-angled triangle, having the
obtuse angle ACB, and from the point A let ADhe drawn
perpendicular to i?(7 produced the square on : shall be AB
greater than the squares on AC, CB, by twice the rectangle
BC, CD.
Because the straight line
BD is divided into two parts
at the point C, the square on
BD is equal to the squares on
BC, CD, and twice the rectangle
BC, CD. [II. 4.
To each of these equals add the

square on DA.
Therefore the squares on BD, DA
are equal to the squares on
BC, CD, DA, and twice the rectangle BC, CD. [Axiom 2.
But the square on BA
is equal to the squares on BD, DA,
because the angle at D
is a right angle [I. 47,
;
and the square on CA is equal to the squareson CD,DA. [1. 47.

Therefore the square on BA
is equal to the squares on
BC, CA, and twice the rectangle BC, CD ;
that the square on

is, BA
is greater than the squares on
BC, CA by twice the rectangle BC, CD.
Wherefore, in obtuse-angled triangles kc. q.e.p.

In every triangle, the square on the side subtending
an acute angle is less than the squares on the sides con-
j
taining that angle, by twice the rectangle contained by

eitlier of these sides, and the straight line intercepted
heticeen the perpendicular let fall on it from the opposite
angle, and the acute angle.
Let ABC
be any triangle, and the angle at an acute B
angle; and on BC
one of the sides containing it, let fall
the perpendicular AD
from the opposite angle: the square
on AC, opposite to the angle B, shall be less than the
squares on CB, BA, by twice the rectangle CB, BD.
First, let AD fall within the
triangle ABC,
Then, because the straight line
CB is divided into two parts
at the pomt D, the squares on
CB, BDare equal to twice the
rectangle contained by CB, BD
and the square on CD. [II. 7.

square on DA.
Therefore the squares on CB, BD, DA
are equal to twice
the rectangle CB, BD
and the squares on CD, DA. [Ax. 2.
But the square on ^^
is equal to the squares on BD, DA,
because the angle BDA
is a right angle [I. 47.
;
and the square on -4 C is equal to the squares on C7>, Z>^. [1. 47.
Therefore the squares on CB, BA are equal to the scjuare
on ^C and t\vice the rectangle CB, BD ;
that is, the square on A C alone is less than the squares on

CB, BA by twice the rectangle CB, BD.
Secondly, let ylZ> fall without

the triangle ABC*
Then because the angle at is D
a right angle, {Comtruction.
tlie angle ACB is greater than
a Tight angle ; [I. 16.
BOOK 11. 13, 14. GO
and therefore the scjuare (m AB is equal to the squares

on AC^ CB, and twice the rectangle BC, CD. [11. 12.
To each of these equals add the square on BG.

Therefore the squares on AB, BC are equal to the square
on AC, and twice the square on BC, and twice the rect-
angle BC, CD. {Axiom 2.
But because BD is divided into two parts at the rect- (7,
angle DB, BC is equal to the rectangle BC, CD and the

square on BC; [II. 3,
and the doubles of these are equal,

tliat is, twice the rectangle DB, BC
is equal to twice the
rectangle BC, CD
and twice the square on BC.
Therefore the squares on AB, BC are equal to the square
on AC, and twice the rectangle DB, BC ;
that is. the square on AC

alone is less than the squares on
AB, BC by twice the rectangle DB, BC.
Lastly, let the side -4 (7 be perpendicular
to BC
Then BC is the straight line between the
perpendicular and the acute angle at ;
B
and it manifest, that the squares on
is
AB, BCare equal to the square on AC,
and twice the square on BC. [I. 47 and Ax. 2.
Wherefore, in every triangle &c. q.e.d.

To describe a square that shall he equal to a given recti-
lineal figure.
Let A
be the given rectilineal figure it : is required to
describe a square that shall be equal to A.
Describe the rect-
angular parallelogram
i?6'/)is equal tothc rec-
tilineal figure A. [1.4.5.
/ /
Then if the sides of it,
BE, EDare equal to B^ V,

one another, it is a
square, and what was
required is now done.
But if they are not equal, produce one of them BE to F,
make EF equal
to ED, [I. 3.
and bisect BF
at G ;
[I. 10.
from the centre

G, at the distance
GB, or GF, de-
scribe the semi-
circle BHF, and
produce DEtoH.
The square described on EH
shall be equal to the given
rectilineal figure A.
Join GH. Then, because the straight line is divided BF
into two equal parts at the point (x, and into two miequal
parts at the point E, the rectangle BE, EF, together with
the square on GE, is equal to the square on [II. 5. GF
But GF is equal to GH.
Therefore the rectangle BE, EF,
together with the square
on GE, is equal to the square on GH.
But the square on GHis equal to the squares on GE, EH;[IA7.

therefore the rectangle BE, EF, together with the square
on GE, is equal to the squares on GE, EH.
Take away the square on GE, M'hich is common to both ;
therefore the rectangle BE, EF is equal to the square on

EH. [Axiom 3.
But the rectangle contained by BE, EF is the parallelo-
gram BD,
because EF is equal to ED. [Construction.
Therefore BD equal to the square on EH.
is
But BD is equal to the rectilineal figure A. [Construction.

Therefore the square on EH is equal to the rectilineal
figure A.
"Wherefore a square has been made equal to the given
rectilineal figure A, namely, the square described on
EH, Q.E.F.
BOOK III.
DEFINITIONS.
1. Equal circles are those of which the diameters are

equal, or from the centres of which the straight Hues to
the circumfcreuces are equal.
This not a definition, but a theorem, the truth of
is
which evident
is for, if the circles be ap2)lied to one
;
another, so that their centres coincide, the circles must

like^vise coincide, since the straight lines from the centres
are equal.
2. A straight line is
said touch a circle,
to
when it meets the circle,
and being produced does
not cut it.
3. Circles are said

to touch one another,
which meet but do not
cut one another.
4. Straight lines are said to
be equally distant from the centre
of a circle, when the perpendicu-
lars drawn to them from the centre
are equal.
5. And the straight line on
which the greater perpendicular
falls, is said to be farther from the
centre.
6. A segment of a circle is the
figure contained by a straight line
and the circumference it cuts off.
7. The angle of a segment is that
wliich is contained by the straight
line and the circumference.
8. An angle in a segment is
the angle contained by two straight
lines drawn from any point in the
circumference of the segment to
the extremities of the straight line
which is the base of the segment.
And an angle is said to in-
9.
sist or stand on the circumference
intercepted between the straight
lines which contain the angle.
A sector of a circle is the

10.
figure contained by two straight
lines drawn from the centre, and
the circumference between them.
11. Similar segments of

circles are those in which
the angles are equal, or which
contain equal angles.
{Note. In the following propositions, whenever the expression

''straight lines from the centre," or ''drawn from the centre,"
occurs, it is to be understood that the hnea are drawn to the cir-
ciunference.
Any portion of the circumference is called an arc.']
PROPOSITION 1. PnOBLUM.
To find the centre of a given circle.
Let ABC be the given circle : it is required to find its

centre.
BOOK ni. 1. 73
Draw Avithin it any straight

line AB^ and bisect AB
at B ;
[I. 10.
from the point D draw DG

at right angles to AB ;
[I. 11.
prodnco CD to meet the cir-

cumference at E, and bisect
CE at F. [I. 10.
The point F shall bo the centre

of the circle ABO.
For if F be not the centre,
if possible, let G be the centre and join Gxi,
;
GD, GB.
Then, because DA is equal to DB, [Construction.
and DG is common to the two triangles ADG, BDG ;
the two sides AD,DG are equal to the two sides BD, DG,
each to each ;
and the base GA is equal to the base GB, because they are
dra^m from the centre G fl. Definition 15.
;
therefore the angle ADG is equal to the angle BDG. [I. 8.
But when a straight line, standing on another straight line,

makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of
J^r
the angles is called a right angle ;
[I. Definition 10.
therefore the angle BDG a right angle. is
But the angle BDF also a right angle,

is {Construction.
Therefore the angle BDGis equal to the angle BDF, [Ax. 11.
the less to the greater which is impossible. ;
Therefore G is not the centre of the circle ABC.

In the same manner it may be she^vn that no other point
out of the line CE is the centre ;
and since CE
bisected at F, any other point in
is CE
divides it into unequal parts, and cannot be the centre.
Therefore no point but Fis the centre ;
that is, F is the centre of the circle ABC:

ichich 2cas to he found.
Corollary. From this it is manifest, that if in a circle

a straight line bisect another at right angles, the centre of
the circle is in the straight line which bisects the other.
;
If any ttco poitifs be taken in the circumference of a
circle, the straight line ichich joins them shall fall within
the circle.
Let ABCbe a circle, and and A

any two points in B
the circumference the straight line drawn from
: to A B
shall fall within the circle.
For if it do not, let it fall, if
possible, without, as AEB.
Find D the centre of the circle
ABC ;
[III. 1.
and join DA, DB ; in the arc
AB take any point F^ join DF,
and produce it to meet the
straight line AB at E.
Then, because DA is equal
to DB, [I. Definition 15.
the angle DAB is equal to the angle DBA. [I. 5.
And because AE, a side of the triangle DAE, is pro-

duced to B, the exterior angle DEB
is greater than the
interior opposite angle DAE. [I. 16.
But the angle Z)^^wasshew^n to be equal to the angle DBE;

therefore the angle DEB is greater than the angle DBE.
But the greater angle is subtended by the greater side ; [1. 19.
therefore DB is greater than DE.

But DB is equal to DF-, [I. Definition 15.
therefore DFis greater than DE, the less than the greater
"which is impossible.
Therefore the straight line drawn from A to B does not
fallwithout the circle.
In the same manner it may be shewn that it does not
fall on the circumference.
Therefore it falls within the circle.
"Wherefore, if any two points &c. q.e.d.
If a straight line drawn throiigJt the centre of a circle^
bisect a straight line in it which does not pass through tlie
; ; ;
BOOK III. 3. 75
centre, it shall cut it at right angles ; and if it cut it at

right angles it shall bisect it.
Let ABC be a circle and let CD, a straigiit line drawn

;
through the centre, bisect any straight line AB, which does
not pass through the centre, at the point F\ CD shall cut
AB at right angles.
Take E the centre of the
circle ; andjoin£L4, EB. [III.l.
Then, because ^li^ is equal

to FB, [Hypothesis.
and FE is common to the two

triangles AFE, BFE ;
the two sides AF, FE arc

equal to the two sides BF,FE,
each to each
and the base EA is equal to the base EB ;
[I. I>ef. 15.
therefore the angle AFE is equal to the angle BFE. [I. 8.
But when a straight line, standing on another straight line,

makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of
the angles is called a right angle ;
[I. Definition 10.
therefore each of the angles AFE, BFE is a right angle.

Therefore the straight line CD, drawn through tlie centre,
'^
bisecting another AB
which does not pass through the
centre, also cuts it at right angles.
But let CD cut AB

at right angles : CD shall also
bisect AB; that is, yli^ shall be equal to FB.
Tlie same construction being made, because EA, EB,
dra^^^l from the centre, are equal to one another, [I. Def. 15.
the angle EAF is eiiual to the angle EBF. [L 5.
And the right angle AFE is equal to the right angle BFE.
Therefore in the two triangles EAF, EBF, there are two
angles in the one eiiual to two angles in the other, each to
each;
and the side EF, which is opposite to ouo of the equal
angles in each, is common to both
therefore their other sides are equal [I. 20.
therefore AF \^ equal to FB.

;
If in a circle tico straight lines cutone another, which
do not 2^ciss through the centre^ they do not bisect one
another.
Let ABCD be a circle, and AC, two straight lines BD
in which cut one another at the pomt E, and do not both
it,
pass through the centre: AC, shall not bisect one BD

another.
If one of the straight lines
pass through the centre it is plain
that it cannot be bisected by
the other which does not pass
through the centre.
But if neither of them pass
through the centre, if possible,
let yl^ be equal to EC, and BE
equal to ED.
Take F
the centre of the circle [III. 1.
and join EF.
Then, because FE, a straight line drawn through the
centre, bisects another straight line which does not pass AC
through the centre ;
[Hypothesis.
FE cuts A C at right angles [III. 3.
therefore the angle FEA is a right angle.

Again, because the straight line bisects the straight FE
lineBD, which does not pass through the centre, {Hyp-
FE cuts BD at right angles ;
[III. 3.
therefore the angle FEB a right angle. is
But the angle FEA was shewn to be a right angle ;
therefore the angle FEA is equal to the angle FEB, [Ax. 11.
Therefore AC, BD do not bisect each other.
Wherefore, if in a circle &c. q.e.d.
If two circles cut one another, they shall not have the
same centre.
Let the two circles ABC, CDG cut one another at the
;
BOOK III. 5, 6. 77
l)oints B, C\ they shall not have the same centre

For, if it be possible, let E
be their centre join EG^ and
;
draw any straight line EFG

meeting the circumferences at
F and G.
Then, because^ is the cen-
tre of the circle ABC, is EC
equal to EF. [I. Definition 15.
Again, because E is the centre
of the circle CDG, EG is equal
to EG, [I. Definition 15.
But EG was she\vn to be equal to EF

therefore EF is equal to EG, [Axiom 1.

Therefore E is not the centre of the circles ABC, CDG.
AVhcrefore, if two circles &c. q.e.d.
If iico circles touch one another internally^ they shall
not have the same centre.
Let the two circles ABC,
nally at the point G
CDE
touch one another inter-
they shall not have the same centre.
:
*
For, if it be possible, let
F be their centre join FC, ;
and draw any straight line

FEB, meeting the circum-
ferences at E and B.
Then, because is the F
centre of the circle ABC,
FG is equal to FB. [I. Dcf. 15.
Again, because is the F

centre of the circle CDE,
FG \^ c(\\\^\io FE. [I. Definition 15.
But FG was shewn to be equal to FB ;
therefore FE is equal to FB, [Axiom 1.

Therefore F is not the centre of the circles ABC, CDE.
"Wlierefore, \f two circles &c. q.e.^.
; ;
If any point"be taken in the diameter of a circle ichich
is not the centre, of all the straight lines tchich can he

drawn from this point to the circumference, the greatest
is that in ichich the centre is, and the other jyai^t of the
diameter is the least; and, of any others, that ichich is
nearer to the straight line which pfasscs through the centre,
is cdicays greater than one more remote; and from the
same point there can he drawn to the circumference two
straight lines, and only two, ichich are equal to one ano-
ther, 07ie on each side of the shortest line.
Let A BCD be a circle and AD

its diameter, in which
let any point F
be taken which not the centre let
is be ; E
the centre of all the straight lines FB, FC, FG, &c. that
:
can be drawn from F

to the circnniference, FA, which
passes through E, shall be the greatest, and FD, the other
part of the diameter AD, shall be the least and of the ;
others FB
shall be greater than FC, and than FG. FC
Join BE, CE, GE.
Then, because any two sides
of a triangle are greater than the
third side, [I. 20.
therefore BE, EF are greater

than BF.
But BEh equal to AE; [l.Def.W.
therefore AE, EF are greater
than BF,
that is, AFis greater than BF.
Again, because BE is equal to
CE, [I. Definition 15.
and îîs common to the two triangles ^£"7^, CEF;

the two sides BE, EF are equal to the two sides CE, EF,
each to each
but the angle BEF greater than the angle CEF
is
therefore the base FB is greater than the base FC. [I. 24.
In the same manner it may be shewn that FC is greater

than FG.
Again, because GF, FE are greater than EG, [I. 20.
;
BOOK III. 7, 8. 79
and that EG equal to ED

is ;
[I. Definition 15.
therefore GE, FE are greater than ED.

Take away the common part FE, and the remainder GF is
greater than the remainder ED.
Therefore FA
is the greatest, and the least of ED all
the straight lines from F
to the circumference and ; FB is
greater than EC, and i\\^\\ EG.EC
Also, there can be drawn two equal straight lines from
the point E
to the circumference, one on each side of the
shortest line ED.
For, at the point E, in the straight line EE, make the
angle FEH equal to the angle EEG, [I. 23.
and join EH.

Then, because EG is equal to EH, [I. Definition 15.
and EE'is common to the two triangles GEE, HEF;

the two sides EG, EF are equal to the two sides EH, EF,
each to each ;
and the angle GEE is equal to the angle HEF ;

\Constr.
therefore the base EG is equal to the base EH. [I. 4.
But, besides FH, no other straight line can be dra^vn

from Fto the circumference, equal to EG.
For, if it be possible, let EK be equal to EG.
Then, because EK is equal to EG, [Hypothesis.
and EH is also equal to EG,

therefore EHia equal to EK [Axiom 1.
that is, a line nearer to that which passes through the

centre is equal to a line which is more remote ;
which is impossible by what has been already shewn.

Wherefore, if ajiy point be taken &c. q.e.d.
If any jwint without a circUy and straight
he taken
lines be drawn from the circumference, one ofirhich
it to
passes through the centjê ; of those which fail on the con-

cave circumference, the greatest is that which 2^^^^cs
through the centre, and of the rest, that which is nearer
to the one passing through the centre is always greater
than one more ronote; but of those which fall on the
; :
80 EUGLIjyS ELEMENTS.
convex circumference, the least is that heiiceen the jôint
without the circle and the diameter; and of the rest, that
which is nearer to the least is always less than one more
remote ; and from the satne point there can he drawn to
the circumference tico straight lines, and only t?co, ichich
are equal to one another, one on each side of the shortest line.
Let ABC
be a circle, and D
any point without it, and
from D
let the straight lines DA, DE, DF, be drawn DC
to the circumference, of which jD^ passes through the centre
of those whicli fall on the concave circumference AEFC, the
greatest shall be DA
which passes through the centre, and
the nearer to it shall be greater than the more remote,
namely, Z)^ greater than DF, and DF
greater than DC \
but of those which fall on the convex circumference GKLH,

the least shall ho DG
between the point D
and the dia-
meter AG, and the nearer to it shall be less than the more
remote, namely, DK
less than DL, and DL
less than DH.
Take M, the centre of the
circle ABC, [III. 1.
and join ME, MF, MC, MH, ^
ML, MK.
Then, because any two sides
of a triangle arc gi'eater than
the third side, [I. 20.
therefore EM, MD are greater

than ED.
But^3/is equal to AM; [I.De/. 15.
therefore AM, MD are greater
than ED,
that is, AD\^ greater than ED.
Again, because EM is equal
iQFM,
and MD is common to the tvro
triangles EMD, FMD
the two sides EM,MD are equal to the two sides F3f, MD,
each to each ;
but the angle EMD is greater than the angle FMD ;
therefore the base ED is greater than the base FD. [1. 24.
In the same manner it may be shewn that FD is

gTeater than CD.
;
BOOK III. 8. 81
Therefore DA
is the greatest, and DE greater than DF^
and DF
greater than DC.
Again, because MK, KD are greater than MD, [T. 20.
and MKis equal to MG, [\. Definition 15.
the remainder KD is greater than the remainder GD,

that is, GD is less than KD.
And because MLD
is a triangle, and from the points
the extremities of its side MD, the straight lines
ilf, Z>,
MK, DKarc drawn to the point within the triangle, K
therefore MK, KD
are less than ML, ;
[I. 21. LD
and MK\^ equal to ML ;
[I. Bcfinition 15.
therefore the remainder KD is less than the remainder LD.
In the same manner it may be shewn that LD is less
than IID.
Therefore DG is the least, and 2) A" less than DL, and DL
lessthan DH.
Also, there can be drawn two equal straight lines from
the point D
to the circumference, one on each side of the
least line.
For, at the point M, in the straight lino MD, make the
angle DMB
equal to the angle DMK^ [I. 23.
and join DB.

Then, because MK is equal to MB,
and MD is common to the two triangles KMD, BMD ;
the two sides KM, MD are equal to the two sides B3I, MD,
each to each ;
and the angle D]\[K\9, equal to the angle DMB ;

[Consir.
therefore the 1 »asc DK is equal to the base DB. [T. 4.
But, besides DB, no other straight line can be drawn

from D
to the circumference, equal to DK.
For, be possible, let
if it DN be equal to DK
Then, because is equal toDN DK^
and DBis also equal to DK,
tiierefore DB is equal to DN\ [Axiom 1.
that is, a line nearer to the least is equal to one which is
more remote
which is impossible by what has been already shewn.
"therefore, if any point he taken &c, q.e.d.
G
; ; ;
82 EUCLIUS ELEMENTS,
PBOPOSITION 9. THEOREM,
If d point he taken within a circle, from which
there
fall more than two equal straight lines to the circum-
ference^ that point is the centre of the circle.
Let the point D
be taken within the circle ABC, from
which to Uie circumference there fall more than two equal
straight lines, namely DA, DB, DC: the point shall be D
the centre of the circle.
For, if not, let E
be the centre
join i)j&and produce it both ways to
meet the circumference at i^ and (x ;
then FG
is a diameter of the circle.
Then, because in FG, a diameter

of the circle ABC, the point is D
taken, which is not the centre, DG
is the greatest straight line from D
to the circumference, and DG
is greater than DB, and
DB greater than Dii ; [III. ;.
but they are likewise equal, by hypothesis

Therefore E
is not the centre of the circle ABC.
In the same manner it may bo shewn that any other

point than D
is not the centre
therefore D is the centre of the circle ABC.

AYhcrefore, if a point he taJccn &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION 10. THEOJtE}f.

One circumference of a circle cannot cut anotlic) at
more than two points.
If it be possible, let the circumference ABC cut tho
circumference DEF
at more
than two points, namely, at tho
points B, G, F.
Take K, the centre of tho
circle ABC, [HI. 1.
and join KB, KG, KF.

Then, because K is the
centre of the circle ABC,
; 2 ;
BOOK III. 10, 11. 83
therefore KB, KG, A'lFare all equal to each other. [I. Dcf. 15.
And because Avithin the circle DBF, the point is taken, K
from which to the circumference fall more than twoDEF
equal straight lines KB, KG, KF, therefore A" is the
centre of the circle DEF. [III. 9.
But A" is also the centre of the circle ABC. [Construction.
Therefore the same point is the centre of two circles
which cut one another
which is impossible. [III. 5.
"\^'herefore, one circumference &c. q.e.d.

If two circles touch one another internally, the straight
line which joins their centres, being produced, shall pass
through the point of contact.
Let the two circles ABC\ ADE touch one another inter-
nally at the point A ; and let F be the centre of the circle
ABC, and G the centre of the circle the straight ADE :
line which joins the centres F, G, being produced, shall

pass through the point . A
For, not, let
if pass otherwise,
it
if possible, as FGDH, and join

AF,AG.
Then, because AG, GF are
greater than AF, [I. 20.
and AF'i?, equal to HF, [I. Def. 15.

therefore AG, GF, are greater
than HF.
Take away the common part GF;
therefore the remainder AG is greater than the remainder
HG.
But AG is equal to DG. [I. Definition 15.
Therefore Z>^ is greater than HG, the less than the greater
Therefore the straight line which joins the points F, (7,
being produced, cannot pass otherwise than through the
point A,
that is, it must pass through A.
^Yherefore, if two circles kc. q.e.d.
C—
;
If two circles touch one another externally^ the straight
line ichich joins their centres shall pass through the 2yoint
of contact.
Let the two circles ABC, ADE touch one another ex-
ternally at the point A ; and let F be the centre of the
circle ABC, and G
the centre of the circle the ADE:
straight line which joins the points F, G, shall pass through
the point A,
For, if not, let it
pass otherwise, if pos- /fT ^"^^ E
sible, as FCDG, and
join FA, AG.
Then, because i^ is
the centre of the cir-
cle ABC, FA
is equal
ioFC', [l.Dcf.lb.
and because G
is the
centre of the circle ADE, GA is ecjual to GD ;
therefore FA, AG are equal to FC, DG. [Axiom 2.
Therefore the whole FG is greater than FA, AG.

But FG is also less than FA, AG-, [I. 20.
Therefore the straiglit line which joins the points F, G,
cannot pass otherwise than through the point A,
that is, it must pass through A.
Wherefore, iftico circles &c. q.e.d.

One circle cannot touch another at more points than
one, whether ittouches it on the inside or outside.
For, if it be possible, let the circle EBF touch the

circle ABC at more points than one; and first on the
inside, at the points B, D. Join BD, and draw 6^// bisect-
ing BD at right angles. 10, 11. [I.
Then, because the two points B, D arc in the circum-

ference of each of the circles, the straight line BD falls
within each of them [III. 2.
BOOK 111. 13. 85
H —H B'
and tliereforo the centre of each circle is in the straight

line67/ which bisects BD
at right angles; \IU. 1, Coroh
therefore (?// passes through the point of contact. [III. 11.
But Gil docs not pass through the point of contact, be-
cause the points B^ D
are out of the line GH\
which is absurd.
Therefore one circle cannot touch another on the inside at
more points than one.
Xor can one circle touch an-
other on the outside at more
points than one.
For, if it be possible, let the
circle A CK touch the circle yJi? 6^
at the points A, C. Join AG.
Then, because the two points
A^ G are in the circumference of
the circle AGlv, the straight line
AG which joins them, falls within
the circle AGK; [III. 2.
but the circle AGK is without the circle ABG] [H)jputhcsis.
therefore the straight line -.16' is without the circle ABG.

But because the two points xi, G
arc in the circumference
of the c\yq\o ABG, the straight line ^-16' falls within the
circle .li^C ;
[III. 2.
which is absurd.
Therefore one circle cannot touch another on the outside
at more points than one.
And it has been shewn that one circle cannot touch
another on the inside at more points than one.
Wherefore, one circle &c. q.e.d.
; ;;
86 EUCLWS ELEMENTS,

Equal straight lines in a circle are equally distant from
the centime: and those 2chich are equally distant from, the
centre are equal to one another.
Let the straight lines AB, CD in the circle ABDC, be

equal to one another they shall bo equally distant from
:
the centre.
Take E, the centre of the
circle ABDC; [III. 1.
and from E draw EF, EG per-

pendiculars to AB, CD; [I. 12.
and join EA^ EC.

Then, because the straight
line EF, passing through the
centre, cuts the straight line AB,
which does not pass through the
centre, at right angles, it also bisects it [III. 3.
therefore AFh equal to FB, and AB is double of AF,

For the like reason CD is double of CG.
But ABi?, equal to CD ; [Hypothesis.
therefore yliîs equal to CG. [Axiom 7.
And AE equal to CE,

because is [I. Definition 15.
the square on AE equal to the square on
is CE.
But the squares on AF^ FE are equal to the square on AE,
because the angle AFE is a right angle [J. 47.
and for the like reason the squares on CG, GE are equal to
the square on CE;
therefore the squares on AF, FE are equal to the squares
on CG, GE, [Axiom 1.
But the square on î^ is equal to the square on CG,
because AF'\s equal to CG
therefore tlie remaining square on FE is equal to the re-
maining square on GE; [Axiom 3.
and therefore the straight line EF is equal to the straight
line EG.
But straiglit lines in a circle are said to be equally distant
; ;
BOOK III. 14, 15. 87
ft'ora tlic centre, wlien the perpendiculars drawn to them

from the centre are equal [III. Dcfaiition 4.
tJicrefore AB, CD are equally distant from the centre.

Next, let the straight lines AB, CD be equally distant
from the centre, that is, let BF be equal to BG: AB shall
be equal to CD.
For, the same construction being made, it may be
she^Mi, as before, that AB
is double of AF, and double CD
of CG, and tliat the squares on BF, FA
are equal to the
squares on BG, GO;
but the square on BF
is equal to the square on BG,
because BF
is equal to BG [Hypothesis.
therefore the remaining square on FA is equal to the re-

maining square on GC, [Axiom 3.
and therefore the straight line AF
is equal to the straight
line CG.
But AB was shewn to be double of AF, and CD double
ofCG.
Therefore AB is equal to CD. [Axiom G.
"Wherefore, equal straight lines &c. q.e.d.

The diameter is the greatest straight line in a circle ;
and, of all others, that which is iieaiêr to the centre is
always greater than one more remote; and the greater
is 7iearer to the centre than the less.
Let ABCD be a circle, of which yl2) is a diameter, and

B the centre and let BC be nearer to the centre than FG
; ;
AD shall be gi-eater than -A B

any straight line whichBC
isnot a diameter, andi?(7 shall
be greater than FG.
From the centre B
draw
EH, BK perpendiculars to
BC, FG, [I. 12.
m^]o\\\BB,BC,BF.
AB is equal
Then, because
to BB, andED to BC, [l.Dcf. 1 5.
therefore AD is equal to BB, EC', [Axiom 2.

;
but BE, EC are greater than BC [I. 20.
therefore also AD'ib greater than BC.

And, because BC
is nearer to
the centre than FG, {Hypothesis.
EH is less than EK. [lll.Def. 5.
Now it may be shewn, as in the

preceding proposition, that BC
is double of BH, and FG
double
of FX, and that the squares on
EIT, HB are equal to the squares
on EK, KF.
But the square on EH is less than the square on EK,
because EH is less than EK ;
therefore the square on HB is greater than the square

on KF)
and therefore the straight line BH is greater than the
straight line ;
FK
and therefore BCis greater than FG.
Next, let BC
be greater than FG BC
shall be nearer :
to the centre than FG, that is, the same construction

being made, EH
shall be less than EK.
For, because BC
is greater than FG, is greater BH
than FK.
But the squares on BH, HE
are equal to the squares on
FK, KE;
and the square on BH
is greater than the square on FK,
because BHgreater than FK;
is
therefore the square on HE

is less than the square on KE ;
and therefore the straight line EH

is less than the straight
line EK.
Wherefore, the diameter &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION IG. THEOREM.

The straight line draicn at right angles to the diameter
of a circle from the e.rtremity <f it, falls without the
circle; and no straight line can he drawn from the
extremity, between that straight line and the circumfer-
ence, so as n>jt to cut the circle.
; ; ;
BOOK III. 16. 89
Let ABC be a circle, of which D is the centre and

AB a diameter: the straight line drawn at right angles to
AB, from its extremity A, shall fiill without the circle.
For, if not, let it fall, if pos-

sible,within the circle, as AG^
and draw DC
io the point (7,
where it meets the circumference.
Then, because DA is equal to
DC, [I. Definition 15.
the angle DAG is equal to the
angle DGA. [I. 5.
But the angle DAG is, a right angle [Hypoifiesis.
therefore the angle DGA is a right angle

and therefore the angles DAG, DGA are equal to two
right angles; which is impossible. [F. 17.
Therefore the straight line drawn from A at right angles to

AB does not fall within the circle.
And in the same mamier it may be shewn that it does
not fall on the circumference.
Therefore it must fall without the circle, as AE.
Also between the straight line and the circumfer- AE
ence, no straight line can be drawn from the point A, which
does not cut the circle.
For, if possible, \QiAFhQ between

them; and from the centre D draw
DG perpendicular to AF; 12. [I.
let DG meet the circumference at //.

Then, because the angle DGA is a
right angle, [Construction.
the angle DAG is less than a right

angle; [I. IT.
therefore DA is gi*eaterthanZ>G^. [1.19.

But DA is equal to DII\ [I. Definition 15.
therefore DIl is greater than DG, the less than the greater
Therefore no straight lino can bo drawn from the point
A between AE
and the circumference, so as not to cut the
circle.
; ;
Wherefore, the straight line &c. q.e.d.
Corollary. From this it is manifest, that the straight

line ^vllich is drawn at right angles to the diameter of a
circle from the extremity of it, touches the circle {lll.Def.'l. ;
and that it touches the circle at one point only,

because if it did meet the circle at two points it would fall
within it. [HI. 2.
Also it is evident, that there can be but one straight line

which touches the circle at the same point.

To draio a straight line from a given point, either
without or in the circumference, ichich shall touch a gicen
circle.
given point
First, let the A
be without the given circle
BCD: required to draw from
it is A
a straight line, which
shall touch the given circle.
Take E, the centre of the
circle, [III. 1.
and join -4 i5' cutting the circum-

ference of the given circle at D ;
and from the centre E, at the

distance EA, describe the circle
AFG; from the jwint Z> draw
DF at right angles to EA,il.ll.
and join EF
cutting the circum-
ference of the given circle at B ;
join AB. AB shall touch the circle BCD.

For, because E is the centre of the circle AFG, EA is
equal to EF, [I. Definition 15.
And because E is the centre of the circle BCD, EB is
equal to ED. [I. Definition 15.
Therefore the two sides AE, EB arc equal to the two sides
FE, ED, each to each
and the angle at E is common to the two triangles AEB,
FED)
therefore the triangle AEB
is equal to the triangle FED,
which the equal sides are opposite [I. 4.
; ;
BOOK in. 17, 18. 91
therefore the angle ABE equal to the angle FDE. is
But the angle FDE is a right angle [Construction.
therefore the angle ABE a right angle. [Axiom

is 1.
And EB is drawn from the centre

but the straight lino ;
drawn at right angles to a diameter of a circle, from the

extremity of it, touches the circle; [III. 16, Corollary.
therefore AB touches the circle.

And ^^ is drawn from the given point A. q.e.f.
But the given point be in the circumference of the

if
circle, asthe point Z>, draw to the centre E, and DE at EF
right angles to DE; then Z>>P touches the circle. [III. 16, Cor.

If a straight line touch a circle the straight line draicn
from the centre to the point of contact shallhe perpen-
dicular to the line touching the circle.
Let the straight line touch the circle DE at the ABC

point C; take F^ the centre of the circle ABC, and draw
the straight line EC: FC
shall be perpendicular to DE.
For if not, let be drawn EG from the point F perpen-
dicular to DE, meeting the cir-
cumference at B.
Then, because FGC is a right
angle, [ITij2:>oth€sis.
FCG is an acute angle ;

[I. 17.
and the greater angle of every

triangle is subtended by the
greater side ;
[I. 19.
therefore FC is greater than FG.

But FC is equal to FB ; DcfnHlon [I. ir>.
therefore FB is greater than FG, the less than the greater

Therefore FG is not perpendicular to DE.
In the same manner it may be shewn that no other
straight line from F perpendicular to
is DE, but FC;
therefore EC is perpendicular to DE.
"Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.k.d.
.
If a straight line touch a circle, and from the point of
contact a straight line he drawn at right angles to the
touching line, the centre of the circle shall he in that line.
Let the straight line DE
touch the circle ABC at C,
and from G let CA be drawn at right angles to DE: tlio
centre of the circle shall be in CA.
For, if not, if possible, let be F
the centre, and join CF.
Then, because DE touches the circle
ABC, and FC is drawn from the
centre to the point of contact, FC
is perpendicular to [III.DE ;
18.
thereforethe anglei^Cîs a right angle-

But the angle ACE is also a right
angle; [Ûonatruction.
therefore the angle FCE

is equal to the angle ACE, [Ax. 11
Tlierefore iîs not the centre of the circle ABC.
In the same manner it may be shewn that no other point
out of CA is the centre ; therefore the centre is in CA.

The angle at the centre of a circle is double of the angle
at the circumference on the same base, that is, on the same
arc.
Let ABC be a circle, and BEC an angle at the centre,
and BAC an angle at the circumference, which have the
same arc, BC, for their base the angle BEC shall be :
double of the angle BAC.

Join AE, and produce it to F.
First let the centre of the circle
be witiiin the angle BAC.
Then, because EA
is equal to
EB, the angle EAB
is equal to the
angle EBA ;
[I. 5.
therefore the angles EAB, EBA

are double of the an"rle B. EA
;
BOOK III. 20, 21. 93
But the angle BEF\^ equal to the angles EAB, EBA ;

[1. 32.
therefore the angle BEFis double of the angle EAB.

For the same reason the angle FEC is double of the
angle ^^C'.
Therefore the whole angle BEG is double of the whole
angle i?ylC'.
Next, let tlie centre of the circle
be "without the angle BAG.
Then it maybe shewn, as inthe first
case, that the angle FEG is double of
the angle FAG, and that the angle
FEB, a part of the first, is double of
the angle FAB, a part of the other
therefore the remaining angle BEG is
double of the remaining angle BAG.
"Wliercfore, th^ angle at the centre Sec. q.e.d.

The angles in the same segment of a circle are equal to
one another.
Let ABGD be a circle, and BAD, BED angles in the
same segment BAED: the angles BAD, BED shall be
Take F the centre of the circle
ABGD. [til. 1.
First let the segment BAED be

greater than a semicircle.
Join BF, DF.
Then, because the ûgloBFD is
at the centre, and the angle BAD
is
at the circumference, and that they
have the same arc for their base,
namely, BGD ;
therefore the angle BED is double of the angle BAD.[]U.20.

For the same reason the angle BED is double of the anirle
BED.
Therefore the'angle BAD is equal to the angle BED. [Ax. 7.
9-1 EUGLIUS ELEMENTS.
Next, let the segment BAED be not greater than a
semicircle.
Draw î^ to the centre, and pro-
duce it to meet the circmnference at
C, and join CE.
Then the segment BAEC is
greater than a semicircle, and there-
fore the angles BAC, BEG
in it, are
equal, by the first case.
For the same reason, because the
segment CAED is greater than a
semicircle, the angles CAD, CED are equal.
Therefore the whole angle BAD is equal to the whole
angle BED. [Axiom 2.
"Wherefore, the angles in the same segment &c. q.e.d.

The opposite angles of any quadrilateral Jigure in-
scribed in a circle are together equal to tico right angles.
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral figure inscribed in the

circle ABCD any two of its opposite angles shall be toge-
:

Join^C, ^Z>.
Then, because the three angles
of every triangle are together
equal to two right angles, [I. 32.
the three angles of the triangle
CAB, namely, CAB, ACB, ABC
are together equal to two right
angles.
But tlie angle / B C
is equal to the angle CDB, because
they are in the same segment CDAB; [III. 21.
and the angle ACB

is equal to the angle ADB, because
they are in the same segment ADCB ;
therefore the two angles CAB, ACB are together equal

to the whole angle ADC. [Axioin 2,
To each of these equals add the angle ABC-,

; ;
BOOK III. 22,23. 95
therefore the three angles CAB^ ACB, ABG, are equal to

the two angles ABO, ADC.
But the angles CAB, ACB, ABC arc together equal to
two right angles [I. 32.
therefore also the u,ug\es ABC, ABC are together equal to

two right angles.
In the same manner it may bo shown that the angles
BAD, BCD are together equal to two right angles.
Wherefore, the opposite angles &c. q.e.d.

On the same straight line, and on the same side of it,
there cannot he two similar segments of circles, not coin-
ciding with one another.
If be possible, on tho same straight line AB, and on

it
the same side of it, let there be two similar segments of
circles ACB, ADB, not coinciding with one another.

Then, because the circle A CB
cuts the circle ADB
at the two
points A, B, they cannot cut one
another at any other point; [III.IO.
therefore one of the segments
must fall within the other; let
ACB fall within ADB; draw the
straight line BCD, and join AC, AD.
Then, because ACB, ADB
are, by hypothesis, similar
segments of circles, and that similar segments of circles
contain equal angles, [III. Definition 11.
therefore the angle ACB is equal to the angle ADB ;
that is, the exterior angle of the triangle ACD is equal to

the interior and opposite angle
which is impossible. [I. 16.
Wherefore, on the same straight line &c. q.e.p.

96 EUGLinS ELEMENTS.
PROPOSITION 24, THEOREM.
Similar segments of circles on equal straight lines arc
Let AEB, CFD be similar segments of circles on the
equal straight lines AB, CD the segment
: AEB shall be
equal to the segment CFD.
For if the segment e
AEB be applied to
the segment CFD, /_ n^
so that the point A -^ B

may be on the point
C, and the straight lino AB
on the straight line CD, the
point B will coincide with the point D, because is AB
equal to CD.
Therefore, the straight line vli? coinciding with the straight
line CD, the segment AEB
must coincide with the seg-
ment CFD ;
[III. 23.
and is therefore equal to it.
"Wherefore, similar segments &;c. q.e.d.

A segment of a circle being given, to describe the circle
of which it is a segment.
Let ABChQ the given segment of a circle it is required :
to describe the circle of which it is a segment.
//
_\
A D
Bisect ^(7 at D; [T. 10.
from the point D draw DB at right angles io AC \ [1. 11.
and join AB.

First, let the angles î?i), BAD, be equal to one another.
Then DB DA
is equal to ;
[I. 6.
but DA is equal to DC ;
[Cointruction.
therefore DB is equal to DC. [Axiom, 1,
; ; ;;
hOOK III. 25. 97
Therefore the three straight lines DA,DB,DCsirQ all equal

and therefore D
is the centre of the circle. [III. 9.
From the centre D, at the distance of any of the three
DA, DB, DC, describe a circle; this will pass through
the other points, and the circle of which is a segment ABC
is described
And because the centre D is in AC, the segment ABC
is a semicircle.
Next, let the angles ABD, BAD be not equal to one
another.
At the point A, in the straight line AB, make the angle
BAE equal to the angle ABD ; [I. 23.
produce BD, if necessary, to meet AE at E, and join EC.

Then, because the angle BAE is equal to the angle
ABE, [Construction.
EA is equal to EB. [I. 6.
And because AD is equal to CD, [Construction.

and DE is common to the two triangles ADE, CDE ;
the two sides AD, DE

are equal to the two sides CD, DE,
each to each
and the angle ADE
is equal to the angle CDE, for each of
them is a right angle ;
[Construction.
therefore the base EA
is equal to the base [I. 4. EC
ButEA was shewn to be equal to EB
therefore EB is equal to EC. [Axiom 1.
Therefore the three straight lines EA, EB,EC^rQ all equal

and therefore E is the centre of the circle. [HE. 9.
From the centre E, at the distance of any of the three

EA, EB, EC, describe a circle this will pass through the
;
other points, and the circle of which ABC is a segment is

described.
And evident, that if the angle
it is bo greater A BD
than the angle BAD, the centre E
falls without tlic seg-
ment ABC, which is therefore less than a semicircle ; but
if the angle ABDbe less than the angle the centre BAD,
E fiills within the segment ABC, which is therefore gi'cater
than a semicircle.
"Wherefore, a segment of a circle heing giten, the circle
has been described of ichich it is a segment, q.e.f.
7

In equal circles, equal angles stand on equal arcs,
whether they he at the centres or circumferences.
Let ABC, DBFbe equal circles and let BGG, ;
EHF
be equal angles in them at their centres, and C, BA EDF
equal angles at their circumferences the arc : BKC shall
be equal to the arc ELF.
Join BC, EF.

Then, because the circles ABC, DEF are equal, [Hyp.
the straight lines from their centres are equal [III. Def. 1. ;
therefore the two sides BG, GC

are equal to the two sides
EH, HF, each to each ;
and the angle at G is equal to the angle at H ;

{Hypothesis.
therefore the base BC is equal to the base EF. [I. 4.
Andbecause the angle at is equal to the angle at D, [Hyp.

-L-l
the segment i?yl(7is similar to the segment EDF; [III.Z></.11.

and they are on equal straight lines BC, EF.
But similar segments of circles on equal straight lines are
equal to one another; [III- 24.
therefore the segment BAG equal to the segment EDF.

is,
But the \rhole circle ABC is equal to the whole circle

DEF; [Hypothesis.
therefore the remaining segment BKC is equal to the re-

maining segment ELF ;
[Axiom 3.
therefore the arc BKC is equal to the arc ELF.

AVherefore, in equal circles &c. q.e.d.
BOOK III. 27. 99
PKOPOSITIQN 2r. THEOREM.

In equal circles, the angles which stand on equal arcs
are cqiud to one anotJier, \chether they he at the centres or
circumferences.
Let ABC, DEF bo equal circles, aiicl let the angles

BGC\ EHF at and the angles BAC,
their centres, EDF
at their circumferences, stand on equal arcs BC, EF: the
angle BGC shall be equal to the angle EHF, and the angle
BAC equal to the angle EDF.
If the angle BGC

be equal to the angle EHF, it is
manifest that the angle BAC
is also equal to the angle
EDF. [III. 20, Axiom 7.
But, if not, one of them must be the greater. Let be BGC

the greater, and at the point G, in the straight line BG,
make the angle BGK equal to the angle EHF. [I. 23.
Then, because the angle BGK

is, equal to the angle iS'i/jP,
and that in equal circles equal angles stand on equal arcs,

"vvhen they are at the centres, \lll. 26.
therefore the arc BK is equal to the arc EF.

But the arc EF is equal to the arc BC; [Jfi/pothcsis.
.
therefore the arc BK is equal to the arc BC, [Axiom 1.
the less to the greater ; 'vvhieli is impossible.

Therefore the angle BGC is not unecûal to the angle EHF,
that is, it is equal to it.
And the angle at .1 is half of the angle BGC, and the

angle at Dis half of the angle EHF; [III. 20.
therefore the angle at A is e<iual to the angle at D. [Ax. 7.
"Wherefore, in equal circles &c. Q.E.r.


In equal circles, equal straight lines cut off equal arcs,
the greater equal to the greater, and the less equal to the
less.
Let ABC, DEF be equal circles, and EC, EF equal

straight lines in them, which cut off the two greater arcs
BAC, EDF, and the two less arcs BGC, the EHF \
greater arc BAG shall be equal to the greater arc EDF,

and the less arc BGG equal to the less arc EIIF.
Take K, L, the centres of the circles, [III. i.
and join BK, KG, EL, LF.

Then, because the circles are equal, [Hypothesis.
the straight lines from their centres are equal ;

[III. Def. 1.
therefore the two sides BK, KG are equal to the two sides
EL, LF, each to each ;
and the base BG is equal to the base EF; [Hypothesis.
therefore the angle BKG is equal to the angle ELF. [I. 8.
But in equal circles equal angles stand on equal arcs, when

they are at the centres, [III. 26.
therefore the arc BGG is equal to the arc EHF.

But the circumference ABGG is equal to the circum-
ference DEHF', [HypothuU.
therefore the remaining arc i?^ (7 is equal to the remaining
vccc EDF. [Axiom 3.
"Wherefore, in equal circles &c. Q e.d.
; ;
BOOK in. 29, 30. 101

In equal circles^ equal arcs are SKhtended by equal
straight lines.
Let ABC, DBF

be equal circles, and let BGG, EIIF
be equal ares in them, and join BC, EF\ the straight line
BC shall be equal to the straight line EF.
Take A", Z, the centres of the circles, [III. 1.
and join BK, KG, EL, LF,

Then, because the arc BGG is equal to the arc
EHF, [Hi/pothcsk.
tlie angle BKG is equal to the angle ELF. [III. 27.
And because the circles ABC, DEFslvc equal, [Hypothesis.
the straight lines from their centres are equal ;

[III. Def. 1.
therefore tlie two sides BK, AX' are equal to the two sides
EL, LF, each to each
and they contain equal angles

therefore the base i?(7is equal to the base EF. [T. 4.
AVhcreforo, in equal circles &c. q.e.d.
To bisect a given arc, that is, to divide it into two equal

parts.
;

Let ADB be the given arc : it is required to bisect it.
Join AB\
bisect it at (7; [1. 10.
D
from the point C draw CD at
right angles to î? meeting
the arc at D. [1. 11.
B
The arc ADB shall be bisected
at the point D.
Join AD, DB.
Then, because AC is, equal to CB, [Construction.
and CD is common to the two triangles ACD, BCD ;
the two sides AC, CD are equal to the two sides BC, CD,
each to each
and the angle ACD

is equal to the angle BCD, because
each of them is a right angle ; [Construction.
therefore the base AD is equal to the base BD. [I. 4.
But equal straight lines cut off equal arcs, the greater
equal to the greater, and the less equal to the less ; [III. 28.
and each of the arcs AD, DB is less than a semi-circum-
ference, because DC, if produced, is a diameter [III. 1. Cor.
;
therefore the arc AD h equal to the arc DB.

Wherefore the given arc is bisected at D. q.e.f.

In a circle the angle in a semicircle is a right angle;
tut the angle in a segment greater than a semicircle is less
tJmn a right angle ; and the angle in a segment less than
a semicircle is greater than a right angle.
Let ABCDbe a circle, of which is a diameter BC

and Ethe centre; and draw <7J, dividing the circle into
the segments ABC, ADC, and join BA, AD, DC: the
angle in the semicircle BAC
sliall be a right angle; but
the angle in the segment ABC, which is greater than a
;
BOOK in. 31. 103
semicircle, shall be less than a

right angle and the angle in
;
the segment ADC, which is less

than a semicircle, shall be greater
than a right angle.
Join A E, and produce BA to F.
Then, because EA is equal to
EB, [I. Definition 15.
the angle EAB is equal to the

angle ^5.4; [1.5.
and, because EA is equal to EG,
the angle EAC is equal to the angle EGA ;
therefore the whole angle BAG is equal to the two angles,

ABG, AGB. [Axiom 2.
But FAG, the exterior angle of the triangle ABG, is equal
to the two angles ABG, A GB ;
[I. 32.
therefore the angle i?.l(7 is equal to the angle FAG, [Ax. 1.
and therefore each qf^them is a right angle. [T. D(f. 10.
Therefore the angle in a semicircle BAG\% a right angle.
And because the two angles ABG, BAG, of the triangle

ABG, are together less than two right angles, [I. 17.
and that BAGhîs been shewn to be a right angle,

therefore the angle ABG is less than a right angle.
Therefore the angle in a segment ABG, greater than a

semicircle, is less than a right angle.
And because ABGD is a quadrilateral figure in a circle,

any two of its opposite angles are together equal to two
right angles; [111.22.
therefore the angles ^^C, ADG arc together equal to two

right angles.
But the angle ABG has been shewn to be less than a right
angle
therefore the angle ADG is greater than a right angle.
Therefore the angle in a segment ADG, less than a semi-
circle, is greater than a right angle.
Wherefore, tite angle &c. q.e.d.

;

Corollary. From the demonstration it is manifest
that if one angle of a triangle be equal to the other two, it
is a right angle.
For the angle adjacent to it is equal to the same two

angles [I. 32.
and when the adjacent angles are equal, they are right
angles. [I. Definition 10.

If a straight line touch a circle, and from the point of
contact a straight line he drawn cutting the circle, the
angles ichich this line makes with the line touching the
circle shall he equal to the angles which are in the alternate
segments of the circle.
touch the circle at ABCD
the point B, and from the point B
let the straight line BD
be drawn, cutting the circle the angles which
: makes BD
with the touching line EF, shall be equal to the angles in
the alternate segments of the circle that is, the angle
;
Z>î^ shall be equal to the angle in the segment BAD,

and the angle DBE
shall be equal to the angle in the seg-
ment BCD.
From the points draw BA
at right angles to EF, [1. 11.
and take any point C in the
arc BDf and join AD, DC,
CB.
lineEF touches the circle
ABCD at the point B, {Hyp.
and BA is drawn at right
angles to the touching line
from the point of contact B, [Comtruction.
therefore the centre of the circle is in BA. [III. 19.
Therefore the angle ADB, being in a semicircle, is a right
angle. [III. 31.
Therefore the other two angles BAD, ABD are equal to a

right angle. [I. 32.
But ABF is also a right angle. [Construction.

BOOK III. 32,33. 105
Therefore the angle ABF equal to the

is angles BAD,
ABD.
ABD;
therefore the remaining angle DBF is equal to the remain-
ing angle BAD, [Axiom 3.
which is in the alternate segment of the circle.
And because ABCD is a quadrilateral figure in a circle,

the opposite angles BAD, BCD are together equal to two
right angles. [III. 22.
But the angles DBF, DBE are together equal to two

right angles. [I. 13.
Therefore the angles DBF, DBE are together equal to the

angles BAD, BCD.
And the angle DBF has been shewn equal to the angle
BAD;
therefore the remaining angle DBE is equal to the re-
maining angle BCD, [Axiom 3.
which is in the alternate segment of the circle.
"Wherefore, if a straight line &c. q.e.d.

On a given straight line to describe a segment of a
circle, contaiiiing an angle equal to a given rectilineal
angle.
Let AB the given straight line, and C the given

hci
rectilineal angle it is required to describe, on the given
:
straight line A /i, a segment of a circle containing an angle

equal to the angle C.
First, let the angle C
be a right angle.
Bisect AB at F, [1. 10.
and from the centre F, at

the distance FB, describe
the semicircle AHB.
Then the angle AHB
in a semicircle is equal to the right angle C, [111. 31.
;

But if the angle C bo
not a right angle, at the
point A, in the straight line
AB, make the angle BAD
equal to the angle C\ [I. 23.
from jthe point A, draw AE
at right angles to AD;\l.l\.
bisect î? at i?'; [1. 10.
from the point F, draw FG

at right angles to ^^; [1. 11.
and join GB.
Then, because is, AF
equal to BF, [Const.
and FGis common to the

two triangles î^(5^, BFG\
the two sides A F, FG are
equal to the two sides
BF, FG, each to each
and the angle AFG is
equal to the angle BFG ;
[I. Definition 10.
therefore the base AG\9, equal to the base BG ;

[T. 4.
and therefore the circledescribed from the centre G, at the

distance GA, will pass through the point B.
Let this circle be described; and let it be AIIB.
The segment AHB shall contain an angle equal to the
given rectilineal angle C.
Because from the point A, the extremity of the diameter
A E, AD is drawn at right angles to AE, [Construction.
thereforeAD touches the circle. [III. 16. Corollary.
And because AB drawn from the point of contact A,

is,
the angle DAB equal to the angle in the alternate

is
segment AIIB. [III. 32.
But the angle DAB is equal to the angle C. [Comt.r.
Therefore the angle in the segment AIIB is equal to the

angle G. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, on Ihc given straight line AB, the segment

AIIB of a circle has been described, containing an angle
equal to the given angle G. q.e.f.
BOOK III. 34,36. 107
PROPOSITION 34. PBOBLEM.
From a given circle to cut off a segment containing an

angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and D

the given recti-
lineal angle :required to cut off from the circle
it is ABC
a segment containing an angle equal to the angle D.
Draw the straight

line EF touching the
circle ABC at the
point i?; [III. 17.
and at the point i> ,in the

straight line BF, make
the angle FBC equal
to the angle D. [T. 23.
The segment BA (7 shall

contain an angle equal
to the angle D.
Because the straight line EF touches the circle ABC,

and J56'is drawn from the point of contact B, [Constr.
therefore the angle FBC is equal to the angle in the

alternate segment BAC of the circle. [III. 32.
But the angle FBC is equal to the angle D. [Construction.

Tlierefore the angle in the segment BAC is equal to the
angle Z>. [Axiom 1.
AVhcrcfore, froyn the given circle ABC, the segment

BAC has heen cut off, containing an angle equal to the
giren angle D. q.e.f.
PROPOSITION 3."^. THEOREM.

If tico straight lines cut one another within a circle,
the rectangle contained hy the segments of one of them
shall be equal to the rectangle contained bg the segments
of the other.
Let the two straight lines AC, BD cut one another at
the point E, within the circle A BCD : the rectangle con-
tained by AE, ^(7 shall be equal to
the rectangle contained by BE, ED.
liA (7and BD
both pass through
the centre, so that E
is the centre,
it isevident, since EA, EB, EC^
ED are all equal, that the rect-
angle AE, EC
is equal to the rect-
angle BE, ED.
But let one of them, BD, pass through the centre, and
cut the other AC, which does not pass through the centre,
at right angles, at the point E.
Then, if BD
be bisected at F, F
is the centre of the circle ABCD;
join AF.
line BD which passes through
the centre, cuts the straight line
A C, which does not pass through
the centre, at right angles at the
point E, {Hypothesis.
AE is equal to EC. [III. 3.
And because the straight line BD

is divided into two
equal parts at the point F, and into two unequal parts at
the point E, the rectangle BE, ED, together with the
square on EF, is equal to the square on FB, [II. 5.
that is, to the square on AF.
But the square on îîs equal to the squares onAE, EF.[J.'i7.
Therefore the rectangle BE, ED, together with the square
on EF, is equal to the squares on AE, EF. [Axiom 1.
Take away the common square on EF;
then the remaining rectangle BE, ED, is equal to the
remaining square on AE,
that is, to the rectangle AE, EC.
Next, let BD, which passes through the centre, cut
the other AC, which does not pass through the centre,
at the point E, but not at right angles. Then, if BD
be bisected at F, F
is the centre of the circle ABCD;
ô'm AF, and from i^draw FG
perpendicular to AC. [I. 12.
;
BOOK III. 35. 109
Then AG\% equal to GC] [III. 3.

therefore the rectangle AE, EG,
together with the square on EG, is
equal to the square on AG. [II. 5.

square on GF ;
then the rectangle AE, EC, to-

gether -with tlie squares on EG,
GF, is equal to the squares on
AG,GF. [Axiom 2.
But the squares on EG, GF arc equal to the square on
EF;
and the squares on AG, GF are equal to the square on
AF. [I. 47.
Therefore the rectangle AE, EC, together with the square

on EF, is equal to the square on AF,
that is, to the square on FB.
But the square on FB
is equal to the rectangle BE, ED,
together with the square on EF. [II. 5.
Therefore the rectangle AE, EC, together with the square

on EF, is equal to the rectangle BE, ED, together with
the square on EF.
Take away the common square on EF
then the remaining rectangle AE, EC is equal to the
remaining rectangle BE, ED. [Axiom 3.
Lastly, let neither of the straight lines AC, BD pass
through the centre.
Take the centre F, [III. 1.
and through E, the intersection
of the straight lines ylC, BD,
draw the diameter GEFH.
Then, as has been shewn,
the rectangle GE, EH. is equal
to the rectangle AE, EC, and
also to the rectangle BE, ED ;
therefore the rectangle AE, EC

is equal to the rectangle BE, ED. [Axiom 1.

no EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.

Tf from any point tcithout a circle tico straight lines
he draicn, one of which cuts the circle, and the other
touches it; the rectangle contained hif the ichole line which
cuts the circle, and the imrt (f it without the circle, shall
he equal to the square on the line ichich touches it.
D be any poiut witliout the circle ABC, and let

Let
DCA, DB be two straight Hues drawn from of whicli it,
DCA cuts the circle aud DB touches it: the rectangle

AD, DC shall be equal to the square on DB.
First, let DCApass through
the centre E, aud join EB.
Then EBD is a right angle. [III. 1 8.
And because the straight line A C

is bisected at E, aud produced to
D, the rectangle AD, Z>6Hogether
Avith the square on EC
is equal to
the square on ED. [II. 6.
But ECis equal to EB ;
therefore the rectangle AD, DC

together with the square on EB is
equal to tlie square on ED.
But the square on ED
is equal to the
squares on EB, BD, because EBD is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the rectangle AD, DC, together with the square

on EBis equal to the squares on EB^ BD.
Take away the common square on EB ;
then the remaining rectangle AD, DC is equal to the

square on DB. [Axiom 3.
Xext letDCA not pass through the centre of the circle
ABC; take the centre ^; [III. 1.
from E draw EF perpendicular to AC', [T. 12.
ixn(\}omEB,EC,ED.
Then, because the straight line EFyvlndi passes through
the centre, cuts the straight line A C, which does not pass
through the centre, at right angles, it also bisects it ; [III. 3.
therefore AFis equal to FC.
BOOK III. 3G. Ill
And because the straight line AC

is bisected at i^, and
produced to Z>, the rectangle AD, DC, together with the
square on FC, is equal to the square on FD. [11. G.
To each of these equals add the square on FE,
Therefore the rectangle AD, DC
together with the squares on
CF, FE, is equal to the squares
on DF, FE. [Axiom 2.
But the squares on CF, are FE
equal to the square on CE, be-
cause CFE is a right angle ; [I. 47.
and the squares on DF, FE arc
equal to the square on DE.
Therefore the rectangle AD, DC,
together with the square on CE,
is equal to the square on DE.
But CE is equal to BE]

therefore the rectangle AD, DC, together with the square
on BE, is equal to tlie square on DE.
But the square on DE is equal to the squares on DB,
BE, because EBD is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the rectangle AD, DC, together with the square

on BE, is equal to the squares on DB, BE.
Take away the common square on BE ;
then the remaining rectangle AD, DC is equal to the

square on DB. [Axiom 3.
"Wherefore, iffrom any 2)0 tut &c. Q.E.D.
Corollary. If from any point

without a there be drawn
circle,
two straight hues cutting it, as
AB, AC, the rectangles contained
by the whole lines and the parts
of them without the circles are
equal to one another namely, the
;
rectangle BA, AEis equal to tlie

rectangle CA, AF; for each of
them is equal to the square on the
straight line AD, which touches
the circle.
;

If from any point icithout a circle there he drawn two
straight lines, one of which cuts the circle, and the other
ineefs it, and if the rectangle contained by the whole line
which aits the circh, and the ly art of it without the circle,
he equal to the square 07i the line ichich meets the circle,
the line which 'ineets the circle shall touch it.
Let any point D
be taken "without the circle ABC,
and from it let two straight lines DCA, be dra^^^l, DB
of which DC
A cuts the circle, and meets it; and let DB
the rectangle AD, DC
he equal to the square on DB:
DB shall touch the circle.
Draw the straight line DE,
touching the circle -4 jB (7; [III. 17.
find i^the centre, [III. 1.
and join FB, FD, FE.

Then the angle FED is a
right angle. [III. 18.
And because DE touches the

circle ABC, and DCA cuts it,
the rectangle AD, DC is equal
to the square on DE. [III. 36.
But the rectangle AD, DC is

equal to the square on DB. [Hyp.
Therefore the square on DE\^ equal to the square owDB-Âx.l.
therefore the straight line DE is equal to the straight liuo
DB.
And EF\9, equal to BF; [I. Definition 15.
therefore the two sides DE, EF are e(iual to the two sides
DB, BF each to each ;
and the base DF'\?> common to the two triangles DEF, DBF',
therefore the angle DEF is equal to the angle DBF. [I. 8.
But DEF is a right angle ;

[Construction.
therefore also DBF is a right angle.

