NCLEX Drugs Study Guides NEW

PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
ANALGESICS
Analgesics are medications used to relieve pain. They can be classified into different types, including non-opioid (e.g.,
NSAIDs, acetaminophen) and opioid (e.g., morphine, oxycodone) analgesics. They work by interfering with pain signals in the
body. These drugs can have various side effects, such as drowsiness, constipation, and gastrointestinal issues. Misuse or
overuse of opioid analgesics can lead to addiction and other serious health problems. Always use analgesics as prescribed
by a healthcare professional, and consult a doctor for personalized advice on pain management.
How it works in the body Common Side Effects
1. Non-Opioid Analgesics: 1. Non-Opioid Analgesics (e.g., NSAIDs, Acetaminophen):

1. NSAIDs (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs) like 1. NSAIDs can cause gastrointestinal issues such as
ibuprofen and aspirin work by inhibiting enzymes (COX-1 stomach pain, indigestion, and ulcers. They may also lead
and COX-2) involved in the production of inflammatory to bleeding and kidney problems.
substances called prostaglandins. This reduces pain and 2. Acetaminophen typically has fewer side effects than
inflammation. NSAIDs, but in high doses or with prolonged use, it can
2. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) acts centrally in the brain cause liver damage.
to reduce pain and fever, but its exact mechanism is not 2. Opioid Analgesics (e.g., Morphine, Oxycodone):
fully understood. 1. Common side effects of opioids include drowsiness,
2. Opioid Analgesics: constipation, nausea, and vomiting.
1. Opioids such as morphine, oxycodone, and hydrocodone 2. Respiratory depression: Opioids can slow down
bind to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord. They breathing, which is a potentially serious side effect and
modulate pain perception and produce analgesia, but can be life-threatening at high doses.
they can also lead to side effects like sedation, respiratory 3. Sedation: Opioids may cause drowsiness and impair
depression, and the potential for addiction. cognitive function.
Common Brand Names Generic Names

Demerol Meperidine HCL
Dilaudid Hydromorphone
Duragesic, Sublimaze Fentanyl
Morphine Sulfate Morphine Sulfate
Vicodin, Norco Hydrocodone
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
ANTICONVULSANTS
Anticonvulsants, a diverse class of medications, are primarily used for preventing and managing seizures associated with
conditions such as epilepsy and other neurological disorders. They function by stabilizing abnormal electrical activity in the
brain. The specific mechanism of action varies among different anticonvulsant drugs, but they often involve modulating
neurotransmitters or ion channels to reduce excitability in the central nervous system, thus preventing or alleviating seizures
and related symptoms. These medications play a crucial role in enhancing the quality of life for individuals with seizure
disorders.
Common side effects of anticonvulsant medications can vary

Anticonvulsants, also known as antiepileptic drugs, have various depending on the specific drug, the dosage, and the individual's
mechanisms of action (MOA) depending on the specific drug. response. However, some common side effects that are often
These mechanisms aim to prevent or reduce abnormal electrical associated with anticonvulsants include:
activity in the brain, thus preventing seizures. Here are some 1. Drowsiness or Sedation: Many anticonvulsants can cause
common MOAs of anticonvulsants: drowsiness or sedation, making it important to avoid activities
1. Enhancing GABA Activity: Many anticonvulsants, such as that require alertness, such as driving.
benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam), enhance the inhibitory 2. Dizziness: Feeling lightheaded or dizzy is a common side
effects of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid effect of anticonvulsant medications.
(GABA) in the brain. GABA inhibits excessive neuronal firing, 3. Cognitive Impairment: Some individuals may experience
helping to prevent seizures. difficulty with concentration, memory, or other cognitive
2. Sodium Channel Blockade: Drugs like phenytoin and functions while taking anticonvulsants.
carbamazepine work by blocking sodium channels in 4. Nausea and Vomiting: Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as
neurons. This reduces the excessive firing of neurons that can nausea and vomiting, can occur with some anticonvulsant
lead to seizures. drugs.
3. Calcium Channel Blockade: Some anticonvulsants, like 5. Fatigue: Feeling tired or fatigued is a frequent side effect.
ethosuximide, block calcium channels in neurons, which can 6. Weight Changes: Weight gain or weight loss may occur with
be involved in the abnormal electrical activity seen in certain anticonvulsants.
absence seizures. 7. Mood Changes: Anticonvulsants can sometimes affect mood,
4. Glutamate Receptor Inhibition: Topiramate and felbamate, leading to symptoms like irritability, depression, or mood
for example, work by inhibiting glutamate receptors, which swings.
are involved in excitatory signaling in the brain. 8. Balance and Coordination Issues: Some anticonvulsants can
5. Enhancing Potassium Conductance: Retigabine, an impact balance and coordination, increasing the risk of falls.
anticonvulsant, enhances the flow of potassium ions out of 9. Skin Reactions: Skin rashes or hypersensitivity reactions are
neurons, stabilizing the cell's electrical activity. possible with certain anticonvulsant medications.
6. Modulating GABA Reuptake: Tiagabine increases the 10. Liver Function Abnormalities: Anticonvulsants can affect
availability of GABA by inhibiting its reuptake from the liver function in some cases, leading to liver enzyme
synaptic cleft. abnormalities.
7. N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) Receptor Antagonism:
Ketamine, although not typically used as a first-line
anticonvulsant, is an NMDA receptor antagonist that can help
in some refractory cases of status epilepticus.

Dilantin Phenytoin
Neurontin Gabapentin
Tegretol Carbamazepine
Depakote Valproic Acid
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
BENZODIAZEPINES (PAM & LAM)

Benzodiazepines, often referred to as "Benzos," are a class of psychoactive drugs known for their anxiolytic, sedative,
hypnotic, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant properties. They work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of the
neurotransmitter GABA, leading to relaxation and symptom relief. These drugs are commonly used to treat anxiety
disorders, insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms, although their use is typically limited due to the risk of dependence and
side effects, such as drowsiness and impaired coordination.
Benzodiazepines exert their mechanism of action (MOA) by Common side effects of benzodiazepines may include
enhancing the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a drowsiness, dizziness, impaired coordination, and memory
neurotransmitter in the brain. GABA is an inhibitory problems. These drugs can also lead to dependence and
neurotransmitter, meaning it has a calming and relaxing effect on withdrawal symptoms if used long-term. Other potential side
the central nervous system. Benzodiazepines bind to specific effects include confusion, blurred vision, and gastrointestinal
receptors on GABA receptors in the brain, which amplifies the disturbances. It's essential to use these medications as
inhibitory signals of GABA. This results in a reduction in brain prescribed by a healthcare provider and be aware of their
activity, leading to sedative, anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing), and potential for addiction and withdrawal.
muscle relaxant effects. These drugs help to alleviate symptoms
associated with anxiety, insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms.

Xanax Alprazolam
Valium Diazepam
Ativan Lorazepam
Versed Midazolam
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
ANTIDEPRESSANTS
Antidepressants are a class of medications used to alleviate symptoms of depression and other mood disorders by affecting
certain neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine. These drugs aim to improve mood, reduce
feelings of sadness and hopelessness, and enhance overall emotional well-being. They are prescribed by healthcare
professionals and can be part of a comprehensive treatment plan that may include therapy and lifestyle modifications.
Antidepressants, or medications used to treat depression and Antidepressants can have a range of side effects, and the
related mood disorders, work through various mechanisms of specific side effects can vary depending on the type of
action (MOA) to help alleviate symptoms and improve a person's antidepressant and the individual's response to the medication.
overall mental well-being. There are several different classes of Common side effects associated with many antidepressants
antidepressants, each with its unique MOA. Here are some of the include:
most common classes of antidepressants and their mechanisms 1. Nausea: Many people experience nausea, especially when
of action: starting a new antidepressant. This side effect usually
1. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): SSRIs are improves over time.
the most commonly prescribed class of antidepressants. 2. Insomnia or Sleep Disturbances: Antidepressants can disrupt
They work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain. sleep patterns, causing insomnia or unusual dreams. In some
This increases the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter cases, they may also cause drowsiness.
associated with mood regulation, in the synaptic cleft 3. Weight Changes: Some antidepressants may lead to weight
between neurons, helping to improve mood and reduce gain, while others can result in weight loss. This can vary
symptoms of depression. between individuals.
2. Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): 4. Sexual Dysfunction: Many people taking antidepressants
SNRIs, like venlafaxine and duloxetine, work similarly to SSRIs experience sexual side effects such as decreased libido,
but target both serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake, which difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection (in men), and
can have a broader effect on mood and energy levels. difficulty achieving orgasm.
3. Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs): TCAs, such as amitriptyline 5. Fatigue or Drowsiness: Some antidepressants can make
and imipramine, also inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and people feel tired or drowsy, particularly at the beginning of
norepinephrine. They are older antidepressants and tend to treatment.
have more side effects than newer options. 6. Dry Mouth: A common side effect of certain antidepressants,
4. Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs): MAOIs, like like tricyclic antidepressants.
phenelzine and isocarboxazid, work by inhibiting the enzyme 7. Headaches: Headaches are a relatively common side effect
monoamine oxidase, which breaks down neurotransmitters of some antidepressants.
like serotonin and norepinephrine. By inhibiting this enzyme, 8. Gastrointestinal Distress: Antidepressants may cause
MAOIs increase the levels of these neurotransmitters in the diarrhea or constipation in some individuals.
brain. 9. Sweating: Incr
5. Atypical Antidepressants: This category includes a variety of
antidepressants with different MOAs. Bupropion, for example,
inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine.
Trazodone primarily affects serotonin levels and is
sometimes used for sleep disorders.

Celexa Citalopram
Effexor Venlafaxine
Lexapro Escitalopram Oxalate
Paxil Paroxetine
Prozac Fluoxetine
Zoloft Sertraline
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
ANXIOLYTICS
Anxiolytics are a class of medications or substances that are used to reduce or alleviate symptoms of anxiety. These drugs
are often referred to as "anti-anxiety medications" or "anxiety-reducing agents." Anxiolytics work by acting on the central
nervous system to produce a calming or sedative effect, helping to reduce feelings of anxiety, tension, and fear.
Anxiety disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive and persistent worry, fear, or
nervousness. Anxiolytics are prescribed to individuals with these conditions to help manage their symptoms and improve
their overall quality of life. They can also be used to relieve acute anxiety in specific situations, such as before a medical
procedure or a public speaking engagement.
Anxiolytics, or anti-anxiety medications, work through various 1. Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, alprazolam):
mechanisms of action (MOA) to reduce the symptoms of anxiety. Drowsiness
The specific MOA can vary depending on the class of anxiolytic. Dizziness
Here are some common mechanisms of action for anxiolytics: Nausea
1. Benzodiazepines: Benzodiazepines are a class of anxiolytics Memory and coordination problems
that enhance the inhibitory actions of the neurotransmitter Dependence and withdrawal symptoms with long-term
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain. They bind to use
specific GABA receptors, which results in increased inhibitory 2. SSRIs (e.g., sertraline, escitalopram) and SNRIs (e.g.,
signaling. This leads to a calming effect, muscle relaxation, venlafaxine, duloxetine):
and a reduction in anxiety. Nausea
2. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): Some Headache
SSRIs, which are primarily used as antidepressants, can also Sleep disturbances
be effective in treating certain anxiety disorders. They work Sexual dysfunction
by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain, which helps Weight changes
regulate mood and reduce anxiety. 3. Buspirone:
3. Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): Dizziness
SNRIs, like venlafaxine and duloxetine, affect both serotonin Nausea
and norepinephrine levels in the brain. The increased levels Headache
of these neurotransmitters can lead to a reduction in anxiety Nervousness
symptoms. 4. Antihistamines (e.g., hydroxyzine):
4. Buspirone: Buspirone is a non-benzodiazepine anxiolytic that Drowsiness
has a unique MOA. It works by acting as a partial agonist at Dry mouth
serotonin receptors and has a modulating effect on serotonin Blurred vision
levels in the brain, helping to reduce anxiety. Constipation
5. Antihistamines: Some antihistamines, like hydroxyzine, are Urinary retention
used as anxiolytics due to their sedative properties. They 5. Beta-Blockers (e.g., propranolol):
work by blocking histamine receptors in the brain, which can Fatigue
lead to a calming effect and reduced anxiety. Cold extremities
6. Beta-Blockers: Beta-blockers, such as propranolol, are often Slow heart rate
used to manage the physical symptoms of anxiety, like a Dizziness
rapid heartbeat and trembling. They work by blocking the Impaired exercise tolerance
action of adrenaline and norepinephrine, reducing the "fight 6. Pregabalin and Gabapentin:
or flight" response. Dizziness
7. Pregabalin and Gabapentin: These medications are used to Drowsiness
treat anxiety disorders, especially generalized anxiety Weight gain
disorder. They modulate calcium channels in the brain, Swelling in the extremities
reducing the release of excitatory neurotransmitters. Balance problems
Buspar Buspirone Hydrochloride
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
TRICYCLICS
Tricyclic antidepressants, often referred to as TCAs, are a class of medications used primarily to treat depression and certain
other mood disorders. They are called "tricyclic" because their molecular structure includes three interconnected rings.
TCAs were some of the first antidepressant medications developed and were widely used in the mid-20th century before
the development of newer antidepressant classes like SSRIs and SNRIs.
The mechanism of action (MOA) of tricyclic antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) can have a range of side effects,
(TCAs) involves the alteration of neurotransmitter levels in the some of which are common and may include:
brain. TCAs primarily affect the levels of two important 1. Dry Mouth: A dry, cottonmouth sensation is a common side
neurotransmitters: serotonin and norepinephrine. Here's how effect of TCAs. This occurs due to the drugs' anticholinergic
they work: effects, which reduce saliva production.
1. Blockade of Reuptake: TCAs inhibit the reuptake of both 2. Constipation: TCAs can slow down the digestive system,
serotonin and norepinephrine. In the synaptic cleft between leading to constipation in some individuals.
neurons, there is a process called reuptake where 3. Blurred Vision: Some people may experience blurred or
neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the transmitting neuron impaired vision, particularly when they focus on close
after signaling is completed. TCAs block this reuptake, objects.
allowing serotonin and norepinephrine to accumulate in the 4. Drowsiness: TCAs often have sedative effects, and
synaptic cleft. drowsiness is a common side effect. Many people take these
2. Enhancing Signaling: By blocking the reuptake of these medications at bedtime to minimize daytime drowsiness.
neurotransmitters, TCAs increase their presence in the 5. Weight Gain: TCAs are associated with weight gain in some
synaptic cleft. This, in turn, enhances signaling between individuals, which can contribute to concerns about body
neurons. Increased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine weight.
are associated with improved mood and can alleviate 6. Dizziness: TCAs can cause dizziness or lightheadedness,
symptoms of depression. particularly when standing up quickly from a sitting or lying
3. Downregulation of Receptors: Over time, TCAs may also position.
lead to the downregulation (reduction in the number) of 7. Orthostatic Hypotension: Some people may experience a
certain neurotransmitter receptors, particularly the drop in blood pressure when changing positions, which can
adrenergic and serotonin receptors. This can contribute to lead to dizziness or fainting (orthostatic hypotension).
the long-term effects of the medication. 8. Tachycardia: TCAs can increase heart rate (tachycardia) in
some individuals.
9. Sweating: Increased sweating, particularly during sleep, is a
common side effect of TCAs.
10. Sexual Dysfunction: Like other antidepressants, TCAs may
cause sexual side effects, including reduced libido, difficulty
achieving or maintaining an erection (in men), and difficulty
achieving orgasm.
11. Urinary Retention: TCAs can cause difficulty emptying the
bladder due to their anticholinergic effects.
12. Tremors: Some individuals may experience trembling or
shaking of the hands.
Elavil Amitriptyline
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
SEDATIVES/HYPNOTICS
Sedatives and hypnotics are a class of drugs that have a calming or sleep-inducing effect on the central nervous system.
These drugs are used to reduce anxiety, induce relaxation, and promote sleep. While the terms "sedative" and "hypnotic" are
sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinct but related functions:
1. Sedatives: Sedatives are substances that have a calming and anxiety-reducing effect. They are often used to alleviate
anxiety, tension, and restlessness, and they can help individuals feel more relaxed without necessarily causing
drowsiness or sleep.
2. Hypnotics: Hypnotics, on the other hand, are substances that are primarily used to induce sleep. They are often referred
to as "sleeping pills" and are prescribed to help people with insomnia or other sleep disorders fall asleep and stay
asleep.
Sedatives and hypnotics are drugs that have a calming or sleep- The common side effects of sedatives and hypnotics, which
inducing effect on the central nervous system. Their mechanisms include drugs used to induce relaxation or sleep, can vary
of action (MOA) can vary depending on the specific drug, but depending on the specific medication. Here are some general
they generally work by enhancing the effects of a side effects associated with these types of drugs:
neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which 1. Drowsiness: Sedatives and hypnotics can cause drowsiness,
is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Here's how sedatives and which may persist into the following day, affecting a person's
hypnotics achieve their effects: ability to concentrate and perform tasks that require
1. Enhancement of GABA Activity: Many sedatives and alertness.
hypnotics, such as benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam), 2. Dizziness: Many people experience dizziness, especially
barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital), and non-benzodiazepine when standing up quickly. This can increase the risk of falls.
sedative-hypnotics (e.g., zolpidem), enhance the activity of 3. Cognitive Impairment: Sedatives and hypnotics can lead to
GABA in the brain. GABA inhibits the transmission of nerve memory and concentration problems, making it difficult for
signals, leading to relaxation, reduced anxiety, and individuals to think clearly and remember things.
sleepiness. 4. Gastrointestinal Upset: Some people may experience
2. Depression of Central Nervous System: These drugs slow nausea, vomiting, or stomach discomfort.
down the central nervous system's activity. This results in a 5. Headache: Headaches are a common side effect of these
reduction in brain activity and can lead to a calming or medications.
sedating effect, making them useful for reducing anxiety or 6. Dry Mouth: Sedatives and hypnotics can lead to a dry mouth,
promoting sleep. which can be bothersome.
3. Muscle Relaxation: Sedatives and hypnotics can also have a 7. Tolerance and Dependence: With prolonged use, there's a
muscle-relaxant effect, which contributes to their calming risk of developing tolerance (needing more of the drug to
properties. This is particularly evident with certain achieve the same effect) and dependence (becoming reliant
medications like benzodiazepines. on the drug to function normally).
8. Rebound Insomnia: Discontinuing certain hypnotics may lead
to rebound insomnia, where sleep problems return more
intensely.
9. Parasomnias: Some hypnotics have been associated with
unusual sleep behaviors, such as sleepwalking or sleep-
eating.
10. Hangover Effect: After using certain sedatives or hypnotics,
individuals may experience a "hangover" effect characterized
by grogginess and impaired cognitive function the following
day.
11. Allergic Reactions: In rare cases, individuals may experience
allergic reactions to these medications, which can include
rash, hives, and difficulty breathing.
Ambien Zolpidem Tartrate
Lunesta Eszopiclone
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
DIURETICS & LOOP DIURETICS
Diuretics are a class of medications that promote diuresis, which Loop diuretics are a specific subtype of diuretics that act on a
is the increased production of urine by the kidneys. They are part of the kidney called the loop of Henle. They are often used
commonly known as "water pills." Diuretics work by increasing to treat conditions that require a more potent diuretic effect,
the excretion of sodium and water from the body through the such as severe edema (e.g., due to heart failure or kidney
urine. This can help reduce excess fluid in the body, lower blood disease) or to manage high blood pressure. Loop diuretics, like
pressure, and treat conditions like edema (fluid retention) and furosemide and bumetanide, are known for their ability to
hypertension (high blood pressure). There are different types of promote the excretion of a significant amount of sodium and
diuretics, including thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, and water. They are often considered the most powerful diuretics
potassium-sparing diuretics, each with its own specific and can lead to more substantial reductions in fluid retention
mechanisms and uses. compared to other diuretic types. However, they may also have
a higher risk of electrolyte imbalances, such as potassium and
magnesium loss, and should be used under medical supervision.
Diuretics can cause common side effects such as increased

