DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

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CLASS: SS 3
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
THEME: CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES
1. Revision/Gravitational Field:(a)Gravitational force between two masses(Newton’s law of universal
gravitation) (b)`G’ as a universal constant (c)Solar system(d) Kepter’s laws(e)Natural and Artificial
satellites (f)Escape velocity.
2. Electric Field:(a)Production of continuum charges: primary cells, secondary cells.(b)Electric circuit
series and parallel arrangement of cells and resistors(c)Shunt and multiplier (d)Resistivity and
conductivity (e)Principle of potentiometer (i)Meter bridge (ii)Whetstone bridge (f)Measurement of
(i)Electric current(ii)Potential difference (iii)Resistance(iv) Emf.of a cell.
3. Electromagnetic Waves & Fields: (a) Electromagnetic spectrum. (b) Electromagnetic Field: (i)
Concept of electromagnetic field (ii) Interaction between magnetic field and currents in: A current
carrying wire in a magnetic field (iii)A current carrying solenoid in a magnetic field(iv) Electric
motor (v)Moving coil galvanometer & Induction coil (c) Electromagnetic induction:(i)Faraday’s law
(ii)Lenz’s law (iii)Motor generator effect (d)Eddy currents
4. Magnetic fields: (a)Concept of magnetic field (b)Magnetic field around (i)A bar magnet (ii)A
straight conductor carrying current (iv)A solenoid (c)Magnets: (i)Temporary and permanent
(ii)Making magnets (d)Application of electro-magnet
5. Magnetic Field: Earth’s magnetic field(i)Description and use (ii)Mariner’s compass (f)Magnetic
force on a moving charge.
6. Application of Electromagnetic field & Transmission systems: (a) (i) Galvanometer (ii) Electric
motor (iii) Generators. (b) Transformer.
7. MID – TERM BREAK
8. Capacitors: (i) capacitance (ii) factor affecting the capacitance of a capacitor (Iii) energy stored in a
capacitor

9. Simple A.C. Circuits: (a) Alternating current circuits (i) Nomenclature in a.c circuits(ii) Peak and
r.m.s values (iii)Series circuits containing resistance, and capacitance, inductance, and capacitance.
(iv)Reactance and impedance (b)Power in an a.c. circuit.
10. Revision.
11. Examination.

REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al. 2011.
2. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W. 2010
3. Comprehensive Certificate Physics by Olumuyiwa Awe and Okunola, O.O. 2009.
4. Science Teachers Association of Nigeria Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 3. New
Edition; 2012.
5. Melrose Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 3 by Akano, O and Onanuga, O.O. 2012.
WEEK 1: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: Revision/ Gravitational Field:
CONTENT:
1. Revision.
2. Gravitational force between two masses(Newton’s law of universal gravitation)Gravitational
Potential, Escape velocity
3. Worked Examples, Satellite & Parking Orbit
4. Energy of Satellite & Worked examples, Kepler’s law

Sub-Topic 1: GRAVITATIONAL FORCE BETWEEN TWO MASSES (NEWTON’S LAW OF

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION)

A gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a body that has the property of mass.
Sir Isaac Newton, in 1666, propounded the universal law of gravitation.
The law states that, ‘’ the force of attraction between two given particles of masses M and m is directly
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance of
separation’’.

Mathematically,
F g ∝ Mm and
1
Fg ∝ 2
r
Mm
∴ Fg∝ 2
r
GMm
∴ F g= 2
−−−−−−(1)
r

2
Fg r
Hence , G=
Mm

Where F g is the gravitational force in Newton, N,

G is the universal or gravitational constant of value 6.7 ×10−11 and expressed in N m2 /kg2

The gravitational field strength, also called acceleration due to gravity, ‘g’ is given by:

Fg
g= −−−−−−(2)
m

GMm
But F g= 2
r

GMm GMm 1
∴ g= ÷ m= 2 ×
r
2
r m

GM
Hence , g= 2
−−−−−(3) This is the relationship between gravitational constant G and acceleration due
r
to gravity g.
Therefore, we define gravitational field strength ‘g’ as force per unit mass. It is a vector quantity.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL V g

The gravitational potential V g at a point is the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point on
the surface of the earth.

V g=gr−−−−−−−(4)

GM
V g= 2
×r
r

GM
∴ V g= −−−−−−(5)
r

Where M is the mass of the earth and r is the radius of the earth of value 6.4 × 106 m∨6400 km

At any point, distance r from the centre of the earth, the gravitational potential experienced by a body of
mass m is given by:

−Gm
V g= −−−−−(6)
r

−Gm
Since the potential at infinity is taken to be zero. (i . e , ∆ potential=0−V g=−V g= )
r

The negative sign indicates that potential at infinity is higher than the potential close to the mass, that is, V g
decreases as r increases.

ESCAPE VELOCITY V 0
Consider a rocket of mass m placed at the centre of the earth’s surface O. If it is fired from that point so that
it just escapes the earth’s gravitational field, it has a kinetic energy, k.e given as:
1 2
k . e= mV 0 −−−−−−(7)
2

But work is done(WD) in taking this rocket to a distance R so great that the gravitational field is negligibly
weak.
 ∴ Work done=mg ×distance
This work done must be equal to the kinetic energy of the rocket at the point of take off
1 2
work done= m V 0
2
∴ Work done=mg × R=mgR
GM
but gravitational intensity g= 2
R
work done=m
GM
R( )
2
R

GMm
workdone=
R
But k . e=WD
1 2 GMm
∴ mV 0 =
2 R
2 2GM
∴V0 =
R

GM
∴ V 0=
√ 2GM
R
−−−−−−(8)

But gR=
R
Hence , V 0= √ 2 gR−−−−−−(8)
We thus define the escape velocity V 0 as the velocity which is sufficient enough for a body to just escape
the earth’s gravitational field.
Since g=9.8 m/s 2, ¿ R=6,400,000 m
Thus , V 0= √ 2 ×9.8 × 6.4 ×10 6=11,200 m/ s ¿).