And BF, if produced, is a diameter ; and the straight line
which is drawn at right angles to a diameter from the
extremity of it touches the circle [III. 16. CoroUari/.
therefore DB touches the circle ABC.
Wherefore, iffrom a point &c. q.e.d.
BOOK IV.
DEFINITIONS.
1. A RECTILINEAL figure is said

to be inscribed in another rectilineal
figure, when all the angles of the in-
scribed figure are on the sides of the
figure in wliich it is inscribed, each on
each.
2. In like manner, a figure is said

to be described about another figure,
when all the sides of the circumscribed
figure pass through the angular points
of the figure about -which it is de-
scribed, each through each.
3. A rectilineal figure is said to

be inscribed in a circle, when all the
angles of the inscribed figure are on
the circumference of the circle.
4. A rectilineal figure is said to be

described about a circle, when each
side of the circumscribed figure touches
the circumference of the circle.
5. In like manlier, a circle is said

to be inscribed in a rectilineal figure,
when the circumference of the circle
touches each side of the figure.
6. A circle is said to be described
about a rectilineal figure, when the cir-
cumference of the circle passes through
all the angular points of the figure about
which it is described.
7. A straight line is said to be

placed in a circle, when the extremities
of it are in the circumference of the
circle.
PROPOSITION ]. PROBLEM.
In a given circle, to 2)l(ice a straight line, equal to a

given straight line, which is not greater than the diameter
of the circle.
Let ABCbe the given circle, and the given straight D

line, not greater than the diameter of the circle: it is
rc(]uired to place in the circle ABC, a straight line equal
toi>.
Draw BC, B. diameter of
the circle ABC.
Then, if BC
is equal to Z>,
the thing required is done for ;
in the circle ABC, a straight

line is placed equal to Z>.
But, if it is not, -BC is greater

than D. [Hypothesis.
Make CE equal
D, to [T. 3.
and from the centre C, at the distance CE, describe the

circle AEF, and join CA.
Then, because C is the centre of the circle AEF,
CA is equal to CE; [I. Definition 15.
but CE is equal to D ;
[Construction.
therefore CA is equal to D. [Axiom 1.
Wherefore, in the circle ABC, a straight live CA is

placed equal to the given straight line D, tchich is not
greater than the diameter of the circle, Qe.f.
2
BOOK IV, 2, 3. 115
In a given circh, to inscribe a triangle equiangular to

a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and DEF the given
triangle: it is required to inscribe in the circle ABC a
triangle equiangular to the triangle DEF.
Draw
the straight
line GAH touching
the circle at the point
A ;
[III. 17.
at the point A, in the
straight line AH, make
the angle jSL-i (7 equal to
the angle i)^/"; [1.23.
and, at the point A, in
the straight line AG,
make the angle GAB
equal to the angle DFE ;
and join BC. ABC

shall be the triangle required.
Because GAH
touches the circle ABC, and is AC
drawn from the point of contact A, [Construction.
therefore the angle HACis equal to the angle ABC in the
alternate segment of the circle. [III. 32.
But the angle HA C is equal to the angle DEF. [Constr.
Therefore the angle ABC is equal to the angle DEF. [Ax. 1.
For the same reason the angle ACB is equal to the

angle DFE.
Therefore the remaining angle BAC is equal to the re-
maining angle EDF. [I. 82, Axioms 11 and 3.
"Wherefore t/ie triangle ABC
is equiangular to the tri-
angle DEF, and it is inscribed in the circle ABC. q.e.f.
Al)Out a given circle, to describe a triangU equiangular

to a (jicen triangle,
S—
Let ABC be the given circle, and DEF the given tri-
angle : it isrequired to describe a triangle about the circle
ABC, equiangular to the triangle DEF.
Produce îi^ both
ways to the points
G, H; take the K
centre of the circle
ABC; [III. 1.
from A' draw any
radius KB;
at the point A", in /\ \ f
the straight line KB,
make the angle BKA
equal to tlie angle
DEC, and the angle i?A'(7 equal to the angle DFH; [I. 23.
and through the points A, B, C, draw the straight lines
LAM, MBN, NCL, touching the circle ABC. [IH. 17.
LMN shall be the triangle required.

Because LM, MN, NL touch the circle ABC at the
points A, B, Cj [Construction.
to which from the centre are dravm KA, KB, KC,
therefore the angles atthepoints J.i?,(7areriglitangles.[III.18.
And because the four angles of the quadrilateral figure
AMBK are together equal to four right angles,
for itcan be divided into two triangles,
and that two of them KAM, KB
31 are right angles,
therefore the other two A KB, AMB
are together equal
to two right angles. [Axiom 3.
But the angles DEG, DEF
arc together equal to two
right angles. [I, 13.
Therefore the angles A KB, AMB are equal to the angles

DEG, DEF;
of which the angle AKB is equal to the angle DEG ;
[Constr.
therefore the remaining angle AMB is equal to the re-
maining angle DEF. [Axiom 3.
In the same manner the angle LNM may be shewn to be
equal to the angle DFE.
Therefore the remaining angle MLN equal to the
is
remaining angle EDF. [I. 32, Aoîom 11 and 3.
; ; ;
BOOK IV. 4. 117
Wherefore the triangle LMN is equiangular to the tri-

angle DEF, and it is described about the circle ABC. q.e.f.
To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given triangle : it is required to inscribe

a circle in the triangle ABC.
Bisect the angles ABC. ACB,
by the straight lines BD, CD,
meeting one another at the point
D; [I. 9.
and from D draw DE, DF, DG per-
pendiculars to AB, EC, CA. [1. 12.
Then, because the angle EBD

is equal to the angle FBD, for
the angle ABC
is bisected by
BD, [Construction.
and that the right angle BED is B
equal to the right angle BED; [Axiom 11.
therefore the two triangles EBD, have two angles FED
of the one equal to two angles of the other, each to each;
and the side BD, which is opposite to one of the equal
therefore their other sides are equal [I. 26.
therefore DE is equal to DF.

For the same reason DG is equal to DF.
Therefore DE is equal to DG. [Axiom 1.
Therefore the three straight lines DE, DF, are equal DG
to one another, and the circle described from the centre D,
at the distance of any one of them, will pass through the
extremities of the other two
and it will touch the straight lines AB, EC, CA, because
the angles at the points E, F, G
are right angles, and the
straight line which is drawn from the extremity of a dia-
meter, at right angles to it, touches the circle. [HI. 16. Cor.
Therefore the straight lines AB, EC, CA do each of them
touch the circle, and therefore the circle is inscribed in the
triangle ABC.
Wherefore a circle has been inscribed in the given
triangle, q.ef.
: ;

To describe a circle about a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given triangle: it is required to de-
Bisect AB, AC at the points D, E; [f. 10.
from these points draw DF, EF, at right angles to

AB,AC; [I. 11.
DF, EF, produced, will meet one another

for if they do not meet they are parallel,
therefore AB, AC,
which are at right angles to them are
parallel ; which
absurd is
let them meet at F, and join FA also if the point be

; F
not in BC, join BF, CF.
Then, because î> is equal to BD, [Construction.
and DF is common, and at right angles to AB,
therefore the base FA is equal to the base FB. [I. 4,
In the same manner it may be 8he^^^l that FC is equal to FA.

Therefore FB is equal to FC; [Axiom 1.
and FA, FB, FC are equal to one another.

Tlierefore the circle described from the centre F, at the
distance of any one of them, will pass through the extre-
mities of the other two, and will be described about the
triangle ABC.
Wiierefore a circle has been described about the
given triangle, q.e.f.
CoROLL.uiY. And it is manifest, that when the centre
of the circle falls within the triangle, each of its angles is
less than a right angle, each of them being in a segment
greater than a semicircle and when the centre is in one
;
of the sides of the triangle, the angle opi)osite to this side,

being in a semicircle, is a right angle ; and when the centra
; ;
BOOK IV. 5,6. 119
falls -svithout tlio triangle,the angle opposite to the side

beyond which being in a segment loss than a semi-
it is,
circle, is greater than a right angle. [III. 31.
Therefore, conversely, if the given triangle be acute-
angled, the centre of the circle falls -within it if it be a ;
right-angled triangle, the centre is in the side opposite to

the right angle and if it be an obtuse-angled triangle, the
;
centre falls without the triangle, beyond the side opposite

to the obtuse angle.
To inscribe a square in a giccn circle.
Let ABCD bo the given circle : it is required to in-

scribe a square in ABCD.
Draw two diameters ^ (7, BD
of the circle ABCD, at right an-
gles to one another ;
[III. 1, 1. 11.
and join AB, BC, CD, DA.

The figure ABCD shall be the
square required.
Because BE is equal to DE,
for E is the centre
and that EA is common, and at
right angles to BD ;
therefore the base BA is equal to the base DA. [I. 4,
And for the same reason BC, DC are each of them equal
to BA, or DA.
Therefore the quadrilateral figure ABCD is equilateral.
It is also rectangular.
For the straight
line BD
being a diameter of the circle
ABCD, BAD
a semicircle;
is [Construction.
therefore the angle BAD
is a right angle. [III. 31.
For the same reason each of the angles ABC, BCD, A CD
is a right angle
therefore the quadrilateral figure ABCD is rectangular.

And it has been shewn to be equilateral ; therefore it is
a square.
Wherefore a square has been inscribed in the gicen
circle, q.e.f.
;
To describe a square about a given circle.
Let ABGD
be the given circle: it is required to
describe a square about it.
Draw two diameters AC, BD
''
of the circle ABCZ>, at right an-

gles to one another; [III. 1, I. 11.
1 E
and through the points A,B,C, D, D
l1
draw FG, GH, HK, A'^F touching

the
The
circle.
figure GHKF shall

[III. 17.
be the
v^
li C X
square required.
Because FG touches the circle A BCD, and EA is drawn
from the centre E
to the point of contact A, [Construction.
therefore the angles at A are right angles. [III. 18.
For the same reason the angles at the points B, C, D are

right angles.
And because the angle AEB is a right angle, [Construction.
and also the angle EBG is a right angle,

therefore GHis parallel to AC. [I. 28.
For the same reason ACis parallel to FE".

In the same manner it may be shewn that each of the
lines GF, HK is parallel to BD.
Therefore the figures GK, GC, CF, FB, BK are parallelo-
grams ;
and therefore GF\?> equal to HK, and GHio FK. [I. 34.
And because AC\^ equal to BD,

and that AC'\s, equal to each of the two GH, FK,
and that BD is equal to each of the two GF, HK,
therefore GH, FK are each of them equal to GF, or HK;
therefore the quadrilateral figure FGHK equilateral. is
It is also rectangular.
For since AEBG is a parallel ogi\am, and AEB a right angle,
therefore AGB is also a right angle. [I. 34.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the angles at

H, K, F are right angles
;
BOOK IV, 8. 121
therefore the quadrilateral figure FGHK is rectangular.

And it has been shewn to be equilateral ; therefore it
is a square.
AVherefore a square has been described about the given
circle, q.e.f.
To inscribe a circle in a given square.
Let A BCD be the given square: it is required to in-
scribe a circle in A BCD.
Bisect each of the sides AB,
AD at the points F, E 10. ;
[I.
through E draw EH parallel to

AB or DC, and through F draw
/:a: parallel to AD or BC. 31. [I.
Then each AK,

of the figures
KB, AH, HD, AG, GC, BG, GD
is a right-angled parallelogram 13 n C
and their opposite sides are equal. [I, 34.
And because AD is equal to AB, [I. Definition 30.
and that AE is half of AD, and AF half of AB, {Constr.

therefore AE is equal to AF. [Axiom 7.
Therefore the sides opposite to these are equal, namely,

FG equal to GE. [I. 34.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the straight

lines GH, GK
are each of them equal to FG or GE.
Therefore the four straight lines GE, GF, GH, are GK
C(pial to one another, and the circle described from the
centre G, at the distance of any one of them, will pass
through the extremities of the other three ;
and touch the straight lines AB, BC, CD, DA,

it will
because the angles at the points E, F, H, are right K
angles, and the straight line wliich is drawn from the
extremity of a diameter, at right angles to it, touches
the circle. [III. 16. Corollary.
Therefore the straight lines AD, BC, CD, DA do each
of them touch the circle.
Wherefore a circle has been inscribed in the given
square, q.e.f.
;
To describe a circle about a given square.
Let ABCD bo the given square: it is required to
describe a circle about ABCD.
Join AC, BDj cutting one an-
other at E.
Then, because AB \s equal to
AD,
and AC \9. common to the two tri-
angles BAC, DAC;
the two sides BA, AC are equal to
the two sides Z>-4, u4(7each to each
and the base BCh equal to the base DC;
therefore the angle BACis equal to the angle DAC, [I. 8.
and the angle BAD

is bisected by the straight line AC.
ABC, BCD, CD A are severally bisected by the straight
\mesBD,AC.
Then, because the angle DAB is equal to the angle ABC,
and that the angle EAB is half the angle DAB,
and the angle EBA is half the angle ABC,
therefore the angle EAB is equal to the angle EBA ;
[Ax. 7.
and therefore the side EA is equal to the side EB. [I. 6.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the straight

lines EC, ED are each of them equal to EA or EB.
Wherefore the four straight lines EA, EB, EC, ED arc
equal to one another, and the circle described from the
centre E, at the distance of any one of them, will pass
through the extremities of the other three, and will 1)0
described about the square ABCD.
AVherefore a circle has been described about the gicen
square, q.e.f.

To describe an isosceles triangle, having each of the
angles at the base double of the third angle.
;
BOOK IV. 10. 123
Take any straight lino

AB^ and divide it at the
point C> so that the rectan-
gle AB, BC may be equal
to the square on yi C; [II. 11.
from the centre A, at the
distance AB, describe the
circle BDE, which place
in
the straight line BD
equal
to AC, which is not greater
than the diameter of the
circle BDE] [IV. 1.
and join DA. The triangle

ABB shall be such as is re-
quired; that is, each of the angles ABD, ADB shall be
double of the third angle BAD.
Join DC) and about the triangle ACD describe the
circle ACD. [IV. 5.
Then, because the rectangle AB, BC is equal to the
square on AC, [Comtimction.
and that ylCis equal to BD, [Construction.
therefore the rectangle AB, BC is equal to the square

onBD.
And, because from the point B, without the circle ACD,
two straight lines BCA, BD
are drawn to the circumference,
one of which cuts the circle, and the other meets it,
and that the rectangle AB, BC, contained by the whole of
the cutting line, and the part of it without the circle, is
C(iual to the siiuarc on BD which meets it
therefore the straight line BD touches the circle A CD. [I II. 3 7.
And, because BD touches the circle ACD, and DC is

drawn from the jioint of contact D,
therefore the angle BDC
is equal to the angle DAC'm the
alternate segment of the circle. [III. 32.
To each of these add the angle CD A ;
therefore the whole angle BDA is equal to the two angles

CDA, DAC. [Axiom 2.
But the exterior angle BCD is equal to the angles CDA^
DAC. [I. 32.
Therefore the angle BDA is
equalto the angle ^CZ>. [.4^.1.
But the angle BDA is equal

to the angle DBA, [I. 5.
because xiD is equal to AB.

Therefore each of the angles
BDA, DBA, is equal to the
angle BCD. [Axiom 6.
And, because the angle
DBC is equal to the angle
BCD, the side DB
is equal
to the side DC; [I. 6.
but DB Avas made equal to CA ;
therefore CA is equal to CD, {Axiom 6.
and therefore the angle CAD is equal to the angle CDA. [1. 5.
Tlierefore the angles CAD, CD A are together double of

the angle CAD.
But the angle BCD is equal to the angles CAD, CDA. [1. 32.
Therefore the angle BCD is double of the angle CAD.
And the angle BCD has been shewn to be equal to each
of the angles BDA, DBA ;
therefore each of the angles BDA, DBA is double of the

angle BAD.
Wherefore an isosceles triangle has teen described,
having each of the angles at the base double of the third
angle, q.e.f.

To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon
in a given circle.
Let ABCDE be the given circle: it is required to

inscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon in the
circle ABCDE.
Describe an isosceles triangle, FGH, having each of
the angles at G, H, double of the angle at F; l\\. 10,
in the circle ABCDE, inscribe the triangle ACD, equian-
gular to the triangle FGH^ so that the angle may CAD
;
BOOK IV. 11. 125
be equal to the angle at F, and each of the angles A CD,

ADC equal to the angle at G or //; [IV. 2.
and therefore each of

the angles ACD, is ADC
double of the angle CAD ;
bisect the angles ACD,

ADC by the straight
linesCH, DB[I. 9.
;
and join AB, BC, AE,

ED.
ABCDE shall be the
pentagon required.
For because each of
the angles ACD, ADC
is double of the angle CAD,
and that thcv are bisected bv the straight lines CE, DB,
therefore the five angles ADB, BDC, CAD, DCE, ECA
But equal angles stand on equal arcs [III. 26.
therefore the five arcs AB, BC, CD, DE, EA are equal to
one another.
And equal arcs are subtended by equal straight lines ;
[III. 29.
therefore the five straight lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EA are
equal to one another ;
and therefore the pentagon ABCDE is equilateral.
It is also equiangular.
For, the arc AB is equal to the arc DE ;
to each of these add the arc BCD ;
therefore the whole arc ABCD is equal to the whole

arc BCDE. [A.xiom 2.
And the angle AED stands on the arc ABCD, and the
angle BAE on the arc BCDE.
Therefore the angle AED is equal to the angle BAE. [III. 27.
Far the same reason each of the angles ABC, BCD,
CDE is equal to AED or BAE;
the angle
therefore the pentagon ABCDE equiangular. is
And it has been shewn to be equilateral.

Wherefore an equilateral and equiawjular iêntaifon
has been inscribed in the given circle, q.e.f.
126 EUCLinS ELEMENTS.

To describe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon
about a given circle.
Let ABCDE be the given circle: it is required to

describe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon about
the circle ABCDE.
Let the angles of a pen-
tagon, inscribed in the circle,
by the last proposition, be
at the points A, B, 6', Z>, E,
so that the arcs AB, BG,
CD, DE, EA
are equal;
and through the points A,
B, a D. E, draw GIL, UK,
KL, LM, MG, touching the
circle. [III. 17.
The figure GLLKLM shall be the pentagon required.

Take the centre F, and join FB, FK, FC, FL, FD.
Then, because the straight line KL touches the circle
ABCDE at the point C to which FC is drawn from the
centre,
therefore FC is perpendicular to KL, [III. IS.
therefore each of the angles at C is a right angle.

For the same reason the angles at the points B, D arc
right angles.
And because the angle FCK\^ a right angle, the square
on iÂîs equal to the squares on FC, CK. [I. 47.
For the same reason the square on FK

is equal to the
scjuarcs on FB, BK.
Therefore the squares on FC, CK are equal to the squares

on FB, BK; [Axiom 1.
of which the square on FC is equal to the square on FB ;
therefore the remaining square on CK is equal to the

remaining square on BK, [Axiom 3.
and therefore the straight line CK is equal to the straight

line BK
; ; ; ;
BOOK IV. 12. 127
And because FB is equal to FC,

and FK'is common to the two triangles BFK, CFK;
the two sides BF, FK are equal to the two sides CF, FK,
each to each
and the base ÂTwas shewn equal to the base CK -,
therefore the angle BFKis equal to the angle CFK, [T. 8.
and the angle BKF to the angle CKF. [I. 4.
Therefore the angle BFC is double of the angle CFK,

and the angle BKC is double of the angle CKF.
For the same reason the angle CFD is double of the
angleCFL, and the angle CLD is double of the angle CLF.
And BG is equal to the arc CD,
because the arc
the angle BFC is equal to the angle CFD [III. 27. ;
and the angle BFC is double of the angle CFIl^ and the
angle CFD is double of the angle CFL ;
therefore the angle CFICis equal to the angle CFL. [Ax. 7.
And the right angle FCIC is equal to the right angle FCL.
Therefore in the two triangles FCK, FCL, there are two
angles of the one equal to two angles of the other, each to
each
and the side FC, which is adjacent to the equal angles in
each, is common to both
therefore their other sides are equal, each to each, and the
third angle of the one equal to the third angle of the other
therefore the straight line CK
is equal to the straight line
CL, and the angle FKC

to the angle FLC. [I. 26.
And because CK is eciual to CL, LK is double of CK.

In the same manner it may be shewn that HK is
double of BK.
And because JÂ'is equal to CK, as was she^vn,
and that HK is double of BK, and double of CK,LK
therefore HKis equal to LK. [Axiom 6.
In the same manner it may be shewn that GH,

GM, ML are each of them e<[ual to II K or LK;
therefore the pentagon GHKLM equilateral. is
It is also equiangular,
;

For, since the angle FKC is equal to the angle FLO^
and that the angle HKLdouble is
of the angle FKC, aiid the angle
KLM double of the angle FLC^
as was shewn,
therefore the angle IlKL is equal
to the angle KLM, \_Axiom 6.
In the same manner it may be

shewn that each of the angles
KHG, HGM, GML
is equal to
the angle HKL
or KLM;
therefore the pentagon GHKLM is equiangular.
And it has been shewn to be equilateral.
Wherefore an equilateral and equiangular ^x^ntagon
has been described about the given circle, q.e.f.
PEOPOSITION 13. PROBLEM,

To inscribe a circle in a given equilateral and equi-
angular 2Kntagon.
Let ABGDE be the given equilateral and equiangular
pentagon: it is required to inscribe a circle in the pen-
tagon ABGDE.
Bisect the angles BCD,
CDE by the straight lines
CF,DF; [1.9.
and from the point F, at
which they meet, draw the
straight lines FB, FA, FE.
Then, because BC\^ equal
to DC, [^Hypothesis.
and CF is common to the two

triangles i?(7i^,i)(7i^;
the two sides BC, CF are
equal to the two sides iXT, CF,
each to each
and the angle BCF is equal to the angle DGF; [Coyistr.
therefore the base BF is equal to the base DF, and the

; ;
BOOK IV. 13. 129
other angles to the other angles to which the equal sides

are opposite [I. 4.
therefore the angle CBF
is equal to the angle CDF,
And because tlie angle CDE is double of the angle

CDF, and that the angle CDE is equal to the angle CBA,
and the angle CDF in equal to the angle CBF,
therefore the angle CBA is double of the angle CBF;
therefore the angle ABF is equal to the angle CBF;
therefore the angle ABC is bisected by the straight line BF.
BAE, A ED are bisected by the straight lines AF, EF.
F
From the point draw FG, FH, FK, FL, FM perpen-
diculars to the straight lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EA. [1. 12.
Then, because the angle FCH is equal to the angle
FCK,
and tlic right angle FHC equal to the right angle FKC ;
therefore in the two triangles FHC, FKC, there are two

angles of the one equal to two angles of the otRer, each to
each ;
and the side FC, which is opposite to one of the equal

therefore their other sides arc equal, each to each, and
therefore the perpendicular FIl is equal to the perpen-
dicular FK [I. 26.
In the same manner it may be shewn that FL, FM, FG

are each of them equal to or FK.FH
Therefore the five straight lines FG, FH. FK, are FL.FM
centre F, at the distance of any one of them will pass
through the extremities of the other four;
and it will touch the straight lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EA,
because the angles at the points G, H, K, L, are right M
angles, {Comtnici'wn.
and the straight line drawn from the extremity of a dia-
meter, at right angles to it, touches the circle ;
[III. 16.
Therefore each of the straight lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EA

touches the circle.
Wherefore a circle has hccn inscribed in the given
equilateral and equiangular pentagon. q.e.f.
9
PROPOSITION li. PROBLEM,

To describe a circle about a given equilateral and equi-
angular pentagon.
Let ABODE be the given equilateral and equiangular
pentagon : it is required to describe a circle about it.
Bisect the angles BCD, CDE
by the straight lines CF, DF; [1.9.
and from the point F, at which
they meet, draw the straight lines
FB, FA, FE.
Then it may be shewn, as in
the preceding proposition, that
the angles CBA, BAE, AED
are
bisected by the straight lines BF,
AF, EF.
And, because the angle BCD is equal to the angle CDEj
and that the angle FCD is half of the angle BCD,
and the angle FDC is half of the angle CDE,
therefore the angle FCD is equal to the angle FDC; [Ax. 7.
therefore the side FCib equal to the side FD. [I. 6.
In the same manner it may be shewn that FB, FA, FE

are each of them equal to FC or FD ;
therefore the five straight lines FA

FB, FC, FD, , are FE
centre F, at the distance of any one of them, will pass
through the extremities of the other four, and will be de-
scribed about the equilateral and equiangular pentagon
ABCDE.
Wherefore a circle has been described about the given
equilateral and equiangular pentago7i. q.e.f.

To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular hexagon
in a given circle.
Let ABCDEFhe the given circle : it is required to in-

scribe an equilateral and equiangular hexagon in it.
Find the centre G of the circle ABCDEF, [III. 1.

; ; ; ;
BOOK IV. 15. 131
and draw the diameter AGD)

from the centre D, at the dis-
tance DG, describe the circle
EGCH;
ioiwEG, C(y,aud produce them
to thepointsi?, F\ and join^J^,
BC, CD, DE, EF, FA.
The licxagon ABCDEF shall
be equilateral and equiangular.
For, because G is the centre
of the circle ABCDEF, GE is
equal to GD :
and because D is the centre

of the circle EGCII, DE is
equal to Z>6^
therefore GE is equal to DE, \A.xiom 1.
and the triangle EGD is equilateral

therefore the three angles EGD, GDE, DEG are equal to
one another. [I. 5. Corollary.
But the three angles of a triangle are together equal to

two right angles [I. 32.
therefore the angle EGD is the third part of two right

angles.
In the same manner it may be shewn, that the angle

DGC is the third part of two right angles.
And because the straight line GC makes Avith the
straight line EB
the adjacent angles EGC, CGB together
equal to two right angles, [I. 13.
therefore the remaining angle CGB is the third part of two

right angles
therefore the angles EGD, DGC, CGB are equal to one

another.
And to these are equal the vertical opposite angles

BGA, AGE, FGE. [T. 15.
Therefore the six angles EGD, DGC, CGB, BGA, AGE,

FGE are equal to one another.
9—2
;

But equal angles stand on equal arcs [III. 26.
therefore the six arcs AB, BC, CD, DE^ EF, FA are
And equal arcs are subtended by equal straight lines ;
[111.29.
therefore the six straight lines are equal to one another,
and the hexagon is equilateral.
It is also equiangular.
For, the arc AF\s equal to
the arc ED ;
to each of these add the

•^xcABCD^,
therefore the whole arc
FABCD isequnl to the
whole arc. 4 56"/)^;
and the angle FED stands
on the arc FABCD,
and the angle î^^ stands
oji the arc ABCDE;
therefore the angle FED is
equal to the angle AFE. [III. 27.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the other

angles of the hexagon ABCDEF are each of them equal
to the angle or AFE FED ;
therefore the hexagon is equiangular.

And it has been shewn to be equilateral ; and it is inscribed
in the circle ABCDEF.
Wherefore an equilateral and equiangular hexagon
has been inscribed in the given circle, q.e.f.
Corollary. From this it is manifest that the side of

the hexagon is equal to the straight line from the centre,
that is, to the seniidianieter of the circle.
Also, if through the points A, B, C, D, E, F, there be
drawn straight lines touching the circle, an equilateral and
equiangular hexagon avIU be described about the circle,
as may be shewn from what was said of the pentagon and ;
a circle may be inscribed in a given equilateral and equi-

angular hexagon, and circumscribed about it, by a method
like that used for the pentagon.
; ; ;
BOOK IV. 16. 133
PROPOSITION Id. PROBLEM.

To inscribe an equilateralandequiangularquiyidecagon
in a gicen circle.
Let ABCD be the given circle: it is required to in-

scribe an equilateral and equiang'ular quindecagon in the
circle ABCD.
Let AC be the side of an
equilateral triangle inscribed
in the circle [IV. 2.
and let AB be the side of an
equilateral and equiangular
pentagon inscribed in the
circle. [IV. 11.
Then, of such equal parts
as the whole circumference
ABCDF contains fifteen, the arc ABC, which is the third
part of the whole, contains five, and the arc AB, which is
the fifth part of the whole, contains three
therefore their difierence, the arc BC, contains two of the
same parts.
Bisect the arc BC 2ii E [III. 30.
therefore each of the arcs BE, EG is the fifteenth part of
the whole circumference ABCDF.
Therefore the straight lines BE^
if be dra'SMi, and EC
straight lines equal to them be placed round in the whole
circle, [IV. 1.
an equilateral and equiangular quindecagon will be in-
scribed in it. Q.E.F.
And, in the same manner as was done for the pentagon,

ifthrough the points of division made by inscribing the
quindecagon, straight lines be drawn touching the circle,
an equilateral and equiangular quindecagon will be de-
scribed about it; and also, as for the pentagon, a circle
may be inscribed in a given equilateral and equiangular
quindecagon, and circumscribed about it.
BOOK V.
DEFmiTIONS.
1. A LESS magnitude is said to be a part of a greater

magnitude, when the less measures the greater that is, ;
when the less is contained a certain number of times ex-

actly in the greater.
2. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a

less, when the greater is measured by the less; that is,
when the greater contains the less a certain number of
times exactly.
3. Ratio is a mutual relation of two magnitudes of the
same kind to one another in respect of quantity.
4. Magnitudes are said to have a ratio to one another,

when the less can be nniltiplied so as to exceed the other.
5. The first of four magnitudes is said to have the

same ratio to the second, that the third has to the fourth,
when any equinuiltiples whatever of the first and the third
being taken, and any equimultiples whatever of the second
and the fourth, if the multiple of the first be less than that
of tlie second, the multiple of the third is also less than that
of the fourth, and if the multiple of the first be equal to
that of the second, the multiple of the third is also equal to
that of the fourth, and if the multiple of the first be gi-eater
than that of the second, the multiple of the third is also
greater than that of the fourth.
6. Magnitudes which have the same ratio are called

proportionals.
BOOK V. DEFINITIONS, 135
AVlien four magnitudes are proportionals it is usually

expressed by saying, the first is to the second as the third
is to the fourth.
7. When of the equimultiples of four magnitudes, taken

as in the fifth definition, the multiple of the first is greater
than the multiple of the second, but the multiple of the
third is not greater than the multiple of the fourth, then
the first is said to have to the second a greater ratio than
the third has to the fourth and the third is said to have
;
to the fourth a less ratio than the first has to the second.
8. Analogy, or proportion, is the similitude of ratios.
9. Proportion consists in three terms at least.
10. "When three magnitudes are proportionals, the first

issaid to have to the third the duplicate ratio of that
which it has to the second.
[The second magnitude is said to be a mean propor^
Uonal between the first and the third.]
11. When four magnitudes are continued proportionals,
the first is said to have to the fourth, the triplicate ratio of
that which it has to the second, and so on, quadruplicate,
&c. increasing the denomination still by unity, in any num-
ber of proportionals.
Definition of compound ratio. When there are any
number of magnitudes of the same kind, the first is said to
have to the last of them, the ratio which is compounded of
the ratio which the first has to the second, and of the ratio
which the second has to the third, and of the ratio which
the third has to the fourth, and so on unto the last mag-
nitude.
For example, if A, B, C, D
be four magnitudes of the
same kind, the first A is said to have to the last D, the
ratio compounded of the ratio of A to B, and of the ratio
of B to C, and of the ratio of (7 to 2) or, the ratio of A to
;
D is said to be compounded of the ratios of A to B, B to

C, and C to D.
And if A has to B the same ratio that E has to F\
and B to C the same ratio that G has to // and C io ; D
the same ratio that Khas to L then, by this definition,
;
A is said to have to D the ratio compounded of ratios whicli

are the same with the ratios of to F, G to H, and A' to L.
i:.'
And the same thing is to be understood when it is more
briefly expressed by saying, A
lias to D
the ratio com-
poimded of the ratios of '^ to F^ G
to //, and to L. K
In like manner, the same things being supposed, if M
has to N the same ratio that A has to D
then, for the
;
sake of shortness, M
is said to have to N
the ratio com-
pounded of the ratios of E
to F, G to //, and to L. K
12. In proportionals, the antecedent terms are said to
be homologous to one another as also the consequents to
;
one another.
Geometers make use of the following technical words,
to signify certain ways of changing either the order or the
magnitude of proportionals, so that they continue still to be
proportionals.
13. Permufando, or alternanclo, by permutation or

alternately; when there are four proportionals, and it is
inferred that the first is to the third, as the second is to
the fourth. V. 16.
14. Invertendo, by inversion; when there are four
proportionals, and it is infen-ed, that the second is to the
first as the fourth is to the third. V. B.
15. Componendo, by composition when there are four

;
proportionals, and it is inferred, that the first together

with the second, is to the second, as the third together
with the fourth, is to the fourth. Y. IS.
16. Dividendo, by division; when there are four pro-
portionals,and it is inferred, that the excess of the first
above the second, is to the second, as the excess of the
third above the fourth, is to the fourth. Y. 17.
17. Convcrtendo, by conversion; when there are four

proportionals, and it is inferred, that the first is to its
excess above the second, as the third is to its excess above
the fourth. Y. E.
18. Ex wqiiali distantia, or ex ctqico, from equality of
distance when there is any number of magnitudes more
;
than two, and as many others, such that they are propor-
tionals wlien taken two and two of each rank, and it is
inferred, that the first is to the last of the first rank of
magnitudes, as the first is to the last of the others.
.
BOOK V, DEFINITIONS, 137
Of this there are the two following kinds, which arise

from the different order in which the magnitudes are taken,
two and two.
19. Ex This term is used simply by itself,

cvqiuiU.
when the first is to the second of the first rank,
magnitude
as the first is to the second of the other rank; and the
second is to the third of the first rank, as the second is to
the third of the other and so on in order and the inference
; ;
is that mentioned in the preceding definition. V. 22.
20. Ex a^quali in proportione jyerturhatdseu inordinatd,

from equality in perturbate or disorderly proportion. This
term is used when the first magnitude is to the second of
the first rank, as the last but one is to the last of the second
rank and the second is to the third of the first rank, as the
;
last but two is to the last but one of the second rank and ;
the third is to the fourth of the first rank, as the last but
three is to the last but two of the second rank and so on ;
in a cross order and the inference is that mentioned in the

;
eiirhteenth definition. T. 2.3.
AXIOMS.
1 Equimultiples of the same, or of e(]ual magnitudes,
2. Those magnitudes, of which the same or equal mag-

nitudes are equimultiples, are equal to one another.
3. A
multiple of a greater magnitude is greater than
the same multiple of a less.
4. That magnitude, of which a multiple is greater than

the same multiple of another, is greater than that otiier
magnitude.
; ,
If any number of magnitudes he equimultiples qf as
many, each of each; whatever multiple any one of them is
of its part, the same multiple shall all the first magni-
tudes he of all the other.
Let any number of magnitudes AB, CD be equimul-

tiples of as many others E, F, each of each: whatever
multiple yli? is of E, the same multiple shall AB and CD
together, be of E
and F together.
For, because AB is the same multiple of E, that CD is
of F, as many magnitudes as there are in
AB equal to E, so many are there in CD A
equal to F.
Divide AB into the magnitudes AG, GB, q
each equal to E; and CD into the magni-
tudes CH, HD, each equal to F.
Therefore the number of the magnitudes
CII, HD, will be equal to the nmnber of
the magnitudes AG, GB.
And, because AG is equal to E, and
CH equal to F, therefore AG and CH j-j.
together are equal to E and F together

and because GB is equal to E, and HD
equal to F, therefore GB and HD together x)
are equal to Eand i^ together. [Axioin 2.
Therefore as many magnitudes as there are in AB equal to

E, so many are there in AB and CD together equal to E
and F together.
Therefore whatever multiple AB is of E, the same multiple
is AB and CD together, of J5'and F together.
Wherefore, if any number of magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
If the first he the same multiple of the second that the
third is of the fourth, and the fifth the same multiple of
the second that the sixth is of the fourth; the first toge-
ther with the fifth shall he the same multiple of the second
that the third \ogetJier with the sixth is of the fourth.
BOOK V, % 3. 139
Let AB the first be the same multiple of C the second,

that DE the third of F the fourtli, and let BG the fifth
is
be the same multiple of G the second, that EH the sixth
is of F the fourth A G^ the first together with the
: fifth,
shall be the same multiple of C the second, that DH^ the
third together with the sixth, of F the fourth. is
For, because AB the same multiple of C that DE

is
is of F, as many magnitudes as
there are in AB equal to so 6',
__
"^
many are there in DE equal to F.
For the same reason, as many
magnitudes as there are in BG
equal to 6', so many are there in E
^// equal to/: B
Therefore as many magnitudes
as there are in the whole AG
equal to C, so many are there in
the whole DII equal to F.
G H
Therefore AG is the same multi-
ple of (7 that i>Zr is of i^.
Wherefore, if the first he the D
isame multiple &c. q.e.d.
Corollary. From this it is E

any number of mag-
plain, that if
nitudes AB, BG, Gil be multi-
B
ples of another C and as many
;
K
DE, EK, KL bo the same mul- G
tiples of F, each of each then ;
the whole of the first, namely,

AH, is the same multiple of C,
that the whole of the last, namelv, H C I.
DL, is of /;
the first he the same multij>lc of the second that the

If
third is of the fourth, and if of the first and the third
there he taken equimultiples, these shall he equimidtipleSy
the one oj the second, and the other of tlie fourth.
;
140 EUGLTjyS ELEMENTS.

Let A
the first be the same multiple of B the second,
that C the
third is of D
the fourth ; and of A and G let
the equimultiples EF and GH be taken : EF shall be
the same multiple of Bthat GH is of D.
For, because EF the same multiple of A

is that GH is
of G, [Hypothesis.
as many magnitudes as
there are iu EF equal
^ H
to ^, so many arc there
in GH equal to C.
Divide EF into the
magnitudes EK, KF, Is}
L
each equal to A and ;
GH into the magni-

tudes GL, LHy each
equal to G.
Therefore the number of B G D
the magnitudes EK, KF,
will be equal to the number of the magnitudes GL, LH.
And because A is the same multiple of B that G is
ofi>, [Hypothesis.
and that EK\& equal to A, and GL is equal to G ;
[Constr.
therefore EK is the same multiple of B that GL is of D.
For the same reason KF is the same multiple of B that
Z//isofi>.
Therefore because EK the first is the same multiple
of B the second, that GL the third is of D
the fourth,
and that KF the fifth is the same multiple of B the second,
that LH the sixth is of D tlie fourth
EF the first together with the fifth, is the same multiple
of B the second, that GH the third together with the
sixth, of D the fourth.
is [Y. 2.
In the same manner, if there be more parts in î^ equal

to A and in GH
equal to G, it may be shewn that is EF
the same nuiltiple of that B
is of D. GH
[V. 2, Cor.
"Wherefore, if the first &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION 4. THEORE'M.
If the first have the same ratio to the second that the
third has to the fourth, and if there he taken any equi-
; ;
BOOK V. 4. 141
multiples irhaterer of the first and the third, and also

any cquijnidtijyles whatever of the second and the fourth^
then the multiple of the first shall hare the same ratio to
the multij^le of the second, that the multiple of the third
has to the multiple of the fourth.
Let A
the first liave to the second, the same ratio B
that C the third has to the fourth and of Dand let ; A C
there be taken anv equimultiples whatever and F, and E
of B
and D
any equimultiples whatever and H\ shall G E
have the same ratio to that has to H. G F
Take and
of E any equi- F
multiples whatever and L, K
and of G and H
any equimul-
tiples whatever and N. M
Then, because E is the same
multiple of A that F is of C,
and of E and F have been taken
equimultiples A' and Z '
' '
therefore K is the same mul- K E A B

I
G
tiple of A that Z is of C. [V. 3. L F c B H
For the same reason, 3/ is the
same multiple of ^ that is of D. N
And because yl is to ^ as G
is to i), [HifpotJicsis.
and of A
and C
have been taken
certain equimultiples and Z, K
and of B
and D
have been taken
certain equimultiples ]\f and N j
'
therefore if A' be greater than •
M, L is greater than N \ and if

equal, equal; and if less, less. \\ . Iktinitl'm 5.
But A' and L are any equimu]ti]>lcs whatever of and F, E

and 3f and N are any equimultiples whatever of and //; G
therefore Z^ is to G' as A' is to //. [V. Definition 5.
Wherefore, if the first Sec. q.e.d.
Corollary. Also if the first have the same rntio to

the second that the third has to the fourth, then any equi-
nniltiples whatever of the first and third shall have the
same ratio to the second and fourth; and the first and
\
;
142 EUCLID'S ELEMENTiS.

third shall have the same ratio to any equimultiples what-
ever of the second and fourth.
Let A
the first have the same ratio to B the second,
that C the third has to D
the fourth and of ; A and C let
there be taken any equimultiples whatever E and F: E
shall be to jB as i*" is to D.
'Take of E and F any equimultiples whatever K and L,

and of B and D any equimultiples whatever G and H.
Then it may be shewn, as before, that K is the same
multiple of A that L is of C.
And because yl is to ^ as C is to Z>, [Hypothesis.
and of A and C have been taken certain equimultiples K

and L, and of B and Z) have been taken certain equimul-
tiples G and H;
therefore if K
be greater than G, L is greater than H\ and
if equal,equal and if less, less.
; [V. Definition 5.
But K and L are any equimultiples whatever of E and F,

and and H are any equimultiples whatever of B and Z>
G^
therefore Ehio B as i^ is to D. [V. Definition 5.
In the same way the other case may be demonstrated.
If one m.agnitude he the same multiple of another that
a magnitude taken from, the first is of a magnitude taken
from the other, the remainder shall he the same multiple
of the remainder that the ichole is of the whole.
Let AB
\)Q the same multiple of 6'Z>, that taken AE
from the first, is of CF taken from the other the remain- :
der EB shall be the same multiple of the remainder FD,

that the whole AB\%Qi the whole CD.
Take AG the same multiple of FD, that ^Ê^ is of CF
therefore AE is the same multiple of CF that EG is
of CD. [V. 1.
But AE \^ the same multiple of CF that AB \^ of CD\

therefore EG is the same nmltiple of CD that AB '\%
of CD;
therefore EG is equal to AB. [V. Axiom 1.
;
BOOK V. 5, 6. 143
From each of these take the common

magnitude AE\ then the remainder AG a
is equal to the remainder EB.
Then, because AE\s> the same multiple
of CF that A G is of FD, [Constmction.
A
and that AG is equal to EB ;
therefore AE the same multiple of CF

is
that EB of FD.
is
But AE is the same multiple of CF that C

u4-5 is of 6'/) ;
{Hypothesis.
therefore EB is the same multiple of
FD that AB is of Ci).
Wherefore, ifonemagnitudekc. q.e.d. D
PKOPOSITION 6. THEOREM.
If two magnitudes he equimultiples of two^ others, and
if equimidtiples of these he taken from the first two, the
remainders shall he either equal to these others, or equi-
771 ult iples of th em.
Let the two magnitudes AB, be equimultiples of CD

the two E, F; and let AG, CH, taken from the first two,
be equimultiples of the same E, the remainders GB, F :
HD shall be either equal to E, F, or equimultii^les of them.

First, let GB be equal to E HD : shall be equal to F.
Make CK equal to F.
Then, because AG the same mul- is -^ K
tiple of E
that CH of F, [Hup. is
and that GB equal to E, and

is
CK is equal to F ;
therefore yl^ is the same multi-

G
plo of Ethat KH is of F. ^ 11
But AB is tlie same multiple

of^that CZ>i3ofi^;[i/y^ôÂc.-/;j. B D E F
therefore KH is the same multiple of F that CD is of F ;
therefore KH is equal to CD. Axiom [V. 1.
From each of tlicse take the common magnitude CH \
then the remainder CK is equal to the remainder HD.
But CA^'is equal to F lOojistructioru

therefore HD is equal to F.
;

Next let GB be a multiple of E: HD shall bo the
same multiple of F.
Make CK the same multiple K
of F that GB is of E.
Then, because ^6^ is the same
multiple of E that CH is of
C
F, [Hypothesis.
and GB is the same multiple
of E that CK is of F [Constr, ;
G H
therefore AB the same mul-
\?,
tiple of E that KH is of F. [V. 2.
But AB the same multi-

is
B D £ F
ple of E that CZ> of i^; {Hyp.
is
therefore A'îs the same multiple of F that CD. is of jP;

therefore KHis, equal to CD. [V. Aodom 1.
From each of these take the common magnitude CH ^

then the remainder CK is equal to the remainder HD.
And because CK the same multiple of F that GB is
is
of E, {Construction.
and that CK is equal to HD ;
therefore i/Z> is the same multiple of F that GB is of ^,

Wherefore, if two magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION A. THEOREM.
Jf the first of four magnitudes have the same ratio to
the second that the tJiird has to the fourth, then, if the first
he greater than the second, the third shall also he greater
than the fourth, and if equal equal, and if less less.
Take any equimultiples of each of them, as the doubles
of each.
Then if the double of the first be greater than the double
of the second, the double of the third is greater than the
double of the fourth. [V. Definition 5.
But if the first be greater than the second, the double of
the first is greater than the double of the second
; ; ;
BOOK V. A, B. 145
therefore the double of the third is greater than the double

of the fourth,
and therefore the third is greater than the fourth.
In the s:i!nc mannvr, if tlie first be equal to the second,
or less than it, the tliird may be shewn to be equal to the
fourth, or less than it.
PROPOSITION B. THEOUEM.
If four magnitudes he projmrtioiials, they shall also be
2)ro2)ortionals ichen taken inversely.
Let A be to B as C
is to Z> : then also, inversely, B
shall be to A as D is to C.
Take of B and D any equimul-

tiples whatever E and F
and of A and C any equimultiples
whatever G and //.
First, let E be greater than G, then
G is less than E.
Then, because ^ is to i? as C is
to D ;
[Ili/potkesi^. G A
and of A and C the first and third, C
(r and //are equimultiples;
and of B and D the second and

fourth, and E F
are equimultiples
and that G is less than E
therefore // is less than F; [V. Def.5.
that is, F is greater than If.
Therefore, if E be greater than G, F is greater than IT.
In the same manner, if E be e([ual to G, F may be

shewn to be equal to //; and if less, less.
But andE F
are any equimultiples whatever of B
and i), and G and // arc any equinuiltiples whatever of A
and C; [Comtruction.
therefore B is to .^4 as Z> is to 0. [V. Dffinitim 5.
Wherefore, if fur mnriiiifurl'n kc. q.k.p.
10
; ; ; ; ::
PROPOSITION C. THEOREM.
If the first he the same inultvple of the second, or the
same part of it, that the third is of the fourth, the first
shall he to the second as the third is to the fourth.
A be the same multiple of

First, let B that C is of Z>
A be to i? as (7 is to D.
shall
Take of A and C any equimultiples
whatever E
and F; and of and any B D
equimultiples whatever G and H.
Then, because A is the same multiple
of B that (7 is of Z> {Ihipothesls.
and that E is the same multiple of ^1 that
iîsofC; [Comtruction. A B C D
therefore E the same multiple of ^
is E G F H
that i^ is of Z); [V. 3.
that is ,£'audi'âre equimultiplesof ândZ).
But G
and H
are equimultiples of B
and D ;
[Construction.
therefore if ^
be a gi-eater multiple of
B than G is ^, jP is a gi'eater multi-
of
ple of D than // is of i>
that is, if E
be greater than G, is F
greater than H.
In the same manner, if E be equal to
(r, F may be shewn to be equal to H; and
if less, less.
But E and F are any equimultiples
"whatever of A and (7, and G and H are any equimultiples
"whatever of B and D [Construction.
therefore A is to B as (7 is to L>. [V. Definition 5.
Next, let A be the same part of B that C is of i>

^ shall be to B as (7 is to B.
For, since -4 is the same part of B
that C is of B,
therefore B is the same multiple of A
that I) is of C
therefore, by the preceding case, B is to
ylasZ>istoC; A B C D
therefore, inversely, ^ is to ^ as C is to D, [V. £.
"Wherefore, if the first &c. q.hd.
.
BOOK V. D, 7. 147
PROPOSITION D. THEOREM.
If the first
he to the second as the third is to the fourth,
and if the first he a multiple, or a jârt, of the second, the
third shall he the same multiple, or the same part, of tha
fourth.
Let yl be to ^ as C is to D.
And first, let A be a multiple of ^:
C shall be the same luiiltiple of D.
Take E
equal to A and what- ;
ever nuiltiple A or is of B, make E

/''
the same multiple of D.
Then, because A is to ^ as C
is to D, [Hi/jiothests.
and of B
the second and the D A 13 c D
fourth have been taken equimultiples E f
E and F; [CcHJStruction.
therefore yl is to Z^ as (7 is to
F. [V. 4, Corollary.
But A is equal to E; [Comtruction.
therefore C is equal to F. [V. A
And F is the same multiple of
D tliat A is of i^ ;
[Construction.
therefore G is D that A is of B.
the same multiple of
Xext, ^ be a part oi B: C shall be the same part of Z).
let
For, because A is to B as C is to D [Hypothesis. ;
therefore, inversely, i? is to ^ as 2> is to C. [V. B.

But yl is a part of B ; [Hypothesis.
that is, i? is a multiple of A ;
therefore, by the preceding case, Z> is the same multiple of C;

that is, C is the same part of D that A is of B.
Wherefore, if the first &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION 7. THEOBEM.
Equal magnitudes have the same ratio to the same
magnitude ; and the same has the same ratio to equid
7rUignitudes,
10-2
Let A and B be equal magnitudes, and C any other
magnitude each of the magnitudes A and B shall have
:
the same ratio to C and C shall have the same ratio to

;
each of the magnitudes A and B.

Take of A and B any equimultiples
"whatever D
and E and of C any mul- ;
tiijlc whatever i'^.
Then, because D
is the same mul-
tiple of A that E is of i?, {Construction.
and that -4 is equal to B ;
[Hypothesis.
therefore D is equal to E. [V. â;tom 1.
D A
Therefore if D
be greater than F, El's, B
E _
~
greater than i^; and if equal, equal; C F
and if less, less.
But D
and E are any equimultiples
whatever of A and B, and is any F
multiple "whatever of C ;
[Construction.
therefore A is to Cas i? is to C. [V. i)f/. 5.
Also (7 shall have the same ratio to A that it has to B.

For the same construction being made, it may be shewn,
as before, that D
is equal to E.
Therefore if F be
greater than D, is greater than F E ;
and if equal, equal and if less, less.

;
But F is any multiple •whatever of C, and D and E are

any equimultiples -whatever of A and B [Construction. ;
therefore C is to ^ as (7 is to B. [V. Definition 5.

Wherefore, eqtcal magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
Of unequalmagnitudes^ the greater has a greater
ratio to the the less has; and the same mag-
same than
nitude has a greater ratio to the less than it has to tJie
greater.
Let AB
and BC
be unequal magnitudes, of which AB
is the greater; and let D
be any other magnitude what-
ever : AB
shall have a greater ratio to than has D BG
to D and
; D
shall have a greater ratio to than it BC
lias to AB.
;
BOOK V. 8. 110
If tlic magiiitudo wliicli is not the greater of tlie two

AC, CB, be not less tliau B, take BF, FG
the doubles of
AG, GB (Figure 1).
But if that -svhich is not the "F- Fii
greater of the two AG, GB, be

less than D
, Figures 2 and 3\
this magnitude can be multiplied,
so as to become greater than i>,
whether it be .ICor GB.
Let it be multiplied until it be- G B
comes greater than D, and let the
other be multiplied as often. L K II P
Let EFhe the multiple thus taken
of A G, and FG
the same multiple
of GB
therefore and EF FG are each
of them greater than D.
And in all the cases, take //
the double of D, A' its triple, Fig.
and so on, until the multiple
of Dtaken is the first which
is greater than FG. Let L be
that multiple of D, namely,
the first which is greater
than FG and let A' be the
;
multiple of D
which is next
less than L.
Then, because L is the first

multipleofA> which is greater B
than FG, [Construction.
K II D B
the next preceding multiple D
A' is not greater than FG ;
FG is not less than A".

that is,
And because EF is the same
multiple of AG that FG is
of GB, [Construction.
therefore EG is the same multiple oi AB that FG IS

of GB ;
[V 1.
that is, EG and FG arc equimultiples of AB and GB.

;

And it was shewn that FG is not less than Kj
and EF is greater than D ;
[Construction.
therefore the whole EG is gi'eater than K and D together.

But A" and D together are equal to L ;
[Construction,
therefore EG is greater than Z.

13
But FG is not greater than L.
And EG and FG were shewn to be equi-
multiples of AB and BC
and Z is a multiple of D, [Construction.
Therefore AB
has to D a greater ratio F
than BGhas to D. [A'. Definition 7.
Also, Z> shall have to BC a greater

ratio than it has to AB.
For, the snme construction being made,

L t)
it may be shewn, that is greater than L
FG but not greater than EG.
And Z is a multiple of Z>, [Construction.
and EG and jP(y were shev\Ti to be equi-

multiples of AB and CB.
Therefore D has to ^(7 a greater ratio than it has
to AB. [V. Definition 7.
"Wherefore, of unequal magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
Magnitudes which have the same ratio to the same
maffnitude, are equal another ; and those to which
to o?ie
the same magnitude has the same ratio, are equal to one
anotlier.
First, let A and B have the same ratio to G: A shall

bo equal to B.
For, if A is not equal to B, one of them must be greater
than the other let A be the greater.
;
Then, by what was shewn in Proposition 8, there are

;
BOOK V. 9. 151
some equimultiples of A and B, and

some multiple of C, such that the
multiple of A
is greater than the
multiple of (7, but the multiple of
D
B is not greater thau the nmltiple
of a
Let such multiples be taken and ;
let D and B
be the equimultiples
of A and B, and tlie multiple F
of so that
; is greater than D B
F, but B
is not greater than F.
Then, because ^ is to C as isB E

to C ; and of A and i? are taken
equimultiples JJ and B, and of (7
is taken a multiple F
and that D is greater than F;
therefore B is also greater than F. [V. Definition 5.
But 27 is not greater than F ;

[Construction.
Therefore A and B are not unequal; that is, they are
equal,
Xext, let G have the same ratio to A and B A : shall
be equal to B.
For, if A is not equal to B, one of them must be greater
than the other ; let Abe the greater.
Then, by -what "was shewn in Proposition S, there is
some multiple F
of C, and some equimultiples and Z> of B
B and A, such that F
is greater than £", but not greater
than B.
And, because Cis to i5 as Cis to A, [Ilypothesis.
and that F
the nmltiple of the first is greater than B the
multiple of the second, [Constructio}i.
therefore F
the multiple of the third is greater than D
the multiple of the fourth, [V, Definition 5.
But F is not greater than D ;

[Construction.
Therefore A and B are not unequal ; that is, they are
equal.
AYlicreforo, magnitudes ichich &c. q.e.d.

That magnitude irhich has a greater ratio than another
has to the same magnitude is the greater of the two ; and
that magnitude to which the same has a greater ratio tlmn
it has to another magnitude is the less of the two.
First, let have to A (7 a greater

ratio than B
has to C: A shall be
greater than B.
D
For, because A
has a greater ratio A
to C than B
has to C, there are some
equimultiples of A
and B, and some
multiple of C, such that the multiple
of A
is greater than the multiple of G,
but the multiple of is not greaterB
than the multiple of C. [V. Def. 7. B
Let such multiples be taken and ;
let D
and E
be the equimultiples of
F
A and B, and the multiple of (7;
so that Z> is greater than E, but E
is not greater than E;
therefore E is greater than E.
And because andD E
are equimultiples of A and B, and
that E
is greater than E,
therefore A is greater than B. [V. Axio7n 4.
Next, let C have to ^ a greater ratio than it has to A :
B shall be less than A.

For there is some multiple of 0, and some equi- E
multiples and E of D
and A, such thatB is greater E
than E, but not greater than E
[V. Definition 7. ;
therefore E is less than D.

And because and D are
jE^ equimultiples of i? and A, and
that ii^ is less than D,
therefore B is less than A. [V. Axiom 4.
"Wherefore, Âaf magnitude &c. q.e.d.

;;
BOOK V. 11. 153
, PROrOSITION 11. THEOREM.

Ratios that are the same to the same ratiOj are the same
to one another.
Let A 1)0 to B as C is to 7), and let C be to i> as E is
to F A : shall be to B as E is to F.
G H K-
A c E-
B D F-
L m: _ X-
Take of A, C, E any equimultiples whatever G, H, A';

and of B, D, F
any equimultiples whatever L, 31, N.
Then, because yl is to ^ as Cis to D, [Jlnpothesis.
and that G and H
are equimultiples of A and C, and L
and M are equimultiples of B and Z> [Co>?.<;??v/o/«'o)?.
therefore
and
if
equal, equal
G be greater than L,
and
H is greater than M ;
if ; if less, less. [V. Definition 5.
Again, because Cis to Z> as jE* is to F, [ITiipotlims.

and that // and K
are equinuiltiplcs of C and E, and M
and N are equiraultiijles of D and i^ [t'o?!it^rj<c.'io??.
therefore if H
be gi-eater than M, is greater than N\ K
; [V. Definition 5.
But it has been shewn that if G bo greater than L, II

is greater than J/ and if equal, equal and if less, less.
; ;
Therefore if G be greater than Z, K is greater than N;

and if equal, equal ; and if less, less.
And G and A' are any equimultiples whatever of A and E,

and L and N are any equimultii)les whatever of B and F.
Therefore yl is to 5 as ^ is to F. [V. Definition 5.
"Wherefore, 7'atios that are the same &c. q.e.d.

; ;

If any numher of magnitudes he 2'>Toportlohals, as one
of the antecedents is to its consequent, so shall all the ante-
cedents be to all the consequents.
Let any number of magnitudes A, B, C, D, E, be F
proportionals namely, as
; A
is to B, so let C be to Z>, and
E to F: as A
is to B, so shall A,' C\ together be to E
B, D, F
together.
a •
H K
B D-
M N-
Take oi A^ C, E any equimultiples ^vhatever G, H, K\

and of B, D, F
any equimultiples whatever Z, M, N.
Then, because ^ is to ^ as C is to D and as E is to F,
and that (r, //, K
are equimultiples of A,C, E, and L, M, N
equimultiples oi B, i>, F) [Construction.
therefore if G be gi-eater than L, H

is greater than M,
and K
is greater than N
and if equal, equal and if less,
; ;
[V. Definition 5.
less.
Therefore, if G
be greater than L, then G, H, K together
are greater than Z, il/, N
together and ; if equal, equal
and if less, less.
But G, and G, H, K together,

are any equimultiples
whatever of A, and A, C, E together [V. 1.
and L, and L, M, N
together are any equimultiples what-
ever of B, and B, L>, F together. [V. 1.
Therefore as A is to B, so arc A, 0, together to E

B, TJ, F
together. [V. Definition 5.
"Wherefore, if any numher &c. q.e.d.

If the first have the same ratio to tJie second ichich the
third has to the four th^ hut the third to the fourth a greater
; ; ;
BOOK V. 13. 155
ratio than theffth to the sLrth, thefirst shall hare to the

second a greater ratio than the fifth has to the sixth.
Let A
tlie first liave the same ratio to tlie second B
that G the third has to D
the fourth, but C tlie tliird a
greater ratio to D
the fourth than the fifth to the E F
sixth: A
the first shall have to the second a greater B
ratio than E
the fifth has to the sixth. F
H G .
11
A /-<
C/ E
B D F
N . jr
L
For, because C lias a greater ratio to than has to F, D E
there are some equimultiples of C and E, and some equi-
multiples of D
and F, such that the multiple of C is greater
than the nuiltiple of Z>, but the multiple of is not greater E
than the multiple of F. [V. Definition 7.
Let such multiples be taken, and let G and H be the equi-
multiples of C and E, and and K L the equimultiples of
D and F ;
so that G
is greater than A", but is not greater than L. H
And whatever multiple G is of (7, take the same mul- M
tiple of A and whatever multiple
; is of Z), take the K N
same multiple of B.
Then, because ^-i is to B as Cis to D, [HiipothesU.
and il/ and G are equimultiples of A and C, and iV and

K are equimultiples of B and Z> [Construction.
therefore if iV be greater than iV, (? is greater than A";

and if equal, equal and if less, less. ; [V. Definition 5.
But G is greater than K {Construction.
therefore j\[ is greater than N.

But H is not greater than L ;
[Construction.
and M and //"

are equimultiples of A and A", and ^V and L
are equimultiples of and /^ B [Construction.
therefore A has a greater ratio to B than E has to /T

;

Corollary. And if the first have a greater ratio to
the second than the third has to the fourth, but the third
the same ratio to the fourth that tlie fifth has to the sixth,
it may be shewn, in the same manner, that the first has a
greater ratio to the second tlian the fifth has to the sixth.

If the first have the same ratio to the second that the
third has to the fourth, then if the first he greater than
the third the second shall he greater than the fourth; and
if equal, equal; and if less, less.
Let A the first have the same ratio to tlie second B

that C the third has to D
the fourth if be greater than: ^
(7, B shall be greater than ; D
if equal, equal ; and if less,
less.
1 3 3
A B C D A B C D A Ji C D
First, let A be gi-eater than C: B shall be gi*eater than D.

For, because A is greater than C, [II>/pothcsis.
and B is any other magnitude

therefore A has to 7? a greater ratio than C has to B. [V. 8.
But A is to jS as C is to D. [Hypothesis.
Therefore C has to Z> a greater ratio than C has to B. [V. 13.
But
of two magnitudes, that to which the same has the
greater ratio is the less. [V. 10.
Therefore Z> is less than B ; that B is greater than Z>.
is.
Secondly, let A be equal to G: B shall be equal to Z>.

For, vl is to Z? as C, that is A, is to Z>. [Uypoth&îs.
Therefore B is equal to D. [V. 9.

; ;
BOOK V. 14, 15. 157
Thirdly, let A be less than C B : shall be less than D.

For, C is greater than A.
And G is to D as A
because is to i?; [Hypothesis.
and C is greater than yl
therefore, by the first case, D is greater than B;
that is, B is less than i>.
Wherefore, if the first &c. q.e.d.

Magnitudes have the same ratio to one another that
their equimultiples have.
Let AB
be the same multiple of C that DB is of F:
C shall be to as F
is to BB. AB
For, because ^J5 is the same multiple of C that DB is
of i*^, [Ili/pothcsis.
therefore as many magnitudes as A

there are in AB
equal to C, so q
many are there in JDB equal to F.
Divide AB into the magnitudes
AG, GH, IIB, each equal to 6'; K
and BE
into the magnitudes u
Die, KL, LB, each equal to F.
Therefore the number of the mag-
nitudes.! (9, (?//, //i? will be equal B C K
to the number of the magnitudes
I)A', KL, LB.
And because AG, GH, IIB are all equal; {Cmslruction.
and that DK, KL, LB are also all equal
therefore AG is to DK as GH is to KL, and as IIB is
to BE. [V. 7.
But as one of the antecedents is to its consequent, so are

all the antecedents to all the consequents. [V. 12.
Therefore as ^G^ is to DK so A B to DF.
is
But AG is equal to C, and DK equal to F.

is
Therefore as C is to i^ so is AB to DB.
"Wherefore, magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
;

PROPOSITION IG. THEOREM.
Tf four magnitudes of the same kind he j)roportionals^
they shall also he proportionals when taken alternately.
Let A, B, C, D
he four magnitudes of the same kind
whicli are proportionals namely, as ;is to i? so let be ^ C
to D: they shall also be proportionals when taken alter-
nately, that is, A
shall be to as is to L>.C B
E — c
A C
B D
F H
Take of A and B any equimultiples -whatever E and F,
and of C and Z> any equimultijDles whatever G and II.
Then, because E is the same multiple of A that is of F
B, and that magnitudes have the same ratio to one another
that their equimultiples have; [V. 15.
therefore A is to B as E is to F.
But A is to B as C is to Z>. [Hypothesk.