Diuretics increase urine production by promoting the excretion urination, dehydration, electrolyte imbalances (e.g., low
of sodium and water. They reduce fluid retention and lower potassium), dizziness, and low blood pressure. They may also
blood pressure by acting on the kidneys. lead to increased thirst, muscle cramps, and elevated blood
glucose or uric acid levels.
Loop diuretics, like furosemide, inhibit sodium reabsorption in
the loop of Henle, promoting substantial diuresis. Their potent Loop diuretics share common side effects with diuretics,
mechanism is used to treat edema and hypertension but can including excessive urination, dehydration, electrolyte
cause electrolyte imbalances if not monitored. imbalances (particularly low potassium), dizziness, low blood
pressure, and increased thirst. These potent diuretics may also
cause hearing loss, especially at high doses. Monitoring is
essential.
Bumex Bumetanide
Demadex Torsemide
Lasix Furosemide
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
ANTICOAGULANTS
Anticoagulants, often referred to as blood thinners, are a class of medications used to prevent or reduce the formation of
blood clots in the circulatory system. They work by interfering with the body's blood-clotting mechanisms, which can help
prevent conditions like deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism, stroke, and heart attack. Anticoagulants are used
for various medical purposes, including the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic disorders and in certain surgical
and medical procedures where clot formation may be a concern. They do not actually "thin" the blood but alter its ability to
clot, reducing the risk of abnormal or harmful clot formation.
Anticoagulants, or blood thinners, work by interfering with the Common side effects of anticoagulants, also known as blood
body's natural blood clotting process to prevent the formation of thinners, can vary depending on the specific medication and an
blood clots. Their mechanisms of action (MOA) can vary individual's response. However, here are some common side
depending on the specific type of anticoagulant, but the effects associated with these medications:
common goal is to reduce the risk of abnormal clotting in the 1. Bleeding: One of the most significant risks with
circulatory system. Here are some general ways in which anticoagulants is bleeding. This can manifest as nosebleeds,
anticoagulants achieve this: gum bleeding, easy bruising, and, in severe cases, internal
1. Inhibition of Clotting Factors: Anticoagulants can interfere bleeding. It's important to seek medical attention if you notice
with the production or activity of clotting factors in the blood. unusual or persistent bleeding.
For instance, they may target factors like thrombin or factor 2. GI Disturbances: Some anticoagulants may cause
Xa, which play key roles in the clotting cascade. gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and
2. Prevention of Platelet Aggregation: Some anticoagulants, diarrhea.
like aspirin, primarily work by inhibiting platelet aggregation, 3. Hematomas: The use of anticoagulants can increase the risk
reducing the likelihood of platelets sticking together to form of hematomas (collections of blood under the skin).
a clot. 4. Headaches: Headaches may occur in some individuals taking
3. Inhibition of Vitamin K: Vitamin K antagonists, such as anticoagulants.
warfarin, interfere with the body's ability to use vitamin K, 5. Hair Loss: Some people may experience hair loss (alopecia)
which is essential for the synthesis of clotting factors. By as a side effect of certain anticoagulants.
reducing vitamin K's effects, these anticoagulants prolong the 6. Low Platelet Count: A decrease in platelet count, a condition
time it takes for blood to clot. known as thrombocytopenia, can sometimes occur.
4. Direct Thrombin Inhibition: Certain anticoagulants, like 7. Elevated Liver Enzymes: In rare cases, anticoagulants may
dabigatran, directly inhibit the enzyme thrombin, which is cause mild elevations in liver enzymes, which are usually
crucial in the clotting process. reversible upon discontinuation of the medication.
5. Factor Xa Inhibition: Several newer anticoagulants, known as 8. Skin Rash: Skin rashes or itching may occur as an adverse
direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), work by directly inhibiting reaction to anticoagulants.
factor Xa, an important factor in the clotting cascade. 9. Osteoporosis: Long-term use of certain anticoagulants,
particularly heparin, may lead to osteoporosis or bone density
loss.
10. Allergic Reactions: In rare instances, individuals may
experience allergic reactions to these medications, which can
include skin hives, difficulty breathing, and swelling of the
face, lips, tongue, or throat.
Coumadin Warfarin
Lovenox Enoxaparin
Heparin Sodium-from
Heparin
beef/pork
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
THIAZIDE DIURETICS
Thiazide diuretics are a class of medications that belong to the broader category of diuretics, often referred to as "water
pills." These drugs are primarily used to increase urine production and reduce the reabsorption of sodium and water by the
kidneys. Thiazide diuretics are commonly prescribed to help lower blood pressure, manage edema (fluid retention), and
treat conditions like heart failure, kidney stones, and certain forms of diabetes insipidus.
The name "thiazide" is derived from the chemical structure of these medications, which includes a thiazide ring. Thiazide
diuretics work by promoting the excretion of excess salt and water from the body, which can help reduce fluid buildup and
lower blood pressure. They are often used as first-line treatment for hypertension (high blood pressure) and are available by
prescription in various formulations.
The mechanism of action (MOA) of thiazide diuretics involves Thiazide diuretics, like all medications, can have side effects, but
their effects on the kidneys and the regulation of salt and water they are generally well-tolerated. Common side effects of
balance in the body. Thiazide diuretics work by promoting thiazide diuretics may include:
diuresis, which is the increased production of urine, and they 1. Frequent Urination: Thiazides increase urine production,
achieve this through several key actions: which can lead to more frequent urination, particularly when
1. Inhibition of Sodium Reabsorption: Thiazide diuretics inhibit you first start taking the medication.
the reabsorption of sodium in the distal convoluted tubules of 2. Dehydration: Excessive urination can potentially lead to
the kidneys. Normally, the kidneys filter blood to remove dehydration, so it's important to drink enough fluids,
waste and excess substances while reabsorbing necessary especially in hot weather.
substances like sodium. Thiazides interfere with the sodium- 3. Electrolyte Imbalance: Thiazide diuretics can cause
chloride co-transport system in the kidney tubules, imbalances in electrolytes such as potassium, sodium, and
preventing the reabsorption of sodium into the bloodstream. magnesium. Low potassium levels (hypokalemia) are the
2. Increased Urine Output: By inhibiting sodium reabsorption, most concerning, which can lead to muscle weakness,
thiazides lead to the excretion of excess sodium and water in irregular heartbeat, and other symptoms.
the urine. This increased urine output reduces the volume of 4. Increased Blood Sugar Levels: Thiazide diuretics can
blood and lowers blood pressure, making them effective for sometimes lead to elevated blood glucose levels, which may
managing hypertension. be of concern for individuals with diabetes.
3. Reduction in Blood Volume: Thiazide diuretics, by removing 5. Elevated Uric Acid Levels: These diuretics can increase uric
excess salt and water from the body, decrease the total acid levels, potentially worsening gout or increasing the risk
volume of blood circulating in the vascular system. This helps of developing gout in susceptible individuals.
reduce the overall pressure in the blood vessels, further 6. Dizziness or Low Blood Pressure: A drop in blood pressure
contributing to blood pressure reduction. can cause dizziness or lightheadedness when standing up,
4. Potassium and Magnesium Loss: Thiazide diuretics can also especially in older individuals or those on higher doses.
cause the excretion of potassium and magnesium in the 7. Elevated Blood Lipids: Some people may experience
urine. To counteract this, healthcare providers may increases in cholesterol or triglyceride levels.
recommend potassium-sparing diuretics or potassium 8. Skin Reactions: Rarely, thiazides may cause skin reactions,
supplements when necessary to maintain electrolyte such as photosensitivity (increased sensitivity to sunlight) or
balance. rash.