Therefore C is to i> as ^ is to F. [V. 11.
Again, because G and H are equimultiples of C and D,
therefore (7 is to Z> as (? is to H. [V. 15.
But it vras shewn that Cisio D as E is to F.
Therefore^ is to i^ as G is to H. [V. 11.
But when four magnitudes are if the proportionals,
firstbe greater than the third, the second is greater than
the fourth; and if equal, equal; and if less, less. [V. 14.
Therefore if E be greater than G, is greater than // F
;
But E and F
are any equimultiples whatever of A and
B, and G and // are any equimultiples whatever of G
and D. [Construction.
Therefore A is to C as B is to D. [V. Definition 5.
Wherefore^ iffour magnitudes &c. Q.E.D.
;
BOOK V. 17. 159
If magyiitude^y taken jointly, he proportionals, they

shiill also he 2jroportionals ichen taken separately ; that
is,if two magnitudes taken together have to one of them
thesame ratio which two others have to one of these, the
remaining one of the first two shall have to the other the
same ratio which the remaining one of the last two has to
the other of these.
Let AB, BE, CD, DF be the magnitudes which, taken

jointly, are proportionals that is, let ylZ? be to
; as CD BE
is to DFthey shall also be proportionals when taken
:
separately; that is, AE

shall be to as 6'iîs to FD. EB
Take of AE, EB, CF, FD any
equinniltiples whatever GH, HK,
LM,MN-
and, again, of EB, FD take any
eixuimultiples whatever KX, NP.
Then, because GH is the same K
multiple of^^ that HK of EB is ;
K
therefore GH the same multiple
is
H
"
of^^'that GÂ'isof^l^. [V. 1. B 11
But GHis the same multiple of
D
AE that LM is of CF,
E
[Constr. F
therefore GÂîs the same multiple
of AB that LM is of CF.
Again, because LMh the same G A
multii)le of CF that MN is of FD, [Construction.
therefore LM is the same multiple of CF that LN is
of CD. [V. 1.
But LM was shewn to be the same multiple of CF that

GKiôiAB.
Therefore GK is the same multiiJe of AB that LN is
of CZ)
that is, CA'and ZiVare equimultiples of .-li? and CD.
;

Again, because IlK is the same multiple of EB that
MN FD^ and that KX is the same multiple of EB
is of
that NP is of FD, {Construction.
tlierefore IIX is tlic same multiple

of EB that MP is of i'7>> ;
[V. 2.
x
that is, HX and 3fP are equimulti-
ples of EB and FD.
And because yli> is to BE as CD
is toDF, {Hypothesis.
K
and that (tA' and LN
are equimul-
N
tiples oiAB and (77), and //X and
MP are equimultiples of EB and H
B jr
therefore if GKho greater than HX,

LNh greater than JfP and if equal, ;
equal and if less, less. [V. I)cf. 5.

;
But if GH
be greater than XX, G A C
then, by adding the common mag-
nitude HK to both, GX is greater
than HX
therefore also LN is greater than MP ;
and, by taking away the common magnitude 3IN from

both,LM is greater than NP.
Thus GH be greater than XX, LM greater than NP.

if is
In like manner may bo shewn that,

it GH be equal if
to XX, LM equal to NP and
is ; if less, less.
But GH and L3T are any equimultiples whatever of

AE and CF, and XX and NP arc any equimultiples
whatever of EB and FD; [Construction.
therefore ^^ to EB as CF is to FD.
is [V. Definition 5.
Wherefore, iffour magnitudes &c. q.b.d.

If magnitudes, taken scimrately, be proportionals, they
shall also he proportionals when taken jointly ; that is, if
the first he to the second as the third to the fourth, the
first and second together shall he to the secoiid as the third
and fourth together to the fourth.
BOOK V. IS. IGl
Let AE, ED, CF, FD bo proportionals that let ; is,

AE be to EB as CF is to FD: they shall also be pro]>or-
tionals when taken jointly that AB shall be to BE as
; is,
CD is to DF.
Take of A B, BE, CD, DF any equimultiples whatever
GH,HK,LM,MX;
and, again, of BE, DF take any equimultiples whatever
KO, NP.
Then, because KO and NP are equimultiples of BE
and DF, and that KH and iVil/ are also equimultiples of
BE and DF ; [Coj^s^ri/cîon.
therefore if KO, the multiple of j5^, be gi'eater than KH,

which is a multiple of the same BE, then the multiple NP
of DF is also greater than NM
the multiple of the same
DF; andif A'(9 be equal to KH, is equal to \
NP NM
and if less, less.
First, let KO be not greater than KH\

NP not greater than NM.
therefore is
And because GH and HK H,

are equimultiples oi AB
and BE, \_Construcfion.
O
and that AB is gi-eater
than BE,
therefore GH is greater F
than HK ;
[V. Axiom 3.
K
but A'O is not greater K
than KH;
therefore GH is greater
than KO.
In like manner it may
be shewn that L31 is
greater than NP. a
Thus if KO be not greater
than KH, then (77/, the multiple of AB, is always gi*eater
than KO, the nuiltiple of BE ;
and likewise LM, the multiple of C7>, is greater than NP^

the multiple of DF,
11
Next, let KO be greater than KH',
therefore, as has been shewn, NP is greater than NM.
And because the whole GH is the same multiple of the
whole thatAB is of BE, HK [Construction.
therefore the remainder GK" is the same multiple of the

remainder that AE is of GH AB ;
[V. 5.
which is the same that L3I is of CL>. [Coyistruction.
In like manner, because the whole LM is the same

multiple of the Avholc CZ> that is of MN DF, [Construction.
therefore the remainder LN the same multiple of the

is
remainder that CF LM
is of CD. [V. 5.
But it wâs shewn that LM the same multiple of CD that

is
GK is of AE.
Therefore GK is the same multiple of AE that LN is
ofCF;
that is, LN are equimultiples of AE and CF.
GKand
And because KO and N^P are equimultiples of BE and
DF; [Construction.
therefore, if from KO and i\^P there be taken KH and

NM, which are also equimultiples of and Z>i^, BE [CoHs^r.
the remainders HO
and il/P are either equal to BE and
DF, or are equimultiples of them. [V. 6.
HO and MP
Suppose that O
arc equal toBE and Z>i^.
Then, because AE is to ^^ H
as CF is to jPZ>, [Hypothesis. P
and that GÂ'' and XiV are
M
cquimultiiiles of AE and Ci^;
therefore GÂ'is to EB as LN N
is to /Y>. [V. 4, Cor.
But /?^(9 is equal to BE, and
it//Ms equal to i>/^; [JInp.
therefore GKis to /TO as LN G
is to JfP.
; ;
BOOK V. IS. 163
Therefore if GK be greater than HO, LN is greater than

MP ; and if equal, equal; and if less, less. [V. A.
Again, suppose that IIO and 3fP are equimultiples

or EB and FI).
Then, because AE is to BB O
as CF is to FD ;
[II>/po(hesis.
and thnt GK and ZiV are

equimultiples of £' and C/^,
. i
H
anil I/O and J/P are equi-
multiples o(BB and /TZ)
therefore GK be greater
if K
tliMu HO, LN greater than
is
Ji/P ; and if equal, equal and ;
if less, less ;
[V. Definition 5.
\\hich was likewise shewn on
the preceding supposition. G A
But GH ho greater than KO, then by taking the com-
if
mon magnitude KH from both, GK greater than HO is
therefore also LN greater than 3fP is ;
and, by adding the common magnitude NM to both, LM

is greater than NP.
Thus GH be greater than KO, LM\s greater than NP.

if
In like manner may be shewn, that GH be equal

it if
to KO, LM'\s equal to NP; and if less, less.
And in the case in which is not greater than KO KH,

ithas been shewn that is always greater than GH Ko\
and also LM
greater than NP.
But GH
and LM
are any equimultiples whatever of AB
and CD, and KO and NP
are any equimultiples whatever
of BE and DF, [Construction.
therefore AB is to BE as CD is to DF. \Y. Definition 5.
AVherefore, (/magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
11—2

If a Tchole magnitude he to a ichole as a magnitude
taken the first is to a magnitude taken from the
from
other, the remainder shall he to the remainder as the
whole is to the whole.
Let the whole AB

be to the whole CD as AE,a mag-
nitude taken from AB, is to CF, a magnitude taken from
CD the remainder
: EB
shall be to the remainder as FD
the Avhole AB
is to the whole CD.
For, because ^5 is to CD a.s AEis to

CF, [Hypothesis. A
therefore, alternately, AB is to AE as
CD is to CF. [V. 16.
And if magnitudes taken jointly be pro-
portionals, they are also proportionals
when taken separately; [V. 17.
tlierefore EB is to AE as FD is to CF ;
therefore, alternately,
'
EB is to FD as B b
^^ is to CF. [V. 16.
But AE is to CF as AB is to CD ;
[Hyp.
hto FD asvli?isto CD. [V.ll.
therefore î?
Wherefore, if a whole &c. q.e.d.
Corollary. If the whole be to the whole as a mag-
nitude taken from the first is to a magnitude taken from
the other, the remainder shall be to the remainder as the
magnitude taken from the first is to the magnitude taken
from the other. The demonstration is contained in the
preceding.
PROPOSITION E. THEOREM.
Iffour magnitudes he piôportionals, they shall also he
pi'ojyortiojialshy conversion ; that is, the first shall he to
its e.vcess ahove the second as the third is to its excess above
the fourth.
Let AB be to BE as CD is to DF: AB shall be to

AE as CD isto CF.
]
BOOK V. E, 20. 165
For, because yl^ is to BE as CD is

to DF [Jli/pothcsis.
therefore, by division, AE is to EB as C
CF is to FD; [V. 17.
and, by inversion, EB is to AE as FD F
is to CF. [V. B.
Therefore, bv composition, AB is to AE
as CDis to (7/: [V. 18.
"Wherefore, if/our magn itudes &c. q.e.d. B D

If there he three magnitudes, and other three, 'which
have the same ratio, taken tico and tico, then, if the first
he greater than the third, the fourth shall he greater than
the sixth; and if equal, equal; and if less, less.
Let A, B, C be three magnitudes, and D, E, other F

three, which have the same ratio taken two and two that ;
is, let Aheio B 2iS D

is to E, and let B he to C ^s is E
to i^: if ^ be greater than C, shall be greater than F; D
;
First, let A be greater than C : D

shall be greater than F.
For, because A is groat er than C, and B
is any other magnitude,
therefore A
has to Ba greater ratio than
(7 has to i?. [V. 8.
But A is to B as D is to E; [Ift/potlicsis.
therefore D
has to E a greater ratio than
C has to B. [V. 13.
And because i? C as
is to E is to F, [Il>/p. A B
therefore, l)v inversion, C
^
is to i? as jP is d E
to E. [V. n.
And it was shewn that D has to jE" a
greater ratio than C has to B ;
therefore D has to ^ a greater ratio than

iPhasto^; [V. 13, Cor.
therefore D is greater than F. [V. 10.
IGG EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
Secondly, let A be equal to C : D shall
be equal to F.
For, because A is equal to C, and B is any
other magnitude,
therefore yl is to i? as (7 is to B. [V. 7.
ABC
But -4 is to ^ as i> is to E, [Hypothesis. D E F
and C is to i? as i^ is to E, [Hyp. V. B.
therefore I) is to E as i^ is to ^ ;
[V. 11.
and therefore Z> is equal to F. [V. 9.
Lastly, let A be less than C : D shall

be less than F.
For C is greater than A ;
and, as was shewn in the first case, C is to

J5 as i^ is to ^
ABC
;
and, in the same manner, B is to A as E is

to Z>;
therefore, by the first case, F is greater D E F
than D ;
that is, D is less than F.

Wherefore, // tlierG he three &c. q.e.d.

If there he three magnitudes, and other three, ichich
have the same ratio, taken two and two, hut in a cross
order, then if the frst he greater than the third, the
fourth shall he greater than the sixth; and if equal,
eqiud; and if less, less.
Let A, 7?, C be three magnitudes, and D, E, F other

three, which liave the same ratio, taken two and two, but
in a cross order tliat is, let
; be to as A
is to F, and B E
let Bbe to C
as Z> is to ii if be greater than C,
: A D
shall be greater than ; F
and if equal, equal ; and if less,
less.
First, let A be greater than C: D shall bo greater

than F.
; ; ;
BOOK V. 21. 1G7
For, because A is greater tlian (7,

and B is
any other magnitude,
therefore A has to a greater ratio B
than C has to B. [V. 8.
But A is to B as i^ is to -F; [Iliipothcsis.
therefore
than C lias
E has to i^ a greater ratio
to B. [V. 13. ABC
And because i? is to C as Z> is
D F> F
to E, [Hypothesis.
therefore, by mversion, (7 is to i? as
E is to D. [V. B.
And it was shewn that E has to Fa

greater ratio than C has to B
therefore E lias to F a greater ratio
than E has to D [V. 13, C^r.
;
therefore F is less than D [V. 10. ;
that D greater than F.

is, is
Secondly, let A be equal to C D :
shall be equal to F.
For, because yl is equal to C, and B
isany other magnitude,
therefore
But ^ is to i? as ^
A is to 7? as
is
C is
to i^
to i?. [V. 7. ABC
[//yi'-
;
D E I^
and C is to ^ as ^ is to D ;
[Hyp. V. ^.
thereforeE is to /^ as E is to i> ;
[V. 11.
and therefore D is equal to F. [V. 9.
Lastly, let A be less than C: D

shall be less than F.
For C is greater than yl
and, as was shewn in the first case,
C is to i? as ^ is to Z> A B C
and, in the same manner, B is to A as
D F
F is to E ;
therefore, by the first case, i^ is greater

than D ;
that is, D is less than F.

Wherefore, if there he three &c. q.e.d.
;
168 EUCLID S ELEMENTS.

If there he any nuniber of magnitudes, and as many
others, ichich have the same ratio, taken tico and two in
order, the first shall have to the last of the first mag-
nitudes the same ratio which the first of the others has
to the last.
[This proposition is usually cited by the words ex CEquali.'\
First, let there be three magnitudes A, B, C, and other

three D, E, F, ^vhich have the same ratio, taken two and
two in order that is, let ;be to as A
is to E, and let B D B
be to (7 as ^ is to i^ : A shall be to C as D is to F.
Take of and A D any equi-
multiples whatever G and i/;
and of B and E any equimul-
tiples Avhatever K and L
and of
tiples
Cand
whatever
F any equimul-
M and N.
;
ABC D E F
Then, because yl is to ^ as Z>

G K INT H L N
is to Z"; [Hypothesis.
and that G
and // are equi-
multiples of A and D,
and K and L equimultiples of
B and E [Construction.
therefore G is to /sT as // is to
L. [V. 4.
For the same reason, A' is to Jf as X is to N.

And because there are three magnitudes G, K, M, and
other three H, L, N, which have the same ratio taken two
and two,
therefore if G be greater than 31, II is greater than N ;

; [V. 20.
But G and // are any equimultiples whatever of A and D,

and M and N are any equimultiples whatever of C and F.
Therefore yl is to (7 as Z> is to F. [V. Hcfiniiion 5.
Next, let there be four magnitudes, Aj B, (7, D, and

;
BOOK V. 22, 23. 169
other four E, F, G, H, which have the

same ratio taken two and two in order
namely, let A be to as B
is to F, and E
B to (J as F to G, and
is to as C D
(r is to i/": y1 shall be to Z) as i*7 is to ^.
For, because A, B,C are three magnitudes, and E, F, G
other three, which have the same ratio, taken two and two
in order, {Hypothesis.
therefore, by the first case, ^ is to C as ^ is to G.
But 6' is to Z> as G is to H; {Hjipothcsis.
therefore also, by the first case, A is to Z> as ^ is to H.

And so on, whatever be the number of magnitudes.
"NA'herefore, if there he any number &c. q.e.d.

If there he anrj numher rf magnitudes, and as many
others, which hare the same ratio, taken two and two in
a cross order, the frst shall have to the last of the first
magnitudes the same ratio ichich the first of the others
has to the last.
First, let there be three magnitudes. A, B, C, and other
three D, E, F, which have the same ratio, taken two and
two in a cross order namelv, let be to i> as iS* is to F,
; A
and i? to a as i> is to shall be to C as^ A is to F.
: D
Take of ^, B, any D
equimultiples whatever G,
H, K; and of C, E, /"any
e(juimultiplcs whatever L,
M, N. A B C D E
Then because G and H arc G H L K Î N
equinuiltiplcs of A and B,
and that magnitudes have
the same ratio which their
equimultiples have ;
[V. 15.
therefore A is to B as G is
to//.
And, for the same reason,
Eiîo Fas M is to N.
;

But ^ is to 5 as jE" is to
^. [Hypothesis.
Therefore G is to // as M
is to iV. [V. 11.
And because i? is to C
as D is to E, {Hypothesis.
A C D E
and that H and A' aro H I. K N
equimulti[)lcs of B and D,
and Z and J/ are equimul-
tiples of C and E; [Constr.
therefore // is to L as K
is to A[. [V. 4.
And it has been shewn

tliat G^ is to ZT as M is
toiV.
Then since there are three magnitudes G, II, L, and
other three K^ M, N, -which have the same ratio, taken two
and two in a cross order
therefore if G
be greater than L, K is greater than N\ and
if equal,equal ; and if less, less. [V. 21.
But G and A'' are any equimultiples whatever of ^ and 7),

and L and N are any equimultiples whatever of G and F \
therefore ^ is to (7 as i> is to F. [V. Definition 5.
Next, let there be four magnitudes

A, B, (7, Z>, and other four E, F, G, H,
which have the same ratio, taken two A. B. C. D.
and two in a cross order namely, let ;
E. F. G. H.
A be to ^ as G^ is to 77, and i? to G
as F
is to G, and (7 to Z> as iS" is to F\
A shall be to D as E is to //.
For, because vl, ^, C are three magnitudes, and F^ G, II
other three, which have the same ratio, taken two and two
in a cross order ; [Hypothesis.
therefore, by the first case, -4 is to (7 as i^ is to H.

But (7 is to i) as ^ is to F', [Hypothesis.
therefore also, by the first case, yl is to Z> as Z" is to //.

And so on, whatever be the number of magnitudes.
Wherefore, if there he any number &c. q.e.d.
BOOK V. 2Jt. 171

If the first hai'e to the second the ratio which the mme
third has to the fourth, and the fifth have to the second
the same ratio which the sixth has to the fourth, then the
first and fifth t'^gether shall have to the second the same
ratio irhich the third and sixth together have to the fourth.
Let AB the
first have to C the second the same ratio
wiiich Di: the
third has to F
the fourth and let the ;
BG
fifth have to C the second the same ratio Avliich UJl the
sixth has to F
the fourth AG, the first and fiftli togetlier,
:
shall have to C the second the same ratio which Ul/, the
third and sixth together, has to the fourth. F
For, because BG is to C as FH
is to F, [Ilyjiothesis. G
therefore, by inversion. C is to BG H
as Fis to F/I. [V. i>'.
And because AB is to C as DF is
to F, [Jlifpothasis. B
and a is toBG as iîs to FH; E-
therefore, ex a^quali, AB is to BG
as DF is to FH. [V. 22.
And, because these magnitudes are
proportionals, they are also proper- J^ D F
tionals when taken jointly [V. 18. ;
therefore AG is to BG as DII is to FIT.

But BG is to C as FIT is to i^; [TlypotTiesis.
therefore, ex a^quali, ^6^ is to Cas Dllis to F. [V. 22.

AVhcrcfore, if the first &c. q.e.d.
Corollary 1. If the same hypothesis be made as in

the proposition, the excess of the first and fifth shall be to
the second as the excess of the third and sixth is to the
fourth. The demonstration of this is the same as that of
the proposition, if division be used instead of composition.
Corollary 2. The proposition holds true of two ranks

of magnitudes, whatever be their nundjcr, of which each of
the first rank has to the second magnitude the same ratio
that the corresponding one of tlie second rank hais to tho
fourth magnitude ; as is manifest.

Tf four magnitudes of the same kind he proportionals^
the greatest and least of them together shall he greater
than the other two together.
Let the four magnitudes AB, CD, E, be propor- F
tionals; namely, let be to CD as AB
is to i^; and let ^
AB \)Q the greatest of them, and consequently the F
least: [Y.A,Y.U.
AB and F together shall be greater than CD and E
together.
Take AG equal to E, and r>
CH equal to F.
Then, because AB h to CD as
D
E is to F, [Ili/pothesis.
H
and that AG is equal to E, and
CH equal to F [Coiistruction. ;
therefore AB is to CD AG sis
is to CH. [V. 7, V. 11.
And because the whole yi^ is to A C E F

the whole CD as AG is to CH;
therefore the remainder GB is to the remainder HD as
the whole î? is to the whole CD. [V. 19.
But AB is greater than CD ;
[Hypothesis.
therefore BG is greater than DH. [V. A.
And because AG is E and CH equal to F,
equal to {Constr.
therefore AG and F together are equal to CH and E
together.
And if to the unequal magnitudes BG, DH, of which
BG is the greater, there be added equal magnitudes,
namely, AG and F to BG, and CH and E to DH, then
AB and F together are greater than CD and E together.
Wherefore, iffour magnitudes &c. q.e.d.
BOOK VL
DEFINITIONS.
1. Similar rectilineal
figures are those which

Jiave their several angles
equal, each to each, and
the sides about the equal
angles proportionals.
2. Reciprocal figures, namely, triangles and parallelo-

grams, are such as have their sides about two of their
angles proportionals in such a manner, that a side of the
first figure is to a side of the other, as the remaining side
of this other is to the remaining side of the first.
3. A straight line is said to be cut in extreme and

mean ratio, when the whole is to the greater segment as
the greater segment is to the less.
4. The altitude of any figure is

the straight line drawn from its ver-
tex perpendicular to the base.
;
Triangles and parallelograms of the same altitude are
to one another as their bases.
Let the triangles ABC, A CD, and the parallelograms
EC, CF have the same altitude, namely, the perpendicular
drawn from the point A to BD as the base BC is to the
:
base CD, so shall the triangle ABC be to the triangle A CD,

and the parallelogram EC to the parallelogram CF,
Produce BD
both
ways
take any number of
straight lines BG, GIL,
each equal to BC, and
any number of straight
lines DK, KL, each
equal to CD ;
[I. 3. H G B C
and j oin AG, AH, A K,
AL.
Then, because CB, BG, GH are all equal, [Construcaon,
the triangles ABC, AGB, AUG are all equal. [I. 38.
Therefore whatever multiple the base IIC is of the base

BC, the same multiple is the triangle AIIC of the tri-
angle ABC.
For the same reason, whatever multiple the base CL is of
the base CD, the same multiple is the triangle ACL of
the triangle ACD.
And if the base IIC be equal to the base CL, the triangle
AIIC is equal to the triangle ACL; and if the base IIC
be greater than the base CL, the triangle AHC is greater
than the triangle ACL; and if less, less. [I. 38.
Therefore, since there are four magnitudes, namelv, the

two bases BC, CD, and the two triangles ABC, ACD;
and of the base BC, and the triangle ABC, the first and
the third, any equimultiples whatever have been taken,
namely, the base IIC and the triangle AHC
and of the ;
base CDand the triangle ACD, the second and the fourth,
any equinmltiples whatever have been taken, namely, the
base CL and the triangle CL A ;
; ; ; ;
BOOK VI. 1, 2. 175
and since it has been shewn that if the base IFC be greater
than the base CL, the triangle A I/O is grreater than the
triangle A CL ; and if equal, equal ; and if less, less
therefore as the base BC

is to the base CD, so is the
triangle ABCto the triangle ACD. [V. Definition 5.
And, because the parallelogram CE is double of the

triangle ABC, and the iârallelogram CF is double of the
triangle yICZ); [I. 41.
and that magnitudes have the same ratio Avhich their equi-
have
nuiltiples [Y. 15.
therefore the parallelogram EC
is to the parallelogram CE
as the triangle ABCis to the triangle ACD.
But it has been shewn that the triangle ABC is to the

triangle ACD BC
as the base is to the base CD
therefore the parallelogram EC is to the parallelogram CF
as the base BC is to the base CD. [V. 11.
"Wherefore, triangles &c. q.e.d.
Corollary. From this it is plain that triangles and

parallelograms which have equal altitudes, are to one an-
other as their bases.
For, let the figures be placed so as to have their bases
in the same straight line, and to be on the same side of it;
and having drawn perpendiculars from the vertices of the
triangles to the bases, the straigiit line which joins the ver-
tices is parallel to that in which their bases are [I. 33.
because the perpendiculars are both equal and parallel to

one another. [I. 28.
Then, if the same construction be made as in the pro-

position, the demonstration will be the same.
If a straiffht lijie he drawn parallel to one of the sides
of a triangle, it shall cut the other sides, or those sides
produced, proportionalltj ; and if the sides, or the sides
produced, he cut j^roportionallg, the straight line ichich
joins the points of section, shall he jyarallel to the rc-
maining side of the triangle.
Let DE be drawn parallel to BC, one of the sides of
the triangle ABC: BD shall be to DA as CE is to EA.
Join BE, CD.

Then the triangle BDE is equal to the triangle CDEy
because thcv are on the same base DE and between the
same parallels DE, BO. [I. 37.
And ADE is another triangle ;
and equal magnitudes have the same ratio to the same

magnitude; [^ . 7.
therefore the triangle BDE

is to the triangle ADE as the
triangle CDE
is to the triangle ADE.
But the triangle BDE is to the triangle ADE as BD

is to DA ;
because the triangles have the same altitude, namely, the

perpendicular drawn from E
to AB, and therefore they are
to one another as their bases. [VI. 1.
For the same reason the triangle CDE is to the triangle

ADETis 6'^ is to EA.
ThereforeBD to DA as CE to EA.
is [V. 11. is
Next, let BD be to DA as CE to EA, and join DE: is
DE shall be parallel to BC.

For, the same construction bemg made,
because BD is to DA as CE is to EA, [Ilnpothesk.
and as BD is to DA, so is the triangle BDE to the

triangle ADE, [VI. 1.
and as CE is to EA so is the triangle CDE to the triangle

ADE; [VI. 1,
; ;
BOOK VL 2,3. 177
therefore the triangle BDE

is to the triangle ADE as the
triangle CDE
is to the triangle ADE-, [V. 11.
that is, the triangles BDE and CDE have the same ratio
to the triangle ADE.
Therefore the triangle BDE is equal to the triangle
CDE. [V. 9.
And these triangles are on the same base DE and on the
same side of it
but equal triangles on the same base, and on the same side
of it, are between the same parallels [I. 39.
therefore DE is parallel to BC.

PROPOSITION 3. THEOREM,
If the vertical angle of a triangle he bisected by a straight
linewhich also cuts the base, the segments of the base shall
have the same ratio ichich the other sides of the triangle
have to and if the segments of the base have
one another ;
the same
ratio which the other sides of the triangle have to
one another, the straight line draicnfrom the vertex to the
point of section shall bisect the vertical angle.
Let ABC be a triangle, and let the angle BAC be
bisected bv the straight line AD, "which meets the ba.se at
D: BD shall be to DC as BA is to ^6'.
Through C draw CE
parallel to DA, [I. 31.
and let BA produced

meet C^ at ^.
Then, because the
straight line AC meets
the parallels AD, EC,
the angle ACE
is equal
to the alternate angle
CAD ;
[I. 29.
but the angle CAD is, by hyi)othcsis, equal to the angle
BAD;
therefore the angle BAD is equal to the angle ^6'^. [Ax. 1.
12
; ; ;

Again, because the straight line BAE meets the parallels
AD, EC, the exterior angle BAD equal to the interior
is
and opposite angle AEC; [I. 29.
but the angle has BAD

been shewn equal to the
angle ACE
therefore the SLngleACE
is equal to the angle
AEC; [Axiom 1.
and therefore AC is
equal to AE. [I. 6.
And, because AD is
parallel to EC, [Constr.
one of the sides of the
triangle BCE,
therefore BD is to DC as BA is to AE [VI. 2.
but AE is equal to AC;

therefore BD to D Cob BA to AC.
is [V.
is 7.
Xext, let BD be to DC as BA to AC, and join AD: is

the angle ^^C shall be bisected by the straight line AD,
For, let the same construction be made.
Then BD is to Z> (7 as BA is to AC; [Hypothviis.
and BD is to DC as BA is to AE, [YI. 2.
because AD is parallel to EC; [Construction.

therefore i?^ is to ^C as BA is to AE; [V. 11.
therefore ^Cis equal to AE [V. 9.
and therefore the angle AEC is equal to the angle A CE. [1. 5.
But the angle -4 ^C is equal to the exterior angle 5^ Z>; [1.29.
andthe angle ^(7^ is equal to the alternate angle CJ Z> [1.29. ;
therefore the angle BAD is equal to the angle CAD ;

[Ax. 1.
that is, the angle BA C is bisected by the straight line A D.

Wherefore, if the vertical angU &c. q.e.d.
; ; ;
BOOK VI. A. 179
PROPOSITION A, THEOREM.
Jf the exterior angle of a triangle, made by producing
one of its sides, be bisected by a straight line which also
cuts the base produced, the segmods between the dividing
straight line and the extremities of the base shall have the
same ratio which the other sides of the triangle have to
one another ; and if the segments of the base 2)roduced
hare the same ratio which the other sides qf the triangle
have to one another, the straight line drawn from the
vertex to the point of section shall bisect the exterior angle
of the triangle.
Let ABC be a triangle, and let one of its sides BA be
Eroduccd to E and let the exterior angle CAE be
;
isected by the straight line AD

wiiich meets the base
produced at D BD:shall be to as BA is to ^ a DC
Through C draw CF
parallel to AD, [I. 31.
meeting AB at F.
Then, because the
straight line
the parallels AD,
angle A CF is
AC
FC, the
equal to the
meets
alternate angle C'^Z); [1.29.

but the angle
DAE;
CAD is,
BCD
by hypothesis, equal to the angle
therefore the angle DAE is equal to the angle ACF. [Ax. I.
Again, because the straight line FAE meets the parallels

AD, FC, the exterior angle DAE is equal to the interior
and opjX)sitc angle AFC [I. 2t).
but the angle DAEhâ been shewn equal to the angle ^Ci^;
therefore the angle ^Ciîs equal to the angle AFC; [Ax. 1.
and therefore Ada equal to AF. [I. 6.
And, because AD paralled to FCj

is [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle BCF

therefore BD is to DC as BA is to AF [VI. 2.
but AFia equal to ^C;

therefore BD is to DC as BA is to AC. [V. 7.
12—2
; .

Next, let BD be to DC
as BA is to AC ; and join
AD : the exterior angle
CAE shall be bisected by
the straight line AD.
For, let the same con-
struction be made.
Then BD is to DC as BA
is to ^(7; [Hypothesis.
and BD is to DC as i?^ is to AF [VI. 2.
therefore BA is to ^C as iJ.-l is to AF; [V. 11.

therefore ^C is equal to AF, [V. 9.
and therefore the angle A CFis equal to the angle AFC. [1. 5.
But the tmgleAFC is equal to the exterior angle DAE ;

[1. 29.
and the angle A CF is equal to the alternate angle CA D ;

[1. 29.
therefore the angle CAD is equal to the angle DAE; [Ace. 1
that is, the angle CAE is bisected by the straight line AD.
"Wherefore, if the exterior angle &c. q.e.d.
The sides about the equal angles of triangles which are
equiangular to one another are proportionals ; and those
which are opx)osite to the eciual angles are homologous sides,
that is, are the antecedents or the conseciuents of the ratios.
Let the triangle ^5(7be equiangular to the triangle Z^C^,

having the angle yli?(7 equal to the angle DCE, and the angle
ACB equal to the angle DEC, and consequently the anole .
J5^(7equal to the angle CDE\ the sides about the equal angles
of the triangles ABC, DCE,
shall be proportionals ; and
those shall be the homolo-
gous sides, which are oppo-
site to the equal angles.
Let the triangle DCE

be placed so that its side CE
may be contiguous to BC,
and in the same straight
line ^vith it. [I. 22.
; ;
BOOK VI, 4, 5. 181
Then the angle BCA is equal to the angle CEB ; {Hyix

add to each the angle ABC \
therefore the two angles ABGy BCA are equal to the two
angles ABC, CED ;
lAxiom 2.
but the angles ABC, BCA are together less than two
right angles; [I. 17.
therefore the angles ABC, CED are together less than

two right angles ;
therefore BA
and ED, if produced, ^vill meet. \Axioni 12.
Let them be produced and meet at the point F.
Then, because the angle ABC is equal to the angle
DCE, [Hypothesis.
BF is parallel to CD ;
[I. 28.
and because the angle ACB is equal to the angle DEC, [Hyp.
AC\^ parallel to FE. [I. 28.
Therefore FACD is a parallelogram;

and therefore ^î^ is equal to CZ), and ^(7is equal to i!^Z>. [1. 34.
A nd, because AC is parallel to FE, one of the sides of

the triangle FBE,
therefore BA is to AF as BC is to CE [VI. 2.
but xlF is equal to CD ;
therefore BA is to CD as BCis to CE; [V. 7.
and, alternately, AB is to BC as DC is to CE, \y. 16.

Again, because CD is parallel to BF,
therefore BC is to CE as FD is to DE ;
[VI. 2.
but FD is equal to AC
therefore BC is to CE as AC is to DE ;
[V. 7.
and, alternately, i?Cis to CA as CE is to ED. [V. 16.

Then, because it has been shewn that AB is to BC as DC
is to CE, and that ^C
is to CA as 6'^ is to ED ;
therefore, ex a^quali, ^^1 is to AC as CD is to />£'. [V. 22.

"Wherefore, the sides &c. q.e.d.
PEOPOSITIOX 5. THEOREM.
If the sides of two about earJi of their angles,
triimr/Ies,
he proportionals, the triauijles shall be equiauffular to one
another, and shall hare those angles equal which areopposite
to the homologous sides.
; ; ;

Let the triangles ABC, DEF have their sides propor-
tional, so that AB is to BC as DE
EF; BO is to and to
CA as EF is to FD and, consequently, ex ?equali, BA
;
to ^Cas ED is to Z>i^: the triangle ABC shall be equian-

gular to the triangle DEF, and they shall have those angles
equal which are opposite to the homologous sides, namely,
the angle ABC equal to the angle DEF, and the angle
BCA equal to the angle EFD, and the angle equal to BAC
the angle EDF.
At the point E, in the
straight lineEF, make the
angle FEG equal to the angle
ABC; and at the point F, in
the straight line EF, make the
angle EFG equal to the angle
BCA ;
[I. 23.
therefore the remaining angle

EGF is equal to the remain-
ing angle BAC.
Therefore the triangle ABC is equiangular to the triangle
GEF;
and therefore they have their sides opposite to the equal
angles proportionals [VI. i.
therefore î? is to BC as GE is to EF.

But AB is to BC as DE is to EF: {Hypothesis.
therefore DE is to EF as GE is to EF ;
[V. 11.
therefore DE is equal to GE. [V. 9.
For the same reason, DF is equal to GF.

Then, because in the two triangles DEF, GEF,
DE is equal to GE, and EF is commou
the two sides DE, EF are equal to the two sides GE, EF^
each to each
and the base DF is equal to the base GF ;
therefore the angle DEF is equal to the angle GEF, [I. 8.

winch the equal sides are opposite. [1. 4.
therefore the angle DFE

is equal to the angle GFE, and
the angle EDF is equal to the angle EGF.
BOOK VI 5,6. 183
And, because the angle DEF is equal to the angle GEFy

and the angle GEF is equal to the angle ABC, [Constr.
therefore the angle ^J5 (7 is equal to the angle Z>î^. [^x. 1.
For the same reason, the angle ACB is equal to the angle
DFE, and the angle at A is equal to the angle at Z>.
DEF.
^YhcvGforc, if the sides &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION 0". THEOREM.

If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one
angle of the other, and the sides about the equal angles
proj)ortionals, the triangles shall be equiangular to one
another, and shall have those angles equal which are op-
posite to the homologous sides.
Let the triangles ABC, DEF
have the angle in BAC
the one, equal to the angle EDF
in the other, and the
sides about those angles proportionals, namely, to BA AC
as ED is to DF: the triangle ABC
shall be equiangular to
the triangle DEF, and shall have the angle equal to ABC
the angle DEF, and the angle CB equal to the angle DFE.
A
At the point D. in the
straight line DF, make the
angle FDG equal to cither
oftheanglcsiy.-l(;J^2>/^;
and at the point F, in the
straight line DF, make
the angle DFG
equal to
the angle ^C^; [1.23.
therefore the remaining angle at G is equal to the remain-

ing angle at B.
Therefore the triangle ABC is equiangular to the trianglo
DGF;
therefore BA ^C as GD to DF.
is to is [VT. 4.
But BA to
is^(7 as ED to DF; is [Hiipothesis.
therefore ED to DF as GD
is to DF is \
[V. 11.
therefore ED is equal to GD, V"'- 3-

;

And DF is common to the two triangles EDF, GDF\
therefore the two sides ED, DF are equal to the two sides
GD, DF, each to each
and the angle EDF is equal
to the angle GDF; [Constr.
therefore the base EF is
equal to the base GF, and
the triangle EDF to the
triangle GDF, and the re-
maining angles to the re-
maining angles, each to each,
to which the equal sides are
opposite ; [1.4.
therefore the angle DFG is equal to the angle DFE, and
the angle at G
is equal to the angle at E.
But the angle DFG is equal to the angle ACB; [Constr.
therefore the angleACB equal to the angle DFE. [Ax. 1.

is
And the angle BA C equal to the angle EDF; [Hypothesis.

is
therefore the remaining angle at B is equal to the remain-

ing angle at E.
DEF.
Wherefore, if two triangles &c. q.e.d.
If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one
angle of the other, and the sides about ttco other angles
proportionals; then, if each of the remaining angles be
either less, or not less, than a right angle, or if one of
them be a right angle, the triangles shall be equiangular
to one another, and shall have those angles equal about
which the sides are proiyortionals.
have one angle of the
one equal to one angle of the other, namely, the angle
BA C equal to the angle EDF, and the sides about two
other angles ABC, DEF, pro])ortionals, so that is to AB
BC as DE is to EF and, first, let each of the remaining
;
angles at C and F
be less than a right angle the triangle :
ABC shall be equiangular to the triangle DEF^ and shall

; ; ;
BOOK VL 7. 185
have the angle ABC equal to the angle DBF, and the
angle at C equal to the angle at F.
For, the angles î? (7,
if
DBF be not equal, one of
them must be greater than
the other.
Let ABC be the greater,
and at the point B, in the
straight line AB^ make the
angle ABG equal to the angle DBF. [I. 23.
Then, because the angle at A is equal to the angle at Z>, \IIyi^.
and the angle ABG is equal to the angle DBF, [Constr.
therefore the remaining angle AGB is equal to the re-

maining angle DFE;
therefore the triangle ABG is equiangular to the triangle
DBF.
Therefore is to BG as DE is to EF.
^^ [VI. 4.
But AB BC as DE is to EF;
is to [Hypotkesis.
therefore A B is to BC AB is to BG ViS [V. 11. ;
therefore BC is equal to BG ;
[V. 9.
and therefore the angle BCG is equal to the angle BGC [I. 5.
But the angle BCG is less than a right angle {Hyp. ;
therefore the angle BGC is less than a right angle

and therefore the adjacent angle AGB must be greater
tlian a right angle. [I. 13.
But the angle AGB was shewn to be equal to the angle

ati^;
therefore the angle at F is greater than a right angle.
But the angle at iîs less than a right angle; [Hypothesis.
which is absurd.
Therefore the angles ABC and DEF are not unequal
thatis, they are equal.
And the angle at A is equal to the angle at D; [Hyjiothc.îs.
therefore the remaining angle at C is equal to the remain-

ing angle at F
therefore the triangle ABC is equiangular to the triangle
DEF,
;
186 EUCIIUS ELEMENTS.

Next, let each of the angles at C and F be not less
than a right angle the triangle: ABC shall be equiangular
to the triangle DEF.
For, the same con-
struction being made,
it may be shewn in the
same manner, that BG /1
is equal to BG ;
therefore the angle E

BCG is equal to the
angle BGO. {I. 5.
But the angle BCG is not less than a right angle [Hyp. ;
therefore the angle BGC is not less than a right angle;

that two angles of the triangle BCG are together not
is,
less than two right angles; which is impossible. [I. 17.
Therefore the triangle ABC

may be shewn to be equi-
angular to the triangle DEF, as in the first case.
Lastly, let one of the angles at and i^ be a right C
angle, namely, the angle at C: the triangle shall be ABC
equiangular to the triangle DEF.
For, if the triangle ABC
be not equiangular to the
triangle DEF, at the point
B, in the straight line AB,
make the angle ABG
equal
to the angle DEF. [I. 23.
Then it may be shewn, as

in the first case, that BC
is equal to BG ;
therefore the angle BCG is

equal to the angle ^G^C [1. 5.
But the angle BCG is a

right angle: [Hypothesis.
therefore the angle BGC

is a right angle
that is, two angles of the triangle BCG arc together equal
to two right angles; which is impossible. [I. 17.

DEF.
'V^hereiorc, if two triajigles &c. q.e.d.
BOOK VI. 8. 187
In a right-angled triayigle, if a perpendicular he draion
from the right angle to the base, the triangles on each side
of it are similar to the whole triangle, and to one anotlier.
Let ABC
be a right-angled triangle, having the right
angle BAC; and from the point A, let AD
be drawn per-
pendicular to the base BC\ the triangles DBA, DAG
shall be similar to the whole triangle ABC, and to one
another.
For, the angle BAC
is equal
to the angle BDA, each of them
being a right angle, \_Axiom 11.
and the angle at B
is common to
the two triangles xiBC, DBA ;
therefore the remaining angle

ACB is equal to the remaining
angle DAB.
Therefore the triangle ABC
is equiangular to the triangle
DBA, and the sides about their equal angles are propor-
tionals ;
[VI. 4.
therefore the triangles are similar. [VI. Definition 1.
In the same manner it may be shewn that the triangle

DAC is similar to the triangle ABC.
And the triangles DBA, DAC

being both similar to the
triangle ABC^ are similar to each other.
Wherefore, in a right-angled triangle &c. q.e.d.
Corollary. From this it is manifest, that the perpen-

dicular drawn from the right angle of a right-angled
triangle to the base, is a mean proportional between the
segments of the base, and also that each of the sides is a
mean proportional between the base and the segment of
the base adjacent to that side.
For, in the trianglesDBA, DAC,
BD is to DA :is DA h to DC; [VI. 4.
and in the triangles ABC, DBA,

BC is to BA as BA is to BD ;
[VI. 4.
and in the triangles ABC, DAC,

BC is to CA as CA is to CD. [VI. 4.
: ;
From a given straight line to cut off any part required.
Let AB\iQ the given straight line
it isrequired to cut off any part from it.
From the point A draw a straight
line AC, making any angle with AB\
va.AC take any point Z>, and take A (7 the
same multiple of AD, that is of the AB
part be cut off from it ; join
"SYhich is to
BC, and draw DE
parallel to it. AE
shall be the part required to be cut oflf.
For, because EI> is parallel to BC, [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle ABC,
therefore CD is to I>A as BE is to EA ;
[VI. 2.
and, by composition, CA is to ^Z> as BA is to AE. [V. 18.

But CA is a multiple of AD ; [Construction.
therefore BA is the same multiple of AE [V. D.
that is, Avhatever part AD is of AC, AE is the same part
of AB.
"Wherefore, /ro?w the given straight line AB, the part
required has been cut off. q.e.f.

To divide a given straight line similarly to a given
divided straight line, that is, into parts ichich shall have
the same ratios to one another, that the parts of the given
divided straight line have.
Let AB ho the straight line given to be divided, and
AC i\\o given divided straight line: it is required to divide
AB similarly to AC.
Let AC ho divided at the points
D, E; and let AB, AC ho placed
so as to contain any angle, and join
BC through the point D, draw DF
;
parallel to BC, and through the point

E draw EG parallel to BC. 31. [I.
AB shall be divided at the points

F, G, similarly io AC,
BOOK VI. 10, 11. 189
Througli D draw i)//A" parallel to AB. [I. 31.
Then each of the figures FH, is a parallelogram HB ; •
therefore DIlis equal to FG, and //A' is equal to GB. [1.34.

Then, because HF
is parallel to KG, [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle DKG^
therefore KII is to HD as CE to ED. is [VI. 2.
But KH\% equal to BG^ and HD equal to is GF\

therefore BG is to GF as CE is to ED. [V. 7.
Again, because FD is parallel to GE^ [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle AGE,

therefore 6îîs to ED is to DA. FA as [VI. 2.
And has been shewn that BG to GF as CJEJ is to FD.

it is
Therefore BG to GF as 6'^ is to ED, and (77^ is to FA

is
as £'i> is to DA.
Wherefore t/ie gicen straight line AB is divided simi-
larly to the given divided straight line AC. q.e.f.

To find a third proportional to two given straight lines.
Let AB, AC
be the two given straight lines: it is re-
quired to find a third proportional to A 13, AC
Let AB, AC
be placed so
as to contain any angle produce ;
AB, AC, to the points D, E; and

make BDequal to [I. 3. AC -,
join BC, and through D dravi' DE

parallel to BC. [I. 31.
CE shall be a third proportional D

to AB, AC,
For, because BC is parallel to DE, [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle ADE,

therefore AB is to BD as -ÎC is to CE ;
[VI. 2.
but BD is equal to ^C; [Construction,
therefore AB is to ^C as ^C is to CE. [V. 7.
Wherefore two given straight

to the line.^ AB, AC, a
third proportional CE is/uund. q.k.f.
l^ROPOSITION 12. THEOREM.

To Jind a fourth proj)ortional to three given straight
lines.
Let A, B, (7 be the three given straight lines : it is

required to find a fourth proportional to -^, B, C.
Take two straight lines,
DEy DF, containing any an-
EDF
gle ; and in these make
DG equal to A, GE equal to
B, and DH equal to C; [I. 3.
join GH, and through E draw

EF parallel to GH. [I. 31.
HF shallbe a fourth propor-

tional to Aj B, C.
For, because GH
is parallel to EF, [Construction.
one of the sides of the triangle DEF,

therefore DG is to GE as DH is to HF. [VI. 2.
But DG is equal to A, GE equal to is By and DH is

equal to C ;
[Construction.
therefore ^ is to J? as C is to HF. [Y. 7.
"Wherefore to the three given straight lines A, B, G, a

fourth proportional HF is found, q.e.f.

To Jind a mean proportional between tico given straight
lines.
Let AB, BC be the two given straight lines; it is
required to find a mean proportional between them.
Place ^-S,i?C in a straight

line,and on AG
describe the
semicircle ADC; from the
point Bdraw at right BD
angles to AG. [I. 11.
BD shall be a mean propor-

tional between AB and BG.
; ;
BOOK VI. 13, 14. 191
Join A£>, DC.

Then, the angle ADC, being in a semicircle, is a right
angle [III. 31.
and because in the right-angled triangle ADC, DB is
drawn from the right angle perpendicular to the base,
therefore DB is a mean proportional between AB, BC,
the segments of the base. [VI. 8, Corollary.
Wherefore, between the two given straight lines AB,

BC, a mean proportional DB is found, q.e.f.

Equal parallelograms ichich have one angle of the one
equal to one angle of the other, have their sides about the
equal angles reciprocally proportional ; and parallelo-
grams which have one angle of the one equal to one angle
of the other, and their sides about the equal angles reci-
procally proportional, are equal to one another.
Let AB. BC
be equal parallelograms, which have the
angle FBD
equal to the angle EBG
the sides of the
:
parallelograms about the equal angles shall be reciprocally

proportional, that is, DB
shall be to as BE
is to BF. GB
Let the parallelograms be
placed, so that the sides DB,
BE may be in the same
straight line
therefore also FB, BG are in
one straight line. [I. 14.
Complete the parallelogram

FE.
Tiien, because the parallelogram AB is equal to the
parallelogram BC, [Hypothesis.
and that FE is another parallelogram,
therefore î? is to FE as BC is to FE. [V. 7.
But î? is to FE as the base DB is to the base BE, [VI. 1.
and BC is to FE as the base GB is to the base BF; [VI. 1.
therefore DB is to BE ^ GB is to BF. [V. 11.

;

Next, let the angle FBD
be equal to the angle EBG,
and let the sides about the equal angles be reciprocally
proportional, namely, DB
to BE as GB is to BF:
the parallelogram shall AB
be equal to the parallelo-
gram BG.
For, let the same con-
struction be made.
Then, because DB is to BE
as GB is to BF, [Hypothesis.
and that DB is to BE as the parallelogram AB is to the

parallelogram FE, [VI. 1.
and that GB is to BF as the parallelogram BG is to the

parallelogram JIE' [VI. 1.
therefore the parallelogram J^

is to the parallelogram FE
as the parallelogram 5(7 is to the parallelogram i^^; [V.ll.
therefore the parallelogram AB
i^ equal to the parallelo-
gram BG F- ^•
Wherefore, equal parallelograms &c. q.e.d.

triangles ichich have one angle of the one equal
Equal
to one angle of the other, have their sides about the equxil
angles reciprocally proportional ; and triangles ichich
have one angle of the one equal to one angle of the other,
and their sides about the equal angles reciprocally pro-
potîonal, are equal to one another.
Let ABG, ADEbe equal

triangles, which have the angle
BAG equal to the angle DAE:
the sides of the triangles about
the equal angles shall be reci-
procally proportional that is, GA ;
shall be to AD as EA is to AB.
Let the triangles be placed so
that the sides GA, may bo AD
in the same straight line,
BOOK VI. 15, 16. 103
therefore also EA, AB are in one straight line; [I. 14.
join BD.
Then, because the triangle ABC is equal to the trian-
gle ylZ)i7, [Hypothesis.
and that ABD is another triangle,

therefore the triangle ABC to the triangle ABD as the
is
triangle ADE to the triangle ABD.
is [V. 7.
But the triangle ABC to the triangle ABD as the base

is
CA is to the base AD, [VI. 1.
and the triangle ADE is to the triangle ABD as the base

EA is to the base AB; [VI. 1.
therefore CA is to AD as EA is to AB. [V. 11.
Next,let the angle BAC

be equal to the angle DAE,
and the sides about the equal angles be reciprocally
let
proportional, namely, CA to as AD
is to AB: the EA
triangle ABCshall be equal to the triangle ADE,
Then, because CA is toAD as EA to AB, {HypotTicns.
is
and that CA is to AD as the triangle î?C to the is

triangle ABD, [VI. 1.
and that EA is to AB as the triangle ADE is to the

triangle ABD, [VI. 1.
therefore the triangle ABC
is to the triangle ABD as the
triangle ADE
is to the triangle ;
ABD [V. 11.
therefore the triangle ABC is, equal to the triangle -4 Z>^. [V. 9.
Wherefore, equal triangles &c. q.e.d.
If four straight lines he proportionals, the rectangle

contained hg the extremes is equal to the rectangle con-
tained bg the means ; and if the rectangle contained by
the extremes be eqwil to the rectangle contained bg the
nieanSf the four straight lines are proportionals.
13
; ;

Let the four straight lines AB, CD, E, F, be propor-
tionals,namely, let AB be to CD as ^ to i^: the rect- is
angle contained hy AB and F shall be equal to the rect-

angle contained by CD and E.
From the points A,
C, draw yl(?,Ci7 at right
anglesto.4i?, (7Z>;[I.ll.
make A G equal to F, and
H
CH equal to E ;
[I. 3.
G
and complete the paral-
lelograms ^(?,i>i7. [1.31.
Then, because yl^ is

toC/>asîstoi^, [^^/ix
and that E is equal to
B D
CH, and F is equal to
AG, {Construction.
therefore AB is to CD as Ci7 is to ^6^ [V. 7.
that is, the sides of the parallelograms BG, DH about the

equal angles are reciprocally proportional
therefore the parallelogram BG is equal to the parallelo-
gram Z>^. [YL 14.
But the parallelogi-am BG is contained by the straight

Imes AB and F, because AG \% equal to F ;
{Construction.
and the parallelogram DH

contained by the straight
is
linesCD and E, because CH
equal to is E ;
therefore the rectangle contained h^ and AB

is equal F
to the rectangle contained by and E. CD
Next, let the rectangle contained \>j and be AB F
equal to the rectangle contained by CD
and E\ these four
straight lines shall be proportional, namely, shall bo AB
to CD as Eis to F.

Then, because the rectangle contained by î? and is equal F
to the rectangle contained by CD and E, {Hypothesis.
and that the rectangle BG
is contained hy and F, AB
because AGis equal to F, {Construction.
and that the rectangle DH is contained by CD and E^
because CH is equal to E, {Construction.
; ;
BOOK VI. IG, 17. 195
therefore the parallelogram BG

equal to the paral- is
lelogram DIL lAxiam 1.
And these parallelograms are equiangular to one another
therefore the sides about the equal angles are reciprocally
proportional [VI. 1 4.
therefore ^^ is to CD as CTZis to AG.
But CH is equal to E, and AG \% equal to F\ XComtr.
therefore î? is to CD as E is to F. [V. 7.
Wherefore, iffour straight lines &e. q.e.d.
PROPOSITIOX 17. THEOREM.

If three straight liiics he proportionals, the rectangle
contained hy the extremes is equal to the square on the
mean ; and if the rectangle contained hy the extremes he
equal to the square on the mean, the three straight lines
are proportionals.
Let the three straight lines A, B, (7 be proportionals,
namely,let A be to B as B is to C: the rectangle contamed
by A and C shall be equal to the square on B.
Take D equal to B. ~~ "
Then, because A is to
B as B is to C, [Hyp. -B
and that B is equal to Z>, D

therefore A is to i? as Z> C
is to C [V. 7.
But if four straight lines
be proportionals, the rect-
angle contained by the
D
extremes is equal to the
rectangle contained by A
the means; [VI. 16.
therefore the rectangle contained by A and C is equal to
the rectangle contained by and D. B
But the rectangle contained by B and D is the square on 7?,
because B
is equal to Z>; [Construction.
therefore the rectangle contained by A and C is equal to
the square on B.
13—2
;

Next, let the rectangle contained by A and C be equal
to the square on ^ A
shall be to j5 as
: ^ is to (7.

Then, because the rectan-
and A G
A——
gle contained by
is ecjual to the square on B-
B, {^Hypothesis. j)
and that the square on B q

isequal to the rectangle
contained by B
and Z>,
because B
is equal to
jD, {^Construction. C
therefore the rectangle -^ '
'
B
'
contained by A
and C is
equal to the rectangle contained by B and D.
But if the rectangle contained by the extremes be equal
to the rectangle contained by the means, the four straight
lines are proportionals [VI. 16.
therefore^ is to i? as 2) is to G.
But B is equal to D ;
[Construction.
Therefore yl is to ^ as i? is to G. [V. 7.
Wherefore, if three straight lines &c. q.e.d.

On a given straight line to describe a rectilineal figure
similar and similarly situated to a given rectilineal figure.
Let AB
he the given straight line, and the GDEF
given rectilineal figm-e of four sides it is required to de- :
scribe on the given straight line AB./o. rectilineal figure,

similar and similarly situated to GDEF,
Join DF\ at the
point A^ in the straight
line AB, make the
angle BAG equal to
the angle Z>(7F; and at
the point B, in the
straight line A
B, make
the angle ABG equal D
totheangleCZ>i^;[I.23.
BOOK VI. 18. 197
therefore the remaining angle ^î? is equal to the remain-

ing angle CFD,
and the triangle A GB is equiangular to the triangle CFD.
Again, at the point i?, in the straight line BG., make the
angle (^/>7/ equal to the angle FDE; and at the point G^,
in the straight lino BG, make the angle equal to BGH
the angle DFE ;
[I. 23.
therefore the remaining angle BUG is equal to the re-

maining angle DBF,
and the triangle BHG is equiangular to the triangle DBF.
Then, because the angle AGB is equal to the angle CFD^
and the angle BGH eq\\\x\ to the angle DFE; [Construction.
therefore the whole angle AGH is equal to the uhole

angle CFE. [Axiom 2.
For the same reason the angle ABH is equal to the
angle CDE.
And the angle BA G is equal to the angle DCF, and the
angle BHG is equal to the angle DEF.
Therefore the rectilineal figure ABHG is equiangular to
the rectilineal figure CDEF.
Also these figin-es have their sides about the equal

angles proportionals.
For, because the triangle BA G
is equiangular to the triangle
DCF, therefore BA
is to ^1 6^ as is to CF. DC [VI. 4.
And, for the same reason, AG is to GB as CF is to FD^
and BG is to as GH is to FEDF ;
therefore, ex a3quali, AG is to G^//as CF\^ to FE. [V. 22.

In the same manner it may be shewn that AB is to BH
as CD is to DE.
And GH is to HB as FE is to ED. [VI. 4.
Therefore, the rectilineal figures and ABHG CDEF

are equiangular to one another, and have their sides about
the equal angles proportionals ;
therefore they are similar to one another. [VI. Definition 1.
Next,let it be required to describe on the given straight

line AB,a rectilineal figure, similar, and similarly situated,
to the rectilineal figure CD KEF
of five sides.
; ;

Join DE, and on the giyen straight line AB describe,
as in the former case, the rectilineal figure ABHG, similar,
and similarly situated to the rectilineal figure CDEF of
four sides. At the point
B^ in the straight line
BH, make the angle
HBL equal to the an-
gle EDK; and at the
f)oint H, in the straight
ine BH, make the an-
gle BHL equal to the
angle Z>îr; [1.23.
therefore the remaining angle at L is equal to the remain-
ing angle at K.
Then, because the figures ABHG, CDEF Vire similar,
the angle ABH
is equal to the angle CDE; [YI. Def. 1.
and the angle HBL is equal to the angle EDK; {Constr.
therefore the whole angle ABL is equal to the whole

angle CDK, [Axiom 2.
For the same reason the whole angle GHL is equal to the
whole angle FEK.
Therefore the five-sided figures ABLHG and CDKEF are
equiangular to one another.
And, because the figures ABHG and CDEF are similar,
therefore BH as CD to DE\
î? is to is [VI. Definition 1.
but BH to BL as DE
is to DK; is [VI. 4.
therefore, ex aequali, AB\?,io BL as CD is to DK. [V. 22.

For the same reason, GH is to HL as FE is to EK.
And BL is to LH as DK is to KE. \Y1. 4.
Therefore, the five-sided figures ABLHG and CD KEF

are equiangular to one another, and have their sides about
the equal angles proportionals
therefore they are similar to one another. [VI. Definition 1.
In the same manner a rectilineal figure of six sides
may be described on a given straight line, similar and
similarly situated to a given rectilineal figure of six sides
and so on. q.e.f.
; ;
BOOK VI. 19. 199

Similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate
ratio of their homologous sides.
Let ABC and DEF be similar triangles, having the

angle B equal to the angle E, and let ^^ be to BO as DE
is to EF, so that the
side BC
is homolo-
gous to the side EF:
the triangle ABC
shall be to the tri-
angle DEF
in tlie
duplicate ratio of BC
to EF.
Take BG a third proportional to BC and EF, so that
BC may be to EF as EF is to BG ;
[VI. 11.
and join AG.
Then, because AB is to BC as Z>-£J is to EF, [Hypothesis.
therefore, alternately,yl^ is to DE as BC is to EF\ [V. 16.
but BC to Z"/^ as EF
is to ^(r; is [ConsfrwcîW.
therefore AB to Z>Z7 as EF
is to i?(? [V. 11.
is
that the sides of the triangles ABG and DEF, about

is,
their equal angles, arc reciprocally proportional

but triangles which have their sides about two equal angles
reciprocally proportional are equal to one another, [VI. 15.
ABG equal to the triangle DEF.
therefore the triangle is
And, because BC to EF as îîs to BG,

is
therefore BC has to BG the duplicate ratio of that which

BC has to EF. [V. Definition 10.
But the triangle ABC is to the triangle ABG as BC is
to BG [VI. 1.

has to tlie triangle ABG the
duplicate ratio of that which has to EF. BC
But the triangle ^4 2? (? was shewn equal to the triangle DEF;
has to the triangle DEF the
duplicate ratio of that which has to EF. BC [V. 7.
AVherefore, similar triajigles &c. q.e.d.
CoKOLL-iEY. From this it is manifest, that if three

straight lines be proportionals, as the first is to the tliird,
so is any triangle described on the first to a similar and
similarly described triangle on the second.

Similar polygons maij he divided into the same number
of similar triangles, having tlie same ratio to one another
that the polygons have; and the iôlygons are to one
another in the diqylicate ratio of their homologous sides.
Let ABODE, FGHKL be similar polygons, and let
^^ be the side homologous to the side FG: the polygons
ABODE, FGHKL may be divided into the same nmnber
of similar triangles, of ^vhich each shall have to each the
same ratio which the polygons have; and the polygon
ABODE shall be to the polygon FGHKL
in the duplicate
AB
ratio of to FG.
Jom BE, EO, GL, LH.

Then, because the polygon ABODE is similar to the poly-
gon FGHKL, [Hypothesis.
the angle BAE is equal to the angle GEL, and BA is
to AE as GFis to FL. [VI. Definition 1.
And, because the triangles ABE
and FGL
have one angle
of the one equal to one angle of the other, and the sides
about these equal angles proportionals,

therefore the triangle ABE is equiangular to the triano-Ie
EGL, [VI.*6.
and therefore these triangles are similar ; [VI. 4.
therefore the angle ABE is equal to the angle FGL.
;
BOOK VI. 20. 201
But, because the polygons arc similar, [Hypothesis.
therefore the >vhole angle ABC is equal to the -whole angle

FGH', [VI. Definition 1.
therefore tlie remaining angle EBC is equal to the remain-

ing angle LGll. [Axiom 3.
And, because the ABE and FGL are similar,

triangles
therefore EB to BA as
is LG to GF is \
and also, because the polygons are similar, [Hypothesis.
therefore AB is to i?(7as FG is to GH-, [VI. Definition 1.
therefore, ex sequali, EB is to ^6'' as LG is to GH\ [V. 22.

that is, the sides about the equal angles EBC and LGH
are proportionals
therefore the triangle EBC is equiangular to the triangle
LGH- [VI. 6.
and therefore these triangles are similar. [VI. 4.
For the same reason the triangle ECD is similar to the

triangle LIIK.
Therefore the similar polygons ABODE, FGHKL may be
divided into the same number of similar triangles.
Also these triangles shall have, each to each, the same

ratio -sYhich the polygons haye, the antecedents being y^^jE?,
EBC, ECD, and the consequents FGL, LGH, LHK-, and
the polygon ABODE shall be to the polygon FGHKL in
the duplicate ratio oi to FG. AB
For, because the triangle ABE is similar to the tri-
angle FGL,
therefore ABE is to FGL in the duplicate ratio of EB
to LG. [VI. 19.
For the same reason the triangle EBC is to the trianglo

LGH in the duplicate ratio of EB to LG.
Therefore the triangle ABE to the triangle FGL as the
is
triangle EBC is, to the triangle LGH. [V. 11.
Again, because the triangle EBC is similar to the tri^

angle LGH,
therefore EBC is to LGH iu the dufjlicate ratio of EC
to LH. [VI. 19,
;

For the same reason the triangle ECD is to the triangle
LHK in the duplicate ratio of EC to LH.
Therefore the triangle EBC
is to the triangle LGII as the
triangle ECD
is to the triangle LHK. [V. ll.
But it has been sheAvn that the triangle EBC
is to the tri-
angle LGHsiii the triangle ABE is to the triangle FGL.
Therefore as the triangle ABE is to the triangle FGL, so

is the triangle EBC to the triangle LGH, and the triangle
ECD to the triangle LHK; [V. 11.
and therefore as one of the antecedents is to its consequent
so are all the antecedents to all the consequents [V. 12.
;
that is, as the triangle ABE

is to the triangle FGL so is
the polygon ABCDE to the polygon FGHKL.
But the triangle ABE is to the triangle FGL
in the
duplicate ratio of the side AB to the homologous side
FG; [VI. 19.
therefore the polygon ABCDE
is to the polygon FGHKL
in the duplicate ratio of the side AB
to the homologous
side FG.
Wherefore, similar polygons &c. q.e.d.
Corollary 1. In like manner it may be shewn that

similar four-sided figures, or figures of any number of sides,
are to one another in the duplicate ratio of their homo-
logous sides and it has already been shewn for triangles
;
therefore universally, similar rectilineal figures are to one

another in the dujilicate ratio of their homologous sides.
Corollary 2. If to yl^ and FG, two of the homologous

sides, a third proportional 31 be taken, [VI, li.
then A B
has to 3/ the duplicate ratio of that which AB
has to FG. [V. Definition 10.
;
BOOK VI. 20, 21. 203
But any rectilineal figure described qvlABvs, to the similar

and similarly described rectilineal figure on FG in the
duplicate ratio <di AB to FG, [Corollary 1.
Therefore as î? is to J/, so is the figure on AB to the

figure on i^^C? [V. 11.
and this was shewn before for triangles. [VI. 19, Corollary.
AVherefore, universally, if three straight lines be propor-
tionals, as the first is to the third, so is any rectilineal
figure described on the first to a similar and similarly
described rectilineal figui*e on the second.

Rectilineal figures which are similar to the same recti-
lineal figure, are also similar to each other.
Let each of the rectilineal figures A and B be similar
to the rectilineal figure the figure G : A shall be similar
to the figure B.
For, because is A
similar to (7, {Hijp.
A is equiangular to
C, and A and C have
their sides about the
equal angles propor-
tionals. [VI. Def. 1.
Again, because B is
similar to 6', [//'//».
B is equiangular to C, and and B C have their sides about

the equal angles proportionals. [VI, Definition 1.
Therefore the figures A and are each of them equian- B

gular to C, and have the sides about the equal angles of
each of them and of C proportionals.
Therefore A is equiangular to B, [Axiom 1.
and A and B have their sides about the equal angles pro-
portionals; [V. 11.
therefore the figure A is similar to the figure B. [VI. Def. 1.
Wherefore, rectilineal figures &c. q.e.d.

;

If four straight lines be propoiHionals, the similar rec-
tilineal figures similarly described on them shall also be
proportionals ; and if the similar rectilineal figures simi-
larly described on four straight lines be proportionals^
those straight lines shall be proportionals.
Let the four straight lines AB, CD, EF, GH be pro-

portionals, namely, Bio A as CD
is to EF GH; and on AB,
CD let the similar rectilineal figures KAB, LCD be simi-
larly described ; and on EF, GH
let the similar rectilineal
figures MF, NH besimilarly described: the figure KAB
shall be to the figure LCD
as the figure is to the MF
fiaure NH.
P R
"To AB and CD take a third proportional X, and to EF

and GH 2i third proportional 0. .
[VI. 11.
Then, because AB is to CD as îîs to GH, [Hypothesis.
and ^5 is to CD as CD is to X; [Construction.
and EF to GH as GH is to
is ;
[Construction.
CD is to X as GH is to 0.
therefore [V. 11.
And AB is to CD as îîs to GH;

therefore, ex oequali, î? is to X as EF is to 0. [V. 22.
But as ylZ? to X, so
is is the rectilineal figure KAB to
the rectilineal figure LCD ;
[VI. 20, Corollary 2.
and as EF to 0, so
is is the rectilineal figure MF to the
rectilineal figure NH [VI. 20, Corollary 2.
;
BOOK VI. 22, 23. 205
therefore the figure KAD is to the figure LCD as the

figure MF is to the figure NH. [V. 11.
Next, let the figure KAB

be to the similar figure LCD
as the figure MF is to the similar figure Nil: AB shall
be to CDEF is to GIL
as
Make as AB is to CD so EF to PR : [VI. 12.

and on PR describe tlic rectilineal figure SR^ similar and
similarly situated to either of tlie figures MF^ NIL [VI. 18.
Then, because AB\^to CD as EF is to PR,
and that on AB^ CD are described tlie similar and simi-
larly situated rectilineal figures KAB, LCD,
and on EF, PR the similar and similarly situated recti-
lineal figm-es MF, SR
therefore, bv the former part of this proposition, KAB is
to LCD as MF
is to SR.
But, by hypothesis, KAB is to LCD as MF is to NH;

therefore iVF is to SR as MF is to NH ;
[V. 11.
therefore SR is equal to NH. [V. 9.
But the figures SR and NH are similar and similarly

situated, [Construction.
therefore PR is equal to GH.
And because AB is to CD as EF is to PR,
and that PR is equal to GH ;
therefore AB is to CZ) as EF is to G^/Z". [V. 7.
TMierefore, if/our straight lines &c. q.e.d.
Parallelngrama which are equiangxtlar to one another

have to one another the ratio which is comjyounded of
the ratios of their side^.
; ;

Let the parallelogram AC
he equiangular to the paral-
lelogram CF, having the angle BCD
equal to the angle
ECG\ the parallelogram AC
shall have to the parallelo-
gram CF the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of
their sides.
Let BC and CG be placed in
a straight line
therefore and DC CE are also in
a straight line; [I. 14.
complete the parallelogram DG ;
take any straight line A", and

make K to &^L BC is to CG, and
Z to iJfas Z>(7is to CE; [VL 12.
then the ratios of to L and K

of L to M
are the same vpith the K L M
ratios of the sides, namely, of BC
to C(ândofi)Cto(7£'.
But the ratio of A" to 3T is that which is said to be com-
pounded of the ratios of K to L and of L io 31 ;
[V. Def. A.
therefore has toK M the ratio which is compoimded of
the ratios of the sides.
Now the parallelogram AC \s to the parallelogram CJI
as BC is to CG ; ,
[VI. 1.
but BC is to CG as K is to Z ;
[Construction.
therefore the parallelogram AC is to the parallelogram
CHusKiatoL. [V. 11.
Again, the parallelogram CII is to the parallelogi-am CF
SiS DCis to CE; [VL 1.
but DC is to CE us L iaio M; [Construction.
therefore the parallelogram CH is to the parallelogram
Ci^ as A
is to 3/. [V. 11.
Then, since it has been shewn that the parallelogram AC
isto the parallelogram as is to A, CH K
and that the parallelogram CH is to the parallelogram CF
as A is to i^,
therefore, ex gcquali, the parallelogram ^C is to the paral-
lelogram as CF
is to M. K [V. 22.
But K
ratios of the sides
has to M the ratio which is compounded of the
BOOK VI. 23, 24. 207
therefore also the parnllelogram AC

has to tlic parallelo-
gram CF the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of
the sides.
Wherefore, parallelograms &c. q.e.d.
Parallelograms about the diameter of any parallelo-

gram are similar to the tchole parallelogram and to one
another.
Let A BCD
be a parallelogram, of which \s a AC
diameter and let
; and EG HK
be parallelograms about
the diameter: the parallelograms and EG
shall be HK
similar both to the whole parallelogram and to one another.
For, because DC and
GF are parallels, A E B
the angle ADC is equal \ 7 7
to the angle AGF. [I. 29. r. /
/
V L
And because i?(7and EF I 1^
are parallels, / /
the angle ABC
is equal
to the angle yiî^. [1.29.
And each of the angles
BCD and EFG is equal to the opposite angle BAD, [1. 34.
and therefore they are equal to one another.

Therefore the parallelograms ABCD and AEFG are equi-
angular to one another.
And because the angle ABC is equal to the angle
AEF, and the angle BAG is common to the two triangles
BAC and EA F,
therefore these triangles are equiangular to one another;
and therefore AB
is to a.s BC
is to EF. AE [VI. 4.
And the opposite sides of parallelograms are equal to one
another; [I. 34.
therefore AB is to AD as AE is to AG,
and Z>C is to GF is to FE,
CB as
and CD is to DA as FG is to GA. [V. 7.
«
Therefore the sides of the parallelograms A BCD and
AEFG about their equal angles are proportional,
and the parallelograms are therefore similar to one an-
other. [VI. Definition 1.
For the same reason the
parallelogram A BCD is
A _E B
similar to the parallelogram
FHCK.
Therefore each of the pa-
rallelograms EGand HK
is similar to BD ;
therefore the parallelogram

EG is similar to the parallelogram HK.
"Wherefore, parallelograms &c. q.e.d.

To describe a rectilineal figure which shall he similar
to one given rectilineal figure and equal to another given
rectilineal figure.
Let ABC be the given rectilineal figure to which the

figure to be described is to be similar, and Dthat to which
it is to be equal it: is required to describe a rectilineal
figure similar to ABC and equal to D.
On the straight line BC describe the parallelogram BE

equal to the figure ABC.
On the straight line CE describe the parallelogram CM
equal to Z>, and having the angle FCEequal to the
angle CBL\ [I. 45, Corollary.
BOOK VI. 25,26. 209
therefore BC and CF will be in one straight line, and LE

and EMwill be in one straight line.
Between BC and CF find a mean proportional GH, [VI. 13.

and on GIT describe the rectilineal figure KGH, similar and
similarly situated to the rectilineal figure ABC. [VI. 18.
KGII shall be the rectilineal figure required.
For, because BC is to GH as GH is to CF, [Consfrudion.
and that if three straight lines be proportionals, as the first

isto the third so is any figure on the first to a similar and
similarly described figure on the second, [AÎ. 20, Cor. 2.
therefore as BC is to CF so is the figure ABC to the

figure KGH.
But as BC is to CF
so is the parallelogram BE to the
parallelogi'am CM \y^- 1-
KGH as the pa-

\
ABC
therefore the figure is to the figure
rallclogi-am BEis to the parallelogram CM. [V. 11.
And the figure ABC is, equal to the parallelogram BE;

therefore the rectilineal figure KGH
is equal to the paral-
lelogram CM. [V. 14.
But the parallelogram CM is equal to the figure D {CoTistr.

;
therefore the figure KGH is equal to the figure D, [Axiom 1.

and it is similar to the figure ABC. {Construction.
Wherefore the rectilineal figure KGH has been de-

scribed similar to the figure ABC, and equal to D. q.e.f.
PROPOSITION 26. TFiEOHEM.
If two similar parallrJograms hare a common angle,

the same diameter.
and be similarly sitiMted, tlieyare about
Let the parallelograms A BCD,
AEFG be similar and similarly si-
tuated, and have the common angle
BAD: A BCD and AEFG shall
be about the same diameter.
For, if not, let. if possible, the
parallelogram BD have its diame-
ter AHC in a straight
diff"erent
line from AF, the diameter of the
14
parallelogi'am EGGF ; let
meet AHG at H, and through
H draw HK parallel to AD or
BC. [I. 31.
Then the parallelogi'ams

ABCD and AKHG
are about
the same diameter, and are
therefore similar to one an-
other; [VI. 24.
therefore DA is AB as GA is to AK.
to
But because ABCD and AEFG are similar parallelo-
grams, [Hypothesis.
therefore DA is to AB as GA is to îi^. [VI. Definition 1.
Therefore GA is to Â'as GA is to AE, [V. 11.
that is, GA has the same ratio to each of the straight lines
AK and AE,
and therefore AKis equal to AE, [V. 9.
the less to the gi-eater ; which is impossible.

Therefore the parallelograms and ABCD AEFG must
have their diameters in the same straight line, that is, they
are about the same diameter.
Wherefore, if two similar paraUclojrams &c. q.e.d.

To cut a given straight line in extreme and mean ratio.
Let ^^
be the given straight line: it is required to cut
it inextreme and mean ratio.
Divide AB
at the point C, so
thatthe rectangle contained by =^
AB, BC
may be C(pial to the square O ±J
on AC. [11.11.
Then, because the rectangle AB, BC is equal to the
square on AC, [Coiistrncliou.
therefore î? is to ylC as ^C is to CB. [VI. 17.
Wherefore AB is cut in extreme and mean ratio at

the lyoint C. Q.E.F. [VI. Definition d.
BOOK VI. 31. 211

In any right-angled triangle^ any rectilineal figure de~
scribed on the side subtending the right angle is equal to
the similar and similarly described figures on the sides
containing the right angle.
Let ADCbe a right-angled triangle, having the right
angle BA C the rectilineal figure described on
: shall BC
be equal to the similar and similarly described figures on
BA and CA.
Draw the perpendicular
AD. [I. 12.
Then, because in the right-

angled triangle ABC, AD
is drawn from the right
angle at A, perpendicular
to the base BC, the triangles
ABD, CAD are similar to
the whole triangle 6'^^, and
to one another. [VI. 8.
And because the triangle CBA is similar to the triangle
ABD,
therefore CB is to BA as BA is to BD. [VI. Def. 1.
And when three straight lines are proportionals, as the

first isto the third so is the figure described on the first
to the similar and similarly described figure on the
second; [VI. 20, Corollary 2.
therefore as CB is to BD
so is the figure described on CB
to the similar and similarly described figure on BA ;
and inversely, as BD
is to BC so is the figure described
on BA to tliat described on CB. [V. B.
In the same manner, as CD is to CB so is the figuro
described on CA to the similar figure described on CB.
Therefore as BD
and CD together are to CB so are the
figures described on BA and CA together to the figure
described on CB. [V. 2i.
But BD and CD together are equal to CB ;
therefore the figure described on BC is equal to the similar

and similarly described figures on BA and CA. [V. A.
"Wherefore, in any right-angled triangle &c. q.e.d.
14—2
; ;

If two triangles^ which have two sides of the one pro-
portional to two sides of the other, he joined at one angle
so as to have their homologous sides parallel to one another,
the remaining sides shall he in a straight line.
Let ABC and DCE be two triangles, which have the

two sides BA, AG proportional to the two sides CD, DE,
namely, BA to ^(7 as CD is to DE; and let AB be
parallel to DC
and AC parallel to DE: BC and CE shall
be in one straight line.
For, because ^^ is parallel
to DC, [Hypothesis.
and ^4 C meets them,

the alternate angles BAC,
ACD are equal; [I. 29.
for the same reason the angles

ACD, Ci>i5; are equal
therefore the angle ^^Cis equal to the angle CDE. \_Ax. 1.
And because the triangles ABC, DCE

have the angle at
A equal to the angle at D, and the sides about these angles
proportionals, namely, BA
to ^Cas is to DE, CD
[H>jp.
therefore the triangle ABC is equiangular to the triangle

DCE; [VL 6.
therefore the angleABC is equal to the angle DCE.

And BAC was shewn equal to the angle ACD
the angle ;
therefore the whole angle ACE equal to the two angles

is
ABC and BA C. [A xiom 2.
Add the angle ACB to each of these equals

then the angles ACE and ACB are together equal to the
anglesABC, BAC, ACB.
But the angles ABC, BAC, ACB are together equal to
two right angles ;
[I. 32.
tlierefore the angles ACE and ACB are together equal to

two right angles.
And since at the point C, in the straight line AC, the
two straight lines BO, CE which are on the opposite sides
;
BOOK VI. 32, 33. 213
of it, make tlie adjacent angles ACE^ ACB together equal

to two right angles,
therefore BC
and GE are in one straight line. [I. U.
Wherefore, if two triangles &c. q.e.d.

In equal circles, angles, whether at the centres or at the
circumferences, hace the same ratio which the arcs on
which they stand have to one another; so also have the
sectors.
Let ABC^n^ DEF be equal circles, and let BGC and

EHF be angles at their centres, and BAC and EDF
angles at their circumferences as the arc BC
: to the arc is
EF so shall the angle BGC be to the angle EHF, and the
angle BAC to the angle EDF; and so also shall the sector
BGC be to the sector EHF.
Take any number of arcs CK, KL, each equal to BC,

and also anv number of arcs FM, MN
each equal to EF
and join GK, GL, IIM, UN.
Then, because the arcs BC, CK, KL, are all equal, {Comtr.
the angles KGL are also all equal [III. 27.
BGC, CGK, ;
and therefore whatever multiple the arc BL is of the arc

2JC, the same multiple is the angle BGL of the angle
BGC.
For the same reason, whatever nuiltiple the arc EN of is
the arc EF, the same multiple is the angle EHN of the
angle EHF.
; ;

And if the arc BL
be equal to the arc EN, the angle BGL
is equal to the angle EHN [III. 27.
and if the arc BL be greater than the arc EN, the angle
BGL is greater than the angle EHN; and if less, less.
Therefore since there are four magnitudes, the two
arcs BC\ EF, and the two angles BGC, EHF;
E—g
and that of the arc BC
and of the angle have been BGC
taken any equimultiples whatever, namely, the arc and BL
the angle BGL ;
and of the arc EF

and of the angle EHF
have been taken
any equimultiples whatever, namely, the arc and the EN
angle EHN ;
and since it has been shewn that if the arc BL

be greater
than the arc EN, the angle BGL
is gi-eater than the angle
EHN; and if equal, equal and if less, less
;
tlierefore as the arc BG is to the arc EF, so is the angle

BGC to the angle EHF. [V. Definition 5.
But as the angle BGC is to the angle EHF, so is the
angle BAG to the angle EBF, [V. 15.
for each is double of each ; [III. 20.
therefore, as the arc BC is EF so is
to the arc the angle
BGC to the angle EHF, and the angle BAG to the angle
EDF.
Also as the arc BC is to the arc EF, so shall the sector
BGC he to the sector EHF.
Join BC, CA\ and in the arcs BC, CK take any points
X, 0, and join BX, XC, CO, OK.
; ; .
BOOIZ VI. 33. 215
Then, because in the triangles BGC, CGK, the two

sides BG, GO are equal to the two sides CG, GK, each to
each
and that they contain equal angles [III. 27.
therefore the base BC

is equal to the base CK, and the
ti-iangle BGCis equal to the triangle CGK, [I. 4.
ITX
And BC is equal to the arc CIZ, [Constr.

because the arc
the remaining part when BC is taken from the circimi-
ference is equal to the remaining part when CK is taken
from the circumference ;
therefore the angle ^XCis equal to the angle COK. [III. 27.
Therefore the segment BXC is similar to the segment

COK; [III. I>€jin ition 1 1
and they are on equal straight lines BC, CK.

But similar segments of circles on equal straight lines are
equal to one another; [III. 24.
therefore the segment BXC\b equal to the segment COK.

And the triangle BGG was shewn to be equal to the
triangle CGKf
tlierefore the whole, the sector BGC, is equal to the whole,
the sector CGK. [Axiom 2.
For the same reason the sector KGL is equal to each of
tlie sectors BGC, CGK.
In the same manner the sectors EIIF, FIIM, MIIN may
be shewn to be equal to one another.
Therefore whatever muUi]>le the arc BL is of the arc
7>^, the same multiple is the sector BGL of the sector
BGC;
;

and for the same reason whatever multiple the arc EN is
of the arc EF, the same multiple is the sector EHN of the
sector EHF.
And if the arc BL be equal to the arc EN, the sector
BGL is equal to the sector EHN ;
and if the arc BL be greater than the arc EN^ the sector
BGL is greater than the sector EHN; and if less, less.
Therefore, since there are four magnitudes, the two
arcs BC, EF, and the two sectors BGC. EHF;
^X c
and that of the arc BC

and of the sector have been BGC
taken any equimultiples whatever, namely, the arc and BL
the sector BGL ;
and of the arc EF

and of the sector EHF
have been taken
any equimultiples whatever, namely, the arc and the EN
sector î/A";
and since it has been shewn that if the arc BLbe greater
than the arc EN, the sector BGL is greater than the
sector EHN; and if equal, equal ; and if less, less
therefore as the arc BC

is to the arc EF. so is the sector
BGC to the sector EHF. [V. Dcfini'.ion 5.
\yhercfore, in equal circles &c. q.e.d.
BOOK VI. B. 217
PROPOSITION B. THEOREM.
If the vortical angle of a triartglehe bisected hy a straight
line ichirh likewise cuts the base, the rectangle contained
by the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle con-
tained by the segments of the base, together tcith the square
on the straight line which bisects the angle.
Let ABC
be a triangle, and let the angle be BAG
bisected by the straight lino AD
the rectangle BA, : AC
shall be equal to the rectangle BDy i)6', together with the
square on AD.
Describe the circle ACB
about the triangle, [IV. 5.
and produce AD
to meet the
circumference at E, R^
and join EC.
Then, because the angle
BAD is equal to the angle
EA C, [IIyj)oth esis.
and the angle ABD

is equal to
the angle A EC, for they are in
the same segment of the circle, vju 22
therefore the triangle BAD is equiangular to the triangle
EAC.
Therefore BA is to AD as EA is to ^C; [VI. 4.
therefore the rectangle BA, AC is equal to the rectangle
EA, AD, ^yj ^g
that is, to the rectangle ED, DA, together with the square
on AD. ^\j 3^
n7?''^^^^
rectangle ED, DA is equal to the rectangle
^^' ^^ 5
[III. 35.
thprefore the rectangle BA, AC
equal to the rectangle is
HD. DC, together with the square on AD.
Wherefore, if the vertical angle &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION C. THEOREM.
If from the vertical angle of a triangle a straight line
he dr axon perpendicular to the base, the rectangle contained
hy the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle con-
tained by the 2yer2?endicular and the diameter of the circle
described about the triangle.
ABC be
Let a triangle, and let he the perpen-AD
dicular from the angle A to the base the rectangleBC :
BA, AC shall be equal to the rectangle contained by AD

and the diameter of the circle described about the triangle.
Describe the circle ACB
about the triangle [IV. 5.
;
draw the diameter AE, and

join EC.
Then, because the right
angle BDAis equal to the
angle ECA in a semi-
circle ;
[III. 31.
and the angle ABD is equal

to the angle A
EC, for they
are in the same segment of
the circle ;
[III. 21.
therefore the triangle ABD is equiangular to the triangle

A EC
Therefore BA ia to AD as EA ia to AC; [VI; 4.
therefore the rectangle BA, AC ia equal to the rectangle

EA, AD. [VI. 16.
AVhcrefore, iffrom the vertical angle &c. q.e.d.
PROPOSITION D. THEOREM.
The rectangle contained by the diagonals of a quadri-
lateral figure inscribed in a circle is equal to both the
rectangles contained by its opposite sides.
;
BOOK VI. D. 219

Let A BCD bo any quadrilateral figure inscribed in
a circle, and join AC,BD: the rectangle contained by
A O, BD shall be equal to the two rectangles contained by
AB, CD and by AD, BC.
Make the angle ABE equal to the angle DBC \
[I. 23.
add each of these

to
equals the angle EBD,
then the angle ABD
EBC. [Axiom 2.
And the angle BDA
is
equal to the angle i?(7^, for
they are in the same seg-
ment of the circle [III. 21.;
therefore the triangle

ABD is equiangular to the
triangle EBC.
Therefore AD is to DB
as EC is to CB ;
[VI. 4.
therefore the rectangle AD, CB is equal to the rectangle

DB, EC. [VL 16.
Again, because the angle ABE is equal to the angle
DBC, [Construction.
and the angle BAE is equal to the angle BDC, for they
are in the same segment of the circle ;
[III. 21.
therefore the triangle ABE is equiangular to the triangle
DBC.
Therefore BA is to A E as BD is to DC ; [VI. 4.
thercfcu-e the rectangle BA, DC is equal to the rectangle

AE, BD. [VI. 16.
But the rectangle AD, CB has been shewn equal to
the rectangle DB, EC ;
therefore the rectangles AD, CB and BA, DC are together

equal to the rectangles BD, EC and BD, AE
that is, to the rectangle BD, AC [II. 1.
"Wherefore; the rectangle contained &c. q.e.d.

BOOK XL
DEFINITIONS.
1. A SOLID is that which has length, breadth, and

thickness.
2. That which bounds a solid is a superficies.
3. A straight line is perpendicular, or at right angles,

to a plane, when it makes right angles with every straight
line meeting it in that plane.
4. A plane is perpendicular to a plane, when the

straight lines drawn one of the planes perpendicular to
in
the common section of the two planes, are perpendicular
to the other plane.
5. The inclination of a straight line to a plane is the

acute angle contained by that straight line, and another
drawn from the point at which the first line meets the
plane to the point at which a perpendicular to the plane
drawn from any point of the first line above the plane,
meets the same plane.
6. The inclination of a plane to a plane is the acute

angle contained by two straight lines drawn from any the
same point of their common section at right angles to it,
one in one plane, and the other in the other plane.
7. Two planes are said to have the same or a like

inclination to one another, which two other planes have,
when the said angles of inclination are equal to one
another.
8. Parallel planes are such as do not meet one another

though produced.
BOOK XL DEFINITIONS. 221
9. A solid angle is that which is made by more than

two plane angles, wliich are not in the same plane, meeting
at one point.
10. Equal and similar solid figures are such as are

contained by similar planes equal in number and magni-
tude. [See the Notes!]
11. Similar solid figures are such as have all their solid
angles equal, each to each, and are contained by the same
number of similar planes.
12. A pyramid is a solid figure contained by planes
which are constructed between one plane and one point
above it at which they meet.
13. A
prism is a solid figure contained by plane figures,
of which two that are opposite are equal, similar, and par-
allel to one another and the others are parallelograms.
;
14. Asphere is a solid figure described by the revolu-

tion of a semicircle about its diameter, which remains
fixed.
15. The axis of a sphere is the fixed straight line

about which the semicircle revolves.
Ifi. The centre of a sphere is the same wth that of the

semicircle.
17. The diameter of a sphere is any straight line which

passes through the centre, and is terminated both ways by
the superficies of the sphere.
18. A
cone is a solid figure described by the revolution
of a right-angled triangle about one of the sides containing
the right angle, which side remains fixed.
If the fixed side be equal to the other side containing

the right angle, the cone is called a right-angled cone ;
if it be less than the other side, an obtuse-angled cone;

and if greater, an acute-angled cone.
19. The axis of a cone is the fixed straight line about

which the triangle revolves.
20. The base of a cone is the circle described by that
side containing the right angle which revolves.
21. A
cylinder is a solid figure described by the revo-
lution of a right-angled parallelogram about one of its sides
"which remains fixed.
22. The axis of a cylinder is the fixed straight line

about which the parallelogram revolves.
2.3. The bases of a cylinder are the circles described

by the two revolving opposite sides of the parallelogram.
24. Similar cones and cylinders are those which have

their axes and the diameters of their bases proportionals.
25. A cube is a solid figure contained by six equal

squares.
26. A
tetrahedron is a solid figure contained by four
equal and equilateral triangles.
27. An octahedron is a solid figure contained by eight

equal and equilateral triangles.
28. A dodecahedron is a solid figure contained by

twelve equal pentagons which are equilateral and equi-
angular.
29. An icosahedron is a solid figure contained by

twenty equal and equilateral triangles.
A. A
parallelepiped is a solid figure contained by six
quadrilateral figures, of which every opposite two are
parallel.
One part of a straight line cannot he in a plane, and
another part without it.
If it be possible, let AB, part of the straight lino
ABC^ be in a plane, and the part BC
without it.
;;
BOOK XI. 1, 2. 223
Thensince the straight

line AB in the plane, it can
is
be produced in that plane
let it be produced to D\ and
let any plane pass through the
straight line^^Z>,and be turned
about until it pass through the point C.
Then, because tiio points B and C are in this plane, the
straight line BC is in it. [I, Definition 7.
Therefore there are two straight lines ABC, ABD in tho
same plane, tliat have a common segment AB)
but this is impossible. [F. 11, Corollary.
Wherefore, one 2)art of a straight line &c. q.e.d.
PKOPOSITIOX 2. THEOBEM.
Two straight lines ichich cut one another are in one
plane; and three straight lines which meet one another
are in one plane.
Let the two straight lines AB, CD cut one another at

E: AB and CD shall be in one plane; and the three
straight lines EC, CB, BE
which meet one another, shall
be in one plane.
Let any plane pass through tho
straight lineEB, and let the plane
be turned about EB, produced if
necessary, until it pass through the
point C.
Then, because the points E
and C are in this plane, the straight
line EC is in it ; [I. Definition 7.
for the same reason, the straight

line BC is in the same plane
and, by hypothesis, EB is in it.
Therefore the three straight lines EC, CB, BE are in one
plane.
But xLB and CD are in tlie i^lane in which EB and EC
are; [XI. 1.
therefore AB and CD are in one plane.

AVhereforo, two straight lines &c. q.e.d.
; ;
If two jylanes cut one another their common section
is a straight line.
Let two planes AB, EG cut one another, and let BD
be their common section : BD shall be a straight line.
If it be not, from B to Z), draw
in the plane AB
the straight line
BED^ and in the plane the BG
straight line BED. [Postulate 1.
Then the two straight lines BED,

BED have the same extremities,
and therefore include a space be-
tween them
but this is impossible. [Axiom 10.
Therefore BD, the common section of the planes AB and
BG cannot but be a straight line.
Wherefore, if two planes &c. q.e.d.
If a straight line stand at right angles to each of two
straight lines at the point of their intersection, it shall
also he at right angles to the plane ichich passes through
them, that is, to the jjlane in which they are.

stand at right angles to each
of the straight lines AB, CD, at E,
the point of their intersection : EF
shall also be at right angles to the
plane passing through AB, CD.
Take the straight lines AE, EB,
CE, ED, all equal to one another
join AD, CB\ through E draw in
the plane in which are AB, CD,
any straight line cutting at G, AD
and CB at // and from any point
:
F in EF draw FA, EG, ED, EC,

FH, FB.
; ;;
BOOK XL 4. 225
Then, because the two sides AE, are equal to the ED

two sides BE, EC, each to eacli, [Construction.
and that tlicy contain equal angles AED, BEG; [I. 15.
therefore the base AD

'\& equal
to the base BC, and the
angle DAE is equal to the angle EBC. [I. 4.
And the angle AEG is equal to the angle BEH\ [I. 15.
therefore the triangles AEG, BEIl have two angles of the

one equal to two angles of the other, each to each
and the sides EA, EB adjacent to the equal angles are
equal to one another; [Constrin-tion.
therefore EG is equal to EIL and AG \& equal to
J^H. [1. 26.
And because EA is equal to EB^ [Construction.
and EF is common and at right angles to them, [Jltjpothesis.
therefore the base AF is equal to the base BF. [I. 4.
For the same reason CF is equal to DF.

And since it has been shewn that the two sides DA,
A F are equal to the two sides CB, BF, each to each,
and that the base DF equal to the base CF;
is
therefore the angle DAF equal to ihe angle CBF.

is [T. 8.
Again, since it has been shewn that the two sides FA,
AG are e<iual to the two sides FB, BH, each to each,
and that the angle FAG is equal to the angle FBIl
therefore the base FG is equal to the base FH. [T. 4.
Lastly, since it has been shewn that GE is equal to HE,

and EF common to the two triangles FEG, FEU
is
and the base FG has been shewn ecjual to the base FH;
tlierefore the angle FEG is e(]ual to the angle FEII. [I. 8.
Therefore each of these angles is a right angle. [I. Befin. 10.
In like manner it may be shewn that EF makes right

angles with every straight line which meets it hi the piano
passing through AB, CD.
Therefore EF is at right angles to the plane in which are
AB. CD. [XI. IkfiHition 3.
^Vherefore, if a straight line &c. q.e.d.
15
; ;
22G EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
If three straight lines meet all at one point, and a
straight line stand at right angles to each of them at that
point, the three straight lines shall he in one and the saine
plane.
Let the straight line AB stand at right angles to each
of the straight lines BG, BD, BE, at B the point where
they meet : BC, BD, BE shall be in one and the same
plane.
For, if not, let, if possible,
BD and BE be in one plane,
and ^(7 without let a plane it ;
pass through AB and BG -,
the common section of this

plane with the plane in which
are BDand BE
is a straight
line ;
[XI. 3.
let this straight line be BF.
Then the three straight lines
AB, BG, BF are all in one plane, namely, the plane which
passes through AB and BG.
And because AB stands at right angles to each of the
straight lines BD, BE, [Hijpothesi<^.
therefore it is at right angles to the plane passing through

them ;
[XI. 4.
therefore it makes right angles with every straight line
meeting it in that plane. [XI. Definition 3.
But BF meets it, and is in that plane
therefore the angle ABF a right angle. is
But the angle ABG by hypothesis, a right angle

is,
therefore the angle ABG equal to the angle ABF

is ;
{Ax. 11.
and they are in one plane ; which is impossible. [Axiom 9.
Therefore the straight line BC is not without the plane in

which are BD and BE,
therefore the three straight lines BC, BD, BE arc in ono
and the same plane.
Wherefore, if three straight lines &c. q.e.d.
;
BOOK XL G. 227
PROPOSITION G. THEOREM.
If t ICO straight lines he at right angles to the same plane,
they shall he jmrallel to one another.
Let the straight hues AB, CD be at right angles to the
same plane AB shall be parallel to CD.
:
Let them meet the plane at the ^^

points B, D join BD and in the plane
;
;
drawD^'at right angles to BD ;

[1. 11.
make DE equal to AB\ [I. 3.
andjoin^^, .4^, yli>.

Then, because ^^ is perpendicular
to the plane, {Hypothesis.
it makes right angles with every straight

line meeting it in that plane. [XI. Def. 3.
But BD and BE meet AB, and are

in that plane,
therefore each of the angles ABD, ABE is a right angle.
For the same reason each of the angles CDB, CDE is a
right angle.
And because AB is equal to ED, [Comtructivn.
and BD is common to the two triangles ABD, EDB,
the two sides AB, BD are equal to the two sides ED, DB,
each to each ;
and the angle ABD i.s equal to the angle EDB, each of
them being a right angle ;
[Axiom 11.
therefore the base AD equal to the base EB. is [I. 4.
AB h equal to ED,
Again, because [Consti'uclion.
and has been shewn that BE

it equal to DA is ;
therefore the two sides AB, BE arc equal to the two sides
ED, DA, each to each
and the base AE is common to the two triangles ABE,
EDA ;
therefore the angle ABE equal to the angle EDA. is [I. 8.
But the angle ABE a right angle, is
therefore the angle EDA a right angle, is
that ED at right angles to AD.

is, is
;

But ED is also at right angles
to each of the two BD, CD ;
therefore ED
is at right angles to
each of the three straight lines BD,
AD, CD, at the point at which
they meet
therefore these three straight lines
are all in the same plane. [XI. 5.
But AB is in the plane in which
are BD, DA ;
[XI. 2.
therefore AB, BD, CD are in one plane.

And each of the angles ABD, CDB is a right angle;
therefore ^^ is parallel to CD. [I. 28.
\^\\QVQioxQ, if two straight lines &C., q.e.d.
If two straight lines he X)arallel, the straight line drawn
from any point to any jjoiut in the other, is in the
in one
same plane icith the imrallels.
Let AB, CD be parallel straight lines, and take any

point E in one and any point F
in the other the straight
:
line which joins E and F

shall be in the same plane witli
the parallels.
For, if not, let it be, if pos-
without the plane, as
sible, B
EGF\ and in the plane^ BCD,
in which the parallels are,
draw the straight line EHF
from E
to F.
Then, since EGF is also a C D
straight line, [Hi/pothcsia.
the two straight lines EGF, EHF include a space between

them; which is impossible. [Axlo77ilO.
Therefore the straight line joining the points E and F is
not without the plane in which the jmrallels AB, CD are;
therefore it is in that plane.
"Wherefore, if two straight lines &c. q.e.d.
; ; ;
BOOK XI. 8. 229
Iftico straight lines he parallel, and one of tliem he at
right angles to a /ylane, the other also shall he at right
angles to the same plane.
Let AB, CD be
two parallel straight lines; and let one
of tlieni AB beat right angles to a plane: the other CjL>
shall be at right angles to the same plane.
Let AB, CD meet the plane
at the points B, D ;
join BD •
therefore AB, CD, BD are in

one plane. [XI. 7.
In the plane to which AB at is
right angles, draw DE at right
angles to i?i> ; [I. 11.
make DE equal to AB; [I. 3.
and join BE, A E, AD.

Then, because AB is at right
angles to the plane, [Hypothesis.
it makes right angles with every straight line meeting it
in that plane ;
[XI. Definition 3.
therefore e?ich of the angles ABD, ABE a right angle.

is
And because the straight line BD meets the parallel

straight lines AB, CD,
the angles ABD, CDB arc together e(pial to two right
angles. [L 29.
But the angle ABD is a right angle, [Hi/2yotkesis.
therefore the angle CDB is a right angle ;
that is, CD is at right angles to BD.

And because ^^ is equal to ED, [Comtruction.
and BD is common to the two triangles ABD, EDB
the two sides AB, BD are equal to the two sides ED, DB,
each to each
and the angle A BD is equal to the angle EDB, each of
them being a right angle [Axiom 11.
therefore the base AD is equal to the base EB. [I. 4.
Again, because AB is C(iual to ED, [Comtruction.

and BE has been shewn equal to DA,
; : ; ;

the two sides AB, BE are equal to the two sides ED, DA,
each to each
and the base ^^ common to the two
is
triangles ABE, EDA ;
therefore tlic angle ABE is equal to

the angle ADE. [I. 8.
But the angle ABE a right angle is
therefore the angle ADE a right angle is
that ED at right angles to AD.

is, is
But ED at right angles to BD, [Comt.

is
therefore ED at right angles to the
is
plane which passes through BD, DA, [XI. 4.
and therefore makes right angles with every straight line

meeting it in that plane. [XI. Definition 3.
But CD in the plane passing through

is BD, DA, because
all three are in the plane in which are the parallels AB, CD;
therefore ED is at right angles to CD,
and therefore CD is at right angles to ED.
But CD was shewn to be at right angles to BD ;
therefore CD is at right angles to the two straight lines

BD, ED, at the point of their intersection D,
and is therefore at right angles to the plane passing
through BD, ED, [XI. 4.
that is, to the plane to which ^^ is at right angles.

PROPOSITION 9. THEOTxEM.
Two
straight lines which are each of them parallel to
the same straight line, and not in the same i)lane with it,
are parallel to one another.
Let AB
and CD be each of them parallel to EF, and
not in the same plane with it
AB shall be parallel to CD.
In EF take any point G ; in
the plane passing through EF
and A B, draw fi-om G the straight
line GH at right angles to EF;
and through
in the plane passing
EF and CD, draw from G the
BOOK XL 9, 10. 231
straight line (7 A' at right angles to EF. [I. 11.
Then, because EF is at right angles to GIT and

QJ^ [Cotulruction.
EF is at right angles to the plane IIGK passing tli rough

them. [^1- ^^
And i?F is parallel to ^li?; [ffypotkesls.
therefore AB is at right angles to the plane HGX. [XI. 8.
For the same reason CD is at right angles to the plane

JIGK.
Therefore AB and CD are both at right angles to the
plane IIGK.
Therefore ^^ is parallel to CD. [XI. 6.
Wherefore, if two straight lines &c. Q.e.d.

If two straight lines meeting one another he parallel to
two others that meet one another^ and are not in the same
plane icith the first tico^ the first two arid the other tico
shall contain equal angles.
Let the two straight lines AB, BC, which meet one an-
other, be parallel to the two straiglit lines DE, EF, which
meet one another, and are not in the same plane with
AB, BC\ the angle ABC
shall be equal to the angle DEF.
Take BA, BC, ED, EF^W equal to

one another, and join AD, BE, CF,
AC, DF.
Then, because AB is equal and
parallel to DE,
therefore xiD is equal and parallel to
BE. [r. 33.
For the same reason, CF is equal

and parallel to BE.
Therefore AD
and CF are each of
them equal and i)arallel to BE.
Therefore AD is parallel to CF, [XI. 9.
.

and AD is also equal to
CF, \_Axiom 1.
Therefore AG ya equal and

parallel to DF. [I. 33.
And because AB, BV

are equal to DE, EF, each
to each,
and the base A G is equal to
the base DF,
therefore the angle ABC is
equal to the angle DEF. [I. 8.
Wherefore, iftico straight lines &c. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITIOX 11. PROBLEM.

To draio a straight line perpendicular to a given plane,
from a given point without it.
Let A be the given point without the pjano BII: it is

required to draw from the point A
a straight line perpen-
dicular to the plane BH.
Draw any straight line
BC in the plane BH, and
from the point A
draw AD
perpendicular to BC. [I. 12.
Then i^ ADbe also perpen-
dicular to the plane BH,
the thing required is done.
Eut, if not, from the point
D draw, in the plane BH,
the straight line DE
at
right angles to BC, [I. 11.
and from the point A draw yli^ perpendicular to DE. [1. 12.
AF shall be perpendicular to the plane BH.

Through F
draw GH
parallel to BC. [I. 31
Then, because BC is at right angles to ED and DA, [Coiistr.

BC is at right angles to the plane passing through ED
and DA. [XI. 4.
And GHis parallel to BC; [Construction.
20f>
BOOK XL 11,12.
tliereforo GIT is at right angles to the plane passing

through ED and DA ;
[XI. S.
therefore Gil makes right angles with every straight line
meeting it in that plane. [XI. Dcjinition 3,
But AFiwQGts, it, and is in the plane passing through ED
and DA ;
therefore GHis, at right angles to AF,

and therefore îîs at right angles to GIT.
But AF'is, also at right angles to DE; [Comtrucdon.
therefore AF is at right angles to each of the straiglifc
lines Gil and DE at the point of their intersection ;
therefore ^-liîs perpendicular to the plane passing through

Gllawd DE, that is, to the plane BH. [XI. 4.
Wherefore, ./>v>/>i the giren jioint A, icithout the plane
BH, the straight line AF
has been drawn 2yet'2)endicidar
to the i)lane. q.e.f.
PROPOSITION" 12. PROBLEM.

To erect a straight line at right angles to a given plane,
from a g I ten point in the plane.
Let A be the given point in the given plane it is re- :
quired to erect a straight line from the point A, at right

angles to the plane.
From any point B without the
plane, draw BC perpendicular to
the plane ;
[XI. 11.
Di iB
and from tlie point A draw AD
parallel to BC, [I. 31.
AD shall be the straight line re-

quired.
For, because ^JZ)and aro BG C
two parallel straight lines, [Cons'r.
and that one of them BC is at
right angles to the given plane, [Coustmrfion.
the other .1Z> is also at right angles to the given plane. [XI. 8.
AVherefore a straight line has been erected at rigJd an-

gles to a gicen 2^l((fi'',Ji'om a given jyoint in it. q.e.f.
; ;

From the same point in a given plane^ there cannot he
two straight lines at right angles to the plane, on the same
side of it; and there can he hut one perpendicular to a
plane from a point without the plane.
For, if it be possible, let the two straight lines AB,AC
be at right angles to a given plane, from the same point A
in the plane, and on the same side of it.
Let a plane pass through

BA,AC;
the common section of this
with the given plane is a
straight line ;
[XI. 3.
let this straight line be DAE.
Then the three straight Hnes AE, AC, DAE arc
all in one i)lane.
And becauseCA is at right angles to the plane, [Ilypothesh^.
itmakes right angles with every straight line meeting it
in the plane. [XI. Definition 3.
But DAE meets CA, and is in that plane
therefore the angle CAE is a right angle.
For the same reason the angle BAE is a right angle.
Therefore the angle CAE is equal to the angle BAE ;
{Ax.ll.
and they are in one plane

which is impossible. [Axiom 9.
Also, from a point without the plane, there can be but

one perpendicular to the plane.
For if there could be two, they would be parallel to one
another, [XI. 6.
which is absurd.
AYherefore, /rom the same point &c. q.e.d.
; ;
BOOK XI. 14, 15. 235

Planes to which the same straight line is perpendicular
are parallel to one another.
Let the straight line yfi? be perpendicular to each of

the planes CD and EF
these phines shall be parallel to
:
one another.
For, if not, they ^vill meet one
Smother when produced
let them meet, then their com-
mon section will be a straight
line
let GH be tliis straiglit line ; in
it take any point A", and join
AK, BK.
Then, because AB is, perpen-
dicular to the plane EF^ [Hyp.
perpendicular to the straight
it is
line BK
which is in that
plane ;
[XI. Definition 8.
therefore the angle ^Â'is a right angê.
For the same reason the angle BAK a right angle.
is
Therefore the two angles ABK, BAK of the triangle

ABK 'AVQ equal to two right angles;
which is impossible. [I. 17,
Therefore the planes CD and EF^ though produced, do

not meet one another ;
that is, they are parallel. [XI. Definition 8.
Wherefore; jjlancs &c. q.e.d.

Iftrco straight lines irhich meet one another, he parallel
to two other straight lines irhich meet one another, but
are not in the same plane irith the first ttco, the plane pass-
ing through these is jmrallel to the plane jmssing through
the others.
Let xiB, BC, two straight lines "which meet one another,
be parallel to two other straight lines DE, KF^ which meet
one another, but arc not in the same plane with AB^ BC\
the plane passing tlirough AB, BG, shall be parallel to the
plane passing through DE, EF.
From the point draw B BG
perpendicular to the plane pass-
ing through DE, EF, [XI. 11.
and let meet that plane at G
it ;
through G draw GH
parallel to
ED, and (? A^parallel to EF. [1.31.
Then, because is per- BG
pendicular to the plane passing
through DE, EF, [Comtimction.
it makes right angles with every straight line meeting it
in that plane ;
[XI. Definition 3.
but the straight lines GH and GK meet it, and are in that
plane ;
therefore each of the angles BGH and BGK is a right

angle.
Now because BA is parallel to ED, [Hypothesis.

and Gllis parallel to ED, [Construction.
therefore BA is parallel to GH ;
[XI. 9.
therefore the angles ABG and BGH are together equal

to two right angles. [I. 29.
And the angle BGH has been shewn to be a right angle;

therefore the angle ABG is a right angle.
For the same reason the angle CBG is a right angle.
Then, because the straight line GB stands at right

angles to the two straight lines BA, BO, at their point of
intersection B,
therefore GB is perpendicular to the plane passing through

BA, BG. [XI. 4.
And GB is also perpendicular to the plane passing through

DE, EF. [Constructiuu.
;
BOOK XL 15, IG. 237
But planes to -vvhicli tlic same straight line is perpendicular

are parallel to one another; [XI. 14.
therefore the plane passing through AD, BC is parallel to

the plane passing through DE, EF.
Wherefore, if two straight lines &c. q e.p.

If two ]iaraUel planes he cut hy another jylane^ their
Common sections icith it are j^ciiâllel.
Let the parallel planes AB, CD be cut by the j^lane

EFHG, and let their common sections with it be EF,
Gil: EF
shall be parallel to GH.
For if not, EF and GH, being produced, -vyIII meet

either towards F, II, or towards E, G. Let them be pro-
duced and meet towards F, II at the point K.
Then, since EFK
is in the
plane xiB, every point in EFK
is in that plane [XI. 1.
;
therefore K is in the plane

AB.
For the same reason K is in
the plane CD.
Therefore the planes AB, CD,
being produced, meet one an-
other.
But they do not meet, since they are parallel by hypothesis.

Therefore EF and Gil, being produced, do not meet to-
wards F, II.
In the same manner it may be shewn that they do not

meet towards E, G.
But straight lines which are in tlic same plane, and which
being produced ever so far both ways do not meet are
parallel
therefore EF is parallel to GIL

"Wherefore, if two parallel planes &c. q.e.d.

If hco straight lines be cut hy parallel planes, they
shall he cut in the same ratio.
Let the straight lines AB and CD be cut by the pa-
rallel planes GH, KL, MN, at the points A, E, B, and
C,F,D\ AE shall be to EB as CF
is to FD.
Join AC,BD,AD; let

AD meet the plane KL
at the point X; and join
EX, XF.
Then, because the two
parallel planesKL, are MN
cut by the plane EBDX,
the common sections EX,
BD are parallel [XI. 16.;
and because the two pa-

rallelplanes Gil, are KL
cut by the plane AXFC,
the common sections AC,
XF are parallel. [XI. 16.
And, because EX is parallel to BD, a side of the
triangle ABD,
therefore AE is to EB as AX is to XD. {Yl. 2.
Again, because XFi^ parallel to ^(7, a side of the triangle

ADC,
therefore ylX is XD as CF to FD.
to is [VI. 2.
And it was shewn that AX to XD as AE is is to EB ;
therefore ^^ is to EB as CF is to FD. [V. 11.
Wherefore, if two st?âight lines &c. q.e.d.

If a straight line he at rigJit angles to a plane, every
plane which passes through it shall he at right angles to
that plane.
Let straight line

tlie AB
be at right angles to the
plane CK\every ])lane which passes through shall be AB
at right angles to the plane CK.
;
BOOK XL IS, 19. 239
Let any plane DE

pass tln-ough AB, and
let CE be tlie common
section of the planes
DE, CK; [XL 3.
take any point F in

CE, from which draw
FG, in the plane DE,
B E
at right angles to
CE. [I. 11.
Then, because ^^ is at right angles to the plane

CK, [Hypothesis.
therefore it makes right angles with every straight line
meeting it in that plane ; [XI. Definition 3.
but CB meets it, and is in that plane
therefore the angle ABF is a right angle.
But the angle GFB is also a riglit angle ; [Construction.
therefore FG is parallel to AB. [I. 28.
And AB is at right angles to the plane CK ; [Hypothesis.
therefore FG is also at right angles to the same plane. [XI. 8.
But one plane at right angles to another plane, when
is
the straight lines drawn in one of the planes at right
angles to their common section, are also at right angles to
the other plane ; [XI. Definition 4.
and has been shewTi that any straight line
it drawn in FG
the plane DE, at right angles to CE, tlie common section
of the planes, is at right angles to the other plane CK;
therefore the plane DE is at right angles to the plane CK.
In the same manner it may be shewn that any other
plane which passes through AB is at right angles to the
plane CK.
PROPOSITION 19. THEOHEAf.
If two planes whirh cut one another he each of them

perpendicular to a third plane, thîr common section shall
he perpendicular to the same plane.
; ;

Let the two planes BA, BC
be each of them perpen-
dicular to a third plane, and let BD
be the common sect'on
of the planes BA, BC BD
shall be perpendicular to the
:
third plane.
Fur, if not, from the point D,
draw the plane BA, the straight
in
line DEat right angles to AD,
the common section of the plane
BA with the third plane; [1. 11.
and from the point Z>, draw" in tlie
j)lane BC,
the straight line at DF
right angles to CD, the common
section of the plane BC
with the
third plane. [I. 11.
Then, because the plane BA is

perjjendicular to the third plane, [Hypotliesis.
and DE is drawn in the plane BA at right angles to î>

their common section {Construction.
therefore DE is perpendicular to the third plane. [XI. Bef. 4.
In the same manner it may be shcAvn that DE is per-

pendicular to the third plane.
Therefore from the point D
two straight lines are at
right angles to the third plane, on the same side of it;
which is impossible. [XI. 13.
Tlierefore from the point D, there cannot be any straight
line at right angles to the third plane, except the com- BD
mon section of the planes BA, BC
therefore BD is perpendicular to the third plane.
Wherefore, if ttco jylit'ies &ic. q.e.d.

If a solid angle he contained by three plane angles, any
two of them are together greater than the third.
Let the solid angle at A be contained by the tlireo
plane angles BAC, CAD, DAB: any two of them shall be
together greater than the third.
If the angles BAC, CAD, DAB
be all equal, it is
evident that any two of them are greater than the third.
; ;
BOOK XL 20. 241
If they arc not all equal, let

BAG be that angle which is not
less than cither of the other two, and
is greater than one of thcnij BAD.
At the point A, in the straight line
BA, make, in the plane which passes
through BA, AC, the angle ^.4^
equal to the angle BAD) [I. 23.
make AE equal to î>

through E draw BEG cutting AB, AC î the points B, C;
andjoinX>i?, i>6^.
Then, because AD i?, equal to AE, ^Construction.
and AB is common to the two triangles BAD, BAE,

the two sides BA, AD are equal to the two sides BA, AE,
each to each
and the angle BAD equal to the angle BAE; [Constr.
is
therefore the base BD equal U) the base BE.

is [I. 4.
And because BD, DC are together greater than

BC, [I. 20.
and one of them BD has been shewn equal to BE a part

ofBG,
therefore the other DC is greater than the remaining
part EG.
And because ^2> is equal to AE, [Construction.
and AG is common to the twd triangles DAG, EAGj

but the base DC is greater than the base EG;
therefore the angle DAG is greater than the angle
EAG. [I. 25.
And, by construction, the angle BAD is equal to the

nuglc BAE;
therefore the angles BAD, DAG are together greater
than the angles BAE, EAG, that is, the angle BAG.
tlian
But the angle BAG is not less than cither of the angles
BAD, DAG;
therefore the angle BAG
together with either of the other
angles is greater than the third.
Wherefore, (fa solid angle &c. q.e.d.
16
;

Every solid angle is contained hy plane angles, which
are together less than four right angles.
First let the solid angle at Abe contained by three

plane angles BAG, CAD, DAB: these three shall be
together less than four right angles.
In the straight lines AB,AC,AD
take any points B, C, D, and join BCj
CD, DB.
Then, because the solid angle at
B is contained by the three plane
angles CBA, ABD, DBC, any two
of them are together greater than the
third, [XI. 20.
therefore the angles CBA, ABD aro
DBC.
together greater than the angle
For the same reason, the angles BCA, ACD are together
greater than the angle DCB,
and the angles CDA, ADB are together greater than the
angle BDC.
Therefore the six angles CBA, ABD, BCA, ACD, CDA,
ADB are together greater than the three angles DBC,
DCB,BDC;
but the three angles DBC, DCB, BDC are together equal
to two right angles. [I. 32.
Therefore the six angles CBA, ABD, BCA, ACD, CDA,

ADB are together greater than two right angles.
And, because the three angles of each of the triangles
ABC, ACD, ADB are together equal to two right
angles, [I. 32.
therefore the nine angles of these triangles, namely, the

angles CBA, BAC, ACB, ACD, CDA, CAD, ADB,
DBA, DABare equal to six right angles
and of these, the six angles CBA, ACB, ACD, CDA,
ADB, DBA are greater than two right angles,
therefore the remaining three angles BAC, CAD, DAB,
which contain the solid angle at A, are together less thau
four right angles.
;
BOOK XL 21. 243
Next, let the solid angle at A be contained by any

number of plane angles BAC, CAD, DAE, EAF, FAB:
these shall be together less than four right angles.
Let the planes in which the an-
gles are, be cut by a plane, and let
the common sections of it Avith those
planes be BC, CD, DE, EF, FB.
Then, because the solid angle at
B is contained by the three plane
angles CBA, ABF, FBC, any two
of them are together greater than
the third, [XI. 20.
therefore the angles CBA, ABF

are together greater than the angle
FBC.
For the same reason, at each of the points C, D, E, F, the
two plane angles which are at the bases of the triangles
having the common vertex A, are together greater than
the third angle at the same point, which is one of the
angles of the polygon BCDEF.
Therefore all the angles at the bases of the triangles arc
together greater than all the angles of the polygon.
Now all the angles of the triangles are together equal
to twice as many right angles as there are triangles, that
is, as there are sides in the polygon BCDEF [I. 32.
;
and the angles of the polygon, together with four right

all
angles, are also equal to twice as many right angles as
there are sides in the polygon; [I. 32, Corollary 1.
therefore all the angles of the triangles are equal to nil the
angles of the polygon, together with four right angles. {Ax. 1.
But it has been shewn that all the angles at the bases
of the triangles are together greater than all the angles of
the polygon
therefore the remaining angles of the triangles, namely,
those at the vertex, which contain the solid angle at A, are
together less than four right angles.
^Vherefore, every solid angle &c. q.e.d.
16-2
BOOK XIL
LEMMA.
Tf from the greater of tico unequal magnitudes there

he taken more than its half, and fro^n the remainder
m,ore than its half and so on, there shall at length re-
main a magnitude less than the smaller of the proposed
magnitudes.
Let AB
and C be two unequal magnitudes, of which
AB the greater: if from
is AB
there be taken more than
its half, and from the remainder more than its half, and so
on, there shall at length remain a magnitude less than C.
For C may be multiplied so as at length
to become greater than AB. A D
Let it be so multiplied, and let its DE
multiple be greater than AB, and let DE K
be divided into DF, FG, GE, each equal
to a H
From AB
take BH, greater than its
C
half, and from the remainder AHtake HK
greater than its half, and so on, until there
be as many divisions in ^^ as in DE and ;
let the divisions in AB be AK, KH, HB, B C E

and the divisions in DE be DF, FG, GE.
Then, because DE isgreater than AB ;
and that EG taken from DE not greater than its half;

is
but ^/f taken from AB greater than its half;

\^
therefore the remainder DG is greater than the remainder

AH.
;
BOOK XII. 1. 245
Again, because DG is greater than AH;

and that GF is not greater than the half of DG, but //AT
is greater than the half of AH;
therefore the remainder DF is greater than the remainder
AA'.
But Z)i^ is equal to C;
therefore (7 is greater than AJC;
that is, yl A' is less than (7. q.e.d.
And if only the halves be taken away, the same thing may
in the same way be demonstrated.
Similar pohjgons inscrihed in circles are to one another
a^ the squares on their diameters.
Let ABCDE, FGHKL be two circles, and in them
the similar polygons ABCDE, and let FGHKL; BM,
GN ho the diameters of the circles: the polygon ABCDE
shall be to the polygon FGHKL
as the square on BM is
to the square on GM.
Join AM BE, IW, GL.

Then, because the polygons are similar,
therefore the angle BAE equal to the angle GFL,
is
and BA AE as GF to FL.
\%io [VI. Definition
is 1.
Therefore the triangle BAE equiangular to the triangle

is
GFL [VI. 6.
therefore the angle AEB is equal to the angle FLG.

But the angle AEB is equal to the angle A MB, and the
angle FLG is equal to the angle FNG ;
[III. 21.
therefore the angle AMB is equal to the angle FNG.

; ;

And the angle BAM
is equal to the angle GFN, for
each of' them
'
is a right angle. ' [III. 31.
Therefore the remaining angles in the triangles A MB,

FNG are equal, and the triangles are equiangular to one
another
therefore BA is to 5Jf as 6îîs to GN, [VI. 4.
and, alternately, GF as BMi?, to GN-,

BA is to [V. 16.
therefore the duplicate ratio of BA to GF is the same as
the duplicate ratio of BM to GN. [V. Definition 10, V. 22.
But the polygon ABODE is to the polygon
"
FGHKL
in the duplicate ratio of BA to GF [VI. 20.
and the square on B3I is to the square on GN in the du-
plicate ratio of BM to GN ;
[VI. 20.
therefore the polygon ABODE
is to the polygon FGHKL
as the square on BMis to the square on GN. [V. 11.
Wherefore, shnUar x)ohjgons &c. q.e.d.
Circles are to one another as the squares on their
diameters.
Let A BOD, EFGII be two and BD, their
circles, FH
diameters the circle : ABOD be to the circle
shall EFGH
as the square on BD is to the square on FIT.
For, if not, the square on BD

must be to the square on
FR as the circle ABOD
is to some space either less
than the circle EFGH, or greater than it.
First, if possible, let it be as the circle ABOD is to a
space S less than the circle EFGH.
; ;
BOOK XII. 2. 247
In the circle JEJ/'G^/iT inscribe the square EFGII [TV. 6.
This square shall be greater than half of the circle EFGH,
For the square EFGH is half of the square which can

be formed by drawing straight lines to touch the circle at
the points E, F, G, H ;
and the square thus formed is gi'cater than the circle
therefore the square EFGII is greater than half of the

circle.
Bisect the arcs EF, FG, Gil, HE at the points K,

L,3I,N;
and join EK, KF, FL, LG, GM, MH, HN, NE. Then
each of the triangles EKF, FLG, GMH, HNE shall
be greater than half of the segment of the circle in which
it stands.
For the triangle EKFis half of the parallelogram
which can bo formed by drawing a straight line to touch the

circle at A', and parallel straight lines through and F, E
and the parallelogram thus formed is greater than the
segment FEK therefore the triangle
;
EKF is greater than
half of the segment.

And similarly for the other triangles.
Therefore the sum of all these triangles is together greater

than half of the sum of the segments of the circle in which
they stand.
Again, bisect EK, KF, &c. and form triangles as before
then the sum of these triangles is greater than half of the
sum of the segments of the circle in which they stand.
; ;

If this process be continued, and the triangles be sup-
posed to be taken away, there will at length remain seg-
ments of circles which are together less than the excess of
the circle EFGH
above the space S, by the preceding
Lemma.
Let then the segments EK, KF, FL, LG, GM, MH,
HNj NEbe those which remain, and which are together
less than the excess of the circle above S
therefore the rest of the circle, namely the polygon

EKFLGMHN, is greater than the space S.
In the (ArdQABCD describe the polygon Â'i?OCP2>i2
similar to the polygon EKFLGMHN.
Then the polygon AXBOCPDR is to the polygon
EKFLGMHN as BD
the square on is to the square on
FH, [XIL 1.
that is, as the circle ABCD is to the space S. {Hyp., Y. 11.