Diuril Chlorothiazide Sodium
Hydrodiuril, HCTZ Hydrochlorothiazide
Zaroxolyn Metolazone
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ANTIPLATELETS
Antiplatelets are a class of medications that help prevent the formation of blood clots by inhibiting the activity of blood
platelets. Platelets are small cell fragments in the blood that play a crucial role in blood clotting. Antiplatelet drugs interfere
with this process by reducing platelet aggregation and stickiness, making it more difficult for platelets to clump together
and form clots.
Antiplatelet medications are commonly used to prevent and manage cardiovascular conditions, such as heart attacks,
strokes, and conditions involving abnormal blood clotting. They are also used in the management of certain vascular
diseases and as part of the treatment of some clotting disorders. The most well-known antiplatelet medication is aspirin, but
there are other drugs in this class, including clopidogrel, prasugrel, and ticagrelor.
he mechanism of action (MOA) of antiplatelet medications Common side effects of antiplatelet medications, such as aspirin,
involves their ability to inhibit platelet activation and aggregation, clopidogrel, and others, can include:
which are critical steps in the formation of blood clots. Here's 1. Gastrointestinal Upset: Antiplatelets can irritate the stomach
how antiplatelets achieve their effects: lining, leading to symptoms like stomach pain, indigestion,
1. Inhibition of Platelet Activation: Antiplatelet drugs interfere and in some cases, gastrointestinal bleeding or ulcers.
with the signaling pathways that lead to platelet activation. 2. Easy Bruising and Bleeding: Since antiplatelets inhibit
This prevents platelets from becoming activated in response platelet aggregation, they can increase the risk of bleeding,
to various stimuli, such as vessel damage or the presence of resulting in easy bruising, nosebleeds, or prolonged bleeding
plaque in blood vessels. after minor injuries.
2. Reduced Platelet Aggregation: Antiplatelet medications 3. Gastrointestinal Bleeding: In some cases, antiplatelet drugs
decrease the ability of platelets to adhere to each other, a can cause gastrointestinal bleeding, which may manifest as
process known as aggregation. By inhibiting platelet dark or bloody stools and can be serious.
aggregation, these drugs reduce the formation of blood clots. 4. Headache: Some people may experience headaches as a
3. Inhibition of Platelet Activation Pathways: Different side effect of antiplatelet medications.
antiplatelet drugs may target specific pathways and 5. Dizziness: Dizziness or lightheadedness may occur,
receptors involved in platelet activation. For example, aspirin particularly when standing up quickly.
primarily works by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) 6. Rash: Skin rash or itching can be a rare side effect of
enzyme, which is necessary for the production of antiplatelet drugs.
thromboxane A2, a substance that promotes platelet 7. Allergic Reactions: While uncommon, antiplatelets can
activation. sometimes lead to allergic reactions, which may include
4. Prevention of Thrombus Formation: Antiplatelets help hives, difficulty breathing, or swelling of the face, lips, tongue,
prevent the formation of thrombi (blood clots) in blood or throat.
vessels. This is particularly important in the prevention of
conditions like heart attacks and strokes, which are often
caused by the formation of blood clots in coronary or
cerebral arteries.
5. Maintaining Blood Flow: By reducing platelet aggregation
and clot formation, antiplatelet medications help maintain the
flow of blood through blood vessels, preventing blockages
and improving blood circulation.
ASA - aspirin Acetylsalicylic Acid
Plavix Clopidogrel
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POTASSIUM-SPARING DIURETICS
otassium-sparing diuretics are a class of medications used to increase urine production while minimizing the loss of
potassium, an important electrolyte, from the body. Unlike other diuretics, which can lead to potassium loss, potassium-
sparing diuretics help retain potassium in the bloodstream. These drugs are typically used to treat conditions like
hypertension (high blood pressure) and edema (fluid retention) while preventing the risk of low potassium levels, which can
lead to various health issues. Potassium-sparing diuretics may be prescribed alone or in combination with other diuretics to
help maintain electrolyte balance.
Potassium-sparing diuretics work by influencing the kidney's Common side effects of potassium-sparing diuretics can include:
handling of sodium and potassium to increase urine production 1. Hyperkalemia: One of the most significant concerns with
while retaining potassium in the bloodstream. Their mechanism these diuretics is the risk of elevated potassium levels in the
of action (MOA) involves the following: bloodstream (hyperkalemia), which can have serious cardiac
1. Sodium Reabsorption Inhibition: Potassium-sparing diuretics and muscular effects.
act on the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of 2. Gastrointestinal Upset: Some individuals may experience
the kidney nephrons. They block the reabsorption of sodium stomach upset, including nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea.
in these segments, reducing the amount of sodium that is 3. Muscle Weakness: High potassium levels can lead to muscle
reabsorbed from the urine back into the bloodstream. weakness or fatigue.
2. Potassium Retention: While inhibiting sodium reabsorption, 4. Numbness or Tingling: Hyperkalemia may cause numbness
these diuretics also promote the retention of potassium in the or tingling sensations, especially in the extremities.
body. Normally, sodium reabsorption and potassium 5. Dizziness: Dizziness or lightheadedness may occur,
secretion are intertwined processes. By inhibiting sodium particularly when standing up quickly.
reabsorption, potassium-sparing diuretics indirectly prevent 6. Dehydration: While less common than with other diuretics,
excessive loss of potassium in the urine. dehydration can still occur with potassium-sparing diuretics,
3. Water Excretion: By altering sodium and potassium handling leading to symptoms such as dry mouth and increased thirst.
in the kidneys, potassium-sparing diuretics increase the 7. Elevated Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and Creatinine Levels:
excretion of water, leading to diuresis (increased urine Some individuals may experience an increase in BUN and
production). This can help reduce fluid retention and lower creatinine levels, which are indicators of kidney function.
blood pressure.
Aldactone Spironolactone
Dyrenium Triamterene
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ANTIHYPERTENSIVES –(PRIL)
Antihypertensives that end in "pril" typically belong to a specific class of medications known as ACE inhibitors, which stands
for Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme inhibitors. ACE inhibitors are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) and other
cardiovascular conditions. They work by blocking the action of an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE),
which is involved in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance in the body.
The use of ACE inhibitors like enalapril, lisinopril, and captopril can help relax blood vessels, reduce the volume of blood,
and lower blood pressure. They are often prescribed as a first-line treatment for hypertension and can also be used to
manage other conditions, such as heart failure and kidney disease, particularly when these conditions are associated with
high blood pressure.
tihypertensive medications ending in "-pril" are typically part of Common side effects of antihypertensive medications ending in
the ACE inhibitor class, or Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme "-pril," which are typically ACE inhibitors, can include:
inhibitors. Their mechanism of action (MOA) involves the 1. Cough: A persistent dry cough is a well-known side effect of
following steps: ACE inhibitors. If this side effect is bothersome, a healthcare
1. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibition: ACE inhibitors provider may consider switching to an alternative
block the action of the enzyme angiotensin-converting antihypertensive medication.
enzyme (ACE). ACE is responsible for converting angiotensin 2. Elevated Blood Potassium Levels: ACE inhibitors can lead to
I, an inactive precursor, into angiotensin II, a potent an increase in potassium levels in the bloodstream
vasoconstrictor (a substance that narrows blood vessels). By (hyperkalemia), which can affect heart rhythm. Regular
inhibiting ACE, these medications reduce the production of monitoring of potassium levels is often recommended.
angiotensin II. 3. Low Blood Pressure: Some individuals may experience a
2. Vasodilation: With less angiotensin II in the bloodstream, drop in blood pressure, especially when standing up, leading
blood vessels dilate (widen). This dilation lowers vascular to dizziness or fainting (orthostatic hypotension).
resistance, making it easier for blood to flow through the 4. Kidney Dysfunction: ACE inhibitors can affect kidney
vessels. As a result, blood pressure is reduced. function, and in rare cases, they may lead to a reduction in
3. Reduced Aldosterone Production: ACE inhibitors also inhibit kidney function, particularly in individuals with preexisting
the production of aldosterone, a hormone that regulates kidney disease.
sodium and potassium balance in the body. Lower 5. Elevated Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and Creatinine Levels:
aldosterone levels lead to decreased sodium and water These medications can result in an increase in BUN and
retention, further reducing blood volume and blood pressure. creatinine levels, which are indicators of kidney function.
4. Protection of Organs: ACE inhibitors have additional benefits, 6. Angioedema: Although rare, ACE inhibitors can cause a
as they can help protect the heart and blood vessels. They severe allergic reaction called angioedema, which leads to
are often used in conditions like heart failure and post-heart swelling of the deeper layers of the skin, often around the
attack care to improve outcomes. eyes and lips. Angioedema can be life-threatening and
requires immediate medical attention.
7. Skin Rash: Skin rashes or itching may occur as a side effect of
ACE inhibitors.
8. Altered Taste: Some people may experience changes in their
sense of taste while taking these medications.
Altace Ramipril
Capoten Captopril
Prinivil, Zestril Lisinopril
Vasotec Enalapril
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ALPHA 2 ANTAGONISTS
Alpha-2 antagonists, also known as alpha-2 adrenergic antagonists or alpha-2 adrenergic blockers, are a class of
medications that affect the alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the sympathetic nervous system. These receptors play a role in
regulating blood pressure and are often found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Alpha-2 antagonists work by
blocking the activation of these receptors, which can lead to several effects, including the relaxation of blood vessels and
the reduction of sympathetic nerve activity.
he mechanism of action (MOA) of alpha-2 antagonists involves Common side effects of alpha-2 antagonists can vary depending
blocking or inhibiting the activity of alpha-2 adrenergic receptors. on the specific medication and its use. Here are some common
These receptors are part of the sympathetic nervous system and side effects associated with these drugs:
play a role in regulating various physiological processes. By 1. Increased Blood Pressure: Alpha-2 antagonists can raise
blocking these receptors, alpha-2 antagonists produce several blood pressure due to their vasodilatory effects on blood
effects, including: vessels. This is particularly relevant when these medications
1. Vasodilation: Alpha-2 antagonists block alpha-2 adrenergic are used to reverse the effects of alpha-2 agonists in
receptors on blood vessels, leading to relaxation of the veterinary medicine.
vessel walls and vasodilation (widening of blood vessels). 2. Sedation: Some alpha-2 antagonists have sedative effects,
This results in decreased peripheral vascular resistance and which can lead to drowsiness or lethargy.
reduced blood pressure. 3. Nervousness or Agitation: In some cases, these drugs can
2. Increased Norepinephrine Release: In the central nervous cause restlessness, nervousness, or agitation.
system, alpha-2 receptors serve as feedback regulators of 4. Gastrointestinal Upset: Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea may
norepinephrine release. By blocking alpha-2 receptors, these occur as side effects.
medications can increase the release of norepinephrine, a 5. Dizziness or Lightheadedness: Alpha-2 antagonists can lead
neurotransmitter that can have stimulatory effects. to a drop in blood pressure when standing, resulting in
3. Pain Modulation: Alpha-2 antagonists can affect pain dizziness or lightheadedness (orthostatic hypotension).
perception. They are sometimes used in regional anesthesia 6. Pain at Injection Site: When administered as an injection,
or as adjuvants for pain management. pain or discomfort at the injection site can occur.
4. Sedation: Some alpha-2 antagonists have sedative effects 7. Flushing: Some individuals may experience flushing of the
and may be used in combination with other medications for skin, resulting in a warm or red appearance.
sedation or anesthesia. 8. Changes in Heart Rate: These medications can affect heart
5. Reversal of Alpha-2 Agonists: Alpha-2 antagonists like rate, leading to bradycardia (slow heart rate) or tachycardia
atipamezole are used to reverse the effects of alpha-2 (fast heart rate).
agonists, which are medications used for sedation or
analgesia in veterinary medicine.
Catapres Clonidine
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ALPHA 1 ADRENERGIC BLOCKERS

Alpha-1 adrenergic blockers are a class of medications that work by blocking alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, leading to the
relaxation of smooth muscle in blood vessels and the prostate. They are primarily used to treat conditions like hypertension
(high blood pressure) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate). Examples of alpha-1 adrenergic blockers include
doxazosin, terazosin, and tamsulosin.
Alpha-1 adrenergic blockers, also known as alpha-1 antagonists, Common side effects of alpha-1 adrenergic blockers can include:
are a class of medications that work by blocking the alpha-1 1. Orthostatic Hypotension: One of the most common side
adrenergic receptors in the sympathetic nervous system. These effects is a drop in blood pressure, especially when
receptors are found in various tissues, including blood vessels transitioning from a lying or sitting position to a standing one.
and the prostate gland. The mechanism of action (MOA) of alpha- This can result in dizziness or lightheadedness.
1 adrenergic blockers involves the following: 2. Dizziness: Alpha-1 blockers can lead to dizziness or a feeling
1. Vasodilation: By blocking alpha-1 adrenergic receptors on of unsteadiness, particularly when standing up quickly.
the smooth muscle cells in blood vessel walls, these 3. Fatigue: Some individuals may experience fatigue or
medications relax the blood vessels. This leads to weakness while taking these medications.
vasodilation, or the widening of the blood vessels. As a result, 4. Headache: Headaches are a common side effect of alpha-1
there is a reduction in peripheral vascular resistance, making adrenergic blockers.
it easier for blood to flow through the vessels. 5. Nasal Congestion: Some individuals may experience nasal
2. Lower Blood Pressure: The vasodilation effect of alpha-1 congestion or a stuffy nose.
blockers results in a decrease in blood pressure. These 6. Retrograde Ejaculation: In men, certain alpha-1 blockers,
medications are often used to treat conditions like such as tamsulosin, may cause retrograde ejaculation, where
hypertension (high blood pressure). semen enters the bladder instead of being ejaculated out.
3. Prostate Relaxation: In addition to their effects on blood This is typically not harmful but can affect fertility.
vessels, some alpha-1 blockers, like tamsulosin, are selective 7. Eye Problems: Alpha-1 blockers can affect the muscles of the
for alpha-1 receptors in the prostate gland. This selective iris, leading to floppy iris syndrome, which can complicate
blockade of prostate alpha-1 receptors can lead to relaxation eye surgery, particularly cataract surgery.
of the smooth muscle in the prostate, reducing symptoms of 8. Gastrointestinal Upset: Gastrointestinal symptoms like
benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and improving urine flow nausea or stomach upset may occur in some individuals.
in men with this condition.
4. Reduced Obstruction: By relaxing the smooth muscle in the
prostate, alpha-1 blockers can alleviate the obstruction of
urine flow associated with an enlarged prostate.
Hytrin Terazosin
Minipress Prazosin
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ALPHA & BETA ADRENERGIC BLOCKERS-(LOL)

Alpha and beta adrenergic blockers are a class of medications that combine the properties of both alpha adrenergic
blockers (alpha blockers) and beta adrenergic blockers (beta blockers). These medications are often referred to as alpha-
beta blockers and typically end with "-lol" in their generic names.
1. Alpha Blockade: Alpha-beta blockers block alpha-1 Common side effects of alpha-beta adrenergic blockers, which
adrenergic receptors in blood vessel walls and other tissues. end with "-lol" in their generic names, can include:
This leads to vasodilation and relaxation of blood vessels, 1. Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure): The combined alpha and
reducing peripheral vascular resistance and lowering blood beta blockade can lead to a significant drop in blood
pressure. pressure, especially when standing up, resulting in dizziness
2. Beta Blockade: These medications also block beta or fainting (orthostatic hypotension).
adrenergic receptors in the heart and other tissues. By 2. Bradycardia (Slow Heart Rate): Beta blockade can reduce
blocking beta-1 receptors in the heart, they reduce the heart the heart rate, which may lead to bradycardia.
rate and the force of cardiac contractions, which can lower 3. Fatigue: Some individuals may experience fatigue or a
blood pressure and reduce the heart's workload. feeling of weakness.
4. Dizziness or Lightheadedness: These medications can cause
dizziness or a sensation of lightheadedness, particularly when
standing up quickly.
5. Nausea or Gastrointestinal Upset: Gastrointestinal
symptoms like nausea or stomach discomfort may occur.
6. Shortness of Breath: Some people may experience
shortness of breath, particularly when they have underlying
lung conditions.
7. Edema (Swelling): Fluid retention and swelling of the legs
and ankles can occur as a side effect.
8. Cold Hands and Feet: Alpha-beta blockers can affect blood
flow to the extremities, leading to cold hands and feet.
9. Depression or Mood Changes: Some individuals may
experience changes in mood or depressive symptoms.
10. Insomnia or Sleep Disturbances: Sleep problems, including
insomnia, can occur in some individuals.
Coreg Carvedilol
Trandate, Normodyne Labetalol
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BETA BLOCKERS-(OLOL)
Beta blockers, often identified by the suffix "-olol" in their generic names, are a class of medications that primarily target
beta-adrenergic receptors in the body. These receptors are part of the sympathetic nervous system and are found in
various tissues, including the heart and blood vessels. Beta blockers are used to treat a variety of medical conditions by
blocking the effects of stress hormones, particularly adrenaline, on these receptors.
The main mechanism of action of beta blockers involves the Common side effects of beta blockers, which often have names
following: ending in "-olol" in their generic form, can include:
1. Heart Rate and Contractility Reduction: By blocking beta-1 1. Bradycardia (Slow Heart Rate): Beta blockers reduce heart
adrenergic receptors in the heart, beta blockers reduce the rate, which can sometimes lead to bradycardia (a heart rate
heart rate and the force of cardiac contractions. This effect slower than normal).
results in a reduction in cardiac output, which can be 2. Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure): These medications can
beneficial in various conditions. cause a decrease in blood pressure, potentially resulting in
2. Blood Pressure Reduction: Beta blockers can lower blood dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting (orthostatic
pressure by reducing the force of the heart's contractions and hypotension), especially when transitioning from sitting or
decreasing the rate at which the heart beats. This effect is lying to standing.
particularly important in the treatment of hypertension (high 3. Fatigue: Some individuals may experience fatigue, weakness,
blood pressure). or a feeling of tiredness.
3. Relaxation of Blood Vessels: Some beta blockers have the 4. Cold Extremities: Beta blockers can affect blood flow to the
added effect of relaxing blood vessels, leading to extremities, leading to cold hands and feet.
vasodilation. This can further lower blood pressure and 5. Gastrointestinal Upset: Gastrointestinal symptoms such as
reduce the heart's workload. nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea can occur.
4. Migraine Prevention: Beta blockers are sometimes used to 6. Bronchoconstriction: In individuals with preexisting lung
prevent migraines, although the exact mechanisms for conditions like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary
migraine prevention are not entirely understood. disease (COPD), beta blockers can cause or exacerbate
bronchoconstriction, leading to breathing difficulties.
7. Insomnia or Sleep Disturbances: Sleep problems, including
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep (insomnia), can
occur in some individuals.
8. Depression or Mood Changes: Changes in mood, depressive
symptoms, or worsening of preexisting depression can be
side effects for some people.
9. Worsening of Raynaud's Phenomenon: Beta blockers may
worsen symptoms in individuals with Raynaud's
phenomenon, a condition that causes poor blood flow to the
extremities, leading to color changes and pain in the fingers
and toes.
10. Masking of Hypoglycemia Symptoms: Beta blockers can
mask some of the typical symptoms of hypoglycemia (low
blood sugar), which can be problematic for individuals with
diabetes.

Inderal Propranolol
Lopressor Metoprolol Tartrate
Toprol-XL Metoprolol Succinate
Tenormin Atenolol
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CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs), also known as calcium antagonists, are a class of medications used to treat various
cardiovascular conditions. These drugs work by blocking or inhibiting calcium ions from entering specific cells in the heart
and blood vessel walls. By doing so, they affect the electrical conduction of the heart, reduce the heart's contractility, and
relax blood vessels. This results in several effects, including the lowering of blood pressure and the reduction of the heart's
workload.
The main mechanism of action of calcium channel blockers Common side effects of calcium channel blockers (CCBs) can
involves the following: include:
1. Vasodilation: CCBs block calcium channels in the smooth 1. Headache: Headaches are a relatively common side effect
muscle cells of blood vessels. This leads to relaxation and when using CCBs.
dilation of the blood vessels, reducing peripheral vascular 2. Dizziness or Lightheadedness: CCBs can lead to a drop in
resistance and lowering blood pressure. blood pressure, which may result in dizziness or
2. Reduced Cardiac Contractility: In the heart, CCBs inhibit the lightheadedness, particularly when standing up quickly
entry of calcium ions into cardiac muscle cells, reducing the (orthostatic hypotension).
force of contraction. This effect can be beneficial for 3. Flushing: Some individuals may experience a sensation of
conditions like angina and arrhythmias. warmth or flushing of the skin.
3. Control of Heart Rate: Some calcium channel blockers can 4. Peripheral Edema: Swelling of the legs, ankles, and feet
affect heart rate by slowing down electrical conduction within (peripheral edema) is a known side effect of some CCBs,
the heart's electrical system, particularly in the particularly dihydropyridine CCBs.
atrioventricular (AV) node. This can be helpful in managing 5. Constipation: Constipation can occur with the use of CCBs,
certain arrhythmias. particularly with non-dihydropyridine CCBs like verapamil.
6. Bradycardia (Slow Heart Rate): Some individuals may
experience a decrease in heart rate.
7. Nausea: Nausea or stomach upset may occur in some
individuals.
8. Gingival Hyperplasia: Long-term use of certain CCBs,
particularly nifedipine, can lead to gingival hyperplasia, a
condition characterized by overgrowth of the gums.
Cardizem Diltiazem
Norvasc Amlodipine
Procardia Nifedipine
Verelan, Isoptin, Calan Verapamil
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NITRATES
Nitrates, in a medical context, refer to a class of medications that contain nitroglycerin or similar compounds. These
medications are primarily used to treat angina pectoris, a condition characterized by chest pain or discomfort due to
reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. Nitrates work by relaxing and dilating the blood vessels, allowing for increased
blood flow to the heart, which can relieve angina symptoms.
Nitrates come in various forms, including tablets or capsules that are placed under the tongue (sublingual), skin patches,
ointments, and oral tablets or capsules. Nitroglycerin is one of the most commonly used nitrates and is available in various
formulations.
The mechanism of action (MOA) of nitrates, such as nitroglycerin, Common side effects of nitrates, such as nitroglycerin and
involves their ability to relax and dilate blood vessels, which is isosorbide mononitrate, can include:
mainly achieved through the release of nitric oxide (NO). This 1. Headache: Headaches are one of the most common side
vasodilatory effect is the key to their therapeutic action, effects of nitrates. This side effect can be bothersome but
particularly in the context of treating angina. Here's how nitrates often subsides over time.
work: 2. Dizziness or Lightheadedness: Nitrates can lead to a drop in
1. Release of Nitric Oxide (NO): Nitrates are converted in the blood pressure, causing dizziness or a feeling of
body to nitric oxide (NO), a molecule that plays a crucial role lightheadedness, particularly when standing up quickly
in regulating vascular tone. Nitric oxide acts as a signaling (orthostatic hypotension).
molecule that promotes vasodilation by relaxing the smooth 3. Flushing: Some individuals may experience a sensation of
muscle in blood vessel walls. warmth or redness of the skin.
2. Dilation of Blood Vessels: Nitric oxide, once released, acts on 4. Nausea: Nausea or stomach upset may occur in some
the smooth muscle cells in blood vessel walls, particularly in individuals.
the coronary arteries. It causes these blood vessels to relax, 5. Fast Heart Rate (Tachycardia): Nitrates can occasionally lead
leading to their dilation or widening. to a faster heart rate.
3. Increased Blood Flow: The dilation of coronary arteries 6. Orthostatic Hypotension: As mentioned earlier, the drop in
results in increased blood flow to the heart muscle blood pressure can result in orthostatic hypotension, causing
(myocardium). This increased blood flow ensures that the dizziness and fainting upon standing.
heart receives an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients, 7. Contact Dermatitis: For individuals using nitrate ointments,
even in situations where the blood flow may be partially skin irritation or contact dermatitis can occur as a side effect.
restricted, as seen in angina. 8. Tolerance: With prolonged use, some individuals may
4. Relief of Angina: By increasing blood flow to the heart develop tolerance to nitrates, meaning they become less
muscle, nitrates reduce the workload of the heart and relieve effective in relieving angina symptoms. Dose adjustments
angina symptoms. Angina, which is often triggered by an may be necessary to manage this.
imbalance in oxygen supply and demand in the heart muscle,
is alleviated as nitrates improve oxygen delivery.
5. Lowering Blood Pressure: In addition to their specific effects
on coronary arteries, nitrates can lead to general vasodilation,
reducing peripheral vascular resistance and thus lowering
blood pressure.
Brand Names Generic Names

Nitro BID
Tridil
Nitroglycerin
Transderm Nitro
Nitrostat
Imdur Isosorbide Mononitrate
Isorbid
Isordil Isosorbide Dinitrate
Sorbitrate
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ARBS-(SARTAN)
Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs), often referred to as "sartans" due to the common suffix in their generic names, are a
class of medications used primarily to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). They work by blocking the action of
angiotensin II, a hormone that causes blood vessels to constrict and blood pressure to rise.
1. lock Angiotensin II Receptors: Angiotensin II binds to specific 1. Dizziness or Lightheadedness: ARBs can lead to a drop in
receptors in blood vessels, causing them to constrict. ARBs blood pressure, especially when changing positions (e.g.,
work by selectively blocking these receptors. By doing so, going from lying down to standing up), resulting in dizziness
they prevent angiotensin II from exerting its effects on the or lightheadedness (orthostatic hypotension).
blood vessels. 2. Fatigue: Some individuals may experience tiredness or a
2. Vasodilation: The blocking of angiotensin II receptors results feeling of weakness.
in the relaxation and dilation of blood vessels. This reduces 3. Upper Respiratory Tract Infections: Respiratory infections
peripheral vascular resistance and lowers blood pressure. like the common cold may occur in some cases.
3. Aldosterone Regulation: Angiotensin II also stimulates the 4. Headache: Headaches are a common side effect with ARBs.
release of aldosterone, a hormone that can lead to sodium 5. Back Pain: Back pain or muscle discomfort can occur in some
and water retention. By blocking angiotensin II, ARBs help individuals.
reduce the excessive retention of sodium and water, further 6. Nausea: Nausea or stomach upset may occur, but this side
contributing to lower blood pressure. effect is less common with ARBs compared to some other
4. Protection of Organs: In addition to their antihypertensive antihypertensive medications.
effects, ARBs can be used to protect target organs like the 7. Hyperkalemia: In some cases, ARBs can lead to elevated
heart and kidneys from the damaging effects of high blood levels of potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia), which can be
pressure. a concern, especially in individuals with kidney problems.
5. Blood Pressure Regulation: ARBs help regulate blood 8. Kidney Dysfunction: Although ARBs are often used to protect
pressure by preventing it from rising too high. the kidneys, they can, in rare cases, lead to a decline in
kidney function.
9. Allergic Reactions: Allergic reactions are uncommon but
possible with ARBs, and they can include skin rashes or
swelling of the face, lips, or tongue.
Atacand Candesartan
Cozaar Losartan
Diovan Valsartan
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CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
Cardiac glycosides are a class of medications derived from certain plants, particularly the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea),
that have been used for centuries to treat various heart-related conditions. The most well-known cardiac glycoside is
digoxin. These medications work by directly affecting the electrical and contractile properties of the heart muscle.
The primary mechanism of action and effects of cardiac 1. Nausea and Vomiting: Gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea
glycosides include: and vomiting are relatively common side effects of cardiac
1. Inhibition of Sodium-Potassium Pump: Cardiac glycosides glycosides.
inhibit the sodium-potassium pump, which is responsible for 2. Loss of Appetite: Some individuals may experience a
maintaining the balance of sodium and potassium ions within decreased appetite while taking these medications.
cardiac muscle cells. This leads to an increase in intracellular 3. Fatigue or Weakness: Cardiac glycosides can cause a feeling
sodium concentration. of tiredness or weakness.
2. Enhancement of Calcium Influx: As a result of increased 4. Bradycardia (Slow Heart Rate): These medications may lead
intracellular sodium, the sodium-calcium exchanger (sodium- to bradycardia, or a slower-than-normal heart rate. This effect
calcium pump) is less efficient, allowing more calcium to is particularly important in patients with preexisting
enter the cardiac muscle cells during each action potential. bradycardia.
3. Increased Contractility: The increased intracellular calcium 5. Arrhythmias: While cardiac glycosides can help stabilize
concentration enhances the force of cardiac muscle certain heart rhythms, they can also lead to arrhythmias when
contraction. This positive inotropic effect (increased used in excessive doses.
contractility) can be beneficial in certain heart conditions, 6. Visual Disturbances: Visual disturbances, such as blurred
particularly heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. vision, yellow or green color perception (xanthopsia), and
4. Slowed Heart Rate: Cardiac glycosides may also affect the seeing halos around lights, can occur in some individuals.
electrical conduction of the heart by slowing down the heart These visual disturbances are often associated with digoxin
rate, primarily by acting on the atrioventricular (AV) node. toxicity.
5. Reduced Oxygen Consumption: By improving the efficiency 7. Confusion or Mental Changes: Some individuals may
of the heart's pumping action, cardiac glycosides can reduce experience confusion, changes in mental alertness, or mood
the heart's oxygen consumption, which can be helpful in changes.
cases of angina or heart failure. 8. Electrolyte Imbalances: Cardiac glycosides can affect the
6. Antiarrhythmic Properties: In addition to their effects on balance of electrolytes in the body, particularly potassium
contractility and heart rate, cardiac glycosides may have levels, which can lead to further cardiac complications if not
some antiarrhythmic properties, helping to stabilize irregular properly managed.
heart rhythms.
Lanoxin Digoxin
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
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BIGUANIDES
Biguanides are a class of oral medications commonly used to treat type 2 diabetes, a chronic condition characterized by
elevated blood sugar levels. Metformin is the most well-known and frequently prescribed biguanide. These medications
work by improving the body's response to insulin, reducing the production of glucose by the liver, and increasing the uptake
of glucose by cells.
1. Reduced Hepatic Glucose Production: Biguanides, Common side effects of biguanides, particularly metformin, can
particularly metformin, lower blood sugar levels by include:
decreasing the liver's production of glucose. The liver 1. Gastrointestinal Upset: Gastrointestinal symptoms are
normally releases glucose into the bloodstream, and among the most common side effects of metformin. This can
biguanides help to reduce this process. include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, or
2. Enhanced Insulin Sensitivity: These medications make body a metallic taste in the mouth.
tissues, such as muscle cells, more sensitive to insulin, 2. Loss of Appetite: Some individuals may experience a
allowing them to more effectively use glucose for energy. reduced appetite or feelings of fullness.
3. Improved Glucose Uptake: Biguanides facilitate the uptake 3. Lactic Acidosis: While rare, lactic acidosis is a serious side
of glucose by cells, further reducing blood sugar levels. effect associated with metformin. It is more likely to occur in
4. Slowed Carbohydrate Absorption: Some biguanides can individuals with underlying kidney or liver conditions.
also slow the absorption of carbohydrates from the Symptoms of lactic acidosis can include weakness, difficulty
gastrointestinal tract, resulting in more stable blood sugar breathing, muscle pain, abdominal discomfort, and confusion.
levels after meals. If these symptoms occur, medical attention is needed
immediately.
4. Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Long-term use of metformin has
been associated with a risk of vitamin B12 deficiency.
Healthcare providers may monitor vitamin B12 levels in
individuals on long-term metformin therapy.
5. Diarrhea: In addition to gastrointestinal upset, some
individuals may experience diarrhea as a side effect.
6. Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Prolonged use of metformin can
lead to lower levels of vitamin B12, which can result in anemia
and neurological symptoms.
7. Metallic Taste: Some people may notice a metallic taste in
their mouth while taking metformin.
8. Headache: Headaches are a relatively common side effect.
9. Skin Reactions: Skin reactions, such as itching or rash, can
occur in some individuals.
Glucophage Metformin
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ANTI-DIABETICS
Antidiabetic medications, often referred to as antidiabetics, are a diverse group of drugs used to manage and control blood
sugar levels in individuals with diabetes, a chronic medical condition characterized by elevated blood glucose (sugar) levels.
These medications play a crucial role in the treatment and management of diabetes by helping to regulate blood sugar and
prevent or minimize the complications associated with this condition.
The mechanism of action (MOA) of antidiabetic

medications can vary significantly based on the class of Common side effects of antidiabetic medications can vary depending on
medication. There are several classes of antidiabetic the specific class of medication and the individual's response to
drugs, each with its own MOA. Here's an overview of the treatment. Here are some common side effects associated with different
MOA for some common classes of antidiabetic classes of antidiabetic medications:
medications: 1. Sulfonylureas (e.g., glipizide, glyburide):
1. Sulfonylureas: These drugs stimulate the release of Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) is a common side effect,
insulin from the beta cells of the pancreas. They work especially if the medication is not taken with or shortly after
by closing potassium channels in these cells, which meals.
leads to depolarization and calcium influx, ultimately Weight gain may occur as a result of increased insulin secretion.
triggering insulin release. 2. Biguanides (e.g., metformin):
2. Biguanides (e.g., Metformin): Metformin primarily Gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting,
reduces glucose production by the liver. It inhibits and abdominal discomfort are common side effects, particularly
gluconeogenesis (glucose production) and enhances when starting the medication.
insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues, such as A metallic taste in the mouth may be experienced by some
muscles and fat cells. individuals.
3. Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors: DPP-4 3. Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors (e.g., sitagliptin,
inhibitors block the enzyme DPP-4, which breaks saxagliptin):
down incretin hormones like GLP-1. By inhibiting DPP- Generally well-tolerated, but some individuals may experience
4, these medications increase the levels of GLP-1, headaches, upper respiratory tract infections, or mild
which enhances insulin release, reduces glucagon gastrointestinal symptoms.
secretion, and slows gastric emptying. 4. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors (e.g.,
4. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors: canagliflozin, dapagliflozin):
SGLT2 inhibitors work in the kidneys by blocking the Genital yeast infections and urinary tract infections are relatively
reabsorption of glucose in the renal tubules. This common.
results in increased glucose excretion in the urine, Increased urination and thirst can occur due to the drug's diuretic
lowering blood sugar levels. effect.
5. Insulin: Insulin therapy directly lowers blood sugar by 5. Insulin:
promoting the uptake of glucose by cells and Hypoglycemia is a potential side effect, especially if the dose is
inhibiting the release of glucose from the liver. too high or the timing of insulin administration and meals is not
6. Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists: well-coordinated.
GLP-1 receptor agonists mimic the action of GLP-1, a Injection site reactions such as redness, swelling, or itching may
hormone that enhances insulin secretion, suppresses occur.
glucagon release, and slows gastric emptying, 6. Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists (e.g.,
ultimately lowering blood sugar levels. liraglutide, dulaglutide):
7. Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors: These drugs slow the Gastrointestinal side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
absorption of carbohydrates from the gastrointestinal and constipation, are common but often diminish over time.
tract by inhibiting enzymes that break down complex Injection site reactions can occur.
carbohydrates into simpler sugars. This results in a 7. Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors (e.g., acarbose, miglitol):
gradual and more controlled increase in blood sugar Gastrointestinal symptoms like flatulence (gas), diarrhea, and
after meals. abdominal discomfort are common side effects.
8. Amylin Analog: Pramlintide, an amylin analog, delays 8. Amylin Analog (pramlintide):
gastric emptying, reduces post-meal glucagon Hypoglycemia, especially when used in combination with insulin
release, and enhances the feeling of fullness, helping or sulfonylureas.
to control blood sugar levels. Nausea is a common side effect.