But the polygon AXBOCPDR is less than the circle
ABCD in which it is inscribed,
therefore the polygon
'
EKFLGMHN is less than the
space /S'; [V. 14.
but it is also greater, as has been shewTi
Therefore the square on BD
is not to the square on
FH as the circle ABCD
is to any space less than the
circle EFGH
In the same way it may be shewn that the square on
FH is not to the square on BD
as the circle is to EFGH
any space less than the circle ABCD.
Nor is the square on BD to the square on asFH

the circle ABCD is to any sjDace gi-eater than the circle
EFGH.
For, if possible, let it be as the circle ABCD is to a space
7^ greater than the circle EFGH.
Then, inversely, the square on FH

is to the square on BD
as the space T is to the circle ABCD.
But ns the space T is to the circle ABCD
so is the circle
EFGH to some space, which must be less than the circle
BOOK XIL 2. 249
ABCD, because, by hypothesis,

'
the space T is greater
than the circle EFGIL [V. U.
Therefore the square on FH

is to the square on as BD
the circle EFGHis to some space less than the circle
ABCD-
which has been shewn to be impossible.
Therefore the S(|uare on BD is not to the square on FIT
as the circle ABCD is to any space greater than the circle
EFGH.
And it has been shewn that the square on is not BD
to the square on FH as the circle ABCD
is to any space
less than the circle EFGH.
Therefore the square on BD is to the square on FH as tho
circle ABCD is to the circle EFGH.
Wherefore, circles &c. q.e.d.
NOTES ON EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
The article Eucleides in Dr Smith's Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography was written by Professor De Morgan it ;
contains an account of the works of Euclid, and of the various

editions ofthem which have been published. To that article we
refer the studentwho desires full information on these subjects.
Perhaps the only work of importance relating to Euclid which
has been published since the date of that article is a work on the
Porisms of Euclid by Chasles; Paris, i860.
Euclid appears to have lived in the time of the first Ptolemy,
B.C. 323 — 283, and to have been the founder of the Alexandrian
mathematical school. The work on Geometry known as The
Elements of Euclid consists of thirteen books two other books
;
have sometimes been added, of which it is supposed that Hypsicles

was the author. Besides the Elements, Euclid was the author of
other works, some of which have been preserved and some lost.
We will now mention the three editions which are the most
valuable for those who wish to read the Elements of Euchd in the
original Greek.
(i) The Oxford edition in folio, published in 1703 by Daâd
Gregory, under the title EvVXei'Sou to. aojôfMeva. "As an edition
of the whole of Euclid's works, this stands alone, there being no
other in Greek." De Morgan.
(2) Euclidis Elementorum Lihri sex prior€S...edidit Joannes
Gulielmus Camerer. This edition was published at Berlin in two
volumes octavo, the first volume in 1824 and the second in 1825.
It contains the first six books of the Elements in Greek with a
Latin Translation, and very good notes which form a mathema-
tical commentary on the subject.
(3) Euclidis Elementa ex optimis lihris in usum tironum

Grace edita ah Ernesto Ferdinando August. This edition was
published at Berlin in two volumes octavo, the first volume in
1826 and the second in 1829. It contains the thirteen books of
the Elements in Greek, with a collection of various readings.
s
NO TES ON E VVLIUS ELEMENTS. 251
A third volume, which was to have contained the remaining

works of Euclid, never appeared. "To the scholar who wants
one edition of the Elements we should decidedly recommend this,
as bringing together all that has been done for the text of
Euclid's greatest work." Dc Morgan.
An edition of the whole of Euclitl's works in the original has
long been promised by Teubner the well-known German publisher,
as one of his series of compact editions of Greek and Latin
authors but we believe there is no hope of its early appearance.
;
Eobert Simson's edition of the Elemenis of Euclid, which

we have in substance adopted in the present work, differs con-
siderably from the original. The English reader may ascertain
'the contents of the original by consulting the work entitled The
Ekments of Euclid with dissertations... hy James Williamson.
This work consists of two volumes quarto the first volume was
;
published at Oxford m 1781, and the second at London in 1788.

Williamson gives a close translation of the thirteen books of the
Elements into English, and he indicates by the use of Italics the
words which are not in the original but which are required by
our language.
Among the numerous works which contain notes on the
Elements of Euclid we will mention four by which we have been
aided in drawing up the selection given in this volume.
An Examination of the first six Books of Euclid's Elements by
William Austin... Oxford, 1781.
Euclid's Elements of Plane Geometry with copious notes. ..hy
John Walker. London, 1827.
The first six hooks of the Elements of Euclid with, a Commen-
tary. ..hy Dionysius Lardner, fourth edition. London, 1834.
Shoi't supplementary remarks on the first six Books of Euclid^
Elements, by Professor De Morgan, in the Companion to the
Almanac for 1S49.
We may also notice the following works:
Geometry, Plane, Solid, and Spherical,... London 1830; this
fonus part of the Library of L^seful Knowledge.
Theoremes et Problemes de Gcomctrie Elemintaire par Eugene
Catalan... Troisieme edition. Paris, 1858.
For the History of Geometry the student is referred to
Montucla's Ilistoire des Mathemati'iues, and to Chasles's AjJcrcu
historique sur rorigine et le devCloppement des Mithodes en Geo-
vxctrie...
252 NOTES ON
TPIE FIRST BOOK.
Definitions. The seven definitions have given rise to con-

first
siderable discussion, on which however we do not propose to enter.
Such a discussion would consist mainly of two subjects, both of
which are unsuitable to an elementary work, namely, an exami-
nation of the origin and nature of some of our elementary ideas,
and a comparison of the original text of Euclid with the substitu-
tions for it proposed by Simson and other editors. For the former
subject the student may hereafter consult Whewell's Histoi'y of
Scientific Ideas and Mill's Logic, and for the latter the notes in
Camerer's edition of the Elements of Euclid.
We will only obsers'e that the ideas which correspond to the
words foint, line, and surface, do not admit of such definitions as
will really supply the ideas to a person who is destitute of them.
The so-called definitions may be regarded as cautions or restric-
tions. Thus a point is not to be supposed to have any size, but
only 2'>ositio7i; a line is not to be supposed to have d^^ny breadth or
thickness, but only length ; a surface is not to be supposed to have
any thickness, but only length and breadth.
The eighth definition seems intended to include the cases in
which an angle is formed by the meeting of two curved lines, or
of a straight line and a curved line ; this definition however is of
no importance, as the only angles ever considered are such as are
formed by straight lines. The definition of a plane rectilineal
angle is important the beginner must carefully observe that no
;
change is made in an angle by prolonging the lines which fonn

it, awây from the angular point.
Some Avriters object to such definitions as those of an equi-

lateral triangle, or of a square, in which the existence of the
object defined is assumed when it ought to be demonstrated. They
would present them in such a form as the following: if there be
a triangle having three equal sides, let it be called an equilateral
triangle.
Moreover, some of the definitions are introduced prematurely.
Thus, for example, take the definitions of a right-angled triangle
and an obtuse-angled triangle ; it is not shewn until I. 17, that
a triangle cannot have both a right angle and an obtuse angle,
and so cannot be at the same time right-angled and obtuse-
angled. And before Axiom 1 1 has been given, it is conceivable
;;
EUCLID'S ELEMENTS, 253
that the same angle may be greater than one right angle, and
less than another right angle, that is, obtuse and acute at the
same time.
The definition of a square assumes more than is necessary.
For if a four-sided figure have all its sides equal and one angle a
right angle, it may be shewn that all its angles are right angles
or if a four-sided figure have all its angles equal, it may be shewn
that they are all right angles.
Postulates. The postulates state what processes we assume
that we can effect, namely, that we can draw a straight line
between two given points, that we can produce a straight line to
any length, and that we can describe a circle from a given centre
with a given distance as radius. It is sometimes stated that the
postulates amount to requiring the use of a rider and compasses.
It must however be obsei-ved that the ruler is not supposed to
be a graduated ruler, so that we cannot use it to measure oflF
assigned lengths. And we do not require the compasses for any
other process than describing a circle from a given point with a
given distance as radius in other words, the compasses may be
;
supposed to close of tliemselves, as soon as one of their points is

removed from the paper.
Axioms. The axioms are called in the original Common
Notions. It is supposed by some writers that Euclid intended
his postulates to include all demands which are peculiarly geo-
metrical, and his common notions to include only such notions
as are applicable to all kinds of magnitude as well as to space
magnitudes. Accordingly, these writers remove the last three
axioms from their place and put tliem among the postulates
and this transposition is supported by some manuscripts and
some versions of the Elements.
The fourth axiom is sometimes referred to in editions of
Euclid when in reahty more is required than this axiom ex-
presses. Euclid says, that if A and B be unequal, and C and D
equal, the sum of A and C is unequal to the sum of B and B.
What Euclid often requires is something more, namely, that if
A be greater than B, and C and D be equal, the sum of A and
B
C \s greater than the sum of and D. Such an axiom as this is
required, for example, in I. 17. A
similar remark appUea to the
fifthaxiom.
In the eighth axiom the words "that is, which exactly fill
the same space," have been introduced without the authority of
;
254 NOTES ON
the original Greek. They are objectionable, because lines and
angles are magnitudes to which the axiom may be applied, but
they cannot be said to fill space.
On the method of superposition we may refer to papers by
Professor Kelland in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, Vols. xxi. and xxiil.
The eleventh axiom is not required before T. 14, and the
twelfth axiom is not required before I. 79 we shall not consider
;
these axioms until we arrive at the propositions in which they are

respectively requii-ed for the first tune.
The first book is chiefly devoted to the properties of triangles

and parallelograms.
We may observe that Euclid himself does not distinguish
between problems and theorems except by using at the end of
the investigation phrases which correspond to Q.E.F. and Q.E.D.
respectively.
I. 2. This problem admits of eight cases in its figure. For
it will befound that the given point may be joined with either
end of the given straight line, then the equilateral triangle may
be described on either side of the straight line which is drawn,
and the side of the equilateral tiiangle which is produced may be
produced through either extremity. These various cases may be
left for the exercise of the student, as they present no difficulty.
There will not however always be eight different straight hues
obtained which solve the problem. For example, if the point A
falls on BC produced, some of the solutions obtained coincide
this depends on the fact which follows from I. 32, that the angles
of all equilateral triangles are equal.
1.5. ''Joini^C." Custom seems to allow this singular ex-
pression as an abbreviation for "draw the straight line i^C," or
for "join F io C hy the straight line FC'
In comparing the triangles BFC, CGB, the words ''and the
base BC is common to the two triangles BFC, CGB" are usually
inserted, with the authority of the original. As however these
words are of no use, and tend to perplex a beginner, we have
followed the example of some editors and omitted them.
A corollary to a proposition is an inference which may be
deduced immediately from that proposition. Many of the corol-
laries in the Elements are not in the original text, but intro-
duced by the editors.
;;
EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. 255
It ha^ been suggested to demonstrate I. 5 by svperposid'on.

Conceive the isosceles triangle A BC to be taken up, and then re-
placed so that AB falls on the old position of AC, and ACf-ills
on the old position of A B. Thus, in the manner of I. 4, we can
shew that the angle ABC is equal to the angle ACB.
I. 6 is the converse of part of I, 5. One proposition is said to
be the converse of another when the conclusion of each is the
hypothesis of the other. Thus in I. 5 the hypothesis is the
equality of the sides, and one conclusion is the equality of the
angles in I. 6 the hypothesis is the equality of the angles
;
and the conclusion is the equality of the sides. When there is

more than one hypothesis or more than one conclusion to a pro-
position, we can form more than one converse proposition. For
example, as another converse of I. 5 we have the following: if
the angles formed by the base of a triangle and the sides pro-
duced be equal, the sides of the triangle are equal; this pro-
position is true and will serve as an exercise for the student.
The converse of a true proposition is not necessarily true
the student however will see, as he proceeds, that Euclid shews
that the converses of many geometrical propositions are true.
I. 6 is an example of the indirect mode of demonstration, in
which a result is established by shewing that some absurdity

follows from supposing the required result to be untrue. Hence
this mode of demonstration is called the reductio ad absurdum.
Indirect demonstrations are often less esteemed than direct de-
monstrations they are said to shew that a theorem is true rather
;
than to shew why it is true. Euclid uses the reductio ad ahsur-

dum chiefly when he is demonstrating the converse of some
former theorem; see I. 14, 19, 15,40.
Some remarks on indirect demonstration by Professor Syl-
vester, Professor De Morgan, and Dr Adamson will be found in
the volumes of the Philosophical Magazine for 1852 and 1853.
I. not required by Euclid before he reaches TI. 4 so that

6 is ;
I. 6 might be removed from its present place and demonstrated
hereafter in other ways if we please. For example, I. 6 might be

placed after I. 18 and demonstrated thus. Let the angle A BC be
equal to the angle ACB: then the side AB
shall be equal to the
side A C. For if not, one of them must be greater than the other
suppose A B greater than .4 C. Then the angle A CB is greater
than the angle ABC, by I. 18. But this is impossible, because
25Q NOTES ON
the angle ACB ia equal to the angle ABC, by hjrpothesis. Or
I. 6 might be placed after I. 26 and demonstrated thus. Bisect the
angle BA (7 by a straight line meeting the base at D. Then the
triangles ABI) and A CD are equal in all respects, by I. 26.
I. 7 is only required in order to lead to I. 8. The two might
be superseded by another demonstration of I. 8, which has been
recommended by many writers.
Let ABC, DBF be two triangles, having the sides AB, AC
equal to the sides DE, DF, each to each, and the base BC
equal to the base EF\ the angle BAC shall be equal to the angle
EBF.
A D
For, let the triangle DEF be applied to the triangle ABC^

BO that the bases may coincide, the equal sides be conterminous,
and the vertices fall on opposite sides of the base. Let GBC
represent the tiiangle BEF thus applied, so that G corresponds
to D. Join AG. Since, by hypothesis, BA is equal to BG, the
angle BAG
is equal to the angle BGA, by I. 5. In the same
manner the angle CAG is equal to the angle CGA. Therefore
the whole angle BAC\s, equal to the whole angle BGC, that is,
to the angle EDF.
There are two other cases for the straight line A G may pass
;
through B or G, or it may fall outside BC'. these cases may be

treated in the same manner as that which we have considered.
I. 8. It may be observed that the two triangles in I. 8 are
equal in all respects; Euclid however does not assert more than
the equality of the angles opposite to the bases, and when ho
requires more than this result he obtains it by using I. 4.
I. 9. Here the equilateral triangle DEF is to be described
on the side remote from A, because if it were described on the
same side, its vertex, F, might coincide with A, and then the
construction would fail.
I. II. Thewas added by Simson. It is liable to
corollary
serious objection. For we do not know how the perpendicular
JiE is to be drawn. If we are to use I. 1 1 we must produce AB,
and then we must assume that there is only one way of pro-
ducing AB, for otherwise we shall not know that there is
only one perpendicular; and thus we assume what we have to
demonstrate.
Simson's corollary might come after I. 13 and be demon-
strated thus. If possible let the two straight lines ABC, ABD
have the segment A B common to both. From the point B draw
any straight line BE. Then the angles ABE and EBC are equal
to two right angles, by I. 13, and the angles ^^ând EBD are
also equal to two right angles, by I. 13. Therefore the an-
gles ABE and EBC are equal to the angles ABE and EBD.
Therefore the angle EBC is equal to the angle EBD; which is
absurd.
But if the question whether two straight linescan have a com-
mon segment is to be considered at all in the Elements, it might
occur at an earlier place than Simson has assigned to it. For
example, in the figure to I. 5, if two straight lines could have a
common segment A B, and then separate at B, we should obtain
two different angles formed on the other side of by these BC
produced parts, and each of them would be equal to the angle
BCG. The opinion has been maintained that even in I. i, it is
tacitly assumed that the straight lines A C and BC cannot have a
common segment at C where they meet ; see Camerer's Euclid,
pages 30 and 36.
Simson never formally refers to his corollary until XI. i.
The corollary should be omitted, and the tenth axiom should
be extended so as to amount to the following if two straight ;
lines coincide in two points they must coincide both beyond and
between those points.
I. I •2. Here the straight line is said to be of unlimited length,
in order that we may ensure that
shall meet the circle.
it
Euclid distinguishes between the terms at right amjlcs and

jierpcndicular. He uses the term at right angles when the straight
line drawn from a point in another, as
is in I. 11;and he uses
the term perpendicular when the straight line is drawn from a
point without another, as in I. 12. This distinction however
is often disregarded by modern writers.
I. 14. lli-'ro Euclid first requires his eleventh axiom. For
17
258 NOTES ON
in the demonstration we have the angles ABO and ABE equal to
two right angles, and also the angles ABC and ABD equal to
two right angles and then the former two right angles are equal
;
to the latter two right angles by the aid of the eleventh

axiom. Many modern editions oi Euclid however refer only to
the first axiom, as if that alone were sufficient; a similar remark
applies to the demonstrations of I, 15, and I. 24. In these cases
we have omitted the reference purposely, in order to avoid per-
plexing a beginner; but when his attention is thus drawn to the
circumstance he will see that the first and eleventh axioms are
both used.
We may observe that errors, in the references with respect to
the eleventh axiom, occur in other places in many modern edi-
tions of Euclid. Thus for example in III. 1, at the step "there-
fore the angle FDB
is equal to the angle GDB,'" a reference is
given to the first axiom instead of to the eleventh.

There seems no objection on Euchd's principles to the fol-
lowing demonstration of his eleventh axiom.
Let AB
be at right angles to DAC
at the point A, and EF
at right angles to HEG at the point E: then shall the angles BA C
and PEG be equal.
D C H E G
Take any length A C, and make^D, EH, EG all equal to AC.

Now HEG to DA C, so that H may be on Z>, and HG on
apply
I)C, and B and F on the same side oi DC then G will coincide
;
with and E with A. Also EF shall coincide with AB; for if

(7,
not, suppose, if possible, that it takes a different position as AK.

Then the angle DAK is equal to the angle HEF, and the angle
CAK to the angle GEF; but the angles HEF and GEF are equal,
by hypothesis; therefore the angles DAK and CAK are equal.
But the angles DAB and CAB are also equal, by hypothesis;
and the angle CAB is greater than the angle CAK; there-
fore the aiigle DAB

the angle CAK.
is Much
greater than
more then is the angle DAK greater
than the angle CAK. But
the angle was shewn to be equal to the angle CAK;
DAK
which is absurd. Therefore EF must coincide with A B and ;
therefore the angle FFG coincides with the angle BAC, and is
equal to it.
I. I. 19.
1 8, In order to assist the student in remembering
which of these two propositions is demonstrated directly and which
indirectly, it may be observed that the order is similar to that
in I. 5 and I. 6.
I. ''Proclus, in his commentary, relates, that the Epi-

20.
cureans derided Prop. 20, as being manifest even to asses, and
needing no demonstration and his answer is, that though the
;
truth of it be manifest to our senses, yet it is science which

must give the reason why two sides of a triangle are greater
than the third: but the right answer to this objection against
this and the 21st, and some other plain propositions, is, that the
number of axioms ought not to be increased without neces-
sity, as it must be if these propositions be not demonstrated."
Simson.
I. 11. Here it must be carefully observed that the two
straight lines are to be drawn from the ends of the side of the
triangle. If this condition be omitted the two straight lines will
not necessarily be less than two sides of the triangle.
I. 22. "Some authors blame Euclid because he does not
demonstrate that the two circles made use of in the construction
of this problem must cut one another but this is very plain from :
the detennination he has given, namely, that any two of the

straight lines DF, FG, Gil, must be greater than the third.
For who is so dull, though only beginning to learn the Elements,

as not to perceive that the circle described from the centre F, at
the distance FD, must meet FH betwi.xt F and //, because FD
is less than FH ; and that for the like reason, the circle de-
scribed from the centre G, at the distance GH...invist meet
DG betwixt D and G ; and that these circles must meet one
another, because FD and GH are together greater than FG V
Simson.
The condition that B and C are greater than A, ensures that
the circle described from the centre G shall not fall entirely
within the circle described from the centre F: the condition that
A and B
are greater than C, ensures that the circle descriljod
17—2
2G0 NOTES ON
from the centre F shall not fall entirely within the circle de-
scribed from the centre G; the condition that A and C are
greater than B, ensm-es that one of these circles shall not fall
entirely without the other. Hence the circles must meet. It is
easy to see this as Simson says, but there is something arbi-
trary in EucHd's selection of what is to be demonstrated and what
is to be seen, and Simson's language suggests that he was really
conscious of this.
I. 24. In the construction, the condition that is to be DE

the side which is not greater than the other, was added by
Simson unless this condition be added there will be three cases
;
to consider, for F
may fall on EG, or above EG, or heloio EG. It
may be objected that even if >Simson's condition be added, it
ought to be shewn that F
wiU fall heloxv EG. Simson accordingly
says "...it is very easy to perceive, that DG being equal to DF,
the point G is in the circumference of a circle described from the
centre Dat the distance BF, and must be in that part of it
which is above the straight line EF, because DG
falls above DF,
the angle EDG being greater than the angle EDF:' Or we may
shew it in the following manner. Let H
denote the point of
intersection of DF
and EG. Then, the angle DHG is greater
than the angle DEG, by I. 16; the angle DEG is not less than
the angle DGE, by I. 19; therefore the angle DHG is greater
than the angle DGH. Therefore DH
is less than DG, by I. 20.
Therefore DH
is less than DF.
If Simson's condition be omitted, we shall have two other

cases to consider besides that in Euclid. If F falls on EG, it is
obvious that EF is less than EG. If F falls above EG, the sura
of DF and EF is less than the sum of DG and EG, by I. 21 and ;
therefore EF is less than EG.
I. 26. It wiU appear after I. 32 that two triangles which

have two angles of the one equal to two angles of the other, each
to each, have also their third angles equal. Hence we are able
to include the two cases of I. 26 in one enunciation thus ; if two
triangles have all the angles of the one respectively equal to all the
angles of the other, each to each, and have also a side of the one,
opposite to any angle, equal to the side opposite to the equal angle
in the otJier, the triangles shall be equal in all respects.
The first twenty-six propositions constitute a distinct section

;
*
of the first Bo(.k of tlie Elements. Tlie principal results nro

those contained in Propositions 4, 8, and 26 in each of these ;
Propositions it is shewn that two triangles which agree in three

respects agree entirely. There are two other cases which will
naturally occur to a student to consider besides those in Euclid
namely, (i) when two triangles have the three angles of the one
respectively equal to the three angles of the other, (2) when two
triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other,
each to each, and an angle opposite to one side of one triangle
equal to the angle o])posite to the equal side of the other triangle.
In the first of these two cases the student will easily see, after
reading I. that the two triangles are not necessarily equal.
-29,
In the second case also the triangles are not necessarily equal,
as may he shewn by an example; in the figure of I. 11, suppose
the straight line FB drawn; then in the two triangles FBE,
FBD, the side FD and the angle FBC are common, and the side
FE is equal to the side FD, but
the triangles are not equal in
all respects. In certainhowever, the triangles will be
cases,
equal in all respects, as will be seen from a proposition which
we shall now demonstrate.
If tico triangles have iivo sides of the one equal to two sides of
ike other, each to each, and the angles opposite to a pair of equal
sides equal; then if the angles ojiposite to the other pair of equal
sides be both aûte, or both obtuse, or if one of them he a right
angle, the tico triangles are equal in all respects.
Let A BC and DEF be
two triangles let A B ; be
equal to DE, and BC equal
to EF, and the angle A
equal to the angle D.
First, suppose the angles
C and F acute angles.
If the angle B
be equal to the angle E, the triangles A BC,
DEF are equal in by I. 4. If the angle B be not
all respects,
equal to the angle E, one of them must be greater than the
other suppose the angle B greater than the angle E, and make
;
the angle A BG equal to the angle E. Then the triangles A BG,

DEF are equal in all respects, by I. 26; therefore BG is equal
to EF, and the angle BGA is equal to the angle EFD. But the
angle EFD is acute, by hypothesis ; therefore the angle BGA is
acute. Therefore the angle BGC is obtuse, by I. 13. But it has
262 NOTES ON
been shewn that BG isequal to
EF; and EF is equal to BO,
by hypothesis therefore BG is
;
equal to BC. Therefore the an-

gle BGC is equal to the angle
BCG, by I. 5 ; and the angle
BCG is acute, by hypothesis;
therefore the angle BGC is acute.
But BGC was shewn to be ob-
tuse;, which is absurd. Therefore the angles ABC, DEF are
not unequal; that is, they are equal. Therefore the triangles
A BC, DEFare equal in all respects, by I. 4.
Next, suppose the angles at C and F obtuse angles.

The demonstration is similar to the above.
Lastly, suppose one of the angles a right angle, namely, the

angle C. If the angle B
be not equal to the angle E, make the
angle ABGequal to the angle E. Tlien it may be shewn, as

before, that is equal to BC, and therefore the angle BGC is
BG
equal to the angle BCG, that is, equal to a right angle. There-
fore two angles of the triangle BGC are equal to two right
angles which is impossible, by I. 17. Therefore the angles A BC
;
and DEFare not unequal ; that is, they are equal. Therefore
the triangles ABC, DEF
are equal in all respects, by I. 4.
If the angles A and D
are both right angles, or both obtuse,
the angles C and F
must be both acute, by I. 17. If is less ^^
than BC, and DE
less than EF, the angles at C and must be F
both acute, by I. 18 and I. 17.
The propositions from I. 27 to I. 34 inclusive may be said

to constitute the second section of the first Book of the Elements.
They relate In I. 29 Euclid
to the theory of parallel straight lines.
uses for the time his twelfth axiom. The theoiy of parallel
first
straight lines has always been considered the great difficulty
of elementary geometry, and many attempts have been made
to overcome way than Euclid has done.

this diflSculty in a better
We an account of these attempts. The student who
shall not give
wishes to examine them may consult Camerer's Euclid, Ger-
gonne's Annalcs de Mathematiqiies, Volumes XV and xvi, the
work by Colonel Peironet Thompson entitled Geometry xcithout
Axioms, the article Parallel's in the English Cyclopoidia, a me-
moir by Professor Baden Powell in the second volume of the
Memoirs of the Ashmolean Society, an article by M. Bouniakofsky
in the Bidletin de V Academic Impcriale, Volume v, St P^ters-
bourg, 1863, articles in the volumes of the Philosophical
Magazine for 1856 and 1857, and a dissertation entitled Sur
un 2>oi}it de Vhistoire de la Geometrie chez les Grecs par
4. J' H. Paris, 1857.
Vincent.
Speaking generally it may be said that the methods which
differ substantially from Euclid's involve, in the first place an
axiom as difficult as his, and then an intricate series of proposi-
tions ; while in Euclid's method after the axiom is once admitted
the remaining process is simple and clear.
One modification of Euclid's axiom has been proposed, which
appears to diminish the difficulty of the subject. This consists
in assuming instead of Euclid's axiom the following; two inter-
secting straight lines cannot he both parallel to a third straight line.
The propositions in the Elements are then demonstrated as in
Euclid up to I. 28, inclusive. Then, in I. 29, we proceed with
Euclid up to the words, "therefore the angles BGJI, are GHD
less than two right angles." We then infer that and BGH GHD
must meet: because if a straight line be dra'w-n through G so as to
make the interior angles together equal to two right angles this
straight line will be parallel to CD, by I. 28 and, by our axiom, ;
there cannot be two parallels to CD, both passing through G.

This form of making the necessary assumption has been
recommended by various eminent mathematicians, among whom
may be mentioned Playfair and De Morgan. By postponing
the consideration of the axiom until it is wanted, that is, until
after I. 28, and then presenting it in the form here given, the
theory of parallel straight lines appears to be treated in the easiest
manner that has hitherto been proposed.
I. 30. Here we may in the same way shew that \{ AB and
EF are each of them parallel to CD, they are parallel to each
other. It has been said that the case considered in the text is
po obvious as to need no demonstration ; for if ^4^ and CD can

264 NOTES ON
never meet EF, which lies between them, they cannot meet one
another.
I. 32. The corollaries to I. 32 were added by Simson. In
the second corollary it ought to be stated what is meant by an
exterior angle of a rectilineal figure. At each angular point let
one of the sides meeting at that point be produced; then tlie
exterior angle at that point is the angle contained between this
produced part and the side which is not produced. Either of
the sides may be produced, for the two angles which can thus ba
obtained are equal, by I. 15.
The rectilineal figures to which Eu-
clid confines himself are those in which
the angles all face inwards ; we may
here however notice another class of
figures. In the accompanying diagram
the angle JT^Cfaces outwards, and it is
an angle less than two right angles this ;
angle however is not one of the interior

angles of the figure AEDCF. We may consider the corre-
sponding interior angle to be the excess of four right angles
above the angle AFC; such an angle, greater than two right
angles, is called a re-entraM angle.
The first of the corollaries to I. 32 is true for a figure which
has a re-entrant angle or re-entrant angles ; but the second
is not.
I. 32. If twohave two angles of the one equal to
triangles
two angles each to each they shall also have their
of the other
third angles equal. This is a very important result, which is
often required in the Elements. The student should notice how
this result is established on Euclid's principles. By Axioms i r
and one pair of right angles is equal to any other pair of right
2
angles. Then, by I. 32, the three angles of one triangle are
together equal to the three angles of any other triangle. Then,
by Axiom 2, the sum of the two angles of one triangle is equal to
the sum of the two equal angles of the other and then, by Axiom 3, ;
the third angles are equal.

After I. 32 we can draw a straight line at right angles to
a given straight line from its extremity, without producing the
given straight line.
Let AB
he the given straight line. It is required to draw
from A a straight line at right angles to A B.
On A B describe the equilateral triangle

ABC. Produce EC to D, so that CD may be
equal to CB. Join A D. Then A D shall be at
right angles to A B. For, the angle CAD is
equal to the angle CDA, and the angle CAB
is equal to the angle CBA, by I. 5. There-
fore the angle BA D is equal to the two
angles ABD, BDA, by Axiom 2. Therefore
the angle BAD is a right angle, by I. 32.
The propositions from I. 35 to I. 48 inclusive may be said

to constitute the third section of the first Book of the Elements.
They relate to equality of area in figvures which are not neces-
sarily identical in form.
I. 35. Here Simson has altered the demonstration given by
Euclid, because, as he says, there would be three cases to con-
sider in following Euclid's method. Simson however uses the
third Axiom in a peculiar manner, when he first takes a triangle
from a trapezium, and then another triangle from the same
trapezium, and infers that the remainders are equal. If the
demonstration is to be conducted strictly after Euclid's manner,
three cases must be made, by dividing the latter part of the
demonstration into two. In the left-hand figure we may suppose
the point of intersection of BE and DC
to be denoted by G.
Then, the triangle A BE is equal to the triangle DCF take ;
away the triangle DOE from each; then the figure is ABGD
equal to the figure EGCF\ add the triangle GBC to each; then
the parallelogram A BCD is equal to the parallelogram EBCF.
In the right-hand figure we have the triangle AEB equal to the
triangle DEC add the figure BE
\ DC
to each then the parallel-
;
ogram A BCD is equal to the parallelogram EBCF.

The equality of the parallelograms in I. 35 is an equality of
area, and not an identity of figure. Legendre proposed to use
the word equivalent to express the equality of area, and to restrict
the word equal to the case in which magnitudes admit of super-
position and coincidence. This distinction, however, has not
been generally adopted, probably because there are few cases in
which any ambiguity can arise ; in such cases we may say es-
pecially, equal in area, to prevent misconception.
Cresswell, in his Treatise of Geometry, has given a demon-
stration of I. 35 which shews that the parallelograms may b<3
.
266 NOTES ON
divided into pairs of pieces admitting of superposition and coin-
cidence see also his Preface, page x.
;
I. 38. An important case of I. 38 is that in which the tri-

angles are on equal bases and have a common vertex.
I. 40. may demonstrate, I. 40 without adopting the in-
We
direct method. Join BD, CD. The triangles DBC and DEF
are equal, 38; the triangles
by I. and ure ^^C DEF equal, by
hypothesis; therefore the triangles and ABC&re DBC equal, by
the first Axiom. Therefore AD
13 parallel to BC, by I. 39.
Philosophical Magazine, October 1850.
I. 44. In I. 44, Euclid does not shew that AH and FG
will meet. "I cannot help being of opinion that the construc-
tion would have been more in Euclid's manner if he had made

Gil equal to BA and then joining HA had proved that HA was
parallel to GB by the thirty-third proposition." Williainson.
I. Tradition ascribed the discovery of I. 47 to Pytha-

47.
goras. demonstrations have been given of this cele-
Many
brated proposition the following is one of the most interesting.
;
Let A BCD, AEFG be any

two squares, placed so that
their bases may join and form
one straight line. Take GH
and EK each equal to AB, and
join HC, CK, KF, FII.
Thenit may be shewn that
the triangle BBC is equal in
all respects to the triangle FEK,
and the triangle KDC to the
triangle FGII. Therefore the
two squares are together equiva-
lent to the figure CKFJI. It
may then be shewn, with the aid of I. 32, that the figure CKFH
isa square. And the side CH
is the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle of which the sides CB, BH

are equal to the sides of the
two given squares. Tliis demonstration requires no proposition
of Euclid after I. 32, and it shews how two given squares may
be cut into pieces which will fit together so as to form a thnd
square. Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol. I.
A large number of demonstrations of this proposition are col-

lected in a dissertation by Joh. Jos. Ign. Hoffmann, entitled Der
Pythagorische Lehrsatz, . . Zweyte. , . A usgabe. Mainz. 1S21,
THE SECOND BOOK.

The second book is devoted to the investigation of relations
between the rectangles contained by straight lines divided into
segments in various ways.
When a straight line is divided into two parts, each part is
called a segment by Euclid. It is found convenient to extend the
meaning of the word segment, and to lay down the following defi-
nition. When a point is taken in a straight line, or in the
straight line produced, the distances of the point from the ends of
the straight line are called segments of the straight line. When
it is necessary to distinguish them, such segments are called in-
ternal or external, according as the point is in the straight line,

or in the straight line produced.
The student cannot fail to notice that there is an analogy
between the first ten propositions of this book and some element-
ary facts Arithmetic and Algebra.
in
Let A BCD represent a rectangle which is 4 inches long and
3 inches broad. Tlien, by draw-
ing straight lines parallel to D c
the sides, the figure may be
divided into 12 squares, each
square being described on a
side which represents an inch
in length. A
square described
on a side measuring an inch is
called, for shortness, a square i
inch. Thus if a rectangle is B

4 inches long and 3 inches
broad it may be divided into 12 square inches; this is expressed
by saying, that its area is equal to 1 2 square inches, or, more
briefly, that it contains 12 square inches. And a similar result
is easily sesn to hold in all similar cases. Suppose, for example,
that a rectangle is 12 feet long and 7 feet broad; then its
area is equal to 12 times 7 square feet, that is to 84 square feet;
this may be expressed briefly in common language thus; if a
rectangle measures 12 feet by 7 it contains 84 square feet. It
must be carefully observed that the sides of the rectangle are

supposed to be measured by the same unit of length. Thus if a
rectangle is a yard in length, and a foot and a half in breadth, we
268 NOTES ON
must express each of these dimensions in terms of the same unit;
we may say that the rectangle measures 36 inches by 18 inches,
and contains 36 times 18 square inches, that is, 648 square inches.
Thus universally, if one side of a rectangle contain a unit of
length an exact number of times, and if an adjacent side of the
rectangle also contain the same unit of length an exact number of
times, the product of these numbers will be the number of square
units contained in the rectangle.
Next suppose we have a and let its side be 5 inches in
square,
length. Then, by our the area of the square is 5 times
rule,
5 square inches, that is 25 square inches. Now the number
25 is called in Arithmetic the square of the number 5. And
universally, if a straight Hne contain a unit of length an exact
number of times, the area of the square described on the straight
lineis denoted by the square of the number which denotes
the
length of the straight line.
Thus we see that there is in general a connexion between the
product of two numbers and the rectangle contained by two
straight lines, and
in particular a connexion between the square of
a number and the square on a straight line; and in consequence
of this connexion the first ten propositions in Euclid's Second
Book correspond to propositions in Arithmetic and Algebra.
The student will perceive that we speak of the square de-
scribed 07? a straight line, when we refer to the geometrical figure,
and of the square o/a number when we refer to Arithmetic. The
editors of Euclid generally iise the words "square described
npon''' in I. 47 and I. 48, and afterwards speak of the square
of
a straight line. Euclid himself retains throughout the same form
of expression, and we have imitated him.
Some editors of Euclid have added Arithmetical or Alge-
braical demonstrations of the propositions in the second book,
founded on the connexion we have explained. We have thouo-ht
it unnecessary to do this, because the student who is acquainted
with the elements of Arithmetic and Algebra will find no diffi-

culty in supplying such demonstrations himself, so far as they
are usually given. We say so far as they are usually given,
because these demonstrations usually imply that the sides of
rectangles can always be expressed exactly in terms of some unit
of length; whereas the student will find hereafter that this is not
the case, owing to the existence of what are technically called
incommensurable magnitudes. We do not enter on this subject.
as it would lead us too far from Euclid's Elements of Geometry^
with which we are here occupied.

The first ten propositions in the second book of Euclid may
he arranged and enunciated in various ways ; we will briefly
indicate this, but we do not consider it of any importance to dis-
tract the attention of a beginner with these diversities.
II. 2 and II. 3 are particular cases of II. r.
very important; the following particular case of it

II. 4 is
should be noticed the square described on a straight line made up
;
of tu-o equal straight lines is equal to four times the square described
on one of the tu-o equal straight lines.
II. 5 and II. 6 may be included in one enunciation thus ; the
rectangle under the sum and difference of two straight lines is equal
to the difference of the squares described on those straight lines;
or thus, the rectangle contained by tu-o straight liyies together with
the square described on half their difference, is equal to the square
described on half their sum.
II. 7 may be enunciated thus; tJie square described on a
straight line which is the difference of two other straight lines is less
than the sum of the squares described on those straight lines by
twice the rectangle contained by those straight lines. Then from this
and II. 4, and the second Axiom, we infer tha,t the square described
on the sum of tico and the square described on
straight lines,
their difference, are together double of the sum of the squares
described on the straight lines; and this enunciation includes both
II. 9 and II, lo, so that the demonstrations given of these pro-
positions by Euclid might be superseded.
II. 8 coincides with the second form of enunciation which we
have given to II. 5 and II. 6, bearing in mind the particular case
of II. 4 which we have noticed.
II. I r. When the student is acquainted with the elements of
Algebra he should notice that II. 1 1 gives a geometrical con-
struction for the solution of a particular quadratic equation.
II. 12, II. 13. These are interesting in connexion with I. 47 ;
and, as the student may see hereafter, they are of great import-
ance in Trigonometry ; they are however not required in any of
the parts of Euclid's Elements which are usually read. The
converse of I. 47 is proved in I. 48; and we can easily shew that
converses of II. 12 and II. 13 are true.
Take the following, which is the converse of II. 12; if the
square described on one side of a triangle be greater than t/ie sum
;
270 NOTES ON
of the squares described on the other tico sides, the angle opposite
to the first side is obtuse.
For the angle cannot be a right angle, since the square de-
scribed on the first side would then be equal to the sum of the
squares described on the other two sides, by I. 47 and the angle

;
cannot be acute, since the square described on the first side

would then be less than the sum of the squares described on the
other two sides, by II. 13; therefore the angle must be obtuse.
Similarly we may demonstrate the following, which is the con-
verse of II. 13; (/^ the square described on one side of a tHangle
he less than the sum of the squares described on the other two sides,
the angle opposite to the first side is acute.
II. 13. Euclid enunciates II. 13 thus; in acute-angled tri-
angles, &c. and he gives only the first case in the demonstration.
;
But, as Simson observes, the proposition holds for any triangle

and accordingly Simson supplies the second and third cases. It
has, however, been often noticed that the same demonstration is
applicable to the first and second cases and it would be a great
;
improvement as to brevity and clearness to take these tAvo cases

together. Then the whole demonstration will be as follows.
Let ABC be any triangle, and the angle at B one of its
acute angles and, if AC he not perpendicular to BC, let fall on
;
BC, produced if necessary, the perpendicular AD from the

opposite angle: the square on AC opposite to the angle B, shall
be less than the squares on CB, BA, by twice the rectangle
CB, BD.
A A
First, suppose AC not perpendicular to BC.

The squares on CB, BD are equal to twice the rectangle
CB, BD, together with the square on CD. [11. 7.
To each of these equals add the square on DA.
Therefore the squares on CB, BD, DA are equal to twice the
rectangleCB, BD, together with the squares on CD, DA.
But the square on AB
\s equal to the squares on BD, DA,
;
and the square on ^C is equal to the squares on CD, DA,

because the angle BDA is a right angle. [I. 47.
Therefore the squares on CB, BA are equal to the square on A C,

together with twice the rectangle CB, BD
that is, the square on AC
alone is less than the squares on
CB, BA by twice the rectangle CB, BD.
,
Next, suppose AC
perpendicular to BC. A
Then BC is the straight Hue intercepted be-
tween the perpendicular and the acute angle
at B.
And the square on A B is equal to the squares
on AC, CB. [I. 47-
Therefore the square on AC is less than the

squares on A B, BC, by twice the square on BC. "
II. 14. This is not required in any of the parts of Euclid's
Elements which are usually read; it is included in VI. 22.
THE THIRD BOOK.

The third book of the Elements is devoted to properties of
circles.
Different opinions have been held as to what is, or should be,
included in the third definition of the third book. One opinion
is that the definition only means that the circles do not cut in
the neighbourhood of the point of contact, and that it must be

shewn that they do not cut elsewhere. Another opinion is that
the definition means that the circles do not cut at all and this ;
seems the correct opinion. The definition may therefore be pre-

sented more distinctly thus. Two circles are said to touch inter-
nally when their circumferences have one or more common
points, and when every point in one circle is within the other
circle, except the common point or points. Two circles are said
to touch externally when their circumferences have one or more
common points, and when every point in each circle is without
the other circle, except the common point or points. It is then
shewn in the tliird Book that the circumferences of two circles
which touch can have only 07ie common point.
A straight line which touches a circle is often called a tan-
gent to the circle, or briefly, a tangent.
It is very convenient to have a word to denote a portion of
272 NOTES ON
the boundary of a circle, and accordingly we use the word arc.
Euclid himself uses circumference both for the whole boundary
and for a portion of it.
III. I. In the construction, DC
is said to be produced to
E ',
this assumes that D is within the circle, which Euclid demon-
strates in III. 1.
III. 3. This consists of two parts, each of which is the con-
verse of the other ;and the whole proposition is the converse of
the corollary in III. i.
III. 5 and III. 6 should have been taken together. They

amount to this, if the circumferences of two circles meet at a point
they cannot have the same cent/)'e, so that circles which have the
same centre and one point in their circumferences common, must
coincide altogether. It would seem as if EucUd had made three
cases, one in which the circles cut, one in which they touch
internally, and one in which they touch externally, and had then
omitted the last case as evident.
III. 7, III. 8. It is observed by Professor De Morgan that
in III. 7 it is assumed that the angle FEB is greater than the
angle FEC, the hypothesis being only that the angle is DFB
greater than the angle DFC; and that in III. 8 it is assumed
that A" falls within the triangle DLM, and E without the triangle
DMF. He intimates that these assumptions may be established
by means of the following two propositions which may be given
in order after I. -21.
The perpendicular is the shortest straig?it line which can he
draicn from a given point to a given straight line ; and of others
that lohich is nearer to the perpendicular is less than the more
remote, and the converse; and not more than two equal straight
lines can be drawn from the given j)oint to the given straight line,
one on each side of the perpendicular.
Every straight line drawn from the vertex of a triangle to the
hose is less than the greater of the two sides, or than either of them
if they he equal.
The following proposition is analogous to III. 7 and III. 8.
Jf any point on the circumference of a circle, of all

he taken
the straight lines which can he drawn from it to the circumference,
the greatest is that in which the centre is ; and of any others, that
which is nearer to the straight line xchich passes through the centre
is always greater than one more remote; and from the same point
there can he drawn to the circumference two straight lines, and

only Uco, which are equal to one another, one on each side of the
greatest line.
The first two parts of this proposition are contained in
III. 15 ;
three parts might be demonstrated in the manner of
all
III. 7, and they should be demonstrated, for the third part is

really required, as we shall see in the note on III. lo.
III. 9. E might be supposed to fall icitldn the
The point
anole ADC. cannot then be shewn that
It is greater DC
than DB, and greater than DA, but only that either DC
DB
or DA is less than DB
this however is sufficient for establish-
;
ing the proposition.

Euclid has given two demonstrations of III. 9, of which
Simson has chosen the second. Euclid's other demonstration is
as follows. Join D
with the middle point of the straight line
A B then it may be shewn that this straight line is at right
;
angles to .4 i? and therefore the centre of the circle must lie in

;
this straight line, by III. i, Corollary. In the same manner it

may be shewn that the centre of the circle must lie in the
which joins
straiizht line D
with the middle point of the straight
line BC. The centre of the circle must therefore be at D,
because two straight lines cannot have more than one common
point.
III. 10. Euclid has given two demonstrations of III. 10, of
which Simson has chosen the second. Euclid's first demonstra-
tion resembles his first demonstration of III. 9. He shews that
the centre of each circle is on the straight line which joins K
with the middle point of the straight line BO, and also on the
straight line which joins K
with the middle point of the straight
Une BII ;
therefore K must be the centre of each circle.
The demonstration which Simson has chosen requires some

additions to make it complete. For the point might be sup- K
posed to fallwithout the circle DBF, or on its circumference, or
within it; and of these three suppositions Euclid only considers
the last. If the point K
be supposed to fall without tlie circle
DBF obtain a contradiction of III. 8
we which is absurd. If ;
the point K
be supposed to fall on the circumference of the circU*
DEF we obtain a contradiction of the proposition which we
have enunciated at the end of the note on III. 7 and III. S ;
which is absurd.
What isdemonstrated in III. 10 is that the circumferences of
two circles cannot have more than two common points there is ;
18
274 NOTES ON
nothing in the demonstration which assumes that the cu-cles cut one
another, but the enunciation refers to this case only because
it is shewn in III. 13 that if two circles touch one another,
their circumferences cannot have more than one common

point.
III. II, III. \2. The enunciations as given by Simson and
others speak of the point of contact it is however not shewn
;
until III. 13 that there is only one point of contact. It should

be observed that the demonstration in III. 1 1 will hold even if
D and ^ be supposed to coincide, and that the demonstration
in III. 11 will hold even if C and D be supposed to coincide.
We may combine III. 11 and III. 12 in one enunciation thus.
If two circles touch one another their circumferences cannot
have a common point out of the direction of the straight line ichich
joins the centres.
III. II may be deduced from III. 7. For Gil is the least
line that can be drawn from G to the circumference of the circle
whose centre is F, by III. 7. Therefore GH
is less than GA,
that is, less than GD which is absurd.

;
Similarly III. i 2 may
be deduced from III. 8.
III. 13. Simson observes, "As it is much easier to imagine

that two circles touch one another within in more points
may
than one, upon the same side, than upon opposite sides, the
figure of that case ought not to have been omitted but the ;
construction in the Greek text would not have suited with this
figure so well, because the centres of the circles must have been
placed near to the circumferences; on which account another
construction and demonstration is given, which is the same with
the second part of that which Campanus has translated from the
Arabic, where, without any reason, the demonstration is divided
into two parts."
It would not be obvious from this note which figure Simson
himself supplied, because it is uncertain what he means by the
"same side" and "opposite sides." It is the left-hand figure
in the first part of the demonsti-ation. Euclid, however, set-ms
to be quite correct in omitting this figure, because he has shewn
in III. 1 1 that if two circles touch internally there cannot be a
point of contact out of the direction of the straight line which
joins the centres. Thus, in order to shew that there is only one
point of contact, it is sufficient to put the second supposed point
of contact ou the direction of the straight line which joins the
centres. own demonstration Euclid con-

Accordingly in his
right-hand figure and he shews that this
lines liimself to the ;
case cannot exist, because the straight line would be a BD

diameter of both circles, and would therefore be bisected
at two
clifFerent points;which is absurd.
Euclid might have used a similar method for the second part
of the proposition for as there cannot be a point of contact out
;
of the straight line joining the centres, it is obviously impossible

that there can be a second pctint of contact when the circles
toucli externally. easy to see this but Euclid preferred a
It is ;
method in which there is moie formal reasoning.

We may observe that Euclid's mode of dealing with the
contact of circles has often been censured by conimeutators, but
apparently not always with good reason. For example, Walker
gives another demonstration of III. 13; and says that EucUd's
is worth nothing, and that Simson fails for it is not proved that
;
two circles which touch cannot have any arc common to both
circumferences. But it is shewn in III. lo that this is impos-
sible Walker appears to have supposed that III. lo is limited to
;
the case of circles which cat. See the note on III. 10.
III. 17. It is obvious from the construction in III. 17 that
tiL'o straight lines ân be drawn from a given external point to
touch a given circle and these two straight lines are equal in
;
length and equally inclined to the straight line which joins the
given external point with the centre of the given circle.
After l-eading III. 31 the student will see that the problem
in III. 17 may be solved in another way, as follows: describe a
circle on AE as diameter; then the points of intersection of this
circle with the given circle will be tlie points of contact of the
two straight lines which can be drawn from ..l to tuuch the given
circle.
III. iS. It does not appear that HI. 18 adds anything
to what we have already obtained in 111. i6. For in 111. 16 it
is shewn, that there is only one straight line which touches a

given circle at a given point, and that the angle between this
straight line and the radius drawn to the point of contact is a
right angle.
111. 20. There are two assumptions in the demonstration of
HI. 10.Suppose that -1 is double of B and C «louble of I>\
then in the first part it is assumed that the sum of A and C id
double of the suni of B and i>, and in the second part it is as-
16—2
276 NOTES ON
sumed that the difference of A and C is double of the difference
of B and D. The fomier assumption ia a particular case of V. i,
and the latter is a particular case of V. 5.
An important extension may be given to III. ô by intro-
ducing angles greater than two right angles. For, in the first
figure, suppose we draw the straight lines BF and CF. Then,
the angle BEA is double of the angle BFA, and the angle CEA
is double of the angle CFA therefore the sum of the angles
;
BEA and CEA is double of the angle BFC. The sum of the
angles BEA and CEA is greater than two right angles we will ;
call the .sum, the re-entrant angle BEC. Thus the re-entrant
angle BEC is double of the angle BFC. (See note on I. 3-2).
If this extension be used some of the demonstrations in the third
book maybe abbreviated. Thus III. 21 maybe demonstrated
without making two cases III. 22 will follow immediately from
;
the fact that the sum of the angles at the centre is equal to four
right angles; and III. 31 will follow immediately from III. 20.
III. 21. In III. 21 Euclid himself has given only the first
case; the second case has been added by Simson and others.
In either of the figures of III. 2 1 if a point be taken on the same
side of BD as A , the angle contained by the straight lines which
join this point to the extremities of BD
is greater or less than the
angle BAD, according as the point is xcWdn or without the angle

BAD; this follows from I. 21.
"We shall have occasion to refer to IV. 5 in some of the
remaining notes to the third Book and the student is accord-
;
ingly recommended to read that proposition at the present

stage.
The following proposition is very important. If any numlcr
of triangles be constructed on the same base and on the same side
of it, with equal vertical angles, the vertices will all lie on the cIt'
cumference of a segment of a circle.
For take any one of these triangles, and describe a circle
round it, by IV. 5 then the vertex of any other of the triangles
;
must be on the circumference of the segment containing the

assumed vertex, since, by the former part of this note, the vertex
cannot be without the circle or within the circle.
III. 22. The converse of III. 22 is true and very im-
portant ;namely, if two opposite angles of a quadrilateral be
together equal to two right angles, a circle may be circumscribed
about the quadrilateral. For, let A BCD denote the quadrila-
teral. Describe a circle round the triangle A BC, by IV. 5.

Take any point F, on the circumference of the st^gm&iit cut oflF
by A C, and on the same side of J C as D is. Then, the angles

at B and F are together equal to two right angles, by III. -22 ;
and the angles at B and D are together equal to two right

angles, by hypothesis. Therefore the angle at E is equal to the
angle at D. Therefore, by the preceding note D is on the cir-
cumference of the same segment as L\
III. 32. Tlie converse of III. 32 is true and important;
namely, if a strai(/ht line meet a circle, and from the jyoint of
meeting a straight line be draxcii cutting ike circle, and the angle
between the tico straight lines be equal to the angle in the alternate
segment of the circle, the straight line ichich meets the circle shall
touch the circle.
This may be demonstrated indirectly. For, if possible, sup-
pose that the straight line which meets the circle does not touch
it. Draw through the point of meeting a straight line to touch
the circle. Then, by III. 32 and the hypothesis, it will follow
that two different straight lines pass through the same point, and
make the same angle, on the same side, with a third straight
line which also passes through that point ; but this is impos-
sible.
III. 35, III. 36. The following proposition constitutes a
large part of the demonstrations of III. 35 and III. 36. // any
point be taken in the base, or the base produced, of an isosceles
tinangle, the rectangle contained by the segments of the base is
equal the difference of the square on the straight line joining

to
this point to the vertex and the square on the side of the triangle.
This proposition isdemonstrated by Euclid, without
in fact
using any property of the circle if it were enunciated and de-
;
monstrated before III. 35 and III. 36 the demonstrations of

these two propositions might be shortened and simplified.
The following converse of III. 35 and tlie Corollary of III. 36
may be noticed. If two straight lines AB, CD intersect at 0, and
the rectangle AO, OB be equal to the rectangle CO, OD, the circum-
ference of a circle vAll pass through the four points A, B, C, D.
For a circle may be described round the triangle ABC, by
IV. 5 and then it may be sliewn indirectly, by the aid of
;
III. 35 or the Corollary of III. 36 that the circumference of this

circle will also pass through Z>.
;
278 NOTES OY
THE FOURTH BOOK.

The fourth Book of the Elements consists entirely of problems.
The first five any kind the
propositions I'elate to triangles of ;
remaining propositions relate to polygons which have all tht-ir

sides equal and all their angles equal. A
polygon w hich has all its
sides equal and all its angles equal is called a regular polygon.
IV. 4. By a process similar to that in IV. 4 we can describe
a circle which shall touch one side of a triangle and the other
two sides produced. Suppose, for example, that we wish to
describe a circle which shall touch the side BC, and the sides
AB and AC produced: bisect the angle between AB
produced
and BC, and bisect the angle between AC produced and BC
then the point at which the bisecting straight lines meet will be the
centre of the required circle. The demonstration will be .similar
to that in IV. 4.
A circle which touches one side of a triangle and the other
two sides produced, is called an escribed circle of the triangle.
We can also describe a triangle equiangular to a given tri-
angle, and such that one of its sides and the other two sides
produced shall touch a given circle. For, in the figure of IV. 3
suppose AK produced to meet the circle again and at the point
;
of intersection draw a straight line touching the circle; this straight

line with parts of XB
and NC, Avill form a tiiangle, which will
be eq\iiangular to the triangle MLN, and therefore equiangular to
the triangle EDF; and one of the sides of this triangle, and the
other two sides produced, will touch the given circle.
IV. 5. Simson introduced into the demonstration of IV. 5
the part which shews that andDP EF
will meet. It has also
been proposed to shew this in the following way: join DE; then
the angles EDF and DEF are together less than the angles
ADF and AEF, that is, they are together less than two right
angles; and therefore Z)F and EF will meet, by Axiom 12.
This assumes that ADE and A ED are acute angles it may how- ;
ever be easily shewn that DE is parallel to BC, so that the

triangle A DE is equiangular to the triangle ABC and we must ;
therefore select the two sides AB and AC such that ABC and
A CB may be acute angles.
IV. 10. The vertical angle of the triangle in IV. 10 is
easily seen to be the fifth part of two right angles ; and as it

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. 27D
may be Ms^cted, we can thus divido a right angle geometrically

uito tive equal parts.
It follows from what is given in the fourth Book of the
Elements that the circumference of a circle can be divided into
3, 6, 12, 24, .... ecjual parts and also into 4, 8, 16, 32, ....
;
equal parts and also into 5, 10, 20, 40, .... equal parts; and
;
also into 15, 30, 60, 120, equal parts. Hence also
regular polygons having as many sides asany of these nmnbers
may be inscribed in a circle, or described about a circle. Tliis
however does not enable us to describe a regular polygon of any
assigned number of sides ; for example, we do
know how to
not
describe geometrically a regular polygon of 7 sides.
It WHS first demonstrated by Gauss in iSor, in his Disqui-
that it is possible to describe geometrically
sitioncs Arithmcticce,
a regular polygon of 2"+ i sides, provided 2"+ i be a prime num-
ber the demonstration is not of an elementary character. Aa
;
an example, it follows that a regular polygon of 17 sides can be

described geometrically this example is discussed in Catalan's
;
Theorcmes ct Prohlemcs cle Geometric Elemcntaire.

For an approximate construction of a regular heptagon see
the Philosophical Magazine for February and for April, 1864.
THE FIFTH BOOK.

The fifth Book of the Elements is on Proportion. Much
has been written respecting Euclid's treatment of this subject;
besides the Commentaries on the Elements to which we have
already referred, the student may consult the articles Ratio and
Proportion in the English Cijdopa;dia, and the tract on the
Connexion of Number and Magnitude by Professor De Morgan.
The fifth Book relates not merely to length and space, but to
any kind of magnitude of which we can form multiples.
V. Dcf. r. The word part is used in two senses in Geometry.
Sometimes the word denotes any magnitude which is less than
another of the same kind, as in the axiom, the u-hole is greater
than its part. In this sense the word has been used up to tho
present point, but in the fifth Book Euclid confines the word to
a more restricted sense. This restricted senee agrees with that
which is given in Arithmetic and Algebra to the term aliquot
partf or to the term submultipU,
280 NOTES ON
V. Def. 3. SImson considers that the definitions 3 and 8 are
*'not Euclid's, but added by some unskilful editor." Other com-
inentators also have rejected these definitions as useless. The
last word of the third definition should be quantxiplicity, not
quantity ; so that the definition indicates that ratio refers to the
number of times which one magnitude contains another. See De
Morgan's Differential and Integral Calculus, page iS.
V. Def. 4. This definition amounts to saying that the quan-
tities must be of the same kind.
V. Def. 5. The fifth definition is the foundation of Euclid's
doctrine of proportion. The student will find in works on Alge-
bra a comparison of Euclid's definition of proportion with the
simpler definitions which are employed in Arithmetic and Algebra.
Euclid's definition is applicable to incommensurable quantities, as
well as to commensurable quantities.
We
should recommend the student to read the first propo-
sition of the sixth Book immediately after the fifth definition of
the fifth Book ; he will there see how Euclid applies his defi-
nition, and will thus obtain a betternotion of its meaning and im-
portance.
Compound Ratio. The definition of compound ratio was
supplied by Simson. The Greek text does not give any defini-
tion of compound ratio here, but gives one as the fifth definition
of the sixth Book, which Simson rejects as absurd and useless.
V.
Defs. 18, 19, 20. The definitions 18, 19, 20 are not pre-
sented by Simson precisely as they stand in the original. The
last sentence in definition 18 was supplied by Simson. Euclid
does not connect definitions 19 and 20 with definition 18. In
19 he defines ordinate proportion, and in 10 he defines pcrturhate
proportion. Nothing would be lost if Euclid's definition 18 were
entirely omitted, and the term ex oEfj'ifaî never employed. Euclid
employs such a term in the enunciations of V. 20, 11, 12, 23;
but it seems quite useless, and is accordingly neglected by Simson
and others in their translations.
The axioms given after the definitions of the fifth Book are
npt in Euclid ; they were supplied by Simson.
The propositions of the fifth Book miglit be divided into four

sections. Propositions i to 6 relate to the properties of equi-
multiples. Propositions 7 to 10 and 13 and 14 connect the
notion of the ratio of magnitudes with the ordinary notions of
ffreata'yequal, and less. Propositions i r, i?, 15 and 16 may be

considered as introduced to shew that, if four quantities of the
sa7nc kiyid be j>roportionals they will also be proportionals when
taken alternately. The remaining propositions shew that mag-
nitudes are proportional by composition, by division, and ex cequo.
In this division of the fifth Book propositions 13 and 14 are
supposed to be placed immediately after proposition 10; and
they might be taken in this order without any change in Euclid's
demonstrations.
The propositions headed A, B, C, D, E were supplied by
Simson.
V. I, 1, 3, 5, 6. These are simple propositions of Arithmetic,
though they are here expressed in terms which make them ap-
pear less familiar than they really are. For example, V. i
"states no more than that ten acres and ten roods make ten times
as much as one acre and one rood." Dc Morgan.
In V. 5 Simson has substituted another construction for that
given by Euclid, because Euclid's construction assumes that we
can divide a given straight line into any assigned number of
equal parts, and this problem is not solved until VI. 9.
V. 18. This demonstration is Simson's. We will give here
Euclid's demonstration.
Let AE he to EB as CF \h io FD: AB shall ^
be to BE as CD is to DF.
For, if not, .4 B will be to BE as CD is to some
magnitude than DF, or greater than
less DF.
First, suppose that AB is to BE as CD is to
DG, which is less than DF.
Then, because AB is to BE as CD is to DG,
therefore AE is to EB as CG to GD. [V. 7.
is 1
But AE is to EB as CF to FD, [Hypothesis.

is
q j.
therefore CG is to GD as CF is to FD. [V. 1 r.
But CG is greater than CF; [Hypothesis.

therefore GD is greater than FD. [V. 1 4.
But GD is less than FD ; which is impossible.
In the same manner it may be shewn that AB is not to BE
as CD is to a magnitude greater than DF,
Therefore J5 is to BE as CD is to DF.
The by Simson against Euclid's demonstra-
objection urged
tion is that "it depends upon this hypothesis, that to any three
magnitudes, two of which, at least, are of the same kind, there
282 NOTES ON
may be a fourtli proportional Euclid does not d.-^mnn-
:
strate it, nor does he sliew how to find the fourth proportional,
"
before the 12th Proposition of the 6th Book
The following dexnonstration given by Austin in his Exami-
is
nation of the first six bools of Euclid's Elements.