Amaryl Glimepiride
Diabeta
Glynase Glyburide
Micronase
Glucotrol (XL) Glipizide
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GLIPTINS (DPP-4 ENZYME INHIBITORS)

Gliptins, also known as Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, are a class of oral antidiabetic medications used to manage
type 2 diabetes. These drugs work by targeting the enzyme DPP-4, which plays a role in the regulation of blood sugar
levels. DPP-4 inhibitors help control blood glucose by prolonging the action of incretin hormones, particularly glucagon-like
peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP). These hormones stimulate the release of insulin from
pancreatic beta cells and inhibit the release of glucagon from pancreatic alpha cells, both of which contribute to lowering
blood sugar levels.
1. Inhibition of DPP-4 Enzyme: DPP-4 is an enzyme that rapidly Gliptins, or Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, are
degrades incretin hormones, preventing their blood sugar- generally well-tolerated, and they have a favorable side effect
lowering effects. Gliptins inhibit DPP-4, allowing incretin profile compared to some other antidiabetic medications.
hormones to remain active in the bloodstream for a longer However, like all medications, they can cause side effects in
duration. some individuals. Common side effects associated with DPP-4
2. Enhanced Insulin Release: By extending the activity of inhibitors may include:
incretin hormones, DPP-4 inhibitors increase insulin secretion 1. Upper Respiratory Tract Infections: In some cases,
from pancreatic beta cells, especially in response to meals. individuals taking DPP-4 inhibitors may experience upper
3. Reduced Glucagon Secretion: These medications also respiratory infections, such as the common cold.
reduce the release of glucagon, a hormone that promotes 2. Headache: Headaches are a relatively common side effect
the production and release of glucose by the liver. Lower but are typically mild.
glucagon levels help prevent excessive glucose production. 3. Gastrointestinal Symptoms: Some people may experience
mild gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, stomach
discomfort, or diarrhea.
4. Nasopharyngitis: This term refers to inflammation of the nose
and throat and can manifest as symptoms like a runny or
stuffy nose, sore throat, or sneezing.
5. Joint Pain: Joint pain is an uncommon side effect but has
been reported in some individuals.
6. Pancreatitis: Although rare, there have been reports of
pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) associated with
the use of DPP-4 inhibitors. It's essential to be aware of the
signs and symptoms of pancreatitis, which can include
severe abdominal pain, and to seek medical attention if they
occur.
7. Hypoglycemia: While DPP-4 inhibitors have a low risk of
causing hypoglycemia, they can sometimes lead to low
blood sugar levels when used in combination with other
antidiabetic medications that carry a higher risk of
hypoglycemia.
Januvia Sitagliptin
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GLITAZONES-(GLITAZONE)
Glitazones, often referred to as thiazolidinediones (TZDs), are a class of oral medications used to treat type 2 diabetes. These
drugs work by improving insulin sensitivity in the body's tissues, particularly muscle and fat cells. The primary medications in
this class include pioglitazone and rosiglitazone.
Glitazones, also known as thiazolidinediones (TZDs), are

The main mechanism of action of glitazones involves: associated with specific side effects. While they can be effective
1. Activation of PPAR-gamma Receptors: Glitazones activate a in managing type 2 diabetes, individuals taking these
nuclear receptor in cells called peroxisome proliferator- medications should be aware of the potential side effects.
activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-gamma). This receptor Common side effects of glitazones may include:
plays a central role in regulating genes involved in glucose 1. Weight Gain: One of the most common side effects of
and fat metabolism. glitazones is weight gain. Some individuals may experience
2. Enhanced Insulin Sensitivity: By activating PPAR-gamma, significant increases in body weight while taking these
glitazones improve the sensitivity of muscle and fat cells to medications.
insulin. This means that these cells are more effective at 2. Edema (Fluid Retention): Edema, or fluid retention, can lead
responding to insulin and taking up glucose from the to swelling in the ankles and legs. It occurs in some
bloodstream. individuals taking glitazones.
3. Reduction in Hepatic Glucose Production: Glitazones can 3. Increased Risk of Heart Failure: Glitazones have been
also reduce glucose production by the liver, one of the associated with an increased risk of heart failure, especially in
sources of excess glucose in people with type 2 diabetes. individuals with preexisting heart conditions.
4. Lipid Regulation: These medications can have a positive 4. Fractures: There is evidence suggesting that long-term use
effect on blood lipids, reducing triglycerides and increasing of glitazones may be associated with an increased risk of
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. bone fractures, particularly in women.
5. Anti-inflammatory and Cardiovascular Effects: Some 5. Liver Enzyme Abnormalities: Rarely, glitazones can cause
studies suggest that glitazones may have anti-inflammatory elevations in liver enzymes. Regular liver function tests are
and cardiovascular benefits. typically recommended for individuals taking these
medications.
6. Anemia: Some individuals may experience mild anemia while
using glitazones.
7. Headache: Headaches are a relatively common side effect
but are typically mild.
Actos Pioglitazone
Avandia Rosiglitazone
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PROTON PUMP INHIBITORS (PPI)

Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) are a class of medications that reduce the production of stomach acid. They are commonly
used to treat various gastrointestinal conditions in which excessive stomach acid production can cause discomfort or
damage to the digestive tract. PPIs are available by prescription or over-the-counter and are one of the most effective
treatments for acid-related conditions.
The primary mechanism of action of PPIs involves: Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) are generally well-tolerated and
1. Inhibition of Gastric Acid Production: PPIs work by blocking effective medications for reducing stomach acid. However, like
the action of the proton pump in the stomach's lining, all medications, they can cause side effects in some individuals.
specifically the hydrogen-potassium ATPase enzyme. This Common side effects associated with PPIs may include:
enzyme is responsible for pumping hydrogen ions (protons) 1. Gastrointestinal Symptoms: Paradoxically, while PPIs are
into the stomach, leading to the production of gastric acid. used to treat gastrointestinal conditions, some people may
2. Reduction of Acid Secretion: By inhibiting the proton pump, experience gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea,
PPIs reduce the secretion of hydrochloric acid into the constipation, nausea, and abdominal pain. These symptoms
stomach. This results in a significant decrease in stomach are usually mild.
acid production. 2. Headache: Headaches are a relatively common side effect of
PPIs.
3. Upper Respiratory Tract Infections: Some studies have
suggested a possible association between PPI use and an
increased risk of upper respiratory infections, although the
link is not well-established.
4. Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies: Long-term use of PPIs can
lead to reduced absorption of certain nutrients, including
vitamin B12, calcium, and magnesium. This can, in rare cases,
result in deficiencies that may affect bone health and muscle
function.
5. Increased Risk of Fractures: Some studies have shown a
potential association between long-term PPI use and an
increased risk of bone fractures, particularly in the hip, spine,
and wrist.
6. Kidney Function: There have been reports of PPI use
potentially affecting kidney function in some individuals. This
risk appears to be relatively low but is an area of ongoing
research.
Nexium Esomeprazole
Prilosec Omeprazole
Protonix Pantoprazole
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H2-HISTAMINE RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS

H2-Histamine Receptor Antagonists, commonly known as H2 blockers, are a class of medications that inhibit the action of
histamine at H2 receptors in the stomach. These drugs are primarily used to reduce the production of stomach acid and are
commonly prescribed to treat various gastrointestinal conditions characterized by excessive acid production.
The main mechanism of action of H2-Histamine Receptor H2-Histamine Receptor Antagonists, or H2 blockers, are
Antagonists involves: generally well-tolerated medications that are effective in
1. Blockade of H2 Receptors: H2 receptors are found on the reducing stomach acid production. Common side effects
surface of certain cells in the stomach lining. When histamine associated with H2 blockers are typically mild and infrequent.
binds to these receptors, it triggers a series of chemical These may include:
reactions that lead to the secretion of gastric acid. H2 1. Headache: Headaches are one of the most common side
blockers work by competitively binding to H2 receptors, effects associated with H2 blockers. They are usually mild
thereby inhibiting the effects of histamine. and temporary.
2. Reduction of Gastric Acid Production: By blocking H2 2. Dizziness: Some individuals may experience mild dizziness,
receptors, H2 blockers reduce the production of hydrochloric particularly when standing up quickly. This side effect is
acid in the stomach. This decrease in stomach acid generally transient.
production can help alleviate symptoms associated with 3. Gastrointestinal Symptoms: H2 blockers can occasionally
excess acidity, such as heartburn and gastroesophageal lead to mild gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea or
reflux disease (GERD). stomach discomfort. These symptoms are usually mild and
tend to improve with continued use.
4. Fatigue or Drowsiness: While not as common as with some
other classes of medications (e.g., antihistamines), H2
blockers can cause a mild sense of fatigue or drowsiness in
some individuals.
5. Rash or Allergic Reactions: Although rare, H2 blockers can
occasionally lead to skin rashes or other allergic reactions.
These should be reported to a healthcare provider if they
occur.
6. Changes in Liver Enzymes: In rare cases, some individuals
may experience changes in liver enzyme levels, which can be
detected through blood tests. Regular liver function
monitoring is generally not required for most individuals
taking H2 blockers.

Pepcid Famotidine
Zantac Ranitidine
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ANTIEMETICS
Antiemetics are medications or drugs that are used to prevent or relieve nausea and vomiting. They work by blocking
specific receptors in the brain and peripheral nervous system, thereby reducing the signals that trigger the vomiting reflex .
Antiemetics are commonly used to treat various conditions such as motion sickness, food poisoning, medication side
effects, and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting . There are different classes of antiemetic drugs, including 5-HT3
receptor antagonists, dopamine antagonists, NK1 receptor antagonists, antihistamines, cannabinoids, benzodiazepines,
anticholinergics, and steroids. It is important to consult a physician before taking antiemetic drugs, especially during
pregnancy
The mechanism of action (MOA) of antiemetics involves blocking 1. Drowsiness: Many antiemetics can cause drowsiness or
specific receptors in the brain and peripheral nervous system sedation, making you feel tired or sleepy.
that respond to neurotransmitter molecules like serotonin, 2. Dry mouth: Some antiemetics can reduce saliva production,
dopamine, histamine, neurokinin, and acetylcholine. By inhibiting resulting in a dry or sticky feeling in the mouth.
these receptors, antiemetics prevent or relieve nausea and 3. Headache: Headaches can occur as a side effect of certain
vomiting. There are different classes of antiemetic drugs, and it is antiemetic drugs.
important to consult a healthcare professional before taking 4. Dizziness: Some antiemetics may cause dizziness or a feeling
them, especially during pregnancy. of lightheadedness.
5. Constipation: Certain antiemetics can lead to constipation by
slowing down bowel movements.
Phenergan Promethazine
Zofran Ondansetron
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ANTILIPIDEMICS
Antilipidemics are medications or substances that are used to promote a reduction of lipid levels in the blood. They work by
countering lipidemia, which is an excess of lipids (such as cholesterol and triglycerides) in the bloodstream. Antilipidemic
drugs, such as fenofibrate, are commonly prescribed to help lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels in individuals with
high levels of these lipids. Other natural substances, such as ginger extracts, Musa balbisiana root extract, Lepidium sativum,
Momordica charantia fruit extract, and exogenous BDNF administration, have also shown antilipidemic effects. These
medications and substances play a crucial role in managing lipid disorders and reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
1. Atorvastatin: Atorvastatin inhibits an enzyme called HMG-CoA 1. Muscle Pain or Weakness: Myalgia (muscle pain) and
reductase, which is involved in cholesterol synthesis. By myopathy (muscle weakness) are common side effects,
inhibiting this enzyme, atorvastatin reduces the production of particularly with statins. In severe cases, it can lead to a
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol, also known as "bad" condition called rhabdomyolysis, which is characterized by
cholesterol [2]. muscle breakdown and can be quite serious.
2. Ezetimibe: Ezetimibe works by blocking the absorption of 2. Liver Abnormalities: Some antilipidemics can affect liver
cholesterol in the intestines. It inhibits a protein called function. Regular monitoring of liver enzymes may be
NPC1L1, which is responsible for transporting cholesterol into necessary. Liver toxicity is a concern with certain medications.
the bloodstream. By blocking this protein, ezetimibe reduces 3. Gastrointestinal Distress: This can include symptoms like
the amount of cholesterol absorbed from the diet [2]. nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or constipation.
3. Gemfibrozil: The exact mechanism of action of gemfibrozil is 4. Headache: Some people may experience headaches as a side
not fully understood. However, it is believed to work by effect.
increasing the activity of an enzyme called lipoprotein lipase. 5. Skin Rash: Skin reactions, such as rashes, itching, or hives, can
This enzyme helps break down triglycerides, reducing their occur.
levels in the blood. Gemfibrozil also increases the clearance 6. Fatigue: Feeling tired or fatigued is a reported side effect of
of VLDL (very-low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol [3]. some antilipidem
MISCELLANEOUS ANTILIPIDEMICS
Crestor Rosuvastatin Brand Name Generic Names
Lipitor Atorvastatin
Ezetimibe
Zetia
Inhibits absorption of
Zocor Simvastatin Selective cholesterol
cholesterol by small
absorption inhibitor
intestine
Fenofibrate
TriCor
Fibric Acid Derivative
↓ triglyceride
synthesis in liver
Gemfibrozil
Lopid
Fibric Acid Derivative
↓ triglyceride
synthesis in liver
Questran Cholestyramine
Bile acid sequestrant Binds bile acids,
(food additive improving impeding absorption
quality) (elimination in feces)
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GI MEDS
Gastrointestinal (GI) medications are a diverse group of drugs used to manage and treat disorders affecting the digestive
system. They include antacids, laxatives, antiemetics for nausea and vomiting, and anti-inflammatory medications for
conditions like GERD, irritable bowel syndrome, and inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative
colitis. These medications help alleviate symptoms and promote better gastrointestinal health.
1. Antacids: Antacids neutralize stomach acid by raising the pH Common side effects of gastrointestinal (GI) medications vary
in the stomach, providing relief from heartburn and acid depending on the drug. For antacids, they may cause constipation
indigestion. or diarrhea and, in some cases, kidney stone risk with calcium-
2. Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs): PPIs block the proton pump in based variants. Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) might lead to
the stomach lining, reducing the production of stomach acid. headaches, nausea, diarrhea, and long-term use can increase the
They are used to treat conditions like GERD, ulcers, and risk of fractures. H2 receptor antagonists can cause headaches,
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. dizziness, constipation, or diarrhea. Laxatives often result in
3. H2 Receptor Antagonists: These drugs block the action of diarrhea, cramps, and potential dehydration if overused.
histamine, which stimulates acid production in the stomach, Antiemetics might induce drowsiness, dry mouth, or constipation.
leading to reduced stomach acid secretion. They are used for Anti-diarrheal medications can lead to constipation, drowsiness,
acid-related conditions like ulcers and GERD. and dry mouth. Medications for inflammatory bowel diseases may
4. Laxatives: Laxatives work through various mechanisms, cause an increased risk of infections, headaches, nausea, and
including softening stool, increasing bowel movements, or abdominal pain. Specific side effects may vary with each
drawing water into the intestines to promote regular bowel medication, and not everyone experiences them. It's essential to
movements. consult a healthcare provider for guidance, especially if side effects
5. Antiemetics: Antiemetic drugs act on various receptors in the are severe or intolerable.
brain or gastrointestinal tract to prevent or relieve nausea and
vomiting. They are used in conditions like chemotherapy-
induced nausea or motion sickness.
6. Anti-diarrheal Medications: These medications slow down
intestinal motility, reduce secretion of fluids, and may affect
neurotransmitters to control diarrhea, often seen in conditions
like IBS.
7. Anti-inflammatory Medications: For inflammatory bowel
diseases like Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, anti-
inflammatory drugs work to suppress the immune response
in the gut and reduce inflammation.
8. Pancreatic Enzyme Replacements: These medications
provide the enzymes lipase, amylase, and protease that the
pancreas may not be producing adequately, aiding in the
digestion of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
9. Gallstone Dissolvers: Medications for dissolving gallstones
often contain bile acids that can help break down
cholesterol-based gallstones in the gallbladder.
10. Anti-spasmodic Agents: These drugs relax intestinal
muscles, alleviating spasms and pain, which is useful in
conditions like irritable bowel syndrome.
11. Anti-flatulence Medications: They contain substances that
help break down gas bubbles in the digestive system,
providing relief from bloating and discomfort.
12. Medications for H. pylori Infection: Antibiotics are used to
eradicate Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium responsible for
gastric ulcers.
Carafate Sucralfate
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GI STIMULANT
GI stimulants, short for Gastrointestinal stimulants, are medications that promote movement and motility in the
gastrointestinal tract. They are used to alleviate conditions such as constipation or slow bowel movements by encouraging
the muscles in the gastrointestinal system to contract, facilitating the passage of stool or other contents through the
digestive tract. GI stimulants work by either directly stimulating the muscles in the GI tract or by affecting the nerves that
control these muscles, resulting in increased contractions and improved transit of food and waste. These medications are
often used as a short-term solution for constipation or to prepare the bowel for medical procedures.
Gastrointestinal (GI) stimulants are a class of medications that 1. Diarrhea: One of the most common side effects is loose
work by stimulating or enhancing the motility and contractions of stools or diarrhea, as these medications increase bowel
the gastrointestinal tract. Their mechanism of action (MOA) can movements.
vary based on the specific drug, but here are some general ways 2. Cramping: Some individuals may experience abdominal
in which GI stimulants work: cramps or discomfort.
1. Direct Muscle Stimulation: Some GI stimulants work by 3. Nausea: Nausea or an upset stomach can occur, especially
directly stimulating the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract. when starting the medication.
They bind to receptors on smooth muscle cells in the 4. Electrolyte Imbalance: Frequent or prolonged use of GI
intestines, promoting contractions. This increased muscular stimulants can lead to electrolyte imbalances, such as low
activity helps propel the contents of the intestines forward. potassium levels (hypokalemia) due to excessive fluid loss.
2. Nerve Stimulation: Other GI stimulants work by affecting the 5. Dehydration: Diarrhea and increased bowel movements can
nerves that control the muscles in the GI tract. They may lead to dehydration if not enough fluids are consumed.
enhance the release of neurotransmitters that trigger muscle 6. Dependency: Prolonged or excessive use of GI stimulants
contractions. This stimulation helps move food, stool, or other can lead to dependency, where the bowel becomes reliant
contents through the digestive system. on the medication for regular bowel movements.
3. Increasing Secretions: Some GI stimulants can also increase 7. Gut Cramps: Some people may experience intestinal cramps
the secretion of fluids into the intestines. This additional fluid and discomfort.
helps soften and lubricate the stool, making it easier to pass, 8. Flatulence: Increased gas production can be a side effect for
and it can aid in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. some individuals.
4. Enhancing Peristalsis: Peristalsis is the coordinated, wave-
like muscular contractions that move food and waste through
the digestive tract. GI stimulants can enhance the strength
and frequency of peristaltic movements.
5. Accelerating Transit Time: GI stimulants help decrease the
time it takes for food and waste to move through the
intestines, reducing the risk of constipation and related
discomfort.
Reglan Metoclopramide
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STOOL SOFTENERS
Stool softeners, also known as emollient laxatives, are medications or substances that help soften and loosen the stool,
making it easier to pass. They are typically used to relieve constipation and make bowel movements less straining and more
comfortable. Stool softeners work by increasing the water content in the stool, which results in a softer consistency and
facilitates smoother passage through the digestive tract. These medications are often recommended for individuals who
need to avoid straining during bowel movements, such as after surgery or childbirth, or for those with certain medical
conditions that make passing stool difficult.
Stool softeners, also known as emollient laxatives, work by Common side effects of stool softeners may include:
altering the composition of the stool to make it softer and easier 1. Diarrhea: Stool softeners work by softening the stool, and in
to pass. Their mechanism of action (MOA) involves increasing the some cases, this can lead to loose or watery stools.
water content in the stool and lubricating the intestines. Here's 2. Abdominal Cramps: Some individuals may experience mild
how stool softeners work: abdominal discomfort or cramping.
1. Water Retention: Stool softeners contain various active 3. Nausea: Nausea or an upset stomach can occur, although
ingredients that draw water into the intestines. This added this is less common.
moisture softens the stool, making it more pliable and easier 4. Electrolyte Imbalance: Prolonged or excessive use of stool
to pass. softeners, especially those containing certain active
2. Emollient Action: Stool softeners may also contain emollient ingredients, can lead to imbalances in electrolytes, such as
agents, such as docusate sodium, which act as surfactants. low potassium levels (hypokalemia).
These agents help to reduce the surface tension of the stool, 5. Dehydration: Diarrhea or frequent bowel movements can
allowing water and fats to penetrate and mix more easily with result in dehydration if not enough fluids are consumed.
it. 6. Dependency: Over-reliance on stool softeners can lead to a
3. Lubrication: Some stool softeners have a mild lubricating situation where the bowels become dependent on the
effect on the intestinal walls. This helps the stool move medication for regular bowel movements, making it
through the digestive tract without causing friction or challenging to have a natural bowel movement without it.
irritation, making bowel movements smoother.
Colace Docusate Sodium
Surfak Docusate Calcium
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CORTICOSTEROIDS
Corticosteroids, also known as corticoids or steroids, are a class of hormones produced by the adrenal glands, which are
located on top of each kidney. These hormones play a crucial role in various physiological processes in the body.
Corticosteroids can be classified into two main categories: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
1. Glucocorticoids: These hormones, such as cortisol, are involved in regulating metabolism, immune response, and the
body's response to stress. They help control inflammation and influence various metabolic processes, including the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
2. Mineralocorticoids: The primary mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which helps regulate electrolyte and fluid balance in
the body, particularly by controlling the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the kidneys.
How it works in the body Key Effects
1. Receptor Binding: Corticosteroids enter target cells and bind Anti-Inflammatory and Immunosuppressive Effects:
to intracellular receptors known as glucocorticoid receptors. Corticosteroids inhibit the expression of genes involved in the
These receptors are found in the cytoplasm. inflammatory response. This leads to reduced production of
2. Receptor Activation: Upon binding, the corticosteroid- inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and
receptor complex undergoes a conformational change, prostaglandins. As a result, corticosteroids reduce
making it active. inflammation and suppress the immune system.
3. Translocation to Nucleus: The activated corticosteroid- Metabolic Effects: Corticosteroids influence the expression
receptor complex translocates from the cytoplasm into the of genes related to metabolism. They increase blood glucose
cell nucleus. levels by promoting gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of
4. Gene Regulation: Within the nucleus, the corticosteroid- glucose from non-carbohydrate sources) and reduce the
receptor complex directly or indirectly influences gene uptake of glucose by peripheral tissues.
transcription. It can either upregulate or downregulate the Anti-Allergic Effects: Corticosteroids can decrease the
expression of specific genes. This effect on gene transcription release of inflammatory substances in response to allergens.
is responsible for many of the actions of corticosteroids. This makes them effective in treating allergic conditions, such
as asthma and allergic rhinitis.
Stress Response: Corticosteroids are involved in the body's
response to stress. They help the body adapt to stressful
situations by increasing the availability of energy sources and
suppressing non-essential functions like the immune
response.

Celestone Betamethasone
Decadron Dexamethasone
Deltasone Prednisone
Solu-Cortef Hydrocortisone
Solu-Medrol Methylprednisolone
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ANTIPROTOZOAL
Antiprotozoal agents, also known as antiprotozoal drugs or antiprotozoal medications, are a class of pharmaceutical
compounds used to treat infections caused by protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled microorganisms that can cause a variety
of parasitic infections in humans and animals. These infections can be widespread in certain regions of the world and can
lead to a range of diseases. Antiprotozoal drugs are designed to target and eliminate these protozoan parasites, thereby
providing treatment for the associated diseases.
1. Inhibition of DNA Replication and Transcription: Some Antiprotozoal drugs can have side effects, and the specific side
antiprotozoal drugs interfere with the protozoa's ability to effects may vary depending on the type of medication, the
replicate and transcribe their genetic material. This disruption individual patient, and the duration of treatment. Here are some
in DNA processes can prevent the parasite from reproducing common side effects associated with antiprotozoal drugs:
and surviving. For example, metronidazole, used to treat 1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Many antiprotozoal drugs can
infections like amebiasis and giardiasis, acts by damaging the cause gastrointestinal side effects, including nausea,
DNA of the parasite. vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite.
2. Disruption of Energy Metabolism: Certain antiprotozoal These symptoms are often mild and temporary but can be
drugs target the energy metabolism of the protozoa. By more pronounced with certain medications.
interfering with the production or utilization of energy 2. Neurological Effects: Some antiprotozoal drugs, especially
sources, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the parasite's those used to treat protozoal infections affecting the nervous
vital processes can be disrupted. Atovaquone, used to treat system, can lead to neurological side effects. These may
malaria and Pneumocystis pneumonia, inhibits the include dizziness, headache, confusion, or, in rare cases,
mitochondrial electron transport chain, affecting ATP seizures.
production in the parasites. 3. Allergic Reactions: Allergic reactions to antiprotozoal drugs
3. Inhibition of Cell Wall or Membrane Formation: Some are possible and can manifest as skin rashes, itching,
antiprotozoal drugs interfere with the formation of cell walls swelling, or hives. In severe cases, anaphylactic reactions
or membranes in protozoa, making them susceptible to lysis with difficulty breathing, chest tightness, and swelling of the
or damage. This is a common mechanism of action for face and throat can occur. These severe reactions are rare
antifungal agents, which are used to treat fungal protozoal but require immediate medical attention.
infections. For example, amphotericin B is an antifungal drug 4. Liver Toxicity: Certain antiprotozoal drugs can affect the liver.
used for the treatment of certain protozoal infections like Symptoms of liver toxicity may include jaundice (yellowing of
leishmaniasis. the skin and eyes), dark urine, pale stools, and abdominal
4. Interference with Protein Synthesis: Antiprotozoal drugs can pain. Monitoring liver function is important during treatment
also target the ribosomal machinery involved in protein with these drugs.
synthesis. By inhibiting the synthesis of essential proteins, the 5. Hematological Effects: Some antiprotozoal drugs can affect
parasite's ability to carry out vital cellular functions is blood cell counts. This may result in conditions like anemia
compromised. This mechanism is common in some (low red blood cell count), leukopenia (low white blood cell
antibiotics, such as tetracyclines. count), or thrombocytopenia (low platelet count).
5. Ion Channel and Neurotransmitter Disruption: In cases 6. Gastrointestinal Infections: In some cases, antiprotozoal
where protozoa are involved in nervous system diseases, drugs used to treat intestinal infections can disrupt the
antiprotozoal drugs may work by disrupting ion channels or balance of normal gut bacteria, potentially leading to
neurotransmitter functions. For example, medications used to secondary infections or an overgrowth of opportunistic
treat trypanosomiasis (e.g., sleeping sickness) or Chagas pathogens.
disease may interfere with the parasite's neurotransmission 7. Metabolic Disturbances: Some antiprotozoal drugs can
processes. impact metabolic processes, leading to electrolyte
6. Inhibition of Specific Enzymes: Some antiprotozoal drugs imbalances or changes in blood sugar levels.
target specific enzymes that are critical for the survival of the 8. Visual Disturbances: Certain antiprotozoal drugs, like
parasite. For instance, chloroquine, used against malaria, chloroquine used for malaria treatment, can lead to visual
interferes with the parasite's ability to detoxify heme disturbances, such as blurred vision, difficulty focusing, or
molecules, leading to its death. changes in color perception. These effects are reversible and
resolve upon discontinuation of the drug.
9. Nervous System Effects: In rare cases, some antiprotozoal
drugs may cause peripheral neuropathy, leading to tingling or
numbness in the extremities.

Flagyl Metronidazole
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RESPIRATORY MEDICATIONS
espiratory medications, also known as pulmonary medications, are a category of pharmaceutical drugs used to treat various
respiratory conditions and disorders affecting the lungs and airways. These medications are designed to improve lung
function, alleviate symptoms, and manage respiratory diseases. They are prescribed to individuals with conditions such as
asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchitis, pulmonary fibrosis, and other respiratory ailments.
Bronchodilators: Bronchodilators:
1. Beta2-Agonists: Rapid relief by stimulating bronchial muscle Beta2-Agonists (e.g., albuterol, salmeterol):
relaxation via beta2-adrenergic receptors (e.g., albuterol). Common side effects may include tremors, increased
2. Anticholinergics: Block acetylcholine, relaxing airways (e.g., heart rate (tachycardia), and nervousness.
tiotropium, COPD). Anticholinergics (e.g., tiotropium):
Inhaled Corticosteroids: Possible side effects include dry mouth, throat irritation,
1. Anti-Inflammatory: Suppress airway inflammation (e.g., and constipation.
budesonide, asthma). Inhaled Corticosteroids:
2. Immunosuppressive: Inhibit immune response and Potential side effects can include oral thrush (yeast infection
inflammation (e.g., fluticasone, COPD). in the mouth), hoarseness, and an increased risk of
Leukotriene Modifiers: pneumonia with long-term use.
1. Leukotriene Blockers: Prevent bronchoconstriction by Leukotriene Modifiers (e.g., montelukast):
inhibiting leukotrienes (e.g., montelukast, asthma). Common side effects may include headache, stomach upset,
2. Asthma Control: Reduce inflammation and mucus and mood changes.
production. Mucolytics (e.g., acetylcysteine):
Mucolytics: Side effects may include a strong odor, runny nose, and
1. Mucus Thinning: Aid in clearing mucus from the airways (e.g., throat irritation.
acetylcysteine). Monoclonal Antibodies:
2.•Easy Clearance: Break down and thin mucus.
Bronchodilators Side effects vary depending on the specific medication and
Monoclonal Antibodies:
• Relax bronchial smooth muscle may include allergic reactions, injection site reactions, and
1. Immunoglobulin Target: Block IgE in allergic asthma (e.g., upper respiratory infections.
omalizumab). Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors (e.g., roflumilast):
2. Eosinophil Control: Target eosinophils in severe asthma (e.g., Common side effects may include nausea, diarrhea, and
mepolizumab). weight loss.
Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors:
1. Anti-Inflammatory: Reduce airway inflammation (e.g.,
roflumilast, COPD).
2. Bronchial Muscle Relaxation: Increase airflow.
Brand Name Generic Names