Let AE be toEB as CF ia to FD AB: shall
be to BE as CD is to DF. A
For, because AE is to EB as CF is to FD,
therefore, alternately, AE ia to CF as EB is C
to FD. [V. 16.
And as one of the antecedents is to its con-
sequent so is the sum of the antecedents to the
sum of the consequents [V. 12.
;
th«refore EB is to FD so are A E and EB

as
together to CF and FD together, J3 D
that is, ^5 is to CD as EB is to FD.
Therefore, alternately, AB is to EB as CD is to FD. [V. 16.
V. 25. The first step in the demonstration of this proposition
is "take AG equal to E and CH equal to F'' ; and here a refer-
ence is sometimes given to I. 3, But the magnitudes in the
proposition are not necessarily straight lines, so that this refer-
ence to I. 3 should not be given ; it must however be assumed
that we can perform on the magnitudes considered, an operation
similar to that which performed on straight lines in I. 3. Since
is
the fifth Book of the Elements treats of magnitudes generally,

and not merely of lengths, areas, and angles, there is no reference
made in it to any proposition of the first four Books.
Simson adds four propositions relating to compound ratio,
which he distinguishes by the letters F, 0, II, it seems how- K ;
ever unnecessary to reproduce them as they are now rarely read

and never required.
THE SIXTH BOOK.

The sixth Book of the Elements consists of the application of
the theory of proportion to establish properties of geometrical
figures.
VI. Def. For an important remark bearing on the first
t.
on VI. 5.
definition, see the note
VI. Def. 1. The second definition is useless, for Euclid
makes no mention of reciprocal figures.
VI. Dcf. 4. The fourth definition is strictly only applicable

to a triangle, because no other figure has a point which can be
exckisively called its vertex. The altitude of a parallelogram is
the perpendicular drawn to the base from any point in the op-
posite side.
VI. 2. The enunciation of this important proposition is open
to objection, for the manner in which the sides may be cut is not
sufficiently limited. Suppose, for example, that is double of AD
DB, and CE double of EA the sides are then cut proportionally,
;
for each side is divided into two parts, one of which is double of
the other; but DE
is not parallel to £0. It should therefore
be stated in the enunciation that the segments terminated at the
vertex of the triangle are to be homologous terms in the ratios, that
is, are to be the antecedents or the consequents of the ratios.
It will be obser\êd that there are three figures corresponding
to three cases which may exist ; for the straight line drawn pa-
rallel toone side may cut the other sides, or may cut the other
sides when they are produced through the extremities of the base,
or may cut the other sides when they are produced through the
vertex. In all these cases the triangles which are shewn to be
equal have their vertices at the extremities of the base of the
given triangle, and have for their common base the straight line
which is, either by hypothesis or by demonstration, parallel to
the base of the triangle. The triangle \\dth which these two
triangles are compared has the same base as they have, and has
its vertex coinciding with the vertex of the given triangle.
VI. A. This proposition was supplied by Simson.
VI. 4. "We have preferred to adopt the term "triangles
which are equiangular to one another," instead of "equiangular
triangles," when the words are used in the sense they bear in
tliis proposition. Euclid himself does not use the term cqiiiau'
gnlar triangle in the sense in which the modem editors use it in
the Corollary to I. 5, so that he is not prevented from using the
term in the sense it bears in the enunciation of VI. 4 and else-
where but modern editors, having already employed the term in
;
one sense ought to keep to that sense. In the demonstrations,

where Euclid uses such language as "the triangle ABC is equi-
angular to the triangle DEF,'^ the modern editors sometimes
adopt it, and sometimes change it to "the triangles ABC and
DE F are equiangular."
In VI. 4 the manner in which the two triangles are to be
284 NOTES ON
placed is very imperfectly described their bases are to be in the
;
same straight line and contiguous, their vertices are to be on the

same side of the base, and each of the two angles which have a
common vertex is to be equal to the remote angle of the other
triangle.
By superposition we might deduce VI. 4 immediately from
VI. 2.
VI. 5, The hypothesis in VI. 5 involves more than is di-

rectly asserted ; the enunciation shovdd be, "if the sides of two
triangles, tahen in order,about each of their angles ;"
that is, some words takxn in order

restriction equivalent to the
should be introduced. It is quite possible that there should be
two triangles ABO, DEF, such that AB is to i?C as DE is to
EF, and BC to CA as DF is to ED, and therefore, by V. 23,
AB io AC Si^ DF is to EF ] in this case the sides of the triangles
about each of their angles are proportionals, but not in the same
order, and the triangles are not necessarily equiangular to one
another. For a numerical illustration we may suppose the sides
of one triangle to be 3, 4 and 5 feet respectively, and those of
another to be 12, 15 and 20 feet respectively, ^yall:er.
Each of the two propositions VI. 4 and VI. 5 is the converse
of the other. They shew that if two triangles have either of the
two properties involved in the definition of similar figures they
will have the other also. This is a special property of triangles.
In other figures either of the properties may exist alone. For
example, any rectangle and a square have their angles equal, but
not their sides proportional while a square and any rhombus
;
have their sides proportional, but not their angles equal.

VI. 7. In VI. 7 the enunciation is imperfect it should be, ;
" if two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one angle of
the other, and the sides about two other angles proportionals, so
thai the sides suhtending the equal angles are homologous ; then if
each " The imperfection is of the same nature as that
wliich is pointed out in the note on VI. 5. Wallccr.
The proposition might be conveniently broken up and the
essential part of it presented thus if two triangles have two sides
:
of the one proportional to two sides of the other, and the angles
opposite to one peiir of homologous sides equal, the angles which are
opposite to the other pair of homologous sides shaU either be equal,
or he together equal
to two right angles.
For, the angles included by the proportional sides must be

6' '
either equal or unequal. If they are equal, then since the tri-
angles have two angles of the one equal to two angles of the
other, each to each, tliey are equiangular to one another. We
have therefore only to consider the case in which the angles in-
cluded by the proportional sides are unequal.
have the angle at ^ equal to
the angle at D, and A B to BC
as DE is to EF, but the angle
ABC wot equal to the angle DEF: tlie angles id CjB and !>/'£'
shall be together equal to two right angles.
For, one of the angles A BC,
DEF must be greater than
the other ; suppose A BC the
greater ; and make the angle
ABG equal to the angle DEF.
Then may
be shewn, as in
it
VI. 7, is equal to
that BG
BC, and the angle BGA equal to the angle EFD.
Therefore the angles ACB and DFE are together equal to the
angles BGC and A GB, that is, to two right angles.
Then
the results enunciated in VI. 7 will readily follow. For
if A CB and
the angles DFE
are both greater than a right angle,
or both less than a right angle, or if one of them be a right
angle, they must be equal.
VI. In the demonstration of VI, 8, as given by Simson,
8.
it is inferred that two triangles which are similar to a third
triangle are shuilar to each other; this is a particular case of
VI. 21, which the student should consult, in order to see the
validity of the inference.
VI. 9. The word 'part is here used in the restricted sense of
the first definition of the fifth Book. VI. 9 is a p.articular case
of VI. 10.
VI. 10. The most important case of this proposition is that
in which a straight line is to be divided either internally or ex-
ternally into two parts which shall be in a given ratio.
Tlie case in which the straight line is to be divided infernally
is given in the text suppose, for example, that the given ratio is
;
that of AE to EC; then AB

is divided at G in the given ratio.
Suppose, however, that AB

is to be divided externally in a
given ratio ; that is, suppose that AB

is to be produced so that
the whole straight line made up of A B and the part produced

may be to the part produced in a given ratio. Let the given ratio
; .
283 NOTES ON
c /6,
be that of ^C to CE. Join EB\ through C draw a straight line

parallel io EB] then this straight line will meet ^ fi, produced
through B, at the required point.
VI, I r. This is a particular case of VI. 12.
VI. 14. The following is a full exhibition of the steps which
If ad to the result that FB and BQ are in one straight line.
The angle DBF is equal to the angle GBE; [Hypothesis.

add to each the angle FBE
therefore the augles DBF, FBE are together equal to the angles
GBE, FBE. [Axiom 2.
But the angles DBF, FBE are together equal to two right
angles; [T. 13.
therefore the angles GBE, FBE are together equal to two right
angles; [Axiom i.
therefore and BG are in one straight line.
FB [I. 14.
VI. This may be inferred from VI. 14, since a triangle
15.
is half of a parallelogram with the same base and altitude.
It is not difficult to establish a third proposition conversely

connected with the two involved in VI. 14, and a third propo-
sition similarly conversely connected with the two involved in
VI. 15. These propositions are the following.
Equal parallelograms which have their sides reciprocally pro-
portional, have their an[/les equal, each to each.
Equal trianrjlcs which have the sides about a pair of angles
reciprocally proportional, have those angles equal or together equal
to two right angles.
We will take the latter proposition.
Let ABC, ADE be equal triangles; and lot CA be to AD
as AE is to AB: either the angle BAC shall be equal to the
angle DAE, or the angles BAC and DAE shall be together equal
to two ri''ht angles.
[The student can construct the figure for himself.]
Place the triangles so that CA and AD
may be in one straight
line ;then if EA and A B i\xe in one straight line the angle BA C
is equal to the angle DAE. [I. 15.
If EA and AB
are not in one straight line, produce BA through
A to F, so that AF
may be equal to AE join DF and EF.
;
Then because CA is to j4Z) as AE is to AB, [Hypothesis.

and AFis equal to AE, [Construction.
therefore CA AD as A F to A B.
is io is [V. 9, V. 1 1
Therefore the triangle DAF is equal to the triangle BA C. [VI. 15.

.
EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. 2S7
But tlie triangle DAE is equal to the triangle BA C. [Ili/pothesis.

"J'herefin-e the triangle D-d ii' is equal to the triangle T^^l /'. [.lac. i.
Tlitreforo £F is parallel to AD. [I. 39.

Suppose now that the angle DAE is greater than the an^le
DAF.
Then the angle CAE is equal to the angle AEF, [1. 29.
and therefore the angle CAE is equal to the angle AFE, [I. 5.
and therefore the angle C^-lA'is equal to the angle BAC. [I. 29.
Therefore the angles BAC and DAE are together equal to two
right angles.
Similarly the proposition may be demonstrated if the angle
DAE than the angle DAF".
is less
VI. 16. This is a particular case of YI. 14.

YI. 17. This is a particular case of YI. 16.
YI. 22. There is a step in the second part of YI, 22 which
requires examination. After it has been shewn that the figure
SR is equal to the similar and similarly situated figure Nil, it
is added "therefore PR is equal to Gil.'''' In the Greek text
reference is here made to a lemma which follows the proposition.
The word lemma is occasionally used in mathematics to denote
an auxiliary proposition. From the unusual circumstance of a
reference to something following, Simson pi-obably concluded
that the lemma could not be Euclid's, and accordingly he takes
uo notice of it.
The following is the substance of the lemma.
If PR be not equal to GIT, one of them must be greater than
the other; suppose PR greater than Gil.
Then, because SR and NJJ are similar figures, PR is to PS
asG/l 'm to GX. [\'I. Dcfinit'um r.
Hut PR is greater than Gil, {Hypothesis.

therefore PS is greater than GN. [Y. 14.
Therefore the triangle RPS is greater than the triangle'
IIGX. [I. 4, Axiom 9.
But, because SR and XII are similar figures, the triangle RPS '\4
equal to the triangle IIGX; iY^' "Ô-
which is imp issible.
Therefore PR is equal to GH.
YI. 23. In the figure of YI. 23 suppose BD and G^J? drawn.
Then the triangle BCD is to the triangle GCE as tlie parallelo-
gram AC is to the parallelogram CF. Hence the result may bo
extended to triangles, and wo have the following theorem.
2^88 NOTES ON
tHangles which have one angle of the one equal to one angle of the
other,have to one another the ratio which is compounded of tlie
ratios of their sides.
Then VI. 19 is an immediate consequence of this theorem.
For let ABC and DEF be similar triangles, so that AB is to BC
as DE is to EF; and therefore, alternately, AB is to DE as BO
is to EF. Then, by the theorem, the triangle ABC has to the
triangle DEF the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of AB
to DE and of BC to EF, that is, the ratio which is compounded
of the ratios of BC to EF and of BC to EF. And, from the
definitions of duplicate ratio and of compound ratio, it follows
that the ratio compounded of the ratios of BC to EF and of BC
to EF is the duplicate ratio of BC to EF.
VI. -25. It will be easy for the student to exhibit in detail
the process of shewing that BCand CF are in one straight Hne,
and also LE and EM the process is exactly the same as that in
;
I. 45, by which it is shewn that KII and IIM are in one straight
line, and also FG and GL.
It seems that VI. 25 is out of place, since it separates pro-
positions so closely connected as VI. 24 and VI. 26. AVe may
enunciate VI. 25 in familiar language thus: to make a figure
which shall have the form of one figure and the size of anotho'.
VI. 26. This proposition is the converse of VI. 24 it ;
might be extended to the case of two similar and similarly

situated parallelograms which have a pair of angles vertically
opposite.
We have omitted in the sixth Book Propositions 27, 28, 29,
and the first solution which Euclid gives of Proposition 30, as they
appear now to be never required, and have been condemned as
useless by various modern commentators; see Austin, Walker,
and Lardner. Some idea of the nature of these propositions may
be obtained from the following statement of the problem pro-
posed by Euclid in VI. 29. -^^ is a given straight line; it has
to be produced through jB to a point 0, and a parallelogram
described on A subject to the following conditions the paral-
;
lelogram is to be equal to a given rectilineal figure, and the

parallelogram on the base BO which can be cut off by a
straight line through B is to be similar to a given parallelo-
gram.
VI. 32. This proposition seems of no use. Moreover the
enunciation is imperfect. For suppose ED to be produced
;
through i) to a point F, such that DF

is equal to DE and ;
join OF. Then the triangle CDF will satisfy all the conditions
in Euclid's enunciation, as well as the triangle CDE but CF ;
and Cli are not in one straight line. It should be stated that
the bases must lie on corresponding sides of both the parallels
the bases CF and BC do not lie on corresponding sides of the
parallels AB and DC, and so the triangle CDF would not
fulfil all the conditions, and would therefore be excluded.
VI. ^J,. In VI. 33 Euclid implicitly gives up the restriction,

which he seems to have adopted hitherto, that no angle is to be
considered greater than two right angles. For in the demon-
stration the angle BGL may be any multiple whatever of the
angle BGC, and so may be greater than any number of right
angles.
VI. B, C, D. These propositions were introduced by
Simson. The important proposition VI. D occurs in the Me^ctXi;
Swraîs of Ptolemy.
THE ELEVENTH BOOK.

In addition Books of the Elements it is usual
to the first six
to read part of the eleventh Book. For an account of the
contents of the other Books of the Elements the student is
referred to the article Euchides in Dr Smith's Dictionary of

Greek and Roman Biograjthy, and to the article Irrational Quan-
tities in the Enr/lish Cydopa'dia. We may state briefly that
Books VII, VIII, IX treat on Arithmetic, Book on Irra- X
tional Quantities, and Books XI, XII on Solid Geometry.
XI. Def. lo. This definition is omitted by Simson, and
justly, because, as he shews, it is not true that solid figures
contained by the same number of similar and equal plane figures
are equal to one another. For, conceive two pyramids, which
have their bases similar and equal, but have different altitudes.
Suppose one of these bases applied exactly on the other; then if
the vertices be put on opposite sides of the base a certain solid is
forired, and if the vertices be put on the same side of the base
another solid is formed. The two solids thus formed are con-
t;uned by the same number of similar and equal plane figures,
but they are not equal.
It will be observed that in this example one of the solids has
a re-entrant solid angle ^ see page 264. It is however true that
19
290 NOTES ON
two convex solid figures are equal if they are contained by equal
plane figures similarly arranged; see Catalan's Theorcmes et
Prohlemes de Geometric Elementairc. This result was first demon-
strated by Cauchy, who turned his attention to the point at the
request of Legendre and Malus; see the Journal de VEcole
Poll/technique, Cahier i6.
XI, Dcf. 26. The word tetrahedron is now often used to
denote a solid bounded by any four triangular faces, that is, a
pyramid on a triangular base and when the tetrahedron is to
;
be such as Euclid defines, it is called a regular tetrahedron.

Two other definitions may conveniently be added.
A straight line is said to be parallel to a plane when they do
not meet if produced.
The angle made by two straight lines which do not meet is
the angle contained by two straight lines parallel to them, drawn
through any point.
XI. 11. In XI. 21 the first case only is given in the ori-
ginal. In the second case a certain condition must be intro-
duced, or the proposition will not be true the polygon BCDEP
;
must have no re-entrant z,ng\Q. See note on I. 32.

The propositions in Euclid on Solid Geometry which are
now not read, contain some very important results respecting the
volumes of solids. We will state these results, as they are
often of use; the demonstrations of them are now usually
given as examples of the Integral Calculus.
We have already explained in the notes to the second Book
how the area of a figure is measured by the number of square
inches or square feet which it contains. In a similar manner the
volume of a solid is measured by the number of cubic inches or
cubic feet which it contains ; a cubic inch is a cube in which each
of the faces is a square inch, and a cubic foot is similarly
defined.
The volume of a prism is found by multiplying the number
of square inches in base by the number of inches in its

its
altitude ; the volume is thus expressed in cubic inches. Or we

may multiply the number of square feet in the base by the
number of feet in the altitude the volume is thus expressed in
;
cubic feet. By the base of a prism is meant either of the two

equal, similar, and parallel fgures of XI. Definition 13; and the
altitude of the prism is the perpendicular distance between these
two planes.
The rule for the volume of a prism involves the fact that
prisms on eqtial bases and between the satne parallels arc equal m
vol lime.
Aparallelepiped is a particular case of a prism. The volume
of a pyramid is one third of the volume of a prism on the same
base and having the same altitude.
For an account of what are called the ^fire regular solids the
student is referred to the chaj^ter on Polyhedrons in the Treatise
on Spherical Trigonometry.
THE TWELFTH BOOK.

Two propositions are given from the twelfth Booh, as they
are very important, and are required in the University Examina-
tions. The Lemma is the first proposition of the tenth Book,
and is required in the demonstration of the second proposition of
the twelfth Book.
1U--2
APPENDIX
This Appendix consists of a collection of important pro-
positions which will be found useful, both as affording
geometrical exercises, and as exhibiting results which are
often required in mathematical investigations. The student
will have no diflBculty in drawing for himself the requisite
figures in the cases where they are not given.

1. Tliesum of the squares on the sides of a triangU
is equal twice the square on Jialfthe base, together icith
to
ticice tJie square on the straight line which joins the certejs
to the miihlle point of the base.
Let ABC be a triangle; and let D

be the middle point
of the base AB. Draw CE perpendicular to the base
B A B A B E
meeting it at -C; then E may be cither in AB or in AB

produced.
First, let E coincide with D ; then the proposition
follows immediately from I. 47.
Next,let E not coincide with D then of the two ;
angles ADC and BDC, one must be obtuse and one acute.
Suppose the angle A7JC obtuse. Then, by II. 12, tho
square on AC equal to the squares on AD, DC, toge-
is
ther with twice the rectangle ylD, DE; and, by II. tho 1.'},
square on BC together with twice the rectangle* DE /i/>>. is

equal to the S(piares on BD, DC. Therefore, by Axiom 2,
tiie squares on AC, BC, together with twice the rectani;lo
BD, DE
arc equal to the squares on A 1>, DB, and twice
the Sfjuare on D(^, together with twice the rectangle
AD, DE. But AD
is C(iii:d to ])Ii. Thorcfore the scinares
on AC, ECdi'Q equal to twice the squares on AD, DC.
294 APPENDIX.
2. If tiro chords intersect iritJiui a circle^ the angle
which they include is measured by half the sum of the in-
tercepted arcs.
Let the chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at E\
join AD.
The angle A EC
is equal to the
angles ADE, and DAE, by
I. 32 that is, to the angles
;
standing on the arcs and AC

BD. Thus the angle is A EC
equal to an angle at the cir-
cumference of the circle stand-
ing on the sum of the arcs AC
and BD and is therefore equal
;
to an angle at the centre of the

circle standing on half the sum of these arcs.
Similarly the angle CEB is measured by half the sum
of the arcs CB
and AD.
3. If tico cJioirls produced intersect without a circle,

the angle which they include is measured hy half the
difference of the intercepted arcs.
Let the chords AB and CD of a circle, produced, in-
tersect at E\ join AD.
Tlie angle ADCia equal to the angles EAD and A ED,
by I. 32. Thus the angle AEC is equal to the difference
of tlie angles yli)C and ^yiZ>; that is, to an angle at tlie
circumference of the circle standing on an arc which is the
difference of and AC BD;

and is therefore cqunl to an
angle at the centre of the circle standing on half the diflcr-
encc of these arcs.
APPENDIX. 295
4. To draio a straight line which shall touch two

gicen circles.
Let A be the centre of tlie gi-eater circle, and B the

centre of tlic less circle. With centre A, and radius equal
to tiie difference of tlie radii of the given circles, describe
a circle ; from B
draw a straight line touching the circle
so described at G. Join AC
and produce it to meet the
circumference at D. Draw the radius BE
parallel to A D,
and on the same side oiAB\ and join DE. Then shall BE
touch both circles.
See I. 33, I. 29, and III. IG Corollary,

Since two straight lines can be drawn from to touch B
the described circle, two solutions can be obtained and the ;
two straight lines which are tiuis drawn to touch the two
given circles can be shewn to meet AB, produced through
Bj at the same point. The construction is api)licable when
each of the given circles is without the other, and also
when they intersect.
When each of the given circles is without the other v/c
can obtain two other solutions. For, describe a circle with
A as a centre and radius equal to the sum of the radii of
the given circles and continue as before, except tliat
; BE
and AD will now be on opposite sides of AH. The two
straight lines which arc thus drawn to touch the two given
circles can be shewn to intersect AB
at the same poiut.
296 APPENDIX,
5. To describe a circle which shall j^dss through three
given points not in the same straight line.
This is solved in Euclid IV. 5.
6. To describe a circle which shall pass through two

given points on the same side of a giveti straight line, and
touch that straight line.
Let A and B be the given points; join and pro* AB
duce it to meet the given straight line at 6' Make a
square equal to the rectangle CA, CB (II. 14), and on the
given straight line take CE

equal to a side of this S(]uarc.
Describe a circle tlirough A, B, E
(5); this will be the
circle required (III. 37).
Since E can be taken on either side of C, there are two
solutions.
The construction ^lils if AB
is parallel to the given
straight line. In this case bisect AB
at D, and draw DG
at right angles to AB, meeting the given straight line at C
Then describe a circle through yi, B, C.
7. To describe a circle which shall pass through a

given point and tcuch two given straight lines.
Let A be the given point produce the given straight
;
lines to meet at B, and join A 73. Through draw a B

straight line, bisecting that angle included by the given
straight lines within which A lies and in this bisecting
;
straight line take any point C. From 6' draw a perpendicular

on one of the given straight lines, meeting it at i> with ;
centre C, and radius CD, describe a circle, meeting AB,

produced if necessary, at E. Join CE; and through A draAV
a straiglit line parallel to CE, meeting BC, produced if
APPENDIX. 297
necessary, at F. The circle described from the centre F^

M'ith radius FA, will touch the given straight lines.
For, draw a perpendicular from F on the straight line
BD, meeting it at G. Then CE is as BC is to BF,
to FA
and CD is to FG as BG is to BF (VI. 4, V. 16). There-
fore CE is to FA as (7i> is to FG (V. 11). Therefore
C^ is to CD as i^yi is to FG (V. 16). But CE is equal
to CD therefore i^yl is equal to FG (V. J).
;
If A is on the straight line BC we determine E as

before then join ED, and draw a straight line through A
;
parallel to ED meeting BD produced if necessary at G ;
from G straight line at right angles to BG, and the

draw a
point of intersection of this straiglit line with BCy produced
if necessary, is the rccpiircd centre.
As the circle described from the centre C, with the

radius CD, will meet AB at two points, there arc two
solutions.
If Ais on one of the given straight lines, draw from
A a straight line at right angles to this given straight
line ; the ]>()int of intersection of this straight line with
cither of the two straiglit lines which l>iseet the angles
made by the given straight lines may be taken for the
centre of the required circle.
If the two given straight lines are parallel, instead of
drawing a straight line BC to bisect the angle between
them, we must draw it parallel to them, and equidistant
from them.
298 APPENDIX.
8. 7o describe a circle ichich shall touch three
given straight lines, not more than two of ichich are
parallel.
Proceed as in Euclid IV. 4. If the given straight lines

form a triangle, four circles can be described, namely, one
as in Euclid, and three others each touching one side of
the triangle and the other two sides produced. If two
of the given straight lines are parallel, two circles can be
described, namely, one on each side of the third given
straight line.
9. To describe a circle ichich shall touch a given

circle, and touch a given straight line at a given jyoint.
Let A be the given point in the given straight Hne,
and C be the centre of the given circle. Tiirough C draw
a straight line perpendicuhxr to the given straight line,
and meeting the circumference of the circle at B and D,

of which JJ is the more remote from the given straight
line. Join AD^ meeting the circumference of the circle at
E. From A draw a straight line at right angles to the
given straiglit Hne, meeting CE produced at F. Then 7'^ shall
be the centre of the required circle, and FA its radius.
For the angle AEF equal to the angle CED 15);
is (I.
and the angle EAF eciual to the angle CDE
is 29); (I.
therefore the angle AEF equal to the angle EAF;
is
therefore AF'i^ equal to EF {I. 6).
APPENDIX. 299
In a similar manner another solution may be obtained

by joining AB. If the given straight line falls without the
given circle, the circle obtained by the first solution touches
the given circle externally, and the circle obtained by the
second solution touches the given circle internally. If the
given straight line cuts the given circle, both the circles
obtained touch the given circle externally.
10. To describe a curie ich'ich shall pass through tico

gieen points and touch a given circle.
Let A and B be the given pomts. Take any point G
on the circumference of the given circle, and describe a
circle through A, B, C. If this described circle touches
the given cu-cle, it is the required circle. But if not, let D
be tlic other point of intersection of the two circles. Let

y/iând CD be produced to meet at B
from-, Bdraw a
straight line touching given circle at F. Then a circle
tlic
described through A, B, F
shall be the rctiuired circle.
See in. 33 and III. 37.
There arc two solutions, because two straight lines can
be drawn from B to touch the given circle.
If the straight line which bisects AB
at riglit angles
passes through the centre of the given circle, the con-
AB
struction fails, for nnd CD arc parallel. In this case
F must be determined l)y drawing a straight line parallel
to AB so as to touch the given circle.
300 APPENDIX.
11. To describe a circle which shall touch two giten

straight lines and a given circle.
Draw two straight lines parallel to the given straight

lines, at a distance from them equal to the radius of the
given circle, and on the sides of them remote from the
centre of the given circle. Describe a circle touching the
straight lines thus drawn, and passing through the centre
of the given circle (7). A circle having the same centre as
the circle thus described, and a radius equal to the excess
of its radius over that of the given circle, will bo the re-
quired cii'cle.
Two solutions will be obtained, because there arc two

solutions of the problem in 7 the circles thus obtained
;
touch the given circle externally.
We may obtain two circles which touch the given circle

internally,by drawing the straight lines parallel to the given
straight lines on the sides of them adjacent to the centre
of the given circle.
12. To describe a, circle which shall pass through a

given point and touch a gicen straight line and a given
circle.
We will suppose the given point and the given straight

line without the circle; other cases of the problem may be
treated in a ^similar manner.
Let A be the given point, and J3 the centre of the

given circle. From B
draw a perpendicular to tlie given
straight line, meeting it at (', and meeting the circum-
ference of the given circle at D
and B, so that 7> is be-
tween Jj and ('. Join EA and determine a point /în EA^
])roduced if necessary, such that the rectangle E^L, EF
may be equal to the rectangle EC, ED
this can be done
;
by describing a circle through A, O, i>, which will meet

EA at the required point (III. 36, Corollary). Describe a
circle to pass tiu'ough A and F
and touch the given straight
line (G); this shall bo the required circle.
APPENDIX. 301
For, let the circle thus described touch the given

straiglit line at G
join ; EG
meeting the given circle at //,
and join DII. Then the triangles EITD and ECG are
similar; and therefore the rectangle EG, ED is equal to
the rectangle EG, EH (III. 31, VI.
4, YI. \CA Thus the
rectangle EA, EF equal to the rectangle EH,
is andEG ;
therefore // is on the circumference of the described

circle (III. 36, Corollari/). Take K
the centre of the
described circle join KG, KH, and BH. Then it may
;
be shewn that the angles KHG

and EHB
are equal
(I. 29, I. 5). Therefore KHB
is a straight line and ;
therefore the described circle touches the given circle.
Two solutions ^^^1I be obtained, because there are two

solutions of the problem in G the circles thus described
;
touch the given circle externally.
By joining DA
instead of EA
we can obtain two solu-
tions in which the circles described touch the given circle
internally.
302 APPENDIX.
13. To describe a circle winch shall touch a given

straight line and two given circles.
Let A be the centre of the larger circle and B

the
centre of the smaller circle. Draw a straight line parallel
to the given straight line, at a distance from it equal to the
radius of the smaller circle, and on the side of it remote
from A. Describe a circle Avith A
as centre, and radius
equal to the difference of the radii of the given circles.
Describe a circle Avhich shall pass through B, touch exter-
nally the circle just described, and also touch the straight
line "vvhieh has been diawn parallel to the given straight
line (12). Then a circle having the same centre as the
second described circle, and a radius equal to the excess
of its radius over the radius of the smaller given circle,
will be the required circle.
Two solutions will be obtained, because there are two

solutions of the problem in 12 the circles thus described
;
touch the given circles externally.
AVe may obtain in a similar manner circles which touch

the given circles internally, and also circles which touch
one of the given circles internally and the other exter-
nally.
14. Let A he the centre of a circle, and B the centre

of a larger circle ; let a straight line he drawn touching
the former C and the latter circle at D, and
circle at
meeting AB produced through A at T. From T draw
any straight line meeting the smaller circle at K
and L,
and the larger circle at M
and N
; so that the fre letters
T, K, L, M, N
are in this order. Then the straight line^
AK, KC, CL, LA
shall he respectively parallel to the
straight lines BM, MD, DN, NB; and the rectangle
TK, TN shall he equal to the rectangle TL, TM, and
equal to the rectangle TC, TD.
Join AG, BD. Then the triangles TMCand TBD are

APPENDIX. 303
equiangular ; and tlicrcforc TA is to 77? as ^(7 is to BD

(VI. 4, V. IG), that is, as AK is to BM.
Therefore tlie triangles and TAK are similar TBM

(VI. 7); therefore the angle TAK
TBM \ and therefore AK
is parallel to BM. Similarly
^Z is parallel to BN. And because is parallel to AK
BM and AGparallel to BD, the angle is equal CAK
to the angle DBM and therefore the angle
\
is equal CLK
to the angle DNM (III. 20); and therefore CL is parallel
to DN. Similarly CK
is parallel to DM.
Now TM is to TD as Ti) is to TN
(III. 37, VI. 16);
and TM'\s tori> as TK is to TC
(VI. 4); therefore TK
is to TC as 77> is toTN; and therefore the rectangle
TK, TN is equal to the rectangle TC, TD. Similarly the
rectangle TL, TM
is equal to the rectangle TC, TD.
If each of the given circles is without the other we

may suppose the straight line which touches both circles
to meet AB at Thcticecn A
and B, and the above results
will all hold, provided we interchange the letters A' and ;
L
so that the five letters arc now to be in the following
order, L, K, T, M, N.
The point Tis called a centre of similitude of the two

circles.
304 APPENDIX.
15. To describe a circle which shall 2âss through a

given point and touch two given circles.
Let Abe the centre of the smaller circle and tlie B

centre of the larger circle ; and let E
be the given point.
Draw a straight line touching the former circle at C and

the latter at Z>, and meeting the straight line AB, pro-
duced through A, at T. Join TE and divide it at so F
that the rectangle TE, TFmay be equal to the rectangle
TC, TD. Then describe a circle to pass through andE F
and touch either of the given circles (10); this shall be the
required circle.
APPENDIX. 305
For suppose that the circle is described so as to touch

the smaller given circle let G be the point of contact wo
; ;
have then to shew tiiat the described circle will also

touch the larger given circle. Join TG, and produce it
to meet the larger given circle at H. Then the rectangle
TG, 77/ is equal to the rectangle TC, (14) TD
therefore ;
the rectangle TG, Til is equal to the rectangle TE, TF\

and therefore the described circle passes through //.
Let be the centre of this circle, so that OGxi is a

straight line ; wo have to shew that OHD
is a straight
line.
Let TG intersect the smaller circle again at A" ; then

AK is parallel to BH{\4);
therefore the angle is AKT
equal to the angle BHGand the angle A
; KG
is equal to the
angle AGK, which is equal to the angle OGH, which is
equal to the angle OHG. Therefore the angles andBUG
OHG together arc equal to andAKT AKG
together;
that is, to two right angles. Therefore OHB
is a straight
line.
Two solutions will be obtained, because there are two

solutions of the problem in 10. Also, if each of the given
circles is without the other, two other solutions can be
obtained by taking for T
the point between and A B
where a straight line touching the two given circles meets
AB. The various solutions correspond to the circum-
stance that the contact of circles may bo external or
internal.
16. To describe a circle which shall touch three given

circles.
Let A be the centre of that circle which is not greater
than either of the other circles; let B and Cbe the centres
of the other circles. With centre B, and radius equal to
the excess of the radius of the circle with centre over B
the radius of the circle with centre A, describe a circle.
Also with centre C, and radius equal to the excess of the
radius of the circle with centre C over the radius of the
circle with centre A, describe a circle. Describe a circle
to touch externally these two described circles and to pass
through A
(15). Then a circle having the same centre as
the last described circle, and having a radius equal to
20
30G APPENDIX.
the excess of its radius over the radius of the circle with
centre A, will touch externally the three given circles.
In a similar way we may describe a circle touching
internally the three given circles, or touching one of them
externally and the two others internally, or touching one of
them intenially and the two others externally.
17. In (I given indefinite straight line it ?> required

tofind a jjoint such that the sum of its distances from
two given 2ôints on the same side of the straight line
shall he the least possible.
Let A and B be the two given points. From A draw

a perpendicular to the given straight line meeting it at C\
and produce AC to Dso that CD may be equal to AC.
Join DB
meeting the given straight line at E. Then E
shall be the required point.
For, let F
be any other point in the given straight line.
Then, because AC
is equal to DC, and EC is common to
the two triangles ACE, DCE\ and that the right angle
ACE is equal to the right angle DCE\ therefore AE is
equal to DE. Similarly, ^.P is equal to DF. And the

sum of DFand FB is greater than BD (I. 20) :therefore
the sum of AFand FB is greater than BD\ that is, the
sum of ^F
and FB is greater than the sum of DEand
EB therefore the sum of î^ and
;
FB is greater than
the sum of AE and EB^

APPENDIX. 307
18. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle is less than

that of any other triangle qf equal area standing on tlie
.same base.
Let ABC bo an isosceles
triangle; AQC any other tri-
angle cqnal in area and stand-
ing on the same base A C
Join BQ
then ; is paral-BQ
lel to. 16' vl. 39).
And it will follow from 17

that the sum of AQ and Q(J
is gi-cater than the sum of AB
and BC.
19. //' a polygon he not equilateral a polygon may he

found of the same number qf sides, and equal in area, hut
having a less perimeter.
For, let CD, DE

be two adjacent unequal sides of
the polygon. Join CE. Through D
draw a straight line
parallel to CE. Bisect CE at L from L draw a straight
;
line at rigiit angjes to CE meeting the stniight line drawn

through D
at A". 'J'hen by removing from the given poly-
gon the triangle CDE
and applying the triangle CKE^
we obtain a polygon having the same number of sides
as the given polygon, and equal to it in area, but having
a less perimeter (lt>}.
20—2
;
308 APPENDIX,
20. A and B
are tico gicen ^joints on the same side of
a giveti straight line, and AB
produced meets the given
straight line at C\ of all 2'>oints in the given straight line
on each side of C, it is required to determine thai at
which ABsubtends the greatest angle.
Describe a circle to pass through A and B, and to

touch the given straight line on that side of C -which is to
be considered (6). Let D
be the point of contact: D
shall be the required point.
For, take any other point E

in the given straight line,
on the same side of (7 as Z> is; draw EA, EB; then one
at least of these straight lines will cut the circumference
ADB.
Suppose that BE cuts the circumference at F\]oviv AF.
Then the angle AFB is equal to the angle ADB (III. 21);
and the angle AFB is greater than the angle AEB (I. 16);
therefore the angle ADB is greater than the angle AEB.
21. A and 5 given points within a circle

e^re tico
and AB is draicti and produced
both tcat/s so as to divide
the irhole circumference into tico arcs; it is required to
determine the point in each of these arcs at which AB
subtends the greatest angle.
APPENDIX. 309
Describe a circle to pass through A and D

and to touch
the circunifcrcncc considered (10) the point of contact
:
will be the rc(|uired point. The demonstration is similar

to that in the preceding proposition.
22. A and B are two glcen

2)oints icithoiit a given
circle; required to determine the points on the cir-
it is
cumference of the (jicen circle at ichich AB subtends the
greatest and least angles.
Suppose that neither AB nor AB produced cuts the

given circle.
Describe two circles to pass through A and B, and to

touch the given circle (10) the point of contact of the
:
circle which touches the given circle externally will be the

point where the angle is greatest, and the point of contact
of the circle which touches the given circle internally will
be the point where the angle is least. The demonstration
is similar to that in 20.
If AB cuts the given circle, both the circles obtained

by 10 touch the given circle internally in this case the
;
angle subtended by ^1^ at a point of contact is less than

the angle subtended at any other point of the circumference
of the given circle which is on the same side of AB. Here
the angle is greatest at the points where AB
cuts the
circle, and is there equal to two right angles.
If AB
produced cuts the given circle, both the circles
obtained by 10 touch the given circle externally in this ;
case the angle subtended by AB

at a point of contact is
greater than the angle subtended at any other point of
the circumference of the given circle which is on the
same side of AB. Here the angle is least at the points
where AB
produced cuts the circle^ and is there zero.
310 APPENDIX.
23. If there he four magnitudes such that the first is
to the second as the third is to the fourth ; then shall the
first together with the second he to the excess of the first
above the second as the third together icith the fourth is to
the excess of the third above the fourth.
For, the first together with the second is to the second

as the third together with the fourth is to the fourth (V. 18).
Therefore, alternately, the first together with the second is
to the third together with the fourth as the second is to
the fourth (V. 16).
Similarly, by V. 17 and V. 16, the excess of the first
above the second is to the excess of the third above the
fourth as the second is to the fourth.
Therefore, by Y. 11, the first together with the second is
to the excess of the first above the second as the third
together with the fourth is to the excess of the third above
the foui'th.
24. TJie straight lines drawn at right angles to the

sides of a triangle from tJie points of hisection. of the sides
Qneet at the same point.
Let ABC be a triangle; bisect BC at Z>, and bisect CA

at Efrom
; D
draw a straight line at right angles to BC,
and from E
draw a straight line at right angles to CAi
let these straight lines meet at G^ : we have then

to shew
that the straight line which bisects AB
at right angles
also passes tlirough G. From the triangles BDG and
;
APPENDIX. 311
CDG we can shewBG equal to CG and from tlio

lliat is ;
triangles CEG AEG we can shew tliat CG equal to

and is
AG therefore BG equal to AG. Then we (fraw a

\ is if
straight line from G to the middle point of AB wo
can shew that this straight line is at right angles to AB:
that is, the line which bisects AB 2X right angles passes
throu<2rh G.
25. TJie straight lines drmcn from the angles of a

triangle to the 2)oints of bisection of the ojyposite sides
meet at the same point.
Let ABO
be a triangle bisect at D, bisect CA at
; BG
E, and bisect AB
at F; join and OF meeting at G;BE
join AG and GD: then AG and GD shall lie in a straight

line.
The triangle BEA is equal to the triangle BEC, and

the triangle GEA is equal to the triangle GEO (I. 38);
therefore, by the third Axiom, the triangle BGA is equal
to the triangle BGC.
Similarly, the triangle CGA is equal to the triangle CGB.
Therefore the triangle BGA e<iual to the triangle CGA.
is
And the triangle BGD is CGD
equal to the triangle (1.38)
therefore the triangles BGA and BGD together are equal
to the triangles CGA and CGD t<igether. Therefore the
triangles BGA and BGD togotlicr are equal to half the
triangle ABC. Therefore G must on the straight line fall
AD) that AG and GD in a straight line.
is, lie
312 APPENDIX.
26. Tlie straif/hi lines ichich bisect the angles of a
triangle meet at the same j)oint.
Let ABC be a triangle ; bisect the angles at B and G
by straight lines meeting at G ;

join AG : then AG shall
bisect the angle at A.
From draw GD perpendicular to BC, GE perpen-
G
dicular to CA, and (ri^ perpendicular to AB.
From the triangles BGF and BGD we can shew that
GF is equal to GD; and from the triangles CGE and
CGD we can shew that GE is equal to GD therefore GF ;
is equal to GE. Then from the triangles AFG and AEG

we can shew that the angle FAG is equal to the angle
EAG.
The theorem may also be demonstrated thus. Produce
^G^ to meet BG at H. Then yl5 is to BH as ^G^ to is
GH, and AG is to CH as ^6^ is to GH (VI. 3); there-
foreAB is to i?i/ as AC
is to (7i7(V. 11) therefore ; AB
is to yi(7 as BHis to C'/T (V. 16); therefore the straight
lineAH bisects the angle at (VI. 3).A
27. Let tico sidss of a triangle he produced through
the base; then the straight lines ichich bisect the tiro
exterior angles tlius formed, and tlie straight line which
bisects the vertical angle of the triangle, meet at the same
point.
lliis may be she^vn like 26: if we adopt the second

method we shall have to use VI. ^.
;
APPENDIX. 313
28. The perpendiculars drawn from the ancfles of a
triangle on the opposite sides meet at the same point.
Let ADC be a triangle and ; first suppose that it is not
obtuse angled. From draw B BE x)erpendicular to CA ;
A F B G
from (7 draw OF
perpendicular to AB
let these perpen- ;
diculars meet at G
join AG, and produce it to meet
;
BC
at D: then AD
shall be perpendicular to BC.
For a circle will go round A EG F

{Note on HI. 22) there- ;
fore the angle FAG is equal to the angle FEG

(III. 21).
And a circle will go round BCEF{lll. 31, N'ote on III. 21)
therefore the angle FEB
is equal to the angle FCB.
Therefore the angle BAD
is equal to the angle BCF. And
the angle at B
is common to the two triangles and BAD
BCF. Therefore the third angle BDA
is equal to the
third angle BFC (Note on I. 32). But the angle is BFC
a right angle, by construction ; therefore the angle is BDA
a right angle.
In the same way the theorem may be demonstrated

when the triangle is obtuse angled. C>r this case may be
deduced from what has been already shewn. For sui)pose
the angle at A obtuse, and let the perpendicular from B
on the opposite side meet that side produced at E, and let
the i)eri)cndicular from C on the opposite side meet that
side /) rod 'teed at F; and let BE
and CF be produced to
meet at G. Then in the triangle BCG the perpendiculars
BF and CE meet at therefore by the former case the
. / ;
straight line GA produced will be perpendicular to BC.

;
S14 APPENDIX.
29. If from any jôint in the circumference of the
circle described round a triangle x>eri:endlculars he drawn
to the sides of the triangle^ the three points of intersection
are in the same straight line.
Let ABC
be a triangle, P
any point on the circum-
ference of the circumscribing circle; from P
draw Pi>,
PE, PF perpendiculars to the sides BC, CA, AB respec-

tively :D, E, F shall be in the same straight line.
P
[We will suppose that is on the arc cut off by AB, on
the opposite side from C, and that E
is on CA produced
through A the demonstration will only have to be slightly

;
modified for any other figure.]

A circle will go round PEAF
{Note on III. 22) there- ;
fore the anglePFE equal to the angle

is PAE
(III. 21).
But the angles PAE and PAC
are together equal to two
right angles (I. 13); and the angles andPAC PBOare
together equal to two right angles (III. 22). Therefore
the angle PAEis equal to the angle PBC; therefore the
angle PFE
is equal to the angle PBC.
Again, a circle will go round PFDB

{Note on III. 21)
therefore the angles PFDand PBD
are together equal
to two right angles (III. 22). But the angle PBD
has
been shewn equal to the angle PFE. Therefore the angles
PFD and PFEarc together equal to two right angles.
Therefore EF
and FD are in the same straight line.
APPENDIX. 315
30. ABC is a triangle, and is the point of inter-

section of the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite
tides of the triangle: the circle 2chich 2Jasses through the
middle points of OA, OB, DC will pass through the feet
of the perpendiculars and through the middle points of
the sides of the triangle.
Let Z), E, F be tlie middle points of OA, OB, OC
respectively ; let G
be the foot of the perpeudicular from
A ou BC, and // the middle point of BC.
nien OBG a right-angled triangle and

is is the E
middle point of hypotenuse
tiie OB
therefore is eqii:d
; EG
to EO; therefore the angle EGO
EOG. Similarly, the angle FGO
FOG. Therefore the angle FGE
FOE. But tiie angles and FOE BA
are together equal
to two right angles therefore the angles
; and C FGE BA
are together equal to two right angles. And the angle BAC
is equal to tlie angle EDF, because EI), are parallel DF
to BA, AOyi. 2). Therefore the angles and FGE EDF
are together equal to two right angles. Hence is on the G
circumference of the circle which passes through D, E, F
{Note on III. 22),
Again, FII is parallel to OB, and EH parallel to OC \
therefore the angle EHF is the angle EGF.

eipial to
Therefore H is also ou the circumference of the circle.
316 . APPENDIX.
Similarly, the two points in each of the other sides of
the triangle ABC may be shewn to be on the circum-
ference of the circle.
The which is thus shewn to pass through these

circle
nine points may be called the Nine points circle: it has
some curious properties, of wliich we will now give two.
The radius of the Nine points circle is half of the
o'adius of the circle described round the original triangle.
For the triangle DEF
has its sides respectively halves
of the sides of the triangle ABC, so that the triangles are
similar. Hence the radius of the circle described round
DEF is half of the radius of the circle described romid
ABC.
If ^ he the centre of the circle described round the
triangle ABC, the centre of the Nine points circle is the
middle point of SO.
For HS is at right angles to BC, and therefore parallel
to GO. Hence the straight line which bisects HG at right
angles must bisect SO. And H
and G are on the circum-
ference of the Nine points circle, so that the straight line
which bisects HG
at right angles must pass through the
centre of the Nine points circle. Similarly, from the other
sides of the triangle ABC two other straight lines can be
obtained, which pass through the centre of the Nine points
circle and also bisect SO. Hence the centre of the Nine
points circle must coincide with the middle point of SO.
We may state that the Nine points circle of any triangle
touches the inscribed circle and the escribed circles of the
triangle a demonstration of this theorem will be found
:
in the Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiqucs for 1S42,

page 196. For the histoiy of this theorem see th« volume
of the same Journal for 1863, page 562.
31. If two straight lines bisecting two angles of a tri-

angle and terminated at the opposite sides be equal, the
bisected angles shall he equal.
Let ABC
1)0 a triangle; let the straight line bisect BD
the angle at B, and be terminated at the side AC; and
let the straight hue CE bisect the angle at C, and be ter-
minated at the side AB; and let the straight line bo BD
equal to the straight line CE: then the angle at shall be B
equal to the angle at C.
317
For, let BD
and CE meet at O then if the angle ;
OBG
be not equal to the angle OCB^ one of them mnst be
greater than the other let the angle OBC be the greater.
;
Then, because CB and BD

are equal to and CE, each BC
to each; l>ut the angle CBD is greater than the angle
BCE\ therefore CD is greater than (I. 24> BE
On the other side of the base BC make the triangle
BCF equal to the triangle CBE, so that may be equal BF
to CE, and CF equal to BE (I. 22); and join DF.
Tlien because BF
is equal to BD, the angle is BFD
equal to the angle BDF. And the angle is, by hy- OCD
pothesis, less than the angle QBE
and the angle ; is COD
equal to the angle BOE\ therefore the angle is ODC
greater than the angle OEB
(I. 32), and therefore the
angle ODC is gi-eater than the angle BFC.
Hence, by taking awav the equal angles and BDF

BFD, the angle FDC
is greater than the angle DEC ;
and therefore C'J'is greater than CD (I. 19) therefore ; BE

is greater than CD.
But it was shewn that CD is greater than BE\ which

is absurd.
Ilierefore the angles and OBC are not unequal, OCB
that is, they are equnl and therefore the angle
; is ABC
equal to the angle CB.A
[For the history of this theorem see Lady's and Gen^
tlemaris Diary for 1S59, page SS.]
318 APPENDIX.
32. If a quadrilateral figure does not admit of having
a circle described round it, the S7im of the rectangles con-
tained by the opposite sides is greater than the rectangle
contained hy the diagonals.
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral figure which does not
admit of having a circle described round it then the rect-
;
angle AB, DC, together with the rectangle BC, AD, shall
be greater than the rectangle AC, BD.
For. make
the angle ABE equal to the angle DBC,
and the angle BAE equal to the angle BDC; then the
triangle ABE is similar to the triangle BDC
(VI. 4);
therefore ABis toAE as DB is to DC
and therefore the
;
rectangle AB, DC is equal to the rectangle AE, DB.
Join EC. Then, since the angle ABE

is equal to the
angle DBC, the angle CBE is equal to the angle DBA.
And because the triangles ABE and DBC
are similar, AB
is to DBBE as is to BC therefore the triangles
; ABD
andEBC are similar (VI. 6) therefore CB is to CE as
;
DB DA
is to and therefore the rectangle CB,
; is DA
equal to the rectangle CE, DB.
Therefore the rectangle AB, DC, together with the
rectangle BC, AD
\^ equal to the rectangle AE, BD
together with the rectangle CE, BD
that is, equal to the
;
rectangle contained by BD
and the sum of and EC. AE
But the sum of AE
and EC
is greater than AC
(I. 20);
therefore the rectangle AB, DC, together with the rect-
angle BC, ADis greater than the rectangle AC, BD,
APPENDIX. 319
33. Jf the rectangle contained hy the diagonals of a

quadrilateral he equal to the sum of the rectangles con-
tained bjf the opposite sides, a circle can be described round
the quadrilateral.
This is the converse of VI. D; it can be demonstrated
indirectly with the aid of 32.
It is required to find a point in a given straight

34.
line,such that the rectangle contained by its distances from
two gicen points in the straight line may be equal to the
rectangle contained by its distances from two other given
points in the straight line.
Let A, B, C, D he four given points in the same
straight line : it is required to find a point in the straight
line, such that the rectangle contained by its distances

from B
A and may be equal to the rectangle contained by
its distances from C and £>.
On ADdescribe any triangle A ED;

and on de-CB
scribe a similar triangle CFB, so that CF
is parallel to
ylE, and BFto DE;
join EF, and let it meet the given
straight line at 0. Then shall be the required point.
For, OE is to OA as OF is to OC (VI. 4); therefore

OE is to OF as OA is to OC (V. 16\ Similarlv OE is to
OF AS OD is to OB. Therefore OA is to OC as OD to is
OB (V. 11). Therefore the rectangle OA, OB is equal to
the rectangle OC, OD.
;
320 APPENDIX,
The figure will vary slightly according to the situation
of the given points, but corresponding to an assigned
foin-
situation there will be only one point such as is required.
For suppose there could be such a point P, besides the
point O which is determined by the construction given
above and that the points are in the order A, C, JD, B, O, P.
;
Join PF, and let it meet CF, produced at G join BG.

Then the rectangle PA, PB is, by hvpothesis, equal to the
;
PD
rectangle PC, and therefore PA is to PC as
; PD is
to PB. But PA is to PC as PE is to PG (VI. 2) there-
fore PD
;
to PB as PE
is to PG (Y. 11); therefore BG
is
is parallel to DE.
But, by the construction, BF parallel to ED there-
is
fore BG and BF are themselves parallel
;
(I.
30) which
; is
absurd. Therefore P not such a point as
is required.
is
ON GEOMETRICAL ANALYSTS.
35. Tlie substantives analysis and synthesis, and the
corresponding adjectives analytical and synthetical, are of
frequent occurrence in mathematics. In general analysis
means decomposition, or the separating a whole into its
parts, and synthesis means composition, or making a whole
out of its parts. In Geometry however these words are
used in a more special sense. In synthesis we begin with
results already established, and end' with some new result
thus, by the aid of theorems already demonstrated, and
problems already solved, we demonstrate some new theo-
rem, or solve some new problem. In analysis Ave begin
with assuming the truth of some theorem or the solution of
some problem, and we deduce from the assumption con-
sequences which we can compare with results already esta-
blished, and thus test the validity of our assumption.
36. The propositions in Euclid's Elements are all ex-

hibited synthetically the student is only employed in ex-
;
amining the soundness of the reasoning by which each

successive addition is made to the collection of geometrical
truths already obtained and there is no hint given as to
;
the manner in which the propositions were originally dis-

covered. Some of the constructions and demonstrations
appear rather artificial, and we are thus naturally induced
to enquire whether any -rules can be discovered' by which
we may be guided easily and naturally to the investigation
of new propositions.
APPENDIX. 321
37. Geometrical analysis has sometimes been described

in huigiiaye whieli might lead to the expectation that
directions could be given which woukl enable a student
to proceed to tlie demonstration of any proposed theorem,
or the solution of any proposed problem, with confidence of
success but no such directions can be given. AVe will
;
state the exact extent of these directions. Suppose that a

new theorem is proposed for investigation, or a new
problem for trial. Assume the truth of the theorem or the
solution of the problem, and deduce consequences from
this assumption combined with results Avhicli have been
already established. If a consequence can be deduced
which contradicts some result already established, this
amounts to a demonstration that our assumption is inad-
missible that is, the theorem is not true, or the problem
;
cannot be solved. If a consequence can be deduced which

coincides with some result already established, we cannot
say that the assumption is inadmissible and it may happen
:
that by starting from the consequence which we deduced,

and retracing our ste^^s, we can succeed in giving a syn-
thetical demonstration of the theorem, or solution of the
problem. These directions however are very vague, be-
cause no certain rule can be prescribed by which we are to
combine our assumption with results already established;
and moreover no test exists by which wc can ascertain
whether a valid consequence which we have drawn from
an assumption will enal^le us to establish the assumption
itself. That a proposition may be false and yet funiish
consequences which are true, can be seen from a simple
example. Suppose a theorem were proposed for investi-
gation in the following words one angle of a triangle is to
;
another as the side opjwsite to the Jirst angle is to the side

opposite to the other. If this be assumed to lie true wo
can immediately deduce Euclid's result in I. 19; but from
Euclid's result in I. 19 we cannot retrace our steps and
establish the proposed theorem, and in fact the proposed
theorem is false.
Thus the only definite statement in the directions

respecting Geometrical analysis is. that if a consequence
can be deduced from an assumed proiM)sition which con-
tradicts a result already established, that assumed propo-
sition must be false.
21
322 APPENDIX.
38. We may mention, in particular, that a consequence
would contradict results already established, if we could
shew that it would lead to the solution of a problem
already given up as impossible. There are three famous
problems which are now admitted to be beyond the power
of Geometry namely, to find a straight line equal in length
;
to the circumference of a given circle, to trisect any given

angle, and to find two mean proportionals between two
given straight lines. The gi'ounds on which the geometrical
solution of these problems is admitted to be impossible
cannot be explained without a knowledge of the higher
parts of mathematics the student of the Elements may
;
however be content with the fact that innumerable attempts

have been made to obtain solutions, and that these attempts
have been made in vain.
The first of these problems is usually referred to as
the Quadrature of the Circle. For the history of it the
student should consult the article in the English Cyclo-
pcedia under that head, and also a series of papers in the
Athenwum for 1863 and subsequent years, entitled a
Budget of Paradoxes, by Professor De Morgan.
For approximate solutions of the problem we may
refer to Davies's edition of Hutton's Course of Mathe-
watics, Vol. I. page 400, the Ladifs and Gentleman's
Diary for 1855, page 86, and the PhilosojMcal Magazine
for April, 1862.
The third of the three problems is often referred to as
the Duplication of the Cube. See the note on VI. 13 in
Lardner's Euclid, and a dissertation by C. II. Biering en-
titled Historia ProUeniatis Cuhi Duplica?idi .Haunise, . .
1844.
We will now give some examples of Geometrical ana-
lysis.
39. Prom two given jôints it is required to draw to

the same point in a given straight line, two straight lines
equally inclined to the given straight line..
Let A and B be the given points, and CD the given

straight line.
AE and EB to be the two straight lines
Suppose
CD. Draw BF perpendicular to CD,
equally inclined to
and produce AE and BF to meet at G, Then the angle
;;
APPENDIX. 323
BED is equal to the angle AEC^ by hypothesis and ; tho

AEC is equal to the angle DEG 15). lleucc
angle (i. tho
triangles BEF and GEF are equal in all resi3ects (I. 26)
therefore FG is FB.
equal to
This result shews how we may synthetically solve the
problem. Draw BF perpendicular to CD, and produce
it to G, so that FG may be equal to FB; then join AG^
and AG will intersect CD at the required point.
40. To divide a given strai'jht line into tico iiarts

such tliat the difference of the squares on the parts may he
equal to a given square.
Let ABbe the given straight
line,and suppose C the required
point.
A- B
Then the difference of the
squares on AC
and BC
is to be equal to a given square.
But the difference of the squares on andAC BC
is equal
to the rectangle contained by their sum and difference
therefore this rectangle must be equal to the given square.
Hence we have the following synthetical solution. On AB
describe a rectangle equal to the given square (I. 45); then
tlie difference of AC
and CB will be equal to the side
of tlie rectangle adjacent to AB, and is therefore known.
And tlie sum of vl(7and CB is known. Thus AC
and CB
are known.
It is obvious that the given square must not exceed tho
square on AB, in order that the problem may be possible.
There are two positions of (', if it is not specified which
of the two segments AC
and CB is to be greater than the
other; but only one position, if it is specified.
21-2
;
324 APPENDIX.
In like manner we may solve the problem, to produce
a gh'en straight line so that the square on the whole
straight line made ap of the given straight line and the
part produced^ may exceed the square on the p>art pro-
duced hy a given square, ichich is not less than the square
on the given sttâight line.
The two problems may be combined in one enunciation
thus, to divide a given straight line internally or exter-
nally so that the difference of the squares on the segments
tnay be equal to a given square.
41. To find a jooint in the circumference of a given
segment of a circle, so that the straight lines ichich join
the p)oint to the extremities of the straight line on which
the segment stands inay he together equal to a given
straight line.
Let A CB be the circumference of the given segment,

and suppose C the required point, so that the sum oi AG
and CB is equal to a given straight line.
Produce AG to D
so that CD may be equal to CB
and join DB.
Then AD h equal to the given straight line. And the
angle ACB is equal to the sum of the angles GDB and
CBD (I. 32), that is, to twice the angle GDB (I. 5). There-
ADB half of the angle in the given seg-
fore the angle is
ment. Hence we have the following synthetical solution.
Describe on ^^ a segment of a circle containing an angle
equal to half the angle in the given segment. With A as
centre, and a radius equal to the given straight lino,
describe a circle. Join A with a point of intersection of
this circle and the segment which has been described ; tliia
APPENDIX. 325
joining straight line Mill cut the circumference of the

given segment tit a point which solves the problem.
The given straight line must exceed and it must AB

not exceed a certain straight line which we will now deter-
mine. Supi)<)sc the circumference of the given segment
bisected at E join AE, and produce it to meet the cir-
:
cimiference of the described segment at F. Then is ^^

equal to EB(III. 28), and is equal to EB for the EF
same reason that CB is equal to CD. Thus EA, EB, EF
are all equal and therefore
; E
is the centre of the circle
of which ADB is a segment (III. 9). Hence is the AF

longest straight line which can be drawn from A to the cir-
cumference of the described segment; so that the given
straight line must not exceed twice AE,
42. To describe an isosceles triangle having each of

the angles at the base double of the third angle.
This problem is solved in IV. 10 we may suppose the
;
solution to have been discovered by such an analysis as the

following.
Suppose the triangle such a ABD
triangle as required, so that each of
is
the angles at and Bis double of the D
angle at A.
Bisect the angle at by the straight D
line DC. Then the angle 'yl7>C is e<iual
to the angle at therefore CA is
A ;
equal to CD. The angle is equal CBD

to the angle ADB, by hy[)Othesis the angle ; CDB is equal
to the angle at A therefore the third angle
;
BCD is equal
to the third amrle ABD
(I. .32\ Therefore BD is equal
to CD (I. 6); aiid therefore BD
is equal to AC.
Since the angle BDC

is equal to the angle at A, the
straight line BD
will touch at D
the circle described
round the triangle ACD
(Note on III. 32). Therefore the
rectangle AB, BC
is equal to the square on (III. 3G). BD
Therefore the rectangle AB, BC
is equal to the square
on AC.
Therefore AB is divided at C in the manner required
in II. 11.
Hence the s}iithetical solution of the pntblem is evident.
^
326 APPENDIX.
43. To inscribe a square in a given Unangle.
ABC be the
Let
given triangle, and
suppose DEFG the
required square.
Draw AR perpen-
dicular to BC^ and
yl A" parallel to BG\
and let BF produc-
ed meet AK
at K.
Then BG is to GF
as BA is to AK, and BG is to GD as BA is to AH(YI. 4).
But Gîîs equal to GD, bv hypothesis.
Therefore BA
is to Â" as is to BA AH
(V. 7, V. 11).
Therefore AH
is equal to AK{V.
7).
Hence we have the following synthetical solution. Draw
^ A' parallel to BG, and equal to AH;
and join BJT. Then
BK meets AC
at one of the corners of the required square,
and the solution can be completed.
44. Through a given point
heticeen two given straight
required to draw a straight line, such that the
lines, it is
rectangle contained hy the parts between the given point and
the given straight lines may be equal to a given rectangle.
Let P be the given point,
and AB and AC the given
straight lines ; suppose MPN
the required straight line, so
that the rectangle MP, PN
is equal to a given rectangle.
Produce AP
to Q, so that
the rectangle AP, may PQ
be equal to the given rect-
angle. Then the rectangle
MP,PN is equal to the
rectangle AP, PQ. Therefore a circle Avill go round
AMQN {Note on III. 35). Therefore the angle PNQ
is
equal to the angle P AM

{111. 21).
Hence we have the following synthetical solution. Pro-
duce AP
to Q, so that the rectangle AP, PQ
may be
equal to the given rectangle; describe on PQ
a segment
of a circle containing an angle equal to the angle PAM;
join Pwith a point of intersection of this circle and AC
the straight line thus drawn solves the problem.
APPENDIX. 327
45. In a gircn circle it is required to inscribe a tri-

angh' so sides may pass t/iroitr/h tiro gicen points^
tliat tiro
and the third side be x)arallel to a gicen straight line.
C D
Let A and B be the given points, and CD the given

straight Une. Suppose PMN to be the required triangle
inscribed in the given circle.
Draw iV^jE^ parallel to AB\ join EM, and produce it if
necessary to meet AB at F.
If the point F were known
the problem might be con-
sidered solved. For EX3f is a kno^^'n angle, and therefore
the chord EMis known in magnitude. And then, since F
is a kno>Mi point, and E^f is a known magnitude, the posi-
tion of31 becomes known.
We have then onlv to shew how F is to be determined
'llie ansjle MEN is the ansxle
cipial to MFA
(I. 29). The
angle JifEN is equal to the angle MPN
(III. 21). Ilcnco
MAF and BAP are similar triangles (VI. 4). Therefore
MA is to AF BA
as is to A P. 'Hiercfore the rectangle
MA, AP is equal to the rectangle BA, AF
(VI. IC). ]5ut
since A is a giri'ii point tlic rectangle MA, AP
is known j
and AB is kuo\vu; thus AF

is determined.
328 APPENDIX.
46. In a given circle it is required to inscribe a tri-
angle so that the sides may jmss through three given
points.
Let A, B, C he the three given points. Suppose PMN

to be the required triangle inscribed in the given circle.
Draw NE parallel to AB, and determine the point F

as in the preceding problem. We
shall then have to de-
scribe in the given circle a triangle EMN so that two of
its sides may pass through given points, F
and C, and the
third side be parallel to a given straight line AB. This
can be done by the preceding problem,
Tliis example and the preceding are taken from the
work of Catalan already cited. The present problem is
sometimes called CaMilloii^s and sometimes Cramer's; the
history of the general researches to which it has given rise
willbe found in a series of papers in the Mathematician^
Vol, III. by the late T. S. Davies.
ON LOCI.
47. A locus consists of all the points which satisfy cer-
tain conditions and of those points alone. Thus, for exam-
ple, the locus of the points which are at a given distance
APPENDIX. 329
from a given point is the surface of the sphere described

from the given point as centre, Avith the given distance as
radius lor all the points on this surface, and no other
;
points, are at the given distance from the given point. If

ue restrict ourselves to all the points in a fixed plane which
are at a given distance from a given jioint, the locus is the
circumference of the circle described from the given point
as centre, Avith the given distance as radius. In future we
shall restrict ourselves to loci which are situated in a fixed
plane, and which are properly called plane loci.
Several of the propositions in Euclid furnish good exam-
ples of loci. Thus the locus of the vertices of all triangles
which are on the same base and on the same side of it, and
which have the same area, is a straight line parallel to the
base; this is shewn in I. 37 and I. 39.
Again, the locus of the vertices of all triangles which
are on the same liase and on the same side of it, and which
have the same vertical angle, is a segment of a circle de-
scribed on the base for it is shewn in III. 21, that all the
;
points thus determined satisfy the assigned conditions, and

it is easily shewn that no other points do.
"We will now give some examples. In each example wo

ought to shew not only that all the points which we indi-
cate as the locus do fulfil the assigned conditions, but that
no other points do. This second part however we leave to
the student in all the examples except the last two in ;
these, which are more difficult, we have given the complete

investigation.
48. Required the locus of points which are equidis-

tant from two given jôints.
Let A
and B
be the two given points; join andAB\
draw a straight line through the middle point of at AB
right angles to AB;
then it may be easily shewn that this
straight line is the required locus.
49. Required the of the vertices of all triangles

locu.<{
on a ffiren ba.<<e AB, such that the square on the side ter-
rninated at A may exceed the square on the side termi-
nated at B, bf/ a given square.
Suppose C to denote a point on the required locus from;
C draw a perpendicular on the given base, meeting it, pro-

330 APPENDIX.
duced if necessary, at D. Then the square on ylC is equal
to the squares on AD and 6'i>, and the square on is BO
equal to the squares on BD
and CD
(I. 47) therefore the
;
square on ^(7 exceeds the square on BC

by as much as the
square on ADexceeds the square on BD. Hence i) is a
fixed point cither in ^
jS or in AB
produced through (40). B
And the required locus is the straight line drawn through
D, at right angles to AB,
50. Required the locus of a 'point such that the straight
lines drawn from it to touch tico given circles may be
equal.
Let Abe the centre of the greater circle, the centre B
of a smaller circle and let
; P
denote any point on the re-
quired locus. Since the straight lines drawn from to P
touch the given circles are equal, the squares on these
straight lines are equal. But the squares on and PA PB
exceed these equal squares by the squares on the radii of
the respective circles. Hence the square on exceeds PA
the square on PB, by a known square, namely a square
equal to the excess of the square on the radius of tlie circle
of wiiich A is the centre over the square on the radius of
the circle of which B
is the centre. Hence, the required
locus is a certain straight line which is at right angles to
AB (49).
This straight line is called the radical a.xis of the two
circles.
If the given circles intersect, it follows from III. 36,
that the straight line which is the locus coincides with the
produced parts of the common chord of the two circles.
51. Required the locus of the middle points of all
the chords of a circle which jkiss through a fixed point.
Let A
be the centre of the given circle ; the fixed B
APPENDIX. 331
point; let any chord of the circle be drawn so that, pro-

duced if necessary, it may i)ass through B. Let be tiie- P
middle point of this chord, so that P
is a point on the re-
quired locus.
The straight line AP
at right angles to the chord of
is
which P is tlie middle point
(III. 3); therefore is on the P
circumference of a circle of -which is a diameter. AB
Hence if B
be within the given circle the locus is the cir-
cumference of the circle described on as diameter; ifAB
B be Avithout the given circle the locus is that part of the
circumference of the circle described on as diameter, AB
•which is within the given circle.
52. is a Ji.vcd 2)olnt from which any straight line

is drawn meeting a fixed straight line at P in OP a ;
2)oint Q is taken such that OQ is to OP in a fixed ratio:

determine the locus o/Q.
We shall shew that the locus of Q is a straight lino.
For draw a perpendicular from O on the fixed straight
line, meeting it at C
in ; OC take a point D such that OD
is to OC in the fixed ratio draw from
; any straight line
OP meeting the fixed straight line at P, and in OP take a
point Q such that OQ is to OP in the fixed ratio; join
QD. The triangles 07)Q and OOP

arc similar (VI. 6);
therefore the angle ODQ
is equal to the angle 0('J\ and is
therefore a right angle. Hence Q lies in the straight line
drawn through D
at right angles to OD.
;
332 APPENDIX.
53. a fixed point from which any straight line
is
is drawn meeting the circumference rf a fixed circle at P
in OP a point Q is taken such that OQ is to OF in a fixed
ratio : determine the locus of Q.
AVe shall shew that the locus is the circumfcrcuce of a
cuxle.
For let C be the centre of the fixed circle in OC take ;
a point D
such that OD
is to OC in the fixed ratio, and
draw any radius CP of the fixed circle draw parallel

; DQ
to CP meeting OP, produced if necessary, at Q. Then the
trianglesOCP and ODQ are similar (VI. 4), and therefore
OQ is toOP as OD is to OC, that in the fixed ratio.is,
Therefore Q is a point on the locus. And DQ is to CP

in the fixed ratio, so that DQ
is of constant length. Hence
the locus is the circumference of a circle of which D is the
centre.
54. There are four given jôints A, B, C, in a D

straight line; required the locus of a point at tchich AB
and CD subtend equal angles.
Find a point O in the straight line, such that the rect-
angle OA, OD
may be equal to the rectangle OB, OC (.34),
and take OK
such that the square on OK
may be equal to
cither of these rectangles (II. 14): the circumference of the
circle described from as centre, with radius OK, shall be
the required locus.
[We will take the case in which the points are in the
following order, O, A, B, C, D.']
For let P be any point on the circumference of this
APPENDIX. 333
circle. Describe a circle round PADy and also a circle
round PBG; then OP touches each of these circles (III. 37);

therefore the angle OP A is equal to the angle PDA,
and the angle OPB is equal to the angle PCB
(III. 32).
But the angle OPB is equal to the angles OP A
tindAPB
together, and the anglePCB is equal to the angles CPD
andPDA together (I. 32). Therefore the angles OPA
andAPB together are equal to the angles CPD
and
PDA together and the angle
; OPA
has been she>\Ti equal
to the angle PDA therefore the angle
; APB
is equal to
the angle CPD.

"We have thus shewn that any point on the circumference of
the circle satisfies the assigned conditions we shall now
;
shew that any point which satisfies the assigned conditions

is on the circumference of the circle.
For take any point Q which the required con-

satisfies
ditions. Describe a circle round QAD,
and also a circle
round QBC. These circles will touch the same straight
line at Q; for the angles AQB and CQD
are equal, and
the converse of III. 32 is true. Let this straight line which
touches both circles at Q be drawn and let it meet the
;
straight line containing the four given points at R. Then

the rectangle RA, RD is equal to the rectangle RB, RC;
for each is equal to the square on RQ
(III. 3()). Therefore
R must coincide with (34) and therefore
; RQ
must be
equal to OK. Thus Q must be on the circumference of the
circle of which is the centre, and OK
the radius.
;
334 APPENDIX.
55. Reqtiired the locus of the vertices of all the tri-
angles ABC ichich stand on a given base AB, and hace
the side AC to the side BC in a constant ratio.
If the sides AC and BC are to be equal, the locus is
the straight line which bisects AB

at right angles. We
will suppose that the ratio is greater than a ratio of equal-
ity; so that AC
IS to be the greater side.
Divide yl^ at Z> so that is toAD DB

in the given ratio
(VI. 10); and produce AB
to E, so that is to AE in EB
the given ratio. Let P
be any point in the required locus
join PD and PE. Then PD
bisects the angle APB, and
PE bisects the angle between and BP AP
produced.
Tlicrefore the angle DPE
is a right angle. Therefore is P
on the circumference of a circle described on DE
as dia-
meter.
"We have thus shewn that any point which satisfies the
assigned conditions is on the circumference of the circle
described on DE
as diameter we shall now shew that any
;
point on the circumference of this circle satisfies the as-

signed conditions.
Let Q
be any point on the circumference of this circle,
QA shallbe to QB in the assigned ratio. For, take O the
centre of the circle and join QO.
; Then, by construction,
AE IS, to EB as AD to DB, and therefore, alternately,
is
AE \^ to AD ^s EB to is DBtherefore the sum of
\ AE
and AD is to their difference as the sum of EB
and DB
is
to their difference (2.3); that is, twice AO
is to twice DO
as
twice DO
is to twice BO; therefore AO
is to DO DO
as is
;
APPENDIX. 335
to B0\ tliat is, ylO is to OQ as QO is to OB. Therefore

AOQ and QOB are similar triangles (VI.
tlie trianirlos fi)
and therefore AQ is to (^Z? as QO is to i?C>. This shews

that the ratio of AQ to BQ is constant;^ have still to -sve
shew that this ratio is the same as tlic assigned ratio.
We have already shewn that is to AO

as is toDO DO
BO therefore, the difference oi
;
and AO
is to i)0 as DO
the diflfercnce of DO
and BO
is to i?0 (V. 17); that is,
AD is to DOas 7?7J> is to BO
therefore ; is to ^Z> as AD
DO is to i?0; that is, AD
is to i>i? as is to iÔ. QO
This shews that the ratio of to QO BO
is the same as the
assigned ratio.
ON MODERN GEOMETRY.
56. "We have hitherto restricted ourselves to Euclid's
Elements, and propositions which can be demonstrated
by strict adherence to Euclid's methods. In modem times
various other methods have been introduced, and have
led to numerous and important results. These methods
may be called semi-gcomctrical, as they are not confined
"within the limits of the ancient pure geometry; in fact
the power of the modern methods is obtained chiefly by
combining arithmetic and algebra with geometry. The
student who desires to cultivate this jiart of mathematics
may consult Townsend's Chapters on the Modern Geo-
metry of the Point, Line, and Circle.
"We will give as specimens some important theorems,
taken from what is called the theory of transversals.
Any or curved, which cuts a system of

line, straight
other lines called a tram^rersal ; in the examples wliicli
is
we sh:ill give, the lines will be straight lines, and the sys-
tem will consist of three straight lines forming a triangle.
AVewill give a brief enunciation of the theorem whith
we are about to prove, for the sake of assisting the memory
in retaining the result but the emmciation will not be
;
fully comprehended until the demonstration is completed.

336 APPENDIX,
57. If a straight line cut the sides, or the sides pro-
duced, of a triangle, the product of three segments in
order is equal to the x>roduct of the other three segments.
Let ADC be a triangle, and let a straight line be drawn
cutting the side BC at I), the side CAat E, and the side
AB produced through B at /; Then BD and DC are
called segments of the side BC, and CE and EA are called

segments of the side CA, and also AF and FB are called
segments of the side AB.
Through A draw a straight line parallel to BC, meeting
DF produced at H.
Then the triangles CED and EAH are equiangular to one
another; therefore AH is to CD as AE is to EC (YI. 4).
Therefore the rectangle AH, EC is equal to the rectangle
CD,AE(Y1. 16).
Again, the triangles and FA H FBD are equiangular to
one another therefore A His to
; BD as FA to FB (YI.
is 4).
Therefore the rectangle AH, FB is equal to the rectangle

BD, FA (VI. 16).
Now suppose the straight lines represented by numbers
in the manner explained in the notes to the second Book of
the Elements. We
have then two results Avhich we can ex-
press arithmetically: namely, the j^^'oduct AH. is equalEC
to the product CD.AE; and the j^roduct AH.FB
is equal
to the product BD.FA.
Tlierefore, by the principles of arithmetic, the product
A H. EC. BD FA is equal to the product A H. FB. CD.AE,
.
and by the principles of arithmetic, the product

therefore,
BD.CE.AFis equal to the product DC.EA.FB.
This is the result intended by the enunciation given
above. Each product is made by three segments, one from
APPENDIX. 337
every side of the triangle and the two sccfincnts wliicli ter-
:
minated at any angular point of the triangle are never in the

same product. Thus if >ve begin one product \vith the seg-
ment BD, the other segment of the side BG, namely DC,
occurs in the other product then the segment CE occurs
;
in the first product, so that the two segments CD and CE,

which terminate at C, do not occur in the same product;
and so on.
The student should for exercise draw another figure
for the case in which the transversal meets all the sides
produced^ and obtain the same result.
58. Conversely, it may be shewn by an indirect proof

tliat if the product BD
.CE. AF
be equal to the product
DC. EA .FB, the three points D, E, F
lie in the same
straight line.
59. If three straiffht lines he drawn throKgh the

angidar jjoints of a triangle to the ojyposite sides, and
meet at the same jyoint, the prudnct of three segments in
order is equal to the product of the other three segments.
Let ABC be a triangle. From the angular points to
the opposite sides let the straight lines ADD, BOE, COF
be drawn, Avhich meet at the point O the product :
AF.BD.CE shall be equal to the product FB.DC.EA.

For the triangle ABD
is cut by the transversal FOG^
and therefore bv the tlieorcm in 57 the following products
are equal, AF.BC.DO, and FB.CD.OA.
Again, the triangle ACD is cut by the transversal

EOB, and theref(^re by the theorem in 57 the following
products are cqi al, AO.DB. CE and OD. BC.EA.
22
;
338 APPENDIX.
Therefore, by the principles of arithmetic, the following
products are equal, AF. BC DO AO DB
. . CE and
. .
FB .CD . OA .OD . ECEA. Therefore the following

.
products are equal, AF. BD .CE a.iid FB.DC.EA.

We have supposed the point to be within the triangle
if O be without the triangle two of the points D, E, will F
fall on the sides produced.
60. Conversely, it may be shewn by an indirect proof

that the product
if AF BD . CE be equal to the product
.
FB.DC.EA, the three straight lines AD, BE, Ci^meet

at the same point.
61. TVe may remark that in geometrical problems the

following terms sometimes occiu', used in the same sense as
in arithmetic namely arithmetical progression, geometri-
;
cal progression, and Jtarnionical progjxssioji. A

proposi-
tion respecting harmonical progression, which deserves
notice, will now be given.
62. Let ABC be a triangle; let the angle A he bisected

by a straight line which meets BC at D, and let the ex-
terior angle at A be bisected by a straight lineichich meets
BG^ produced through C,atE: then BD, BC, shall BE
be in harmonical progression.
APPENDIX. 339
For BD isto DC BA
^^ is to AC (Yl. 3) and
; BE is
to i^'(7;is BA to
is AC(VI. A). Therefore BD is to DC
as BE is to J^^C" ( V. 11). Therefore ^Z> is to BE as /)(7 is
to EC(V. 16). Thus of the three straigiit lines BD.BC,
BE, the first is to the third as the excess of the second
oyer tlie first is to the excess of the third over the second.
Therefore BD, BC, BEare in harmonical progression.
lliis result is sometimes expressed by saying that BE
is divided harmonically at D and G.
22— 2
EXEECISES IN EUCLID.
I. 1 to 15.
1. On a given straight line describe an isosceles tri-

angle having each of the sides equal to a given straight
line.
2. In the figure of the diameter of the smaller
I. 2 if
shew where the given
circle is the radius of the larger,
point and the vertex of the constructed triangle will be
situated.
3. If two straight lines bisect each other at right an-
gles, any point in either of them is equidistant from the
extremities of the other.
4. If the angles ABC and ACB
at the base of an
isosceles trian._le be bisected by the straight lines J3D,
CD, shew that DBG will be an isosceles triangle.
5. B
BACis a triangle having the angle double of the
angle A. If BD bisects the angle B
and meets ACat D,
shew that BD is equal to AD.
6. In the figure of I. 5 if andFC BGmeet at //
shew that FHsind GHare equal.
7. In the figure of I. 5 if i^C7 and BG
meet at //,
shew that ^ZT bisects the angle BAG.
8. The sides î?, ADodi quadrilateral A BCD are
equal, and the diagonal yiC bisects the angle BAD: shew
that the sides CB and CD are equal, and that the diagonal
AC bisects the angle BCD.
9. ACB, ADB are two triangles on the same side of
AB, such that ^C is equal to BD, and ADis equal to
BC,iind AD andBC intersect at 0: shew that the tri-
angle A OB is isosceles.
10. The opposite angles of a rhombus are equal.
11. Adiagonal of a rhombus bisects each of the angles
through which it passes.
EXERCISES IN EUCLID. 341
12. If two isosceles triangles are on the same base the

straight line joining their vertices, or that straiglit line
produced, will bisect the base at right angles.
13. Find a point in a given straight lino such that its
distances from two given points may be equal.
14. Through two given points on opposite sides of a
given straight line draw two straight lines which shall meet
in tiiat given straight line, and include an angle bisected
by that given straiglit line.
15. A given angle JJAC is bisected ;if CA is produced
to G and the angle EAG bisected, the two bisecting lines
are at right angles.
16. If four straight lines meet at a point so tliat the
opposite angles are equal, these straight lines arc two and
two in the same straight hue.
I. 16 to 26.
17. ABC is a triangle and the angle A is bisected by

a straight line which meets EC
at E
shew that ; is EA
greater than BE, and CA greater than CE.
18. In the figure of I. 17 shew that and ABC ACB
are together less than two right angles, by joining A to any
point in EC.
19. ABCD is a quadrilateral of which AE
is the
longest side and EC tiie shortest shew that the angle
;
ABC is greater than the angle AEC, and the angle ECE
greater than the angle BAD.
20. If a straight line bo drawn through A one of the
angular points of a square, cutting one of the opposite sides,
and meeting the other ])roduced at F, shew that is AF
greater tiian the diagonal of the square.
21. The perpendicular is the shortest straight lino
that can be drawn from a given point to a given straight
line; and of others, that which is nearer to the peri)on-
dicular is less than the more remote; and two, and only
two, equal straight lines can be drawn from tlio given point
to the given straight line, one on each side of the perpen-
dicular.
22. The sum of the distances of any ])oint from the
three angles of a triangle is greater than half the sum of
342 EXERCISES IN EUCLID,
23. Tlie four sides of any quadrilateral are together
greater than the two diagonals together.
24. The two sides of a triangle are together greater
than twice the straight line drawn from the vertex to the
middle point of the base.
25. If one angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the other two, the triangle can be divided into two isosceles
triangles.
26. If the angle C of a triangle is equal to the sum
of the angles A
and B, the side AB
is equal to twice the
straight line joining C to the middle point oi AB.
X. 27. Construct a triangle, having given the base, one of
the angles at the base, and the sum of the sides.
28. The perpendiculars let fall on tw'o sides of a tri-
angle from any point in the straight line bisecting the angle
between them are equal to each other.
29. In a given straight line find a point such that the
perpendiculars drawn from it to two given straight lines
shall be equal.
30. Through a given point draw a straight line such
that the perpendiculars on it from two given points may be
on opposite sides of it and equal to each other.
31. A
straight line bisects the angle A
of a triangle
ABC; from B
a ]3erpendicular is dra\\Ti to this bisecting
straight line, meetmg it at D, and BD
is produced to meet
AC or AC produced at E sliew that BL> is equal to 1>E.

:
32. AB, AC
are any twô straight lines meeting at A :
through any point P

draw a straight line meeting them at E
and F, such that AE may be equal to AF.
33. Two
right-angled triangles have tlieir hypotenuses
equal, and a side of one equal to a side of the other shew :
that they are equal in all respects.
I. 27 to 31.
34. Any straight line parallel to the base of an iso-

sceles triangle makes equal angles with the sides.
35. If two straight lines andA B
are respectively
parallel to two others Cand D, shew that the inclination of
yl to îs equal to that of to D.C
36. A
straight line is drawn terminated by two parallel
straight lines ; through its middle point any straight line is
drawn and terminated by the parallel straight lines. Shew

that the second straight line is bisected at the middle point
of the first.
37. If through any point equidistant from two parallel
straight lines, two straight lines be drawn cutting the pa-
rallel straight lines, they will intercept equal portions of
these parallel straight lines.
38. If the straight line bisecting the exterior angle of
a triangle be parallel to the base, shew that the triangle is
isosceles. *^
39. Find a point B in a given straight line CD, such

that if ^1^ be drawn to B from a given point A, the angle
ABC will be equal to a given angle.
40. If a straight line be drawn bisecting one of the
angles of a triangle to meet the opposite side, the straight
lines drawn from the point of section parallel to the other
sides, and terminated by these sides, will be equal.
41. The side BG of a triangle ABC is produced to a
point D\ the angle ACB is bisected by the straight line
CE which meets AB at E. A straight line is drawn
through E
parallel to BC, meeting AG at F, and the
straight line bisectinfr the exterior angle ACD at G. Shew
that EF'i^ equal to EG.
42. ^^ is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
ABC: find a point D inAB such that DB may be equal
to the perpendicular from D on AC.
43. ABC is an isosceles triangle: find points Z>, ^ in
the equal sides AB, AC such that BD, DE, EG may all
be equal.
44. Astraight line dra^vn at right angles to BG
the base of an isosceles triangle ABC cuts the side AB at
D and CA produced at E: shew that A ED is an isosceles
triangle.
I. 32.
45. From the extremities of the base of an isosceles

triangle straight lines are drawn perpendicular to the sides;
shew that the angles made by them with the base are each
equal to half the vertical angle.
46. On the sides of any triangle ABCequilateral tri-
angles BCD, C^lfJ, ABFiiro described, all external: shew
that the straight lines AD, BE, CF
arc all equal.
344 EXERCISES IN EUCLID.
47. "What is the magnitude of an angle of a regular
octagon ?
48. Through two given points draw two straight lines

forming ^vith a straight line given in position an equilateral
triangle.
49. If the straight lines bisecting the angles at the
base of an isosceles triangle be produced to meet, they will
contain an angle equal to an exterior angle of the triangle.
50. A
is the vertex of an isosceles triangle ABC, and
BA produced to D, so that
is AD
is equiil to BA and ;
DC\^ drawn shew that BCD is a right angle.

:
51. ABC is a triangle, and the exterior angles at B

and C are bisected by the straight lines BD, CD respec-
tively, meeting at D
shew that the angle
: together BDC
with half the angle BAG
make up a right angle.
52. Sliew that any angle of a triangle is obtuse, right,
or acute, according as it is greater than, equal to, or less
than the other two angles of the triangle taken together.
-^ 53. Construct an isosceles triangle having the vertical
angle four times each of the angles at the base.
54. In the triangle the side ABC BC
is bisected at E
and AB
sd, G; AE
is produced to so that E is equal EF
to AE, and CG is produced to // so that Gil is equal to
CG shew that
: EB
and IIB are in one straight line.
55. Construct an isosceles triangle which shall have
one-tliird of each angle at the base equal to half the vertical
angle.
AB,
56. AC
are two straight lines given in position:
it is required to find in them two points and Q, such E
that, PQ
being joined, and AP PQ
may together be equal
to a given straight line, and may contain an angle equal to
a given angle.
57. Straight lines are drawn through the extremities of
the base of au isosceles triangle, making angles with it on
the side remote from the vertex, each equal to one-third of
one of the equal angles of tlie triangle and meeting the
sides produced: shew that three of the triangles thus
formed are isosceles.
58. AEB, CED
are two straight lines intei-secting at
E ; straight lines AC, DB
arc drawn forming two triangles
ACE, BED;
the angles ACE, DBE
are bisected by the
straiglit lines CF, BF, meeting at F. Shew that the angle
CFB is equal to half the sum of the angles EAC, EDB.
59. The straight line joininp- tlie middle point of the

hypotenuse of a rig-Jit-angled triangle to the right angle is
ctpial to h;ilf the hypotenust
(iO. From the angle A
of a triangle ABC
a perpen-
dicular is drawn to the opposite side, meeting it, produced
if necessary, at D; from the angle Ba
perpendicular is
drawn to the opposite side, meeting it, produced if neces-
sary, at E: shew that the straight lines which join and D
E to the middle point o'i AB are equal.
61. From the angles at the base of a triangle perpen-
diculars are drawn to the opposite sides, produced if neces-
sary shew that the straight line joining tiie points of inter-
:
section will be bisected by a perpendicular drawn to it from

the middle point of the base.
()2. In the figure of 1. 1, if (7 and H
be the points of
intersection of the circles, and AB
be produced to meet
one of the circles at K, shew that CHK
is an equilateral
triangle.
63. The straight lines bisecting the angles at the base
of an isosceles triangle meet the sides at I) and ^: shew
that DE is parallel to the base.
64. AB, AC^XQ two given straight lines, and is a P
given point in the former it is required to draw through
:
P a straight line to meet AC

at Q, so that the angle AEQ
may be three times the angle AQP.
65. Construct a right-angled triangle, having given the (/^
hyiwtenuse and the sum of the sides.
ii'o. Construct a right-angled triangle, having given the ^/
hypotenuse and the difterence of the sides.
67. Construct a right-angled triangle, having given the ,
.
hypotenuse and the perpendicular from the right angle
on it.
68. Construct a right-angled triangle, having given the \y'

perimeter and an an^le.
6i). Trisect a right angle. W
70. Trisect a given finite straight line.
71. From
parallel straight
a given point
lines,
it is required to draw to two
two equal straight lines at right
^
angles to each other.
7'2. Describe a trinncrle of given perimeter, having its
angles equal to those of a given triangle. u-
I. 33, 34.
73. If a quadrilateral have two of its opposite sides

parallel, and the two others equal but not parallel, any two
of its opposite angles are together equal to two right
angles.
74. If a straight line which joins the extremities of two
equal straight lines, not parallel, make the angles on the
same side of it equal to each other, the straight line which
joins the other extremities will be parallel to the first.
75. No two straight lines drawn from the extremities
of the base of a triangle to the opposite sides can possibly
bisect each other.
76. If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal it
is a parallclogTam.
77. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal
it is a pai'allelogram.
78. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
79. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other
it is a parallelogram,
80. If the straight line joining two opposite angles of
a parallelogram bisect the angles the four sides of the pa-
rallelogram are equal.
81. Draw a straight line through a given point such
that the part of it intercepted between two given parallel
straight lines may be of given length.
82. Straight lines bisecting two adjacent angles of a
parallelogram intersect at right angles.
83. Straight lines bisecting two opposite angles of a
parallelogram are either parallel or coincident.
84. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal all its
angles are equal.
85. Find a point such that the perpendiculars let fall
from it on two given straight lines shall be res])ectively
equal to two given straight lines, llow many such points
are there ?
86. It is required to draw a straight line which shall

be equal to one straight line and parallel to another, and be
terminated by two given straight lines.
87. On the sides AD, BC, and CD of a parallelogram
A BCD three equilateral triangles are described, that on
BC towards the same parts as the parallelogram, and those
ou AB, CD towards the opposite parts: shew that the
distances of the vertices of the triangles on AD, from CD

that on BC are respectively equal to the two diagonals of
the parallelogram.
88. If the angle between two adjacent sides of a paral-
lelogram bo increased, while their lengths do not alter, the
diagonal through their point of intersection will diminish.
89. -i, B, C are three points in a straight line, such
that AB
is equal to BC: shew that the sum of the perpen-
diculars from A
and C on any straight line which does not
pass between A
and C is double the perpendicular from B
on the same straight line.
90. If straight lines be drawn from the angles of any
parallelogram perpendicular to any straight line which is
outside the parallelogram, the sum of those from one pair
of opposite angles is equal to the sum of those froai the
other pair of opposite angles.
91. If a six-sided plane rectilineal figure have its op-
posite sides equal and parallel, the three straight lines join-
ing the opposite angles will meet at a point.
92. AB, AC
are two given straight lines; through a
given point Ebetween them it is required to dniw a straight
line GEIl such that the intercepted portion GH
shall be
bisected at the point E.
93. Inscribe a rhombus within a given parallelogram,
so that one of the angular points of the rhombus may be at
a given point in a side of the parallelogram.
94. ABCD is a parallelogram, and E, F, the middle
points of AD
and BC
resi)ectively ; shew that and BE DE
will trisect the diagonal AC.
I. 35 to 45.
95. ABCD is a quadrilateral having BC parallel to

AD shew that its area is the same as that of the parallelo-^.^^''
;
gram which can be formed by drawing through the middle

point of DC straight line parallel
ii to .IB.
ABCD a quadrilateral having BC
parallel to
AD,
9G.
E
is
the middle point of DC; show that the triangle
is ^
AEB is half the quadrilateral.
97., Shew that any straight line passing through tho y^
middle point of tiic diameter of a parallelogram and termi- \r
uated by two opposite sides, bisects the parallelogram.
98. Bisect a parallelogram by a straight line drawn
through a given point within it.
99. Construct a rhombus equal to a given parallelo-

gram.
100. If two triangies have two sides of the one equal
to two sides of the other, each -to each, and the sum of the
two angles contained by these sides equal to two right an-
,^les, the triangles are equal in area,
101.A straight line is drawn bisecting a parallelogram
ABCD and meeting AD E
at BC
and F
at : shew that
the triangles EBF CED
and are equal.
" V 102. Shew that the four triangles into which a paral-
lelogram is divided by its diagonals are equal in area.
~^ 103. Two straiglit lines AB CD
and intersect at E,
and the triangle A EC BED:
is equal to the triangle shew
that BC\& parallel to AD.
—^ 104. ABCD is a parallelogram; from any point P
in
the diagonal BD the straight lines PA, PC are drawn.
Shew that the triangles PAB PCB
and are equal.
'
105. If a triangle is described ha^ûg two of its sides
equal to the diagonals of any quadrilateral, and the in-
cluded angle equal to either of the angles between these
diagonals, then the area of the triangle is equal to the area
of the quadrilateral.
.-J---106. The straight line which joins the middle points of
two sides of any triangle is parallel to the base.
'^ 107. Straight lines joining the middle points of ad-
jacent sides of a quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
108. E
D, are the middle points of the sides AB, AG
of a triangle, and CD, BE intersect at F: shew that the
triangle BFCh equal to the quadrilateral ADFE.
109. The straight line which bisects two sides of any
triangle is half the base.
^ 110. In the base AC oi 2l triangle take any point D\
bisect AD, DC, AB, BC î the points E, F, G, 11 respec-
tively shew that
: EG is equal and parallel to FH.
111. Given the middle points of the sides of a triangle,
construct the triangle.
112. If the middle points of any two sides of a triangle
be joined, the triangle so cut off is one quarter of the whole.
^ 113. The sides AB, AC of a given triangle ABC are
bisected at the points E, F; 7i perpendicular is drawn from
A to the opposite side, meeting it at D. Shew that the
FDE equal to the angle

aiiirle is BAG. Shew also that
AFDE half the triangle ABC.
is
114. Two triangles «)fequal area stand on the same
l)ase and on o])posite sides: shew that the straight lino
joining their vertices is bisected by the base or the base
produced.
115. lliree parallelograms which are equal in all re-
spects are placed witli their equal bases in the same straight
line and contiguous the extremities of the base of the first
; ,
are joined Avith the extremities of the side opposite to the

base of the third, towards the same parts shew that the:
portion of the new parallelogram cut off by the second is

one half the area of any one of them.
IKj. ABCD is a parallelogram; from D
draw any
straight line DFG meeting BC
at jPand AB
produced at ^"^
G: draw AFand CG: shew that the triangles ABF,
CFG are equal.
117. ABC is a, given triangle: construct a triangle of y.
equal area, having for its base a given straight line AD, '
coinciding in ])osition with AB.
118. ABC is a given triangle: construct a triangle of
equal area, having its vertex at a given point in BC
and its
base in the same straight line as AB.
119. ABCD is a given quadrilateral: construct ano-
ther quadiihiteral of equal area having AB
for one side, --
and for another a straight line drawn through a given point

in 6V> parallel to î?.
120. ABCD is a quadrilateral: construct a triangle
whose base shall be in the same straight line asAB, vertex ^
at a given point P
in CD, and area equal to that of the
given quadrilateral.
121. ABC is a given triangle: construct a triangle of
ecpial area, having its base in tlie same straight line n.sAB,
and its vertex in a given straight line i)arallol to AB.
122. Bisect a given triangle by a straight line drawn ^
through a given point in a side.
123. Bisect a given quadrilateral by a straight lino
drawn through a given angular point.
124. If through the point O within a panllclogram
ABCD two straight lines are drawn i>arallel to the sides,
and the parallelograms OB
and OD
are equal, the point O
is in the diagonal A
C.
I. 46 to 48.
125.On the sides AC, BC of a triangle ABC^ squares

ACDE, BCFH are described: shew that the straight
lines AF and BD are equal.
126. The square on the side subtending an acute an-
gle of a triangle is less than the squares on the sides
containing tlie acute angle.
127. The square on theside subtending an obtuse an-
gle of a triangle is greater than the squares on the sides
containing the obtuse angle.
128. If the square on one side of a triangle be less
than the squares on the other two sides, the angle contained
by these sides is an acute angle if greater, an obtuse
;
angle.
129. A drawn parallel to the hypotenuse
straight line is
of a right-angled triangle,and each of the acute angles is
joined with the jôints where this straight line intersects
the sides respectively opposite to them: shew that the
squares on the joining straight lines are together equal to
the square on the hypotenuse and the square on the straight
line drawnparallel to it.
130. If any point P
be joined to A, B, C, D. the an-
gular points of a rectangle, the squares on andPA are PC
together equal to the squares on PB
and PP.
131. In a right-angled triangle if the square on one of
the sides containing the right angle be three times the
square on the other, and from the right angle two straight
lines be drawn, one to bisect the opposite side, and the
other perpendicular to that side, these straight lines divide
the right angle into three equal parts.
132. If ABCbe a triangle whose angle ^
is a riglit
angle, and BE, CF
be drawn bisecting the opposite sides
respectively, shew that four times the sum of the squares
on BE and CF is equal to five times the square on BC.
133. On the hypotenuse BC, and the sides CA., AB of
a right-angled triangle ABC, squares BDEC, AF, and
AG are described; shew that the squares on DG and EF
are together equal to five times the square on BC.
II. 1 to 11.
134. Astraight line is divided into two parts; shew

that if twice tlic rectangle of the parts is equal to the sum
of the squares described on the parts, the straight line is
bisected.
IS.*). Divide a given straight line into two parts such
that the rectangle contained by them shall be the greatest
possible.
136. Construct a rectangle equal to the difference of
two given squares.
137. Divide a given straight line into two parts such
that the sum of tlio squares on the two parts may be the
least possible.
138. Shew that the square on the sum of two straight
lines together with the square on their difference is double
the squares on the two straight lines,
that the sum of their squares shall be equal to a given
square.
that the square on one of them may be double the square
on the other.
141. In the figure of II. 11 if Cllhe produced to meet
EF at L, shew that CL is at right angles to EF.
142. In the figure of II. 11 if i?^ andCH meet at 0,
shew that .4 is at right angles to CII.
143. Shew that in a straight line divided as in II. 11
the rectangle contained by the sum and difference of the
parts is equal to the rectangle contained by the parts.
II. 12 to 14.
144. The square on the base of an isosceles triangle is

equal to twice the rectangle contained by cither side and
by the straight line intercepted between the perpendicular
let fall on it from the opposite angle and the extremity of
the base.
145. In any triangle the sum of the squares on the
sides is equal to twice the square on half the base together
with twice the square on the straight line drawn from tho
vertex to the middle point of the base.
146. ABC is a triangle having the sides AB and AC
equal ; \i AB is i^roduccd beyond the base to IJ so that
BD is equal to AB, shew that the square on CD is equal
to the square on AB, together with twice the square
onBC.
147. The sum of the squares on the sides of a paral-
lelogram is equal to the sum of the squares on the
diagonals.
148. The base of a triangle is given and is bisected by
the centre of a given circle if the vertex be at any point
:
of the circumference, shew that the sum of the squares on

the two sides of the triangle is invari.-ible.
149. In any quadrilateral the squares on the diagonals
are together equal to twice the sum of the squares on the
straight lines joining the middle points of opposite sides.
150. If a circle be described round the point of inter-
section of the diameters of a parallelogram as a centre,
shew that the sum of the squares on the straight lines
drawn from any point in its circumference to the four an-
gular points of the parallelogram is constant.
151. The squares on the sides of a quadrilateral are
together greater than the squares on its diagonals by four
times the square on the straight line joining the middle
points of its diagonals.
152. In AB
the diameter of a circle take two points C
and D equally distant from the centre, and from any point
E in the circumference draw EC, ED: shew that the
squares on and EC ED
are together equal to the squares
on ^Cand AD.
153. In BC
the base of a triangle take such that D
the squares on ÎjB and BD
are together equal to the
squares on J (7 and CD, then the middle point of will AD
be equally distant from and C.B
154. The square on any straight line drawn from the
vertex of an isosceles triangle to the base is less than the
square on a side of the triangle by the rectangle contained
by the segments of tlie base.
155. A square BDEC
is described on the hj-potenuse
jBCof a right-angled triangle ABC: shew that the squares

on DA and AC
are together equal to the squares on EA
and AB.
156. ABC is a triangle in which C is a right angle,
and DE is drawn from a point D in AC perpendicular to
AB: shew that the rectangle AB, AE is equal to the

rectangle AC, AD.
1.37. If a straight line be drawn through one of the
angles of an equilateral triangle to meet the opposite side
produced, so that the rectangle contained by the whole
straight line thus produced and the part of it produced is
equal to the square on the side of the triangle, shew that
the square on the straight line so drawn will be double the
square on a side of the triangle.
158. In a triangle whose vertical angle is a right angle
a straight line is drawn from the vertex perpendicular
to the base shew that the square on this perpendicular is
:
equal to the rectangle contained by the segments of the

base.
159. In a triangle whose vertical angle is a right angle
a straight line is drawn from the vertex perpendicular to
the base: shew that the square on either of the sides adja-
cent to the right angle is equal to the rectangle contained
by the base and the segment of it adjacent to that side.
160. In a triangle ABC the angles B
and Care acute:
ifE and F
be the points where perpendiculars from the
opposite angles meet the sides AC, AB, shew that the
square on BCis equal to the rectangle AB, BF, together
with the rectangle AC, CE.
IGl. Divide a given straight line into two parts so that
the rectangle contained by them may be equal to the square
described on a given straight line which is less than half
the straight line to be divided.
III. 1 to 1.5.
162. Describe a circle with a given centre cutting a

given circle at the extremities of a diameter.
1G3. JShew that the straight lines drawn at right angles
to the sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle from
their middle points intersect at a fixed point.
l(j-4. If two circles cut each other, any two parallel
straight lines drawii through the points of section to cut
the circles are equal.
1()5. Two circles whose centres are A and B
intersect
at C ; through C two chords DCE and IX 'G are tlrawii
equally inclined to AB and terminated by the circles:
shew that DE and FG are cipial.
23
166. Through either of the points of intersection of
two given circles draw the greatest possible straight line
terminated both ways by the two circumferences.
.167. If from any point in the diameter of a circle
straight lines are drawn to the extremities of a parallel
chord, the squares on these straight lines are together equal
to the squares on the segments into which the diameter is
divided.
168. A and Bare two fixed points without a circle
PQR ; it is required to find a point P in the circumfer-
ence, so that the sum of tiie squares described on AP and
BP may be the least possible.
169. If in any two given circles which touch one an-
other, there be drawn two parallel diameters, an extremity
of each diameter, and the point of contact, shall lie in the
same straight line.
170. A circle is described on the radhis of another
circle as diameter, and two chords of the larger circle are
dra^vvn, one through the centre of the less at right angles to
the common diameter, and tlie other at right angles to the
first through the point where it cuts the less circle. Shew
that these two chords have the segments of the one equal
to the segments of the other, each to each.
171. Through a given point within a circle draw the
shortest chord.
the centre of a circle,
is P is any point in its
rl72.
circumference, PN
a perpendicular on a fixed diameter:
/ shew that the straight line which bisects the angle OPN
i always passes through one or the other of two fixed points.
1*73. Three circles touch one another externally at the
points yl, -6, (7; from A, the straight lines AB, AGare
produced to cut the circle BC
at D and E\ shew that I)E
is a diameter of BG, and is parallel to the straight line
joining the centres of the other circles.
174. Circles are described on the sides of a quadri-
lateral as diameters shew that the common chord of any
:
adjacent two is parallel to the common chord of the other

two.
175. Describe a circle which shall touch a given circle,
have centre in a given straight line, and pass through a
its
given point in the given straight line.
in. IG to 19.
170. 81icr\v*that two tangents can be drawii to a circle y

fioni a given external point, and that they are of equal
length.
177. Draw parallel to a given straight line a straight i^
line to touch a given circle.
17S. Draw perpendicular to a given straight line a i/^
straight line to touch a given circle.
179. In the diameter of a circle produced, determine ^
a point so that the tangent drawn from it to the circum-
ference shall be of given length. —
180. Two circles have the same centre: shew that all -^
chords of the outer circle which touch the inner circle are
equal.
181. Through a given point draw a straight line so that
the part intercepted by the circumference of a given circle w^
)/ shall be equal to a given straight line not greater than the
'
diameter.
182. Two tangents are drawn to a circle at the oppo-
site extremities of a diameter, and cut off from a third (^
tangent a portion AB: if C be the centre of the circle
shew that ACB is a right angle.
183. Describe a circle that shall have a given radius ^^^
\^ and touch a given circle and a given straight line.
184. A circle is drawn to touch a given circle and a
given straight line. Shew that the points of contact are
always in the same straight line with a fixed point in the
circumference of the given circle.
185. Draw a straight Ihie to touch each of two given
circles.
18H. Draw a straight line to touch one given circle .«!o
that the part of it contained by another given circle shall
be equal to a given straight line not greater than the dia-
meter of the latter circle.
187. Draw a straight line cutting two given circles .so
that the chords intercepted within the circles shall have
given lengths.
1,S8. A quadrilateral is described so that its sides
touch a circle : shew that two of its sides are together
cijual to the other two sides.
189. Shew that no parallelogram can be described
about a circle except a rhombus.
23-2
:

190. ABD, ACE are two straight lines touching a
circle at B andand if
(7, DE
be joined DE
is equal to BD
and CE together shew that
: DE
touches the circle,
191. If a quadrilateral be described about a circle tho
angles subtended at the centre of the circle by any two
opposite sides of the figure are together equal to two
right angles.
192. Two radii of a circle at right angles to each other
when produced are cut by a straight line which touches the
circle: shew that the tangents drawn from the points of
section are parallel to each other.
193. Astraight line is dra^vll touching two circles:
shew that the chords are parallel which join the points of
contact and the points where the straight line through the
centres meets the circumferences.
194. If two circles can be described so that each
touches the other and three of the sides of a quadrilateral
figure, then the difference between the sums of the opposite
sides is double the common tangent drawn across the quad-
rilateral.
195. AB
is the diameter and C the centre of a semi-
circle: shew that the centre of any circle inscribed in
the semicircle is equidistant from C and from the tangent
to the semicircle parallel to AB.
196. If from any point without a circle straight lines
be drawn touching it, the angle contained by the tangents
is double the angle contained by the straight line joining
the points of contact and the diameter di-awn through one
of them.
197. A quadrilateral is bounded by the diameter of a
circle, the tangents at its extremities, and a third tangent
shew that its area is equal to half that of the rectangle con-
tained by the diameter and the side opposite to it.
198. If a quadrilateral, having two of its sides parallel,
be described about a circle, a straight line drawn through
the centre of the circle, parallel to either of the two paral-
lel sides, and terminated by the other two sides, shall be
equal to a fourth part of the perimeter of the figure.
199. Aseries of circles touch a fixed straight line at
a fixed point shew that the tangents at the points w^here
:
they cut a parallel fixed straight line all touch a fixed circle.
200. Of all straight lines which can be drawn from two
given points to meet in the convex circumference of a
given circle, the sum of the two is least which make equal
angles with the tangent at the point of concourse.
201. C is the centre of a given circle, CA a radius, B
a point on a radius at right angles to CA join and ;
AB
produce it to meet the circle again at Z>, and let the tan-
gent at D
meet CB produced at E: shew that is an BDE
isosceles triangle.
202. Let the diameter BjI of a circle be produced to
P, so that AP
equals the radius; through draw tho A
tangent A ED,
and from P
draw PEC touching the circle
at G and meeting the former tangent at E\ join BC and
produce it to meet at AED D
then will the triangle :
DEC be equilateral.
III. 20 to 22.
^ Two tangents AB,

203. AC
are drawn to a circle;
D any p int on the circumference outside of the triangle
is
ABC: shew that the sum of the angles and ABD ACD
is constant.
\ 204. Q are any points in the circumferences of two
P,
segments described on the same straight line AB, and on
the same side of it the anu'lcs ; Q, PA
are bisected PBQ
by the straight lines A /i BB
meeting at It shew that tho
, :
angle ABB constant. is

205.
V Two segments of a circle arc on the same base
AB, and P is any in the circumference of one of the
])<)int
segments; the straight lines APD, BPC are drawn meet-

ing the circumference of the other segment at D and C \
AC and BD are drawn intersecting at Q. Shew that the

angle AQB constant.
is
APB is a fixed chord passing through P n point
2()(i.
of intersection of two circle-; ÎQP, PBR\ and QPR is
any other chord of the circles passing through P shew :
that AQ and RB when i)roduccd meet at a constant

angle.
207. AOB a triangle; C and D are points in BO
is
and AG respectively, such that the angle GIX' isequal to
the angle OBA shew that a circle may be
: described
round the quadrilateral ABCD.
-"^-Q^^ A BCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, and
the sides AB, CD when produced meet at O sliew that
:
the triangles AOC, BOD are equiangular.

209.^ Shew that no iiarallelogram except a rectangle
can be inscribed in a circle.
-^210. A triangle is inscribed in a circle: shew that the
gum of the angles in the three segments exterior to the
triangle is equal to four right angles.
^- 211. A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle: shew
that the sum of the angles in the four segments of the circle
exterior to the quadrilateral is equal to six right angles.
212. Divide a circle into two parts so that the angle
contained in one segment shall be equal to twice the angle
contained in the other.
213. Divide a circle into two parts so that the angle
contained in one segment shall be equal to five times the
angle contained in the other.
214. If the an^le contained by any side of a quadri-
lateral and the adjacent side produced, be equal to the
opposite angle of the (juadrilateral, shew that any side of
the quadrilateral will subtend equal angles at the opposite
- angles of the quadrilateral.
215. If any two consecutive sides of a hexagon inscribed

in a circle be respectively parallel to their opjiosite sides,
the remaining sides are parallel to each other.
216. D
A, B, C, are four points taken in order on the
circumference of a circle; the straight lines AB, CD pro-
duced intersect at P, and AD, BC at Q shew that the
:
straight lines which respectively bisect the angles APC,

AQC are perpendicular to each other.
217. If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a circle, and a
straight line 1)0 drawn making equal angles with one pair
of opposite sides, it will make equal angles with the other
pair.
218. Aquadrilateral can have one circle inscribed in
it and another circumscribed about it shew that the
:
straight lines joining the opposite points of contact of the

inscribed circle are perpendicular to each other.
III. 23 to 30.
- 219. The straight lines joining the extremities of the
chords of two equal arcs of a circle, towards the same parts
are parallel to each other.
•
220. The straight lines in a circle which join the ex-
tremities of two pai'allel chords arc equal to each other.
—
2-21. AJi is a common cliord of two circles; through G
any point of one circumference straight lines CAD, CUE
are drawn terminated by the other circumference shew :
that the arc DE

is invariable.
*- 222. Through a point C in the circumference of a circle
two straight lines ACE, DCE
are drawn cutting the circle
at andB E
shew that the straight line which bisects the
:
angles ACETf^f^-iweQt^ the circle at a point equidistant

from B and E.
— 223. The straight lines bisecting any angle of a quadri-
lateral inscribed in a circle and the opposite exterior angle,
meet in the circumference of the circle.
— 224. AB
is a diameter of a circle, and Z> is a given
point on the circumference draw a chord : on one sideDE
of ABso that one arc between the chord and diamcLcr
may be three times the other.
^ 22."). From and A B
two of the angular points of a
triangle ABC, straight lines are drawn so as to meet the
opposite sides at P
and Q in given equal angles: shew
that the straight line joining P
and Q will be of the same
length in all triangles on the same bise AB, and having
vertical angles equal to C.
— 226.
' If two equal circles cut each other, and if through
one of the points of intersection a straight line be drawn
terminated by the circles, the straight lines joining its
extremities with the other point of intersection are equal.
,«. 227. OA, OB, DC
are three chords of a circle; the
angle AOBis equal to the angle BOC, and OA is nearer
to the centre than OB. From B
a i)crj>cndicular is drawn
on OA, meeting it at P, and a j)cr{)endicular on pro- OC
duced, meeting it at Q shew that : is equal to CQ.AP
^228. AB
is a given finite straight line; through
A two indefinite straight lines are drawn eciually inclined
toyl/i; any circle passing through A and meets these B
straight lines at Ij and JA Shew that if be between AB
AL and jiM the sum of and AL AM
is constant; '\i AB
be not between and AL AM
the difference of and AL AM
is constant.
— 229. ^10/? and CO Z>
arc diameters of a circle at right
angles to each other; E
is a point in the arc and AC
EFG is a chord meeting COD
at F^ and drawn in such a
direction that EF
is equal to the radius. Shew that the
arc EG
is equal to three times the arc AE.
•a. 230. The straight lines which bisect the vertical angles
of all triangles on the same base and on the same side of
it, and having equal vertical angles, all intersect at the
same point.
231. If two circles touch each other internally, any
chord of the greater circle which touches the less shall
be divided at the point of its contact into segments which
subtend equal angles at the point of contact of the two
circles.
III. 31.
~>J 232. Right-angled triangles are described on the same

hypotenuse: shew that the angular points opposite the
hypotenuse all lie on a circle described on the hypotenuse
as diameter.
233. The circles described on the equal sides of an
isosceles triangle as diameters, will intersect at the middle
point of the base.
234. The greatest rectangle which can be inscribed
,^ .
m
.
a circle is a square.
235. The hvpotenuse ^^ of a right-angled triangle
ABC is D, and EDF is drawn at right angles
bisected at
to AB, and DE and are cut off each equal to DA
DF ;
CE and CF are joined: shew that the last two straight

lines will bisect the angle C and its supplement respec-
tivelv.
"^ 236. On
the side AB
of any triangle ABC
as diameter
a described;
circle is isEF
a diameter parallel to BC:
shew that the straight lines andEB FB
bisect the interior
and exterior angles at B.
^ BC,
237.
AB
If AD, CE be drawn perpendicular to the sides
DE
of a triangle ABC, and be joined, shew that
ADE
the angles ACEand are equal to each other.
238. If two circles ABC, ABD intersect at A and B,
V\ and AC, AD be two diameters, shew that the straight
line CD will pass through B.
231). If be the centre of a circle and OA a radius
and a circle be described on OAas diameter, the circum-
fcrence of tins circle will bisect any chord drawn through

it froin A to meet the exterior circle.
240. Describe a circle touching" a given straight line at
a given point, sucii that tlie tangents drawn to it from two
given points in the straight line may be parallel.
241. Describe a circle with a given radius touching a
given straight line, such that the tangents drawn to it
from two given points in the straight line may be parallel.
242. If from the angles at the base of any triangle
perpendiculars are drawn to the opposite sides, produced i/
if necessary, the straight line joining the points of inter-
section will be bisected by a perpendicular drawn to it from
the centre of the base.
243. AD B
is a diameter of a circle and Care points
;
on the circumference on the same side of AD; a pei-pen- ^^

dicular frem D on BC produced through C, meets at it jEJ: '
shew that the square on AD greater than the sum of the

is
squares on AB, BC, CD, by twice the rectangle BC, CE.
244. AB the diameter of a semicircle,
is is a point P
on the circumference, PM
is perpendicular to AB; on t^
AM, BMas diameters two semicircles are described, and

AP, BPmeet these latter circumferences at $, i?: shew
that QLl will be a common tangent to them.
245. AB, AC 2iXQ two B and C are given
straight lines,
points in the same; BD
drawn perpendicular to AC,
is
and DEperpendicular to AB\ in like manner 67^ is dra\Mi
perpendicular to AB, and FG to AC. tShew that EG is
parallel to BC.
246. T\v«) circles intersect at the points A
and B, from
which are drawn chords to a point C
in one of the circuni- ^
ferences. and these chords, produced if necessary, cut the y/'
other circumference at D
and E\ shew that the straight
line DEcuts at right angles that diameter of the circle
^Z^C which passes through C.
247. If squares be described on the sides and hy-
potonnse of a rit^ht-nu'^led triangle, the straight line joining
the intersection of the diagonals of the latter scjuare with
the right angle is perpendicular to the straight line joining
the intersections of the diagonals of the two former.
24S. C
is the centre of a given circle, CA
a straight
line less than the radius; find the }t(tint of the circum-
ference at which CA subtends the greatest angle.
:

249. ABh the diameter of a semicircle, Dand are E
any two points circumference. Shew tliat if the
in its
chords joining and A
with andB D E
eacli way intersect
at i<ând (r, then FG
produced is at right angles to AB.
250. Two
equal circles touch one another externally,
and through the point of contact chords are drawn, one
to each circle, at right angles to each other: shew that
the straight line joining the other extremities of these
chords is equal and parallel to the straight line joining the
centres of the circles.
251. A
circle is described on the shorter diagonal of a
rhombus as a diameter, and cuts the sides and the points ;
of intersection are joined cross\^'ise with the extremities of

that diagonal shew that the parallelogram thus formed
:
is a rhombus with angles equal to those of the first.

252. If two chords of a circle meet at a right angle
within or without a circle, the squares on their segments
are together equal to the squares on the diameter.
III. 32 to 34.
•^ 253. ^ is a point in
the circumference of a circle, whoso
centre is C PA,;a tangent at any point P, meets CB
produced at A, and PD
is drawn perpendicular to CB
shew that the straight line PB
bisects the angle APD.
254. If two circles touch each other, any straight line
dra^vn through the point of contact will cut oflf similar seg-
ments.
< 255. ABany chord, and ylZ> is a tangent to a circle
IS
at A. DPQany straiglit line parallel to AB, meeting
is
the circumference at P
and Q. Shew that the triangle
PAD is equiangular to the triangle QAB.
-^ 256. Two circles ABDII, ABC, intersect each other

at the points A, B; from a straight lineB is drawn in BD
the one to touch the other and from ;any chord what- A
ever is drawn cutting the circles at and/f: shew that G
£G is parallel to DH.
xj 257. Two circles intersect at A and B. At A the

tangents AC, AD are drawn to each circle and terminated
by the circiiinferencc of the otlier. If CB, BD be joined,

shew tliat AB or AB produced, if necessary, bisects the
angle CBD.
258. circles intersect at A and B, and through
Two
Pany point in the circumference of one of them the
chords PA
and PB
are di-awn to cut the other circle at
(7 and D: shew that CD is parallel to the tangent at P.
"^ 259. If from any point in the circumference of a circle
a chord and tangent be drawn, the pci-jjendiculars dropped
on them from the middle point of the subtended arc are
260. AB
is any chord of a circle, P
any point on tho
circumference of the circle ; PM
is a perpendicular on AB
and is produced to meet the circle at Q and îVis drawn ;
j)erpendicular to the tangent at P

shew that the triangle
:
NAM'i^ equiangular to the triangle PAQ.

^ 261. Two diameters AOB,
right angles to each other P
COD
of a circle are at
is a point in the circum
;
ference the tangent at

; P
meets COD
produced at Q,
and AP,
shew that
BP
meet the same line at 7?, S respectively:
BQ
h equal to SQ
)
-4 262. Construct a triangle, having given the base, the
vertical angle, and the point iu the base on which the per-
pendicular falls.
-*
263. Construct a triangle, having given the base, tho
vertical angle, and the altitude.
.J 264. Construct a triangle, having given the ba.ê, the
vertical angle, and the length of the straight line draun
from the vertex to the middle point of the base.
-J 265. Having given the base and the vertical angle of a
triangle, shew that the triangle will be greatest when it is
isosceles.
\) 266. From a given j>oint A without a circle whose
centre is draw a straight line cutting the circle at the
points B and C, so that the area BOC may be the greatest
possil)le.
—^ 267. Two straight lines containinix a constant angle
always pass through two fixed points, their po-ition being
otherwise unrestricted: shew that the straight line bisect-
ing the angle always passes through one or other of two
fixed points.
26S. Given one angle of a triangle, the side opposite
it, and the sum of the other two sides, construct the
triangle.
III. 35 to 37.
^ 269. If two circles cut one another, the tangents dra^vn

to the two circles from any point in the common chord
produced are equal.
*
270. Two circles intersect at A and B shew that : AB
produced bisects their common tangent.
^ BC,
271. If ^Z>, (7^ are drawn perpendicular to the sides
AB of a triangle ABC, shew that the rectangle con-
tained by BC and BD
is equal to the rectangle contained
by BA and BE.
272. If through any point in the common chord of two
circles which intersect one another, there be drawn any two
other chords, one in each circle, their four extremities shall
all lie in the circumference of a circle.
273. From a given point as centre describe a circle

cutting a given straight line in two points, so that the rect-
angle contained by their distances from a fixed point in the
straight line may be equal to a given square.
274. Two circles ABCD, EBCF, having the common
tangents AE and DF, cut one anotlier at B and C, and
the chord BCh produced to cut the tangents at G and H'.
shew that the square on GH exceeds the square on AE or
DF by the square on BC.
275. A series of circles intersect each other, and ai*e
such that the tangents to them from a fixed point are
equal shew that the straight lines joining the two points
:
of intersection of each pair will pass througli this point.

276. ABC IB, aright-angled triangle; from any point
D in the hypotenuse BC
a straight line is drawn at right
angles to BC, meeting CA at E
and BA produced at F:
shew that the square on DE
is equal to the difference of
the rectangles BD, Z>(7and AE, EC; and that the square
on DF is equal to the sum of the rectangles BD^ and DC
AF, FB.
277. It is required to find a point in the straight line
which touches a circle at the end of a given diameter, such
that when a straight line is drawn from this point to the
other extremity of the diameter, the rectangle contained
EXERCISES IN EUCLID, 3G5
by tlie part of it without tlio circle and the part within tlio
ciVcle may bo equal to a giveu square not greater than that
on the diameter.
IV. 1 to 4.
278. In IV. 3 show that the straight lines drawn

through A and B
to touch the circle will meet.
279. In IV. 4 shew that the straight Hues which bisect
the angles B
and C will meet. .
280. In IV. 4 shew that the straight lino willDA

bisect the angle at A.
281. If the circle inscribed in a triangle ABC
touch
the sides AB, AC
at the points D, E, and a straight line /
be drawn from A to the centre of the circle meeting the
circumference at G, shew that the point G is the centre of
the circle inscribed in the triangle ADE.
282. tShcw that the straight lines joining the centres of /
the circles touching one side of a triangle and the others ^

produced, pass through the angular points of the triangle.
283. A
circle touches the side BC
of a triangle ABO
and the other two sides produced shew that the distance
:
between the points of contact of the side BC

with this
circle and with the inscribed circle, is equal to the differ-
ence between the sides AB
and AC.
284. A circle is inscribed in a triangle ABC, and a
triangle is cut off at each angle by a tangent to the circle.
Shew that the sides of the three triangles so cut off are
together equal to the sides of ABC.
285. D
is the centre of the circle inscribed in a tri-
angle BAC, and .1Z> is produced to meet the straiglit line
dra^^^l through B
at right angles to at BD
shew that O
:
is the centre of the circle which touches the side and BC

the sides AB, AC
produced.
286. Three circles are described, cacli of which touches
one side of a triangle ABC, and tlie other two sides jiro-
duced. If D
be the point of contact of the side BC, that E
of AC, and /•' that of AB, shew that AE
is equal to BD,
BF to CE, and CD to AF. .
287. Describe a circle which shall touch a given circle yj

and two given straight lines which themselves touch tbo
given circle.
:

^^ 288. If the three points be joined in which the circle
inscribed in a triangle meets the sides, shew that the re-
sulting triangle is acute angled.
A 2i9. Two oj^posite sides of a quadrilateral are toge-
ther equal to the other two, and each of the angles is less
than two right angles. Shew that a circle can be inscribed
in the quadrilateral,
''v^ 290. Two circles HPL, KPM, that touch each other
externally, have the common tangents HK, LM HL
; and
KM being joined, shew that a circle may be inscnbcd in
the quadrilateral HKML.
—A 291. Straight lines are drawn from the angles of a
triangle to the centres of the opposite escribed circles
shew that these straight lines intersect at the centre of the
inscribed circle.
— ^-\ 292. Two sides of a triangle whose perimeter is con-
stant are given in position shew that the third side
:
(always touches a certain circle.