Proventil, Ventolin Albuterol Sulfate
Brovana Arformoterol Tartrate
Foradil Formoterol Fumarate
Xopenex Levalbuterol
Spiriva Tiotropium
Fluticasone/Salmeterol
Advair
• *combo drug
Advair Diskus
(flut-potent anti-inflam effects/Salm-bronch odilator)
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CEPHALOSPORINS
Cephalosporins are a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics that belong to the beta-lactam group, which also includes
penicillins. They are used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections in humans. Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the
synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, which is essential for the structural integrity and survival of the microorganisms.
Cephalosporins are classified into generations based on their spectrum of activity and the time of their development. There
are currently five generations of cephalosporins, with each generation having a different spectrum of activity against various
types of bacteria.
1. Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis: Bacterial cells are 1. Gastrointestinal Upset: This is one of the most common side
surrounded by a rigid cell wall that provides structural effects. It can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and
support and protection. This cell wall is made up of abdominal pain.
peptidoglycan, a complex molecule. Cephalosporins work by 2. Allergic Reactions: Some individuals may experience allergic
interfering with the final stages of peptidoglycan synthesis. reactions to cephalosporins, which can range from mild skin
They do this by binding to and inhibiting enzymes called rashes and itching to severe reactions like hives, swelling of
transpeptidases (penicillin-binding proteins or PBPs) that are the face or throat, and difficulty breathing. Severe allergic
responsible for cross-linking the components of the reactions, while rare, require immediate medical attention.
peptidoglycan. 3. Diarrhea: Antibiotics, including cephalosporins, can disrupt
2. Weakening and Lysis of Bacterial Cell Walls: By blocking the balance of beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract,
the action of these enzymes, cephalosporins prevent the leading to diarrhea. In some cases, this can be a sign of a
formation of strong cross-links within the peptidoglycan more serious condition, such as Clostridium difficile infection.
structure. As a result, the bacterial cell wall becomes weak 4. Skin Reactions: Some individuals may develop skin rashes or
and structurally unstable. Without a robust cell wall, the dermatitis as a result of cephalosporin use.
affected bacteria are unable to maintain their structural 5. Hypersensitivity Reactions: This can manifest as fever,
integrity, and they become susceptible to osmotic pressure, eosinophilia (an increase in a type of white blood cell), and
causing them to swell and eventually rupture or lyse. other allergic-type reactions.
3. Bactericidal Action: Cephalosporins' disruption of cell wall 6. Kidney Function Changes: Cephalosporins can affect kidney
synthesis is bactericidal, meaning it directly kills the bacteria. function, leading to changes in urine output or quality.
This is in contrast to bacteriostatic antibiotics, which inhibit Monitoring kidney function may be necessary during
bacterial growth without killing the bacteria. treatment.
7. Blood Disorders: In rare cases, cephalosporins can affect
blood cell counts, leading to conditions like leukopenia (low
white blood cell count) or thrombocytopenia (low platelet
count).
8. Pain at Injection Site: If administered intravenously,
cephalosporins can sometimes cause pain, redness, or
swelling at the injection site.
Rocephin Ceftriaxone
Maxipime Cefepime
Mefoxin Cefoxitin
Ancef Cefazolin
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PENICILLINS
Penicillins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the Penicillium fungi. They are one of the earliest and most widely
used types of antibiotics in the world. Penicillins work by interfering with the ability of bacteria to build their cell walls,
ultimately leading to the death of the bacteria.
The key defining feature of penicillins is the presence of a beta-lactam ring in their chemical structure. This ring is crucial to
their antibiotic activity and is responsible for their classification as beta-lactam antibiotics. Penicillins primarily target a wide
range of Gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus species, among others.
1. Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis: Bacterial cells are 1. Allergic Reactions: Allergic reactions are one of the most
surrounded by a rigid cell wall made up of peptidoglycan, a common side effects of penicillins. Mild reactions may
complex molecule. This cell wall provides structural support manifest as skin rashes, itching, or hives. Severe allergic
and protection for the bacterium. Penicillins work by inhibiting reactions can lead to swelling of the face, lips, or throat,
the final stages of peptidoglycan synthesis, which is crucial difficulty breathing, and anaphylaxis, which is a life-
for the integrity and survival of bacterial cells. threatening reaction requiring immediate medical attention.
2. Binding to Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBPs): In the bacterial 2. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Some people may
cell wall synthesis process, enzymes called penicillin-binding experience nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or abdominal pain
proteins (PBPs) play a vital role. These enzymes are while taking penicillins.
responsible for cross-linking the components of 3. Oral Thrush: Penicillins can disrupt the balance of beneficial
peptidoglycan, which gives the cell wall its strength. bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract, potentially leading to an
Penicillins have a chemical structure that is similar to the D- overgrowth of the yeast Candida. This can result in oral
alanyl-D-alanine dipeptide found in the peptidoglycan. This thrush, characterized by white patches in the mouth and
structural similarity allows penicillins to bind to the PBPs in throat.
the bacterial cell wall. 4. Secondary Infections: Antibiotic use, including penicillins,
3. Inhibition of Transpeptidation: By binding to the PBPs, can disrupt the normal balance of bacteria in the body, which
penicillins interfere with the enzyme's ability to carry out may lead to secondary infections, such as Clostridium
transpeptidation, which is the final step in cross-linking the difficile-associated diarrhea.
peptidoglycan strands. When this step is disrupted, the cell 5. Renal Effects: In some cases, penicillins can affect kidney
wall is weakened, and it loses its structural integrity. function, leading to changes in urine output or quality. Kidney
4. Cell Lysis and Death: With a weakened cell wall, the function should be monitored during treatment.
bacterial cell becomes unable to withstand the internal 6. Hypersensitivity Reactions: This can include fever,
osmotic pressure. As a result, the cell swells, leading to lysis eosinophilia (an increase in a type of white blood cell), and
or bursting of the cell. This ultimately causes the death of the other allergic-type reactions.
bacterium.
It's important to note that penicillins are effective against a wide
range of Gra

Amoxil Amoxicillin
Omnipen Ampicillin
Unipen Nafcillin
Pipracil Piperacillin
Zosyn Piperacillin/Tazobactam
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CORTICOSTEROIDS
Corticosteroids, often simply referred to as steroids, are a class of synthetic drugs that mimic the effects of corticosteroid
hormones naturally produced by the adrenal glands. These medications have potent anti-inflammatory and
immunosuppressive properties and are commonly used to manage a wide range of medical conditions.
Corticosteroids can be classified into two main groups:
1. Glucocorticoids: These steroids have a pronounced anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effect. They are used to
reduce inflammation, alleviate symptoms in autoimmune diseases, and manage conditions like asthma, allergies, and
inflammatory skin disorders.
2. Mineralocorticoids: These steroids primarily regulate electrolyte balance and fluid retention in the body. They are
essential for maintaining blood pressure and overall health. Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid produced
naturally by the adrenal glands.
1. Receptor Binding: Corticosteroids, whether naturally 1. Immune System Suppression: Corticosteroids can suppress
produced by the adrenal glands or administered as synthetic the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to
medications, bind to intracellular receptors called infections. This can result in an increased risk of bacterial,
glucocorticoid receptors. viral, or fungal infections.
2. Gene Expression Regulation: Once bound to glucocorticoid 2. Gastrointestinal Problems: Common digestive side effects
receptors, corticosteroids influence gene expression. They may include stomach ulcers, gastritis, indigestion, and an
can either enhance or suppress the transcription of specific increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. Long-term use can
genes. lead to peptic ulcers.
3. Anti-Inflammatory Effects: Corticosteroids are known for 3. Weight Gain: Corticosteroids can cause weight gain due to
their potent anti-inflammatory properties. They inhibit the increased appetite and fluid retention. This can lead to fat
transcription of genes involved in the synthesis of pro- accumulation, particularly in the face (moon face), neck, and
inflammatory molecules, such as cytokines and trunk.
prostaglandins. By doing so, they reduce the production of 4. Osteoporosis: Long-term corticosteroid use can lead to bone
these substances, which play a key role in the inflammatory loss and an increased risk of fractures. It can weaken bones
response. and decrease bone density.
4. Immunosuppression: Corticosteroids also have 5. Muscle Weakness: Corticosteroids can lead to muscle
immunosuppressive effects. They can inhibit the function of weakness and a decrease in muscle mass.
immune cells, particularly lymphocytes, which are 6. Skin Issues: Skin problems like thinning, easy bruising, and
responsible for mounting immune responses. This poor wound healing can occur with corticosteroid use.
immunosuppression is useful in controlling autoimmune 7. Mood Changes: Psychological side effects may include
diseases and preventing transplant rejection. mood swings, anxiety, and even mood disorders like
5. Suppression of Allergic Reactions: Corticosteroids can depression.
reduce the body's response to allergens by inhibiting the 8. High Blood Pressure: Corticosteroids c
release of histamines and other mediators involved in allergic
reactions. This is why they are used in the treatment of
allergies and asthma.
6. Anti-Proliferative Effects: Corticosteroids can inhibit the
proliferation of certain cells, such as fibroblasts, which are
involved in tissue repair and scarring. This effect can be
beneficial in conditions where excessive tissue growth is a
problem.
Invanz ErtapenemSulfate
Merrem MeropenemSulfate
Primaxin ImipenemSulfate
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SULFONAMIDES
Sulfonamides, also known as sulfa drugs, are a class of synthetic antibiotics that inhibit the growth and reproduction of
bacteria. They were among the first antibiotics developed and have been used for many years to treat a wide range of
bacterial infections. Sulfonamides work by interfering with the production of folic acid, which is essential for bacteria to
synthesize DNA and replicate.
The key defining feature of sulfonamides is their chemical structure, which includes a sulfonamide functional group. This
group is crucial to their antibiotic activity. Sulfonamides are primarily used to treat urinary tract infections, respiratory tract
infections, and other bacterial infections. They have also been used to treat conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and
inflammatory bowel disease.
1. Folic Acid Synthesis: Bacteria, like all living organisms, 1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: This is one of the most
require folic acid (folate) to synthesize DNA and RNA, which common side effects and can include nausea, vomiting,
are essential for their growth and reproduction. Folic acid is diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Taking the medication with
also involved in the production of amino acids and other food or water can help reduce these symptoms.
important molecules. 2. Skin Reactions: Some individuals may experience skin
2. Competitive Inhibition: Sulfonamides are structurally similar reactions, such as rashes, itching, or hives. In rare cases,
to a compound called para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), which severe skin reactions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic
is a precursor in the folic acid synthesis pathway. epidermal necrolysis can occur and require immediate
Sulfonamides act as competitive inhibitors by mimicking medical attention.
PABA. When bacteria take up sulfonamides, they incorporate 3. Photosensitivity: Sulfonamides may increase the skin's
them into their metabolic processes, thinking they are taking sensitivity to sunlight, making individuals more prone to
up PABA. sunburn. It's important to use sunscreen and avoid excessive
3. Inhibition of Dihydropteroate Synthase: In the folic acid sun exposure while taking these antibiotics.
synthesis pathway, dihydropteroate synthase is an enzyme 4. Hematological Effects: Sulfonamides can affect blood cell
that utilizes PABA to synthesize dihydropteroate, a precursor counts, leading to conditions like leukopenia (low white blood
to folic acid. When sulfonamides are present, they bind to cell count) and thrombocytopenia (low platelet count).
dihydropteroate synthase instead of PABA, inhibiting the Monitoring blood counts during treatment is important.
enzyme's activity. 5. Renal Effects: Sulfonamides can cause kidney-related side
4. Folic Acid Depletion: With dihydropteroate synthase effects, such as crystalluria (the formation of crystals in the
inhibited, bacteria cannot produce folic acid. This folic acid urine) and kidney stones, which may lead to urinary tract
depletion disrupts DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, complications.
ultimately interfering with the bacteria's growth and 6. Allergic Reactions: Allergic reactions to sulfonamides can
reproduction. range from mild skin rashes and itching to severe reactions,
including swelling of the face, lips, or throat, and difficulty
breathing. Severe allergic reactions require immediate
medical attention.
7. Gastrointestinal Allergic Reactions: Some individuals may
experience severe gastrointestinal allergic reactions, such as
diarrhea, colitis, and pseudomembranous colitis.
8. Liver Function Abnormalities: Sulfonamides can affect liver
function, leading to elevated liver enzymes in some cases.
Bactrim SMZ-TMP
Bactrim DS Trimethoprim-Sulfa
Septra methoxazole
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FLUOROQUINOLONES (OXACIN)
Fluoroquinolones are a class of synthetic antibiotics that are used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. These
antibiotics are characterized by their chemical structure, which includes a fluorine atom and a quinolone nucleus.
Fluoroquinolones work by inhibiting the activity of enzymes called DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, which are essential
for bacterial DNA replication, repair, and recombination.
Fluoroquinolones are generally broad-spectrum antibiotics, which means they are effective against a wide variety of both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often prescribed for the treatment of respiratory tract infections,
urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and certain sexually transmitted infections, among others. They can
also be used in more serious infections such as certain types of bacterial meningitis.
1. Targeting DNA Gyrase and Topoisomerase IV: Bacterial DNA 1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: These antibiotics can lead to
gyrase and topoisomerase IV are enzymes crucial for gastrointestinal side effects, including nausea, vomiting,
maintaining the structure and integrity of bacterial DNA. diarrhea, and abdominal pain.
These enzymes help relieve the torsional strain that occurs 2. Central Nervous System Effects: Some individuals may
during DNA replication, transcription, and repair. Without their experience nervous system side effects, such as dizziness,
activity, bacterial DNA cannot function properly. headache, confusion, and insomnia.
2. Inhibition of Enzyme Activity: Fluoroquinolones, such as 3. Musculoskeletal Effects: Fluoroquinolones have been
ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin, bind to DNA associated with musculoskeletal issues, including muscle or
gyrase and topoisomerase IV, inhibiting their activity. By tendon pain, tendonitis, and, rarely, tendon rupture. Achilles
doing so, they prevent these enzymes from carrying out their tendon rupture is a severe but infrequent complication.
normal functions, particularly in the relaxation and winding of 4. Hypersensitivity Reactions: Allergic reactions can occur,
DNA strands. resulting in symptoms like skin rashes, itching, and hives.
3. Formation of DNA Strand Breaks: With DNA gyrase and Severe allergic reactions are rare but can be life-threatening.
topoisomerase IV inhibited, bacterial DNA strands cannot 5. Photosensitivity: Some individuals may become more
unwind or replicate efficiently. As a result, breaks and lesions sensitive to sunlight while taking fluoroquinolones, increasing
form in the DNA double helix. the risk of sunburn.
4. Impairing DNA Replication and Repair: The presence of 6. Cardiovascular Effects: There have been reports of QT
these DNA strand breaks impairs the bacterial cell's ability to interval prolongation, which may lead to abnormal heart
replicate its DNA and repair genetic damage. This disruption rhythms, but this is relatively rare.
in DNA processes ultimately leads to the death of the 7. Blood Sugar Abnormalities: Fluoroquinolones can affect
bacterial cell. blood sugar levels, potentially leading to hyperglycemia (high
blood sugar). This can be problematic for individuals with
diabetes.
8. Joint and Cartilage Effects in Children: These antibiotics
should be used with caution in children, as they may affect
the development of joints and cartilage in growing
individuals.
9. Psychiatric Effects: Rarely, fluoroquinolones have been
associated with psychiatric side effects, such as agitation,
anxiety, and hallucinations.
10. Peripheral Neuropathy: There have been reports of
peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage) with fluoroquinolone
use, but it is relatively rare.
Cipro Ciprofloxacin
Levaquin Levofloxacin
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VANCOMYCIN
Vancomycin is a potent antibiotic medication primarily used to treat severe bacterial infections, particularly those caused by
Gram-positive bacteria. It is considered a "last-resort" antibiotic, often reserved for infections that are resistant to other
antibiotics. Vancomycin is effective against various bacterial species, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) and other antibiotic-resistant strains.
Vancomycin is typically administered intravenously for systemic infections, although it can also be used orally to treat
certain gastrointestinal infections. It works by interfering with the formation of the bacterial cell wall, a structure that is
essential for the bacteria's integrity and survival. Vancomycin binds to the building blocks of the bacterial cell wall and
disrupts its assembly, ultimately leading to the death of the bacteria.
1. Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis: Bacterial cells are 1. ed Man Syndrome: This is one of the most distinctive side
surrounded by a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan, a effects of vancomycin. It can cause a rapid, diffused red rash
complex molecule. This cell wall provides structural support on the face, neck, and upper torso. The rash may be
and protection for the bacterium. The synthesis of accompanied by itching, tingling, and a sensation of warmth.
peptidoglycan is essential for bacterial survival and growth. Slowing the infusion rate or using antihistamines can help
2. Binding to D-Alanine-D-Alanine: Vancomycin binds to the D- prevent or alleviate this reaction.
alanine-D-alanine dipeptide at the end of the peptidoglycan 2. Nephrotoxicity: Vancomycin can potentially affect kidney
peptide chains. This binding is highly specific to this dipeptide function, leading to kidney problems, especially when
and occurs at the growing points of the cell wall during administered at higher doses or for extended periods.
synthesis. Regular monitoring of kidney function is essential during
3. Preventing Cross-Linking: By binding to the D-alanine-D- treatment.
alanine dipeptide, vancomycin interferes with the cross- 3. Ototoxicity: In rare cases, vancomycin may cause hearing
linking of peptidoglycan chains, which is essential for the cell loss, dizziness, or ringing in the ears (tinnitus). This is more
wall's structural integrity. Without proper cross-linking, the common when high doses are used, or when there are other
cell wall becomes weak and cannot provide effective risk factors for hearing problems.
protection. 4. Thrombophlebitis: Vancomycin infusions can sometimes
4. Cell Wall Weakening: As a result of vancomycin's irritate the veins at the injection site, leading to inflammation
interference, the bacterial cell wall becomes structurally and pain.
unstable. The cell wall cannot withstand the internal osmotic 5. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Vancomycin can cause
pressure, causing the bacterium to swell and ultimately gastrointestinal side effects, including nausea, vomiting, and
rupture or lyse. diarrhea. Severe diarrhea may be a sign of a condition called
5. Bactericidal Action: Vancomycin's disruption of cell wall Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD), which
synthesis is bactericidal, meaning it directly kills the bacteria. requires medical attention.
This is in contrast to bacteriostatic antibiotics, which inhibit 6. Allergic Reactions: Some individuals may experience allergic
bacterial growth without killing the bacteria. reactions to vancomycin, which can range from skin rashes
and itching to more severe reactions, including difficulty
breathing. Severe allergic reactions require immediate
medical attention.
7. Low Blood Pressure: In rare cases, vancomycin may cause
low blood pressure (hypotension). This is more likely to occur
when vancomycin is administered rapidly, particularly in
higher doses.
8. Superinfections: Vancomycin use can disrupt the balance of
bacteria in the body, potentially leading to secondary
infections, including fungal infections.
Vancomycin
Vancocin
Hydrochloride
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
CEPHALOSPORINS
Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are closely related to penicillins and are used to treat a wide range of bacterial
infections. They are part of the beta-lactam antibiotic group, characterized by the presence of a beta-lactam ring in their
chemical structure. Cephalosporins work by interfering with the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, ultimately leading to the
death of the bacteria.
Cephalosporins are effective against various types of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species.
They are often prescribed for infections such as respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, urinary tract
infections, and surgical prophylaxis. Cephalosporins are available in different generations, with each generation having a
slightly different spectrum of activity, including improved effectiveness against certain types of bacteria.
1. Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis: Bacterial cells are 1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: This is one of the most
surrounded by a rigid cell wall made up of peptidoglycan, a common side effects and can include nausea, vomiting,
complex molecule. This cell wall provides structural support diarrhea, and abdominal pain. These symptoms are usually
and protection for the bacterium. Cell wall synthesis is a mild and self-limiting.
critical process for bacterial growth and replication. 2. Allergic Reactions: Some individuals may experience allergic
2. Binding to Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBPs): reactions to cephalosporins, which can range from mild skin
Cephalosporins, like penicillins, work by binding to penicillin- rashes and itching to more severe reactions, including
binding proteins (PBPs) in the bacterial cell wall synthesis difficulty breathing and anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity with
pathway. PBPs are enzymes that play a key role in cross- penicillin allergies can occur, and caution is advised when
linking the peptidoglycan strands to maintain the integrity of prescribing cephalosporins to individuals with known
the cell wall. penicillin allergies.
3. Interference with Cross-Linking: When cephalosporins bind 3. Skin Reactions: Skin rashes, hives, and itching can occur.
to PBPs, they interfere with the enzyme's ability to carry out Severe skin reactions, such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome
the cross-linking of the peptidoglycan strands. Proper cross- and toxic epidermal necrolysis, are rare but require
linking is essential for the bacterial cell wall's strength and immediate medical attention.
structure. 4. Injection Site Reactions: For intravenous or intramuscular
4. Weakening of the Cell Wall: With the cross-linking administration, local reactions like pain, redness, and
disrupted, the bacterial cell wall becomes weakened. This inflammation at the injection site can occur.
leads to structural instability and increased susceptibility to 5. Hematological Effects: Some cephalosporins can affect
osmotic pressure. blood cell counts, leading to conditions like leukopenia (low
5. Cell Lysis and Death: As a result of the weakened cell wall, white blood cell count) and thrombocytopenia (low platelet
the bacterial cell cannot withstand internal osmotic pressure. count). These side effects are relatively rare.
It swells and eventually lyses or bursts, leading to bacterial 6. Kidney Function Abnormalities: In some cases,
cell death. cephalosporins may affect kidney function. Monitoring of
kidney function is important during treatment.
Tetracycline Tetracycline
Vibramycin Doxycycline
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &
PARENTAL THERAPIES
CORTICOSTEROIDS
INSULINS
• blood glucose by transporting glucose into cells Common Brand Names Generic Names
• promoting conversion of glucose to glycogen
• inhibiting the liver from changing glycogen to glucose Insulin Lispro-Humalog
Rapid-Acting
Insulin Aspart-Novolog
Regular Insulin-Humulin R
• Regular insulin is the
Short-Acting only one given IV
• Concentrated
insulin-Insulin U-500
LONG ACTING NPH REGULAR RAPID
NO Peak iNtermediate Ready to go IV Aspart/Lispro/ Intermediate-Acting NPH-Humulin N, Novolin R