293. Given the base, the vertical angle, and the radius
of the inscribed circle of a triangle, construct it.
lY. 5 to 9.
294. In IV. 5 shew that the perpendicular from on F

BC will bisect BG.
'^''.
295. If DE
be drawn parallel to the base of aBC
triangle ABC, shew that the circles described about the
triangles ABC^\\(\.ADE\\'A\q a common tangent.
._» 296. If the inscribed and circumscribed circles of a
triangle be concentric, shew that the triangle must be
equilateral.
-S 297- Shew that if tlie straight line joining the centres
of the inscribed and circumscribed circles of a triangle
passes through one of its angular points, the triangle is
isosceles.
298. The common chord of two circles is produced to
any point P PA; touches one of the circles at A, PBC
is
any chord of the other. Shew that the circle wiiich passes
through Ai B, and G touches the circle to which isPA
a tangent.
299. A
quadrilateral A BCD
is inscribed in a circle,
and AD, BC are produced to meet at E: sliew that the

circle described about the triangle ECD
will have thij
tangent at E
parallel to AB.
300. Describe a circle which shall touch a given straight i/^

line, and passthroiigli two given pohits.
Describe a circle Avhich simll pass through two

301.
given i)oints and cut otF from a given straight line a chord
^
of given length.
302. Describe a circle which shall have its centre in a >
given straight line, and cut oft' from two given straight ^^
lines chords of equal given length.
303. Two triangles have equal bases and equal vertical
angles: shew that the radius of the circumscribing circle *^
of one triangle is equal to that of the other.
304. Describe a circle which shall pass through two
given points, so that the tangent drawn to it from another
given point may be of a given length.
305. Cis the centre of a circle; CA, CB are two
radii at right angles; from B
any chord BP is drawn V/^
cutting CA at N\ a circle being described round ANP,
shew that it will be touched by BA.
306. AB and CD
are parallel straight lines, and the
straiglit lines which join their extremities intersect at E:
shew that the circles described round the triangles ABE,
CDE touch one another.
307. Find the centre of a circle cutting off three equal ^^
chords from the sides of a triangle.
308. If be the centre of the circle inscribed in the
triangle ABC, and AG be produced to meet the circum-
scrilêd circle at F, shew that FB, FO, and FC are all
equal.
309. The opposite sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in
a circle are produced to meet at P
and Q, and about the
triangles so formed without the <iuadril:iteral, circles are
described meeting again at R
shew that P, R, Q are in
:
one straight line.
310. The angle ACB of any triangle is bisected, and

the base ^'15 is bisectcil at right angles, by straight lines
which intersect at D: shew that the angles ACB, ADB
are together equal to two right angles.
311. ACDB a semicircle,
is AB
being the diameter,
and the two chords AD,
//^' intersect at E: shew that if
a circle be described round CDE
it will cut the former at
right angles.
:
o
^ 312. The diagonals of a given quadrilateral A BCD
intersect at O shew that the centres of the circles de-
:
scribed about the triangles GAB, OBC, OCD, ODA, will

lie in the angular points of a parallelogram.
-^>l 313. A circle is described round the triangle ABC;

^ , the tangent at C meets AB
produced at the circleD ;
VV x-^ whose centre is D

and radius cuts DC
at E: shew AB
that EC
bisects the angle A CB.
314.AB, ^(7 are two straight lines given in position;

BCis a straight line of given length D, E
are the middle
;
points of AB, AC; DF, EF

are drawn at right angles to
AB, yl (7 respectively. Shew that î^will be constant for
all positions of BC.
315.A circle is described about an isosceles triangle
ABC in which ^^
is equal to ^C; from A a straight
-^ line is drawn meeting the base at D
and the circle at E
^
'tU, ' shew that the circle which passes through B, D, and Ej
touches AB.
316. ^C is
a chord of a given circle and are
; B D
two given points in the chord, both within or both without
the circle if a circle be described to pass through
: and B
i^ D, and touch the given circle, shew that and AB CD
subtend equal angles at the point of contact.
317. A
and B
are two points within a circle : find the
point P
in the circumference such that if PAH, PBK be
drawn meeting the circle at H. and K^ the chord HK shall
be the greatest possible.
^ 318. The centre of a given circle is equidistant from
two given straight lines describe another circle which shall
:
touch these two straight lines and shall cut off from the
given circle a segment containing an angle equal to a given
angle.
319. Ois the centre of the circle circumscribing a
triangle yli? (7; D, E, F
t\\e feet of the perpendiculars from
A, B, C on the opposite sides shew that OA, OB,
: are 00
respectively perpendicular to EF, FD, DE.
320. from any point in the circumference of a given
If
circle straight lines be drawn to the four angular points
of an inscribed square, the sum of the squares on the four
straight lines is double the square on the diameter.
EXERCISES IN EUCLID. 36D
321. Shew that no rcctan<Îc except a square can be

described about a circle.
• 3'22. Describe a circle about a given rectangle.
323. If tangents be drawn through the extremities of
two diameters of a circle the parallelogram thus formed
will bo a rhombus.
lY. 10.
324. Shew that the angle ACD in the figure of IV. 10

is eipial to three times the angle at the vertex of the
triangle.
32.'5. Shew that in the figure of IV. 10 there are two
triangles which possess the required property: shew that
there is also an isosceles triangle whose equal angles are
each one tliird part of the third angle.
326. Shew that the base of the triangle in IV. 10 is
equal to the side of a regular pentagon inscribed in the
smaller circle of the figure.
327. On a given straight line as base describe an isos-
celes triangle having the third angle treble of each of the
angles at the base.
In the figure of IV. 10 suppose the two circles to
328.
cut again at E: then DE
is equal to DC,
320. If A be the vertex and BD

the base of the con-
structed triangle in IV. 10, D
being one of the two points
of intersection of the two circles employed in the construc-
tion, and E
the other, and A E
be drawn meeting BD
pro-
duced at G, shew that GAB
is another isosceles triangle
of the same kind.

In the figure of IV. 10 if the two equal chords
330.
of the .smaller circle be produced to cut the larger, and
these points of section be joined, another triangle will bo
formed having the ^Troperty required by the proposition.
331. In the figure of IV. lo suppose the two circles to
cut again at join AE, CE, and \^Y^M\\\CQ AEy
^ ;
to BD
meet at G then : CDGE
is a parallelogram.
332. Shew that the smaller t)f the two circles emph^yed
in the figure of IV. 10 is equal to the circle described
round the required triangle.
24
'^
333. In the figure of IV. 10 if J i^ be the diameter of
the smaller circle, DFis equal to a radius of the circle
which circumscribes the triangle BCD.
IV. 11 to 16.
n/ 334. The straight lines which connect the angular

points of a regular pentagon which are not adjacent inter-
sect at the angular points of another regular pentagon.
33o.ABGDE a regular
is pentagon join AC and
;
BE, and BE meet AC F

let ixi ; shew that AC
m equal to
the sum oi AB and BF.
\j 336. Shew that each of the triangles made by joining
the extremities of adjoining sides of a regular pentagon is
less than a third and greater than a fourth of the whole
area of the pentagon.
~>/ 337. Shew how to derive a regular hexagon from an
equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle, and from the con-
struction shew that the side of the hexagon equals the
radius of the circle, and that the hexagon is double of the
triangle.
"^ 338. In a given circle inscribe a triangle whose angles
are as the numbers 2, 5, 8.
"A 339. If ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, and AG, BD,
CE, DF, EA, FB be joined, another hexagon is formed
whose area is one third of that of the former.
~^ 340. Any equilateral figure which is inscribed in a
circle is also equiangular.
VI. 1,2.
341. Shew that one of the triangles in the figure of

IV. 10 is a mean proportional between the other two.
-* 342. Through D, any point in the base of a triangle
ABC, straight lines DE, DF are dra\vn parallel to the
sides AB, AC, and meeting the sides at E, F: shew that
the triangle AEFia a mean proportional between the tri-
angles FBD, EDC.
\
343. Perpendiculars arc drawn from any point within

an e([uilatcr;d triangle on the three sides shew that their :
sum is invariable.
34 1. Find a point within a triangle such that if straight
linesbe drawn from it to the three angular points the tri-
angle will be divided into three equal triangles.
345. From a jioint E
in the connnon base of two tri-
angles ACB, ADB, straight lines are drawn parallel to
AC, AD, meeting BC, BD
at F, G shew that is par- : FG
allel to CD.
346. From any point in the base of a triangle straight
lines are drawn
parallel to the sides shew that the inter- :
section of the diiigonals of every parallelogi*am so formed

lies in a certain straight line.
347. In a triangle ABC
a straight line ^4Z> is drawn
perpendicular to tiie straiglit line which bisects the BD
angle B
shew that a straight line drawn from
: parallel D
to J5C will bisect ^C.
348. ABC is a triangle; any straight line parallel to
BC meets AB nt D and AC at E join and
;
BEmeet- CD
ing at F: shew that the triangle ADF
is equal to the
triangle AEF.
349. ABC
a triangle; any straight line parallel to
is
BC meets AB at D and AC at E; join and CD meet- BE
ing at F: shew that if .li^be produced it will bisect BC.
350. If two sides of a quadrilateral figure be parallel
to each other, any straight line drawn parallel to them will
cut the other sides, or those sides produced, proportion-
ally.
351. ABC
is a triangle it is required to draw from
;
a given point P, in the side AB, or produced, a straight AB

line to AC, or ylC produced, so that it may be bisected bv
BC.
YI. 3, A.
35-2. Tlie side BC of a triangle / . nr

is bisected at D,
and the an<xlcs ADB, ADC are bisected bv the straight
lines DE, DF. meeting AB, AC at E, /respectively:
shew that EF is parallel to BC.
353. AB \% 2i. diameter of a circle. C'D is a ch(ud at
right angles to it, and Eis anv point in CD ; AE wwA BE
:

are drawn and produced to cut the circle at and G\ F
shew that the quadrihitcral CFDG has any two of its
adjacent sides in the same ratio as the remaining two.
354. Apply VI. 3 to solve the problem of the trisec-
tion of a finite straight line.
355. In the circumference of the circle of which is AB
a diameter, take any point P; and draw PC, on PD
opposite sides of AP, and equally inclined to it, meeting
AB D
Sit C and : shew that ^(7 is to ^(7 as ^Z> is to BU.
AB
356. is a straight line, and Z> is any point in it
P AB
determine a point in produced such that is to PA
PB as PA is to PB.
357. From the same point A straight lines are drawn
making the angles BAG, CAP, DAE
each equal to half a
right angle, and they are cut by a straight line BCPE,
which makes BAE an isosceles triangle shew that BC or
:
DE is a mean proportional between BE and CD.

358. The angle yl of a triangle ABC is bisected by
AD which cuts the base at D, and is the middle point
of BC: shew that OD bears the same ratio to OB that the
difference of the sides bears to their sum.
359. AD and AE bisect the interior and exterior
angles at ^ of a triangle ABC, and meet the base at
P and E ; and is the middle point of BC
shew that :
OB is a mean proportional between OD and OE.

360. Three points D, E, F
in the sides of a triangle
ABC hQmg joined form a second triangle, such that any
two sides make equal angles with the side of the former at
which they meet: shew that AD, BE, CF are at right
angles to BC, CA, AB respectively.
VI. 4 to 6.
361. If two triangles be on equal bases and between

the same parallels, any straight line parallel to their bases
will cut off equal areas from the two triarigles.
362. AB and CD are two parallel straight lines is ; E
the middle point of CD ; AC
and BE
meet at F, and AE
and BD meet at G shew that
: FG
is parallel to AB.
363. A, B, C are three fixed points in a straight Ihie ;
any straight line is drawn through C shew that the per-
;
pendiculars on it from A and B

are in a constant ratio.
364. If the perpendiculars from two fixed points on a

straiglit line passing-between them be in a given ratio, tlio
straight line must pass through a third fixed point.
.SG'). Find a straight line such that the perpendiculars
on it from three given points shall be in a given ratio to
each other.
366. Through a given point draw a straight line, so
that the parts of it intercepted between that point and
perpendiculars drawn to the straight line from two other
given points may have a given ratio.
367. A tangent to a circle at the point intersects A
two parallel tangents at J3, C, the points of contact of
which with the circle are D, E
respectively and BE, ; CD
intersect ati'"': shew that ^-ii^ is parallel to the tangents
BD, CE.
368. P and Q are fixed points and ; AB
arc fixed CD
parallel straight lines any straight line is drawn from
; P
to meet AB at M, and a straiglit line is drawn from Q
parallel to PM meeting at CD N
shew that the ratio of
:
PM to QN is constant, and thence shew that the straight

line through and M N
passes through a fixed point.
369. Shew that the diagonals of a quadrilateral, two
of whose sides are parallel and one of them double of the
other, cut one another at a point of trisection.
370. A and B arc two points on the circumference of a
which C is the centre draw tangents at A and B
circle of ;
meeting at T and from A draw

; AN
perpendicular to
CB shew that
: BTU
to BC as is to NA. BN
371. In the sides AB, ^(7 of a triangle ABC are
taken two points Z>, E, such that is e<iual to BD CE\
DE, BC are produced to meet Vii F shew that AB to
: is
AC ^ÊF IS to DF.
372. If through the vertex and the extremities of the
base of a triangle two circles be descril)ed intersecting
each other in the base or base produced, their diameters
are i)roportional to the sides of the triangle.
373. Find a point the perpendiculars from which on
the sides of a given triangle shall be in a given ratio.
374. (^n AB, AC, two adjacent sides of a rectangle,
two similar triangles are constructed, and perpendiculars
are drawn to AJi, AC horn the angles wliich they subtcml,
intersecting at the pomt P. If AB, AC be homologous
sides, shew that P
is in all cases in one of the diagonals of
the rectangle.
375. In the figure of I. 43 shew that if and EG FH
be produced they Avill meet on reproduced.
376. APB and CQD are jârallcl straight lines, and
AP is to PB as DQ to- QC shew that the straight
is :
lines PQ, AC, ED, produced necessary, will meet at a

if
point shew also that the straight lines PQ. AD, BC, pro-
:
duced if necessary, will meet at a point.

377. ACB
is a triangle, and the side \^ produced AC
to D so that CD
is equal to AC, and is johied if any BD :
straight line drawn parallel to AB

cuts the sides AC, CB,
and from the i)oints of section straight lines be drawn
parallel to DB, shew that these straight lines will meet
AB at points equidistant from its extremities.
378. If a circle be described touching externally two
given circles, the straight line passing through the points
of contact will intersect the straight line passing through
the centres of the given circles at a fixed point.
379. D
is the middle point of the side of a tri- BC
angle ABC, and P
is any point in through the AD ; P
straight lines BPE, CPF
are drawn meeting the other
sides at E, F
shew that
: EF
is parallel to BC.
380. AB
is the diameter of a circle, the middle E
point of the radius on AE, OB EB
as diameters circles
;
are described ; PQL is a counnon tangent meeting the

P and Q, and AB produced at L shew that
circles at :
BL equal to the radius of the smaller circle.

is
381. ABCDE a regular pentagon, and AD, BE
is
intersect at : sliew that a side of the pentagon is a mean
I)ro2iortional between AO and AD.
382. A BCD
is a parallelogram and P ; Q are points
in a straight line parallel to and ^^ PA ;
QB meet at
P, and PD
and QC
meet at ; shew that S PS is parallel
to AD.
383. and A B
are two given points ; A C and BD are
pei-pcndicular to a given straight line CD; AD and BC
intersect at E, and EF
is peri)endicular to CD : shew that
AF and BE make equal angles with CD.
384. the angular points of a parallelogram A
From BCD
perpendiculars are drawn on the diagonals meeting them at
E, F, G, II respectively shew that is a parallelo-
: EFGH
gram similar to ABCD.
EXERCISES IX EUCLID. 375
If at a given point two circles intersect, and their

385.
centres on two fixed straight lines which })ass throng:h
lie
tiiat point, shew tluit whatever be the ni:i<j:nitnde of the
circles their common tani;ents will always meet in one of
two fixed straight lines which pass through the given point.
YI. 7 to 18.
386. If two circles touch each other, and also touch

a given straight line, the part of the straight line between
the points of contact is a mean proportional between tlio
diameters of the circles.
387. Divide a given arc of a circle into two parts, so
that the chords of these parts shall be to each other in a
given ratio.
388. In a given triangle draw a straight line parallel
to one of the sides, so that it may be a mean proportional
between the segments of the base.
389. xiBC is a triangle, and a perpendicular is drawn
from A to the opposite side, meeting it at betweenD B
and C: shew that if .-1Z> is a mean proportional between
BD and CD the angle BACis a right angle.
390. ABC
is a triangle, and a perpendicular is dra>vn
from A on the opposite side, meeting it at between D

B and C shew that if
: BA
is a mean proportional between
BD and BC, the angle BA

C is a right angle.
391. C is the centre of a circle, and A any point within
it ;CA is produced through .1 to a point such that theB
radius is a mean proi)ortional between CA and CB shew :
that if P
be any point on the circmnference, the angles
CFA and CBP
are equal.
392. a fixed i)nint in a given straight line OA,
O is
and a circle of given radius moves so as always to be

touched by OA
a tangent ; OP
is drawn from O to the
circle, and in produced OP PQ

is taken a third pro})or-
tionalto OP and the radius shew that : as the circle

moves along OA, the i)oint Q will move iu a straight
line.
393. Two given parallel straight lines touch a chtIo,
and SPT is another tangent cutting the two former tan-
gents at S and I] aud^ meeting the circle at P. bhew
that the rectangle SP, FT
is constant for all positious
of P.
394. Find a point in a side of a triangle, from which
two straight lines drawn, one to the opposite angle, and the
other parallel to the base, shall cut oti" towards the vertex
and towards the base, equal triangles.
395. ACB
is a triangle having a right angle at C; from
A a straight line is drawn at right angles to AB, cutting
EC produced at fromE ; B
a straight line is drawn at
right angles to AB, cutting AC
produced at E
shew that :
the triangle ECE

is equal to the triangle ACB.
396. The straight line bisecting the angle ABC of
the triangle ABC
meets the straight lines drawn through
A and C, parallel to BC and AB respectively, at E and F:
shew that the triangles CBE, ABFare equal.
397. Shew that the diagonals of any quadrilateral
figure inscribed in a circle divide the quadrilateral into
four triangles which are similar two and two ; and deduce
the theorem of III. 35.
398. AB, CD are any two chords of a circle passing
through a point O ;EF
is anv chord ijarallel to OB join
AB
;
CE, Z>i^ meeting at the points G and H, and DE, CF

meeting AB
at the points A' and L shew that the rect-
:
angle OG, 0H\% equal to the rectangle OK, OL.

399. A BCD is a quadrilateral in a circle; the straight
linesCE, i>^ which bisect the angles ACB, ADB cut BD
and AC at iând G respectively shew that : EF is to EG
as ED is to EC.
400. From an angle of a triangle two straight lines are
drawn, one to any pomt in the side opposite to the angle,
and the other to the circumference of the circumscribing
circle, so as to cut from it a segment containing an angle
equal to the angle contained by the first drawn line and
the side which it meets shew that the rectangle con-
:
tained by the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle

contained by the straight lines thus drawn.
401. The vertical angle C of a triangle is bisected by a
straight line which meets the base at D, and is produced
to a point E, such that the rectangle contained by CD and
CE is equal to the rectangle contained by î6' and CB:
shew that if the base and vertical angle be given, the posi-
tion of E is invariable.
402. A square is inscribed in a right-angled triangle

ABC, one side I)E oi the square coinciding with the hypo-
tenuse AB of the tri:nigle: shew that the area of the
square is equal to the rectangle AD, BE.
403. ABCD is a parallelogram from
; B
a straight
line is drawn cutting tiie diagonal xiC at F, the side DC
at 6r, and the sitle AD produced at E: sliew that the
rectangle EF, FG is equal to the square on BF.
404. If a straight line drawn from the vertex of an
isosceles triangle to the base, be produced to meet the
circumference of a circle described about the triangle,
the rectangle contained by the whole line so produced,
and the part of it between the vertex and the base shall
be equal to the square on either of the equal sides of the
triangle.
40.3. Twostraight lines are drawn from a point A
to
touch a which the centre is
circle of E the points of con-
;
tact are joined by a straight line which cuts EA

at H\ and
on HA as diameter a circle is described shew that the
:
straight lines drawn through E to touch this circle will

meet it on the circumference of the given circle.
YI. 19 to Z>.
40G. An isosceles triangle is described having each

of the angles at the base double of the third angle: if the
angles at the base be bisected, and the points where the
lines bisecting them meet the opposite sides be joined,
the triangle will be divided into two parts in the proportion
of the base to the side of the triangle.
407. Any regular polygon inscribed in a circle is a
mean proportional between the inscribed and circumscribed
regular polygons of half the number of sides.
4(»S. In the figure of VI. 24 shew that EG
and KII
arc parallel.
409. Divide a triangle into two equal parts by a
straight line at right angles to one of the sides.
41(1. If two isosceles triangles are to one another in
the duplicate ratio of their bases, shew that the triangles
are similar.
:
3.78 EXERCISES IN EUCLID.

411. Through a given point draw a chord in a given
circle so that it shall be divided at the point in a given
ratio.
412. From a point Avithout a circle draw a straight
line cutting the circle, so that the two segments shall be
equal to each other.
413. In the figure of II. 11 shew that four other
straight lines, besides the given straight lino are divided
in the required manner.
414. Construct a triangle, having given the base, the
vertical angle, and the rectangle contained by the sides.
415. Acircle is described round an equilateral triangle,
and from any point in the circumference straight lines
are di'awn to the angular points of the triangle shew :
that one of these straight lines is equal to the other two

together.
416. From the extremities B, C
of the base of an
isosceles triangle ABC, straight lines are drawn at right
angles to AB, ACrespectively, and intersecting at D
shew that the rectangle BC, AD
is double of the rectande
AB, DB.
417. ABC is an isosceles triangle, the side being AB
equal to ^6'; i^ is the middle point oiBC; on any straiglit
line through A perpendiculars EG
and CE are drawn :
shew that the rectangle AC, EF

is equal to the sum of the
rectangles EC, EG
and FA, FG.
XI. 1 to 12.
418. Shew that equal straight lines drawn from a given

point to a given plane are equally inclined to the plane.
419. If two straight hues in one plane be equally in-
clined to another plane, they will be equally inclined to the
common section of these planes.
420. From a point A
a perpendicular is drawn to a
plane meeting it at B from
; B
a perpendicular is drawn
en a straight line in the plane meeting it at C shew that :
^C'is perpendicular to the straight line in the plane.

421. ABC is a triangle the perpendiculars from
; A
and B on the opposite sides meet at through D a; D
straight line i.s drawn perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle, and Eis any point in this straight line shew that :
the straight line joining E

to any anguhar point of the tri-
angle is at right angles to the straight line drawn through
that angular point parallel to the opposite side of the tri-
angle.
422. Straight lines arc drawn from two given points
without a given plane meeting each other in that plane :
find when their sum is the least possible.

423. Three straight lines not in the same plane meet
at a point, and a plane cuts these straight lines at equal
distances from the point of intersection shew that the
:
perpendicular from tliat point on the })lane will meet it at

the centre of the circle described about the triangle formed
by the portion of the plane intercepted by the planes pass-
ing through the straight lines.
424. Give a geometrical construction for drawing a
straight line which shall be equally inclined to three
straight lines meeting at a point.
42.3. From E draw EC,
a point ED
perpendicular to
two planes CAB, DAB
which intersect in AB^ and from
D draw DF
perpendicular to the plane CAB meeting it at
F: shew that the straight line CF, produced if necessar}',
is perpendicular to AB.
42G. Perpendiculars are drawn from a point to a plane,
and to a straight line in that plane shew that the straight
:
line joining the feet of the perpendiculars is perpendicular

to the former straight line.
XL 13 to 21.
427. BCD is the common base of two pyramids, whoso

vertices Aand E lie in a plane passing through BC\ and
AB, .16' are respectively ])erpendicular to the faces BED,
CED shew that one of the angles at A together with the
:
angles at E make up four right angles.

428. Within the area of a given triangle is inscribed
another triangle shew that the sum of the angles sub-
:
tended by the sides of the interior triangle at any point

not in the i>lane of the triangles is less than the sum of the
angles subtended at the same point by the sides of the ex-
terior angle.
429. From the extremities of the two i)arallcl straight
;

lines AB, CD parallel straight lines Aa, Bh, Cc, Dd are
dra"^^'n meeting a plane at a, b, c, d: shew that AB is to
CD as ab to cd.
430. Shew tliat the perpendicular drawn from the ver-
tex of a regular tetrahedron on the opposite face is three
times that drawn from its own-foot on any of the other faces.
431. A triangular p}Tamid stands on an equilateral
base and the angles at the vertex are right angles shew :
that the sum of the perpendiculars on the faces from any

point of the base is constant.
432. Three straight lines not in the same plane inter-
sect at a point, and through their point of intersection
another straight line is drawn within the solid angle formed
by them: shew that the angles which this straight line
makes with the first three are together less than the sum,
but greater than half the sum, of the angles which the first
three make with each other.
433. Three straight lines which do not all lie in one
plane, are cut in the same ratio by three planes, two of which
are parallel: shew that the third will be parallel to the
other two, if its intersections with the three straight lines
are not all in the same straight line.
434. Draw two one through one straight

parallel planes,
line,and the other through another straight line which does
not meet the former.
435. If two planes which are not parallel be cut by two
parallel planes, the lines of section of the first two by the
last two will contain equal angles.
43G. From a point A in one of two planes arc drawn
.î? at right angles to the first plane, and AC perpendicular
to the second plane, and meeting the second plane at B, C :
shew that BC is perpendicular to the line of intersection of

the two planes.
437. Polygons formed by cutting a prism by parallel
planes are equal.
438. Polygons formed by cutting a pyramid by parallel
planes are similar.
439. The straight line PBbp cuts two parallel planes
at B, b, and the points P, p are e-<iuidistant from the planes
PAa, pcC Sire other straight lines drawn from P,]? to cut
the planes shew that the triangles yiBC, abc are equal.
:
440. Perpendiculars AE^ BF are drawn to a plane

from two points A, B above it; a plane is drawn through

A perpenclicuhir to AB\ shew that its line of intersection
with the given phmc is perpendicular to EF.
I. 1 to 48.
441. ABC is a triangle, and P is any point within it:

shew that the sum of PA^ PB, PC is lessthan the sum of
442. From
the centres and A B
of two circles parallel
radii AP, BQare drawn; the straight line meets the PQ
circumferences again at R
and S\ shew that -4/? is parallel
to BS.
443. If any point be taken within a parallelogram the
sum of the triangles formed by joining the point with the
extremities of a pair of opposite sides is half the parallelo-
gram.
444. If a quadrilateral figure be bisected by one dia-
gonal the second diagonal is bisected by the first.
445. Any quadrilateral figure which is bisected by
both of its diagonals is a parallelogram.
446. In the figure of I. 5 if the equal sides of the tri-
angle be produced uj)wards through the vortex, instead of
downwards through the base, a demonstration of I. lo may
be obtained without assuming any proposition beyond I. 5.
447. B
A is a given point, and is a given point in a
given straight line it is required to draw from A to the
:
given straii,dit line, a straight line A P, such that the sum

of A P
and PB may be equal to a given length.
448. Shew that by superposition the first case of I. 2G
may be immediately demonstrated, and also the second
case with the aid of I. 16.
449. A
straight line is drawn terminated by one of the
sides of an isosceles triangle, and by the other side pro-
duced, and bisected by the base shew that the straight
:
lines thus intercepted between the vertex of the isosceles

triangle and this straight line, are together equal to the
two equal sides of the triangle.
4.30. Through the middle point M
of the base of a BC
triangle a straight line DMEis drawn, so as to cut oflF
equal parts fix)m the sides AB, AC, produced if necessary:
shew that BD is equal to CE.
451. Of all parallelogi'ams which can be formed with
diameters of given lengths the rhombus is the greatest.
4.52. Shew from I. 18 and I. 32 that if the hypote-
nuse BC of a right-angled triangle ABC be bisected at D,
then AD, BD, CD are all equal.
453. If two equal straight lines intersect each other
any where at right angles, the quadrilateral formed by
joining their extremities is equal to half the square on
either straight line.
454. Inscribe a parallelogram in a given triangle, in

such a manner that its diagonals shall intersect at a given
point within the triangle.
455. Construct a triangle of given area, and having two
of its sides of given lengths.
difference of the sides, and the diflfereuce of the angles at
the base.
457. AB, AC are two given straight lines it is re- :
quired to find iw AB î jôint P, such that if PQ

be drawn
perpendicular to AC, the sum of APand AQ
may be equal
to a given straight line.
458. The distance of the vertex of a triangle from the
bisection of its base, is equal to, greater than, or less than
iialf of the base, according as the vertical angle is a right,
an acute, or an obtuse angle.
459. If in the sides of a given square, at equal distances
from the four angular points, four other points be taken,
one on each side, the figure contained by the straight lines
which join them, shall also be a square.
:
400. On a given straifjht line as base, construct a tri-

angle, having giv<Mi the ditFcrence of the sides and a point
through which one of the sides is to pass.
461. ABC
is a triangle in which BA
is greater than
CA the angle ./ is bisected bva straight line which meets
;
i^C'at D; shew that BD

is greater than CD.
4G-2. If one angle of a triangle be triple another the

triangle may be divided into two isosceles triangles.
463. If one angle of a triangle be double another, an
isosceles triangle may be added to it so as to form toge-
ther with it a single isosceles triangle.
464. Let one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle
be bisected at Z>, and let it also be doubled by being pro-
duced through the extremity of the base to E, then the
distance of the other extremity of the base from is double E
its distance from D.
465. Determine the locus of a point whose distance

from one given point is double its distance from another
given point.
466. A straight line AB is bisected at C, and on AC
and CB as diagonals any two parallelograms ADCE and
CFBG are described let the parallelogram whose adja-
;
cent sides are and CD CF

bo completed, and also that
whose adjacent sides are CE and CG shew that the di:igo-
:
nals of these latter parallelograms are in the same straight

line.
467. A BCD
is a rectangle of which A, C are opposite
angles E
is any point in
; and BC F
is any point in CD
shew that twice the area of the triangle AEF, together
with the rectangle BE, DF
is equal to the rectangle
ABCD.
468. ABC, DBC
a.rc two triangles on the same base,
and ABChas the side AB
equal to the side AC; a circle
passing through C and D
has its centre on CA, producedE
if necessary; a circle j>assing through B and h;us its D
centre /"' on BA, produced if necessary: shew that the
quadrilateral AEDFhan the sum of two of its sides equal
to the sum of the other two.
469. Two straight lines AB, AC arc given in position:
:

it is required to find m AB
point P, such that a perpen-
ii
dicular being AC, the straiglit line

drawn from it to AP
may exceed this perpendicular by a proposed length.
470, Shew that the opposite sides of any equiangular
hexagon are parallel,and that any two sides which are adj acent
are together equal to the two to which they are parallel.
471.
-
From D
and E, the corners of the square BDEC
described on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangleBC
ABC, perpendiculars DM, are let fall on AC, EN AB
respectively: shew that is equal to AB, andAM AN
equal to A C.
472. AB and AC are two given straight lines, and
P is a given point : it is required to draw through a P
straight line which shall form with AB
and the least AC
possible triangle.
473. ABC is
a triangle in which is a right angle C
shew how to draw a straight line parallel to a given straight
line, so as to be terminated by and CB, and bisected CA
by ^^.
474. ABC
is an isosceles triangle having the angle at
B four times either of the other angles is produced ; AB
to D
so that BD
is equal to twice AB, and is joined CD
shew that the triangles and ACD
are equiangular to ABC
one another.
475. Through a point K
within a parallelogram A BCD
straight lines are drawn parallel to the sides : shew that
the difference of the parallelograms of which and KA KG
are diagonals is equal to twice the triangle BKD.
476. Construct a right-angled triangle, having given
one side and the difference between the other side and the
liypotenuse.
477. The straight lines AD, BE bisecting the sides
BC, ylC of a triangle intersect at G: shew that ^6^ is
double of GD.
478. BAC is a right-angled triangle ; one straight line
is drawn bisecting the right angle A, and another bisecting
the base BC at right angles these straight lines intersect
;
at ^ : if 2> be the middle point of BC, shew that is DE

equal to DA.
479. On AC the diagonal of a square ABCD, a rhom-
bus AEFC is described of the same area as the square.
and having acute angle at A

its if be joined, shew : AF
that the angle EACis
divided into three equal angles,
480. AB, AC
are two fixed straight lines at right
angles ; D
is any pohit in A 7^, and is any point in AC; E
on DEas diagonal a half s<piare is described with its
vertex at G shew that the locus of G is the straight line
:
which bisects the angle BAC.

481. Shew that a square is greater than any other par-
allelogram of the same perimeter.
482. Inscribe a square of given magnitude in a given
•
square.
483. ABC is a triangle ; ^Z> is a third of AB, and
AE a third of
is AC CD and BE intersect at F: shew
;
that the triangle BFC half the triangle BAC, and that
is
the quadrilateral ADFE is equal to either of the triangles
CFE or BDF.
484. ABC a triangle, having the angle C a right
is
angle ; the angle A
is bisected by a straight line which
meets BC at D, and the angle B
is bisected by a straight
linewhich meets AC xxi E AD ; and BEintersect at :
shew that the triangle AOB is half the quadrilateral

ABDE.
48.'). Shew
that a scalene triangle cannot be divided
by a straight two parts which will coincide.
line into
486. A BCD, ACED
are parallelograms on cqu:tl bases
BC, CE, and between the same parallels AD, BE; the
straight lines and BDintersect at AE
shew that F : BF
is e(pial to twice DF.
487. Parallelogi-ams AFGC, are described on CBKH
AC, i?C outside the triangle and meet at ABC; EG KH
Z; ZCis joined, and through A and straight lines B AD
andBE are drawn, both parallel to ZC, and meeting FQ
and Kll at and D respectively E
shew that the tiguro :
A DEB is a parallelogram, and that it is equal to the sum

of the parallelograms EC, CK.
488. If a quadrilateral have two of its sides jiarallel
shew that the straight line drawn panillel to these si<lcs
through the intersection of the diagonals is bisected at that
point.
489. Two triangles are on etpial bases and between
the same parallels shew that the .sides of the triangles in-
:
tercept equal lengths of any straight line which is parallel

to their bases.
25
490. In a right-angled triangle, right-angled at A, if
the side A C be double of the side A 13, the angle is more B
than double of the angle C.
491. Trisect a parallelogram by straight lines drawn
through one of its angular points.
492. AHK
is an equilateral triangle is a
; ABCD
rhombus, a side of which is equal to a side of the triangle,
and the sides BC
and CD of which pass through and H
K respectively : shew that the angle A of the rhombus is
ten-ninths of a right angle.
493. Ti'isect a given triangle by straight lines drawn
from a given point inone of its sides.
494. In the figure of I. 35 if two diagonals be drawn
to the two parallelograms respectively, one from each ex-
tremity of the base, and the intersection of the diagonals be
joined with the intersection of the sides (or sides produced)
in the figure, shew that the joining straight line will bisect
the base.
II. 1 to 14.
495. Produce one side of a given triangle so that the

rectangle contained by this side and the produced part
may be equal to the difference of the squares on the other
two sides.
496. Produce a given straight line so that the sum of
the squares on the given straight line and on the part
produced may be equal to twice the rectangle contained by
the whole straight line thus produced and the part pro-
duced.
497. Produce a given straight line so that the sum of
the squares on the given straight line and on the whole
straight line thus produced may be equal to twice the
rectangle contained by the whole straight line thus pro-
duced and the part produced.
498. Produce a given straight line so that the rectangle
contained by the whole straight line thus produced and the
part produced may be equal to the square on the given
straight line.
499. Describe an isosceles obtuse-angled triangle such
that the square on the largest side may be equal to three
times the square on cither of the equal sides.
500. Pind the obtuse angle of a triangle when the
EXERCISES IN EUCLID, 387
square on the side opposite to the obtuse angle is greater

than tlie sum of the squares on the sides containing it, by
the rectangle of the sides.
501. Construct a rectangle equal to a given square
when the sum of two adjacent sides of the rectangle is
e(j[ual to a given quantity.
502. Construct a rectangle equal to a given square
when the difference of two adjacent sides of the rectangle
is equal to a given quantity.
503. The least square which can be inscribed in a
given square is that which is half of the given square.
504. Divide a given straight line into two parts so that
the squares on the whole line and on one of the parts
may be together double of the square on the other part.
505. Two rectangles have equal areas and equal peri-
meters: shew that they are equal hi all respects.
50b'. A BCD is a rectangle; P is a i)oint such that
the sum of P^4 and PC is e(iual to the sum of PD
and
PD : shew that the locus of P consists of the two straight
lines through the centre of the rectangle parallel to its
sides.
III. 1 to 37.
507. Describe a circle which shall pass through a given

X)oint and touch a given straight line at a given point.
point and touch a given circle at a given point.
509. Describe a circle which shall touch a given circle
at a given point and touch a given straight line.
510. AD, BE are perpendiculars from the angles
A and 7? of a triangle on the opposite sides BF
is per-
;
pendicular to ED ED or produced shew that the angle

:
FBI) is equal to the angle EBA.

511. U ABC be a triangle, and BE, CF
the perjK'n-
diculars from the ftnglcs on the opposite sides, and A' the
middle point of the third side, shew that the angles FEK,
EFIl are each equal to A.
512. AB IS a diameter of a circle and
; AC AD
are
two chords meeting the tangent at atB E
and /' re-
spectively :shew that the angles FCE
and FDE
are
equal.
^
25—2
513. Shew that the four straight lines bisecting the
angles of any quadrilateral form a quadrilateral which can
be inscribed in a circle.
514. Find the shortest distance between two circles
which do not meet.
515. Two circles cut one another at a point it is ^ :
required to draw through A

a straight line so that the
extreme length of it intercepted by the two circles may be
equal to that of a given straight line.
516. If a polygon of an even number of sides be in-
scribed in a circle, the sum of the alternate angles together
with two right angles is equal to as many right angles
as the figure has sides.
517. Draw from a given point in the circumference of a
circle,a chord which shall be bisected by its point of mter-
section with a given chord of the circle.
518. "When an equilateral polygon is described about
a circle must necessarily be equiangular if the number
it
of sides be odd, but not otherwise.
519. AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is C,
and DCE is a sector having the arc DE
constant join ;
AE, BD intersecting at P
shew th;it the angle
\ is APB
constant.
520. If anynumber of triangles on the same base BC^
and on the same side of it have their vertical angles equal,
and perpendiculars, intersecting at D, be drawn from B
and C ow the opposite sides, find the locus of Z> and shew ;
that all the straight lines which bisect the angle BDC
pass through the same point.
521. Let O and C be any fixed points on the circum-
ference of a circle, and OA any chord; then if AC be
joined and produced to B^ so that OB is equal to OA^
the locus of B is an equal circle.
522. From anv point P
in the diagonal of a BD
parallelogram ABCD, straight lines PE, PF, PG, PII
are drawn perpendicular to the sides AB, BC, CD, DA :
shew that EF
is parallel to GIL
523. Through any fixed point of a chord of a circle
other chords are drawn shew that the straight lines from
;
the middle ])oint of the first chord to the middle points of

the others will meet them all at the same angle.
524. ABC is a straight line, divided at any point B
;
EXERCISES IN EUCLID. 3S9

into two parts; ADB and CDB
arc similar segments of
circles, having the common chord BD; CI) and AD arc
produced to meet the circumferences at /-"' and E res[)cc-
tively. and AF, CE, BF, BE
ciyg joined: shew that ABF
and CBE arc isosceles triangles, equiangular to one an-
other.
r)2o. If the centres of two circles -which touch each
other externally be fixed, the common tangent of those
circles will touch another circle of which the straight line
joiniug the fixed centres is the diameter.
52{j. A is a given point it is required to draw from
:
A two straight lines which shall contain a given angle and

intercept on a given straight line a part of given length,
527. Astraight line and two circles are given: find
the point in the straight line from which the tangents
drawn to the circles are of equal length.
52S. In a circle two chords of given length are drawn
so as not to intersect, and one of them is fixed in position
the opposite extremities of the chords arc joined by
straight lines intersecting within the circle :shew that the
locus of the point of intersection Avill be a portion of the
circumference of a circle, passing through the extremities
of the fixed chord.
529. A and B
arc the centres of two circles which
touch internally at C, and also touch a third circle, whose
centre is D, externally and internally respectively at
E and F: shew that the angle ADBis double of' the
angle ECF.
530. C is the centre of a circle, and CP is a perpen-
dicular on a chord J PZ?: shew that the sum of CP and
AP is greatest when CP
is equal to yiP.
5M. AB, BC, CD
are three adjacent sides of any
polygon inscribed in a circle; the arcs AB. BC, CD are
bisected at Z, Jl, Nand; LMcuts BA, BC respectively
at P and Q shew that
: BPQ
is an isosceles triangle; and
that the angles ABC, BCD
arc together double of the
angle LMN.
532. In the circumference of a given circle detcnnino
a point so situated that if chords be drawn to it from
the extremities of a given chord of the circle their diHVr-
cnce shall be equal to a given straight line less than the
given chord.
533. Construct a triangle, having given the sum of the
;

sides, the difference of thesegments of the base made by
the perpendicular from the vertex, and the difference of
the base angles.
534. On a straight line AB
as base, and on the
same side of it are described two segments of circles
P is any point in the circumference of one of the seg-
ments, and the straight line BP
cuts the circumference of
the other segment at Q: shew that the angle is PAQ
equal to the angle between the tangents at A.
535. AKL a fixed straight line cutting a given
is
circle at K and L APQ, ARS
; are two other straight
lines making equal angles with AKL, and cutting the
circle at P, Q and R, S shew that Avhatever be the posi-
:
tion of APQ
and ARS, the straight line joining the mid-
dle points of PQ
and RS always remains parallel to itself.
636. another quadrilateral
If about a quadrilateral
can be described such that every two of its adjacent sides
are equally inclined to that side of the former quadrilateral
which meets them both, then a circle may be described
about the former quadrilateral.
537. Two circles touch one another internally at the
point A it is required to draw from A a straight line
:
such that the part of it between the circles may be equal

to a given straight line, which is not greater than the
difference between the diameters of the circles.
538.ABCD is a parallelogram AE at right angles
; is
to AB, and CE is at right angles to CB shew that ED, if :
produced, will cut AC at right angles.

539. From each angular point of a triangle a perpen-
dicular is let fall on the opposite side shew that the rect-
:
angles contained by the segments into which each perpen-

dicular is divided by the point of intersection of the three
are equal to each other.
540. The two angles at the base of a triangle are
bisected by two straight lines on which peqiendiculars are
drawn from the vertex shew that the straight line which
:
passes through the feet of these perpendiculars will be

parallel to the base and will bisect the sides.
541. In a given circle inscribe a rectangle equal to a
given rectilineal figure.
542. In an acute-angled triangle ABC perpendiculars
AD, BE are let fall on BC, CA respectively; circles
;
described on AC, BC as diameters meet BE, AD respec-

tively at F, G and H, K shew that F, G, II,
: K lie on tho
circuniforence of a circle.
04:5. Two diameters in a circle are at right angles
from their extremities four parallel straight lines aro
drawn shew that they divide the circumference into four
;
equal parts.
544.E is the middle point of a semicircular arc AEB^
and CDE is any chord cutting the diameter at D, and tho
circle at C shew
: that the square on CE is twice tlic quad-
rilateral AEBC.
545. AB
is a fixed chord of a circle, is a movc- ^C
ahle chord of the same circle a parallelogram is described
;
of which AB
and ^16' are adjacent sides: find the locus of
the middle points of the diagonals of the parallelogram.
546. AB is a fixed chord of a circle, is a moveable AC
chord of the same circle a parallelogram is described of
;
which AB and AC are adjacent sides: determine the

greatest possible length of the diagonal drawn through A.
547. If two equal circles be placed at such a distance
apart that the tangent drawn to either of them from the
centre of the other is equal to a diameter, shew that they
will have a common tangent equal to the radius.
548. Find a point in a given circle from which if two
tangents be drawn to an equal circle, given in position, the
chord joining the points of contact is equal to the chord
of the first circle formed by joining the points of inter-
section of the two tangents produced; and determine the
limit to the possibility of the problem.
549. AB
is a diameter of a circle, and is any AF
chord; C
any point in AB, and through C a straight
is
line is draîi at right angles to AB, meeting AF, pro-
duced if necessary at G, and meeting the circumference at
IJ: shew that the rectangle FA, AG, and the rectangle
BA, AC, and the square on are all equal. AD
vertical angle, and the length of the straight line drawn
from the vertex to the base bisecting the vertical angle.
551. A, i>, C are three given points in the circumfer-
ence of a given circle: find a point such that if AP^ P
BP, CP meet the circumference at D, E, respectively, F
the arcs DE^ EF
may be equal to given arcs.
392 ÊXERCISES IN EUCLID.
552. Find the point in the circumference of a given
circle, thesum of whose distances from two given straight
lines at right angles to each other, wliich do not cut the
circle, is the greatest or least possible,
553. On the sides of a triangle segments of a circle are
described internaUy, each containing an angle equal to the
excess of tvro right angles above the opposite angle of the
triangle shew that the radii of the circles are equal, that
:
the circles all pass through one point, and that their chords
of intersection are respectively perpendicular to the oppo-
site sides of the triangle.
IV. 1 to 16.
554. From the angles of a triangle ABC

perpendi-
culars are drawn to the opposite sides meeting them at
Z>, E, F
respectively shew that: and DE DF
are equally
inclined to AD.
555. The points of contact of the inscribed circle
of a triangle arc joined; and from the angular points of
the triangle so formed perpendiculars are drawn to the
o})posite sides shew that the triangle of which the feet of
:
these perpendiculars are the angular points has its sides

parallel to the sides of the original triangle.
556. Construct a triangle having given an angle and
tlie radii of the inscribed and circumscribed circles.
557. Triangles are constructed on the same base with
equal vertical angles shew that the locus of the centres of
;
the escribed circles, each of which touches one of the sides

externally and the other side and base produced, is an
arc of a circle, the centre of which is on the circumference
of the circle circumscribing the triangles.
558. From the angular points A.B, C of a triangle
perpendiculars are drawn on the opposite sides, and ter-
minated at the points Z>, E, F
on the circumference of the
circumscribing circle if L be the point of intersection of
:
the perpendiculars, shew that LD, LE, LF

are bisected
by the sides of the triangle.
559. ABCDE is a reîlar pentagon join

;
AC and ]}D
intersecting at shew tluit A() is equal to IJO, and tliat
:
the rectangle AC, CO is eqnal to the squ;\re on HC.

560. A straight line I^Q of given length moves so that
its ends are ahvays on two fixed straight lines CP, CQ ;
straight lines from P

and Q at riglit angles to CP nnd CQ
respectively intersect at A' perpendiculars from
;
P and Q
on CQ and CPrespectively intersect at >S': shew that the
loci of R and aS' are circles having their common centre
at C
5G1. Right-angled triangles are described on the same
hypotenuse shew that the locus of the centres of the in-
:
scribed circles is a quarter of the circumference of a circle

of which the common hypotenuse is a chord.
562. On a given straight Ihie AB
any triangle ACE is
described; the sides AC, EGare bisected and straight

lines drawn at right angles to them through the points of
bisection to intersect at a point Dfind the locus of D.
;
563. C<mstruct a triangle, having given its base, one of

the angles nt the base, and the distance between the centre
of the inscribeil circle and the centre of the circle touching
the base and the sides produced.
564. Describe a circle which shall touch a given straight
line at a given point, and bisect the circumference of a
given circle.
point and bisect the circumferences of two given circles.
566. Within a given circle inscribe three equal circles,
touching one another and the given circle.
567. If the radius of a circle be cut as in II. 11, the
gi'cater segment will be the side of a regular decagon in-
scriV)ed in the circle.
56S. If the radius of a circle be cut as in II. 11, the
square on its greater segment, together with the square on
the radius, is equal to the square on the side of a regular
pentagon inscnbed in the circle.
569. From the vertex of a triangle draw a straight
line to the base so that the square on the straight line may
be equal to the rectangle contained by the segments of the
base.
570. Four straight lines are drawn in a piano forming
four triangles; shew that the circumscribing circles of
these triangles all pass through a conmion iK)iut.
571. The perpendiculars from the angles A
and i? of a
triangle on the opposite sides meet at D
the circles de-
;
scribed round and ADCcut DECor AB AB

produced at
the points Eand shew thatF : AE
is equal to BF.
572. The four circles each of which passes through the

centres of three of the four circles touching the sides of a
triangle are equal to one another.
573. Four circles are described so that each may
touch internally three of the sides of a quadrilateral shew :
that a circle may be described so as to pass through the

centres of the four circles.
574. A circle is described round the triangle ABC,
and from any point P of its circumference perpendiculars
are dra\\'n to BC, CA, AB, which meet the circle again at
D, E, F: shew that the triangles yl^Candi)î^ are equal
in all respects, and that the straight lines AD, BE, CF are
parallel.
575. "With any point in the circumference of a given

circle as centre, describeanother circle, cutting the former
at A and B from ; B
draw in the described circle a chord
BD equal to its radius, and join AD, cutting the given
circle at Q shew that
: QD
is equal to the radius of the
given circle.
576. A point is taken without a square, such that
straight lines being drawn to the angular points of the
square, the angle contained by the two extreme straight
lines is divided into three equal parts by the other two
straight lines shew that the locus of the point is the cir-
:
cumference of the circle circumscribing the square.

577. Circles are inscribed in the two triangles formed
by drawing a perpendicular from an angle of a triangle on
the opposite side and analogous circles are described in
;
relation to the two other like perpendiculars shew that :
the sum of the diameters of the six circles together with

the sum of the sides of the original triangle is equal to
twice the sum of these perpendiculars.
578. 'riirce concentric circles are drawn in the same
plane: draw a straight line, such that one of its segments
between the inner and outer circumference maybe bisected
at one of the points at which the straight line meets the
middle circumference.
VI. 1 to D.
579. AB is a diaireter, and P

any point in the circum-
ference of a circle; AP
and BP
are joined and produced
if necessary; from any point C in AB
a straijjflit line is
drawn at right angles to AB
meeting at J) nr.d AP BP
at E, and the circumference of the circle at F: shew that
CD is a third proportional to and CF. CE
580. A^ B, Care three points in a straight line, and D
a point at which AB and BC
subtend equal angles shew :
that the locus of D

is the circumterence of a circle.
5S1. If a straight line be drawn from one corner of a
square cutting otf one-fourth from the diagonal it will cut
off one-third from a side. Also if straight lines be drawn
similarly from the other corners so as to form a square, this
square will be two-fifths of the original square.
582. The sides AB, AC
of a given triangle arc ABC
produced to any points D, E, so that is parallel to BC.DE
The straight line DEis divided at /'so that DF'\^ to FE
as BD is to CE: shew that the locus oi u a straight F
line.
583. A, B, C are three points in order in a straight
lino find a point
: P in the straight line so that PB may be
a mean proportional l)etween PA and PC.
5s4. A, B arc two fixed points on the circumference
of a given circle, and P a moveable point on the circum-
is
ference; on PB taken a jioint D such that PD
is to is
PA in a constant ratio, and on PA taken a point JJ is
such that PE isto PB in the same ratio shew that DE :
always touches a fixed circle.

5S;5. ABCh an isosceles triangle, the angle at A being
four times cither of the others shew that :BC be bisected if
at D and E, the triangle ADE equilateral. is
586. Peqjcndiculars are let fall from two opposite
angles of a rectangle on a diagonal phew that thoy will :
divide the diagonal into equal parts, if the square on one

side of the rectangle be doui»le tnat on the other.
587. A straight line AB
is divided into any two part.s
at C, and on the whole straight line and on the two parts
of it equilateral triangles ADB. A<'E. J>f'F arc de-
scribed, the two latter being on the same side of the straight
:
39(i EXERCISES IN EUCLID.

line, and the former on the opposite side (?, H, A" are the ;
centres of the circles inscribed in tiiese triangles shew :
that the angles AGH. BGK

are respectively eqnal to the
angles ABC, BDC, and that GH
h equal to GK.
5SS. On the two sides of a right-angled triangle squares
are described shew that the straight lines joining the
:
acute angles of the triangle and the opposite angles of the

squares cut off equal segments from the sides, and that
each of these e(iual segments is a mean proportional be-
tween the remaining segments.
589. Two straight lines and a point between them are
given in position draw two straight lines from the given
:
point to terminate in the given straight lines, so that they

shall contain a given angle and have a given ratio,
590. "With a point A
in the circumference of a circle
ABC as centre, a circle PBC
is described cutting the
former circle at the points B
and C any chord ; of the AD
former meets the common chord BC
at E, and the circum-
ference of the other circle at shew that the angles
:
EPO andDPO are equal for all positions of P.

591. ABC, ABE are triangles on the same base in the
AF
ratio of two to one and jî^ produced meet the sides
;
atD and E FB
in
; EGa pp.rt is cut off equal to FE. and
BG is bisected at shew that : is to BO as is to BE DF

DA.
592. A is the centre of a circle, and another circle
passes through A
and cuts the former at and C is B ; AD
a chord of the latter circle meeting at E, and from BC D
are drawn DF and DG
tangents to the former circle shew :
that G, E, F lie on one straight line.

593. In AB, AC, two sides of a triangle, are taken
points D, E\ AB,AC are produced to F, G such that BF
is equal to AD, and CG equal to ^^; BG, arc joined CF
meeting at H: shew that the triangle FUG
is equal to the
triangles BHC, ADE

together.
594. In any triangle if ABC BD
be taken equal to
one-fourth of BC, and CE
one-fourth of AC, the straight
line drawn from C through the intersection of and BE
AD will divide AB
into two parts, which are in the ratio of
nine to one.
595. Any rectilineal figure is inscribed in a circle
shew that by bisecting the arcs and drawing tangents to
the points of bisection parallel to the sides of the recti-
lineal figure, we can form a similar rectilineal figure cir-

cumscinbing the circle.
o;)!). Find a mean proportional between two similar
right angled triangles which have one of the sides contain-
ing the right angle connnon.
597. In i\\d sides .1(7, BC
of a triangle points ADC
D and E
are taken, such that CD nnd CE arc respectively
the third parts of AC and BC\ BJ) and AE are drawn
intersecting at O : shew that EO and DO are respectively
the fourth parts of A E and BD.
598. CA, CB ai-e diameters of two circles which touch
each other externally at C\ a chord AD
oi the former
circle, wlien produced, touches the latter at E^ while a
chord BFoi the latter, when produced, touches the former
at G: shew that the rectangle contained ])\ iind AD BF
is four times that contained by DE
and FG.
599. Two circles Intersect at A, and is drawn BAC
meeting tlicm at B and C; with B, C as centres are de-
scribed two circles each of which intersects one of the
former at right angles shew that these circles and the
:
circle whose diameter is ^6' meet at a point.

(JOO. A BCDEF is a rcg;dar hexagon shew that BF :
divides A D in the ratio of one to three.

601. A BC DEF are triangles, having the an^le A equal
to the anule D; and AB is equal to DF: shew that the
areas of the triangles are as ^(7 to DE.
602. If J/, N be the points at which the inscribed and
an escribed circletouch the side AC of a triangle ABC;
shew that if BM be produced to cut the escribed circle
again at P, then IVP is a diameter.
603. The angle A of a triangle ABC
is a right angle,
and D is the foot of the perpendicular from A on BC;
DM, DN nre i)erpendiculars on AB, AC: shew that the
angles BM(\ BNC
are etpial.
604. If from the j)oint of bi.section of nny given arc of
a circle two straight lines be drawn, cutting* the chord of
the arc and the circumference, the four i)oints of intersec-
tion shall also lie in the circumference of a circle.
605. The side AB
oi a triangle A B( is touched by the
'
inscribed circle at D, and by the escribed circle at E:

shew that the rectangle contained by the radii is e<iual to
the rectangle AD, DB
and to the rectangle AE, EB.
606. Shew that the locus of the middle points of
straight lines parallel to the base of a triangle and termi-
nated by its sides is a straight line.
607. A parallelogram is inscribed in a triangle, having
one side on the base of the triangle, and the adjacent sides
parallel to a fixed direction : shew that the locus of the
intersection of the diagonals of the parallelogram is a
straight line bisecting the base of the triangle.
608. On a given straight line AB
as hypotenuse a
right-angled triangle is descnbed and from
; and A B
straight lines are drawn to bisect the opposite sides shew :
that the locus of their intersection is a circle.

609. From a given point outside two given circles
which do not meet, draw a straight line such that the por-
tions of it intercepted by each circle shall be respectively
proportional to their radii.
610. In a given triangle inscribe a rhombus which
shall have one of its angular points coincident with a j)oint
in the base, and a side on that base.
611. ABC is a triangle ha\'ing a right angle at (7;
ABDE the square described on the hypotenuse; F^ G,
is H
are the points of intersection of the diagonals of the squares
on the hypotenuse and sides shew that the angles DCE,
:
GFH are together equal to a right angle.
MISCELLANEOUS.
612. is a fixed point from which any straight line is

drawn meeting a fixed straight line at in P
a point; OF
Q is taken sucli tliat the rectangle OP, is constant:OQ
shew that the locus of Q is the circumference of a circle.
613. O is a fixed point on the circumference of a circle,
from which any straight line is drawn meeting the circum-
ference at P in OJP a point Q is taken such that the
;
rectangle OP, OQ
is constant shew that the locus of Q is
:
a straight line.
614. The opposite sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in
a circle when produced meet at P
and Q shew that the :
square on PQis equal to the sum of the squares on tho

tangents from P
and Q to the circle.
615. ABCD
is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle ;
the opposite sides AB

and 7>C'are in-oduced to meet at /'';
and tlie opposite sides and atBC AD
shew that the K :
circle described on EF
as diameter cuts the circle ABCD
at rig-ht angles.
Gib'. From the vertex of a right-angled triangle a
perpendicular is drawn on the hypotenuse, and from the
foot of this perpendicular another is drawn on each side of
the triangle shew that the area of the triangle of which
:
these two latter perpendiculars arc two of the sides cannot

be gi'cater than one-fourth of the area of the original
triangle.
If the extremities of two intersecting straight
617.
lines be joined so as to form two vertically opposite tri-
angles, the figure made by connecting the points of bisec-
tion of tho given straight lines, will be a parallelogram
equal in area to half the ditfereuce of the triangles.
618. AB, AC
are two tangents to a circle, touching it
at B and C R
is any point in the straight line which
;
joins the middle points oi AB

and.yl(7; shew that is AR
equal to the tangent drawn from R to the circle.
619. AB, AC
are two tangents to a circle; is PQ
a chord of the circle which, produced if necessary, meets
the straight line joining the middle points of AB, at AC
R shew that the angles RAP,
; AQR
are equal to one
another.
6*20. Shew that the four circles each of which passes
through the middle jmints of the sides of one of the four
triangles formed by two adjacent sides and a diagonal of
any quadrilateral all intersect at a point.
621. Perpendiculars are drawn from any point on tho
three straight lines which bisect the angles of an equi-
lateral tri;ini:le shew that one of them is equal to the sum
:
of the other two.

6*22. Two circles intei-sect at A and B, and CBD is
drawn through B
perpendicular to AB to meet the circles;
through A a straight line is drawn bisecting either tho
interior or exterior anglebetween .IT and AI>, and meet-
ing the circumferences at E and F\ shew that the tangents
to the circumferences at E and /"' will intersect in AJi i>ro-
duced.
6-23. Divide a triangle by two straight lines into three
when properly arranged, shall form a paralle-
parts, which,
logram whose angles are of given magnitude.
624. ABCD is a parallelogram, and is any point: P
shew that the triangle PAC is equal to the difference
of the triangles PAB and PAD, UP
is within the angle
DAD or that which is vertically opposite to it and that ;
the triangle PAC equal to'the sum of the triangles

is PAB
and PAD, if P
has any other position.
625. Two circles cut each other, and a straight line
ABCDE is drawn, which meets one circle at and D, A
the other at B
and E, and their common chord at C:
shew that the square on BD
is to the square on as the ^^
rectangle BC, CD is to the rectangle AC, CE.
*'
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o. A Treatise on the Differential Calculus.

With numerous Examples. Fourth Edition. Crown

The Universit}? of Toronto lal

THE ELEMENTS Or.

COMPRISIXG THE FIRST SIX BOOKS AND PORTIONS OF THE ELEVENTH

WITH NOTES, AN APPENDIX, AND EXERCISES

I. TODHUNTEE, M.A., F.E.S.

Sontion ant CTambritige

MACMILLAN AND CO.

[All Bights reserved.]

In offering to students and teachers a new edition of

count of the plan on which it has been arranged, and of the

In England the text-book of Geometry- consists of the

such attempts, fortunately, have hitherto been made in

conviction will grow deeper that these defects and diffi-

of education and it may be readily believed that an equally

minute criticism of any other work on Geometry would

been the most extensively used in England, and the pre-

introduced with the view of rendering the language more

Koenig and Blassicrc. This edition has served as the

Logic have also been excluded. Although the study of

of the remainder, which may be reserved for pi-actice at a

in the Elements of Euclid, that one example prepares

suitable place in works on Trigonometry or Algebraical

has been fairly realised.

The subject of Plane Geometry is here presented to the

sometimes the construction and demonstration are com-

quod erat faciendum, that is, ichich was

1. A POi^'T is that -which has no parts, or which has no

2. A line is length without breadth.

3. The extremities of a line are points.

4. A straight line is that which hes evenly between

5. A superficies is that which has only length and

6. The extremities of a superficies arc lines.

7. A plane superficies is that in which any two j^.oints

8. A plane angle is the inclination of two lines to one

Note. "When several angles are at one point B, any

straight line. Thus, the angle which is coutamed

the angle which is contained by the straight lines AB, DB

is contained by the straight lines DB, CB is named the

point, it may be expressed by a letter placed at that point;

10. "When a straight line standing

the straight line which stands on the

11. An obtuse angle is that which

12. An acute angle is that which

14. A figure is that which is enclosed by one or more

16. And this pomt is called the centre of the circle.

17. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn

[A radius of a circle is a straight line di-awn from the

18. A semicircle is the figure contained by a diameter

19. A segment of a circle is the figure contained by a

21. Trilateral figures, or triangles, by three straight

22. Quadrilateral figures by four straight lines

23. Multilateral figiires, or polygons, by more than

24. Of three-sided figures,

26. A scalene triangle is that

27. A right-angled triangle is that

28. An obtuse-angled triangle is

29. An acute-angled triangle is

30. A square is that which has