NO Mix NEVER IV DRIP Regular goes Glulisine
• Detemir or IV Bag right into the
• Glargine Mix clear to vein Insulin Glargine-Lantus
• Levemir = cloudy ONLY IV insulin • Cannot mix with
Long-Acting
Long acting Give 2x per day others
Insulin Detemir-Levemir
PEAK NPH/REG
30-90 minute
• Humulin 50/50
PEAK 15 minute
• Humulin 70/30
2-4 hour ONSET
PEAK • Novolin 70/30
MOST DEADLY
NO PEAK 4-12 hour Premixed Aspart
protamine/aspart
• Novolog Mix 70/30
Lispro protamine/lispro
• Humalog Mix 75/25
Names Onset Peak Duration

Lispro
5m 60-90min 4-6h
(Humalog)
Aspart
10-20m 1-3h 3-5h
(Novolog)
Regular SQ: 30-60m SQ: 2-4h SQ: 5-7h

(Humulin R) IV: 10-30m IV: 15-30m IV: 30-60m
U-500 2-3h 5-7h
NPH
8-12h 18-24h
(Humulin N, Novolin R)
Glargine
None 24h
(Lantus)
Detemir
3-14h 24h
(Levemir)
NPH
(Humulin 50/50,
4-8h 24h
Humulin 70/30,
Novolin 70/30)
Aspart
Protamine/aspart 1-4h 24h
(Novolog mix 70/30)
Lispro
Protamine/lispro 2.8h 24h
(Humalog mix 75/25)
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COMMON DRUG SUFFIXES
CNS Neuromuscular Infectious Disease

Family Drug Example Family Drug Example
-chol Muscarinic agonist carbachol Cell wall inhibitor “Broad Imipenem
-penam
spectrum” Meropenem
-trop Atropine
Muscarinic blocker
scop- Scopolamine Ciprofloxacin
-floxacin Fluoroquinolone
Levofloxacin
-stigmine Achase inhibitor Neostigmine
Atracurium -conazole Ketoconazole

-curium Nondepolarizing Antifungal
Mivacurium ‘’Azole’’ Fluconazole
-curonium neuromuscular blocker
Pancuronium
Chloroquine
-ane Inhaled anesthetic Halothane -quine Antimalarial
Primaquine
-caine Local anaesthetic Lidocaine
Acyclovir
-pam Diazepam Antiviral “ DNA polymerase
Benzodiazepine -ovir Ganciclovir
-lam Lorazepam inhibitors” treats herpes
Valacyclovir
-tal Barbiturate Phenobarbital Neuraminidase inhibitor

-ivir Zanamivir
"treats influenza”
Typical antipsychotic Chlorpromazine
-zine
or antihistamine Thioridazine Antiviral protease Indinavir
-avir
inhibitor “treats HIV/AIDS” Ritonavir
-apine Clozapine
Atypical antipsychotic
-idone Risperidone
-capone
COMT inhibitor for Tolcapone Infectious Disease
parkinson's disease Entacapone
Family Drug Example
Cardiovascular -tidine H2 blocker Cimetidine
Family Drug Example

-prazole PPI Pantoprazole
-olol Beta blocker metoprolol
-alol Sotalol -setron 5HT3 blocker ‘’Anti Emetic’’ Ondansetron

Alpha-Beta blockers
-ilol carvedilol
Vascular Calcium
-dipine Nifedipine
channel blocker
-zosin Alpha -1 blocker

Terazosin
Doxazosin
Oncology
-pril Ace inhibitor Lisinopril Family Drug Example
-sartan ARB Losartan Vincristine

vin- Microtubule inhibitor
Vinblastine
-darone Antiarrhythmic Amiodarone
-rubicin Cancer drug Doxorubicin
Anti hyperlipidemic Hmg
-statin Rosuvastatin
coa reductase inhibitor
-mab Monoclonal antibody drug Rituximab
Carbonic anhydrase
-zolamide Acetazolamide
inhibitor
-tinib Tyrosine kinase inhibitor Imatinib
-semide Loop diuretic Furosemide
Low molecular weight

-parin Enoxaparin
heparin
-rudin Direct thrombin inhibitor Lepirudin
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DRUG ACTIVITY IN THE BODY
Pharmaceutic Phase Pharmacokinetic Phase Pharmacokinetic Phase
The pharmacokinetic phase encompasses the The pharmacokinetic phase involves the
In the pharmaceutical phase, the drug processes of drug transport and distribution within drug's impact on the body, including both
dissolves in the body. Liquid and IV the body. This phase involves absorption, distribution, its desired primary effect and any
medications are rapidly absorbed, while metabolism, and excretion to facilitate the drug's additional, secondary effects. For
tablets or capsules must traverse the effects and eventual removal. instance, sildenafil was originally
gastrointestinal tract to dissolve. Enteric- Absorption: This stage moves the drug from its point developed to treat hypertension but was
coated medications, designed for of administration into body fluids. It can occur also discovered to have a secondary
delayed release, require an alkaline small through active or passive transport, as well as effect in treating erectile dysfunction.
intestine environment for dissolution. pinocytosis. Various factors influence the speed and Drugs exert their actions through two
efficiency of drug absorption. primary mechanisms: they can either
Distribution: The drug, once in the bloodstream, is modify cellular function or influence the
circulated systemically to reach different bodily cellular environment. In the case of the
tissues. Several factors dictate this distribution, former, drugs directly affect the
including the drug's affinity for proteins, blood flow, functioning of cells, while in the latter,
and solubility. When in the bloodstream, the drug can they bring about changes in the
bind to proteins like albumin or remain unbound. Only surroundings of the cells to produce their
the free, unbound drug particles are capable of desired therapeutic or secondary effects.
producing a therapeutic effect. This phase is integral to understanding
Metabolism: Also known as biotransformation, this how drugs work within the body and their
process involves the body altering the drug, making it broader physiological consequences.
more or less active and easier to excrete. The liver
and kidneys are major sites of drug metabolism, but it
can also occur in the lungs, plasma, and intestinal
mucosa.
Excretion: This phase refers to the elimination of the
drug from the body. After metabolic changes in the
liver render the drug inactive, it is primarily excreted
by the kidneys through urine.
In summary, the pharmacokinetic phase plays a
crucial role in determining how a drug is absorbed,
distributed, modified, and ultimately eliminated from
the body, affecting its therapeutic effectiveness and
safety.
Influences On Absorption Interactions Effects On The Nervous System
Factors affecting absorption include the In drug interactions: Sympathomimetic: These substances induce
administration route, with IV/IM being the Additive interactions result in a physiological effects akin to the sympathetic
quickest. Solubility and the condition of body combined effect equal to each drug nervous system, encouraging the stimulation of
tissues also play crucial roles. alone. sympathetic nerves.
Synergistic interactions create an Sympatholytic: These are substances that
enhanced effect when drugs interact, counteract or inhibit the transmission of nerve
like combining hypnotics and alcohol signals within the sympathetic nervous system.
causing increased central nervous Parasympathomimetic: These agents
Influence On Metabolism
system depression. stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system
Antagonistic interactions occur when one (PSNS) and are also known as cholinergic drugs
Metabolism is influenced by age, weight, drug hinders the action of another, such because they work through acetylcholine
gender, health conditions, and the method as naloxone reversing opioid effects. (ACh), the PSNS neurotransmitter.
of drug administration. Food interactions can impact drug Parasympatholytic: These substances diminish
metabolism, altering its effects. the activity of the parasympathetic nervous
system. These categories describe how drugs
or substances affect the body's autonomic
nervous system, which controls involuntary
bodily functions.
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PHARMACOLOGICAL &

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

1. Non-Opioid Analgesics: 1. Non-Opioid Analgesics (e.g., NSAIDs, Acetaminophen):

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Duragesic, Sublimaze Fentanyl

Morphine Sulfate Morphine Sulfate

Vicodin, Norco Hydrocodone

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common side effects of anticonvulsant medications can vary

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Depakote Valproic Acid

BENZODIAZEPINES (PAM & LAM)

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Lexapro Escitalopram Oxalate

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Buspar Buspirone Hydrochloride

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Ambien Zolpidem Tartrate

DIURETICS & LOOP DIURETICS

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Diuretics can cause common side effects such as increased

Common Brand Names Generic Names

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Hydrodiuril, HCTZ Hydrochlorothiazide

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

ASA - aspirin Acetylsalicylic Acid

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Prinivil, Zestril Lisinopril

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

ALPHA 1 ADRENERGIC BLOCKERS

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

ALPHA & BETA ADRENERGIC BLOCKERS-(LOL)

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Trandate, Normodyne Labetalol

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Lopressor Metoprolol Tartrate

Toprol-XL Metoprolol Succinate

CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS

How it works in the body Common Side Effects

Common Brand Names Generic Names

Verelan, Isoptin, Calan Verapamil

How it works in the body Common Side Effects