Evaluation:
1. State Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. Define escape velocity.
3. Write down the mathematical expression for :
i. Gravitational force.
ii. Gravitational potential.

Sub-Topic 2: WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Calculate the gravitation force of attraction between two planets of masses 10 24kg and 1027kg separated by
a distance of 1020m. (G = 6.67 ×10−11 ¿
Solution:
Gm1 m2 6.67 ×10−11 ×1024 ×1027
F= 2
= 2
r (10¿¿ 20) =6.67 N ¿
2. Find the gravitational force between a proton and an electron if their distance of separation is 10−10 m. (
−27 −31
m p=1.67 × 10 kg , me =9.11×10 kg
Solution:

Gm1 m2 −11 −27

6.67 ×10 ×1.67 ×10 × 9.11×10
−31
F= 2
= 2 −47
r (10¿¿−10) =1.01× 10 N ¿
SATELLITES AND PARKING ORBIT
Satellites are bodies, natural or artificial which move in orbits around the moon or planets. Artificial
satellites are made by man.

Consider a satellite of mass m moving round the earth of mass M in an orbit as shown below:

Satellite

r
Orbit

Earth
R

If R is the radius of the earth, r is the radius of the orbit and v is the velocity with which the satellite is
moving,
We have that centripetal force (due to the satellite) = gravitational force (due to the earth)
2
mv GMm
∴ = 2 =mg
r R
2
mv
∴ =mg
r
2
∴ v =gr
Hence , v =√ gr −−−−−−(9)
distance
To get the time for one complete revolution, i.e, period, we use speed=
time
Therefore, the period T is given as:
lenght of circumference 2 πR
T= =
speed v
But v=√ gR

2 πR
∴T=
√ gR
By squaring both sides, we have,
2 2 2
2 4 π R 4π R
T = =
gR g

Hence , T =2 π
√ R
g
−−−−(10)

Since R= 6400km and g = 9.8 m/ s2, therefore, T = 5077.58s = 84.6mins. This is the period for an artificial
satellite in the orbit above the earth.
If the period of the satellite in its orbit is equal to the period of the earth about its axis, which is 24hours, the
satellite will stay at the same place above the earth as the earth rotates. Such orbit is called ‘’Parking
Orbit’’.
2
m v GMm
Now, = 2
R R

GM
But GM=g r
2
(¿ =gr=V g)
r
2 2
m v mgr
We have , = 2
R R

Now, multiplying through by R/m, we have:

2
2 gr
v=
R

2 πR
Again, v=
T
2 2
2 πR gr
∴( )=
T R
2 2 2
4 π R gr
2
=
T R

By simplification, R= 3
√ g T 2 r2
4π
2
−−−−−−(11) Radius of Orbit.

Hence, the length the satellite is above the earth surface l=R orbit−R earth.

Evaluation:
1. State the relationship between radius of the orbit and the radius of the earth.
2. What is a satellite?
3. What is the value of g at the orbit?

Sub-Topic 3: ENERGY OF THE SATELLITE

Supposing a satellite of mass m is revolving in an orbit of radius r round the earth of mass M with a velocity
v, then it will have both kinetic and potential energies.
2
m v GMm
Recall that = 2 =mg
r R
2
mv GMm
∴ = 2
r r

2 GM
Hence , v =
r
 1 2
Now k . e .= m v
2

Putting in the value of v 2 above, we have:

1 GM GMm
k . e .= m× =
2 r 2r

GMm
Hence , k . e .= −−−−−−(12)
2r

−GMm
Also, p . e .=mgh=
r

GMm GMm
∴ Total energy k . e+ p . e= ±
2r r

−GMm
Hence , total energy∈orbit = −−−−−−(13)
2r

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Find the satellite orbit above the earth’s surface if the radius of that orbit is 6.5 ×10 6 m .

Solution:

l=R orbit−R earth

6 6
l=6.5 × 10 −6.4 × 10 =100,000 m=100 km

2. Determine the speed of revolution of a satellite round an orbit revolving at 85mins per revolution if the
satellite is at 110km above the earth’s surface.

Solution:

2 πR
speed=
T

Now, T = 85mins = 5100s, R = radius of the orbit = 110km + 6400km = 6510=6,510,000m

2 π × 6510000
speed= =8020.3 m/s
5100

KEPLER’S LAWS

Johannes Kepler in his working with data together with Tycho Brahe, put forth three laws which described
the motion of the planet across the sky.

The laws are:

 1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.
2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.

Kepler’s laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they apply to satellite orbits as well.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. State the mathematical expression of Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. What is the mathematical relationship between gravitational intensity and gravitational potential?
3. State the Kepler’s laws.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. The mathematical expression showing the relationship between acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ and the
gravitational constant ‘G’ is ---
A. G= √ 2 gR
GM
B. g= 2
r
GM
C. g= 3
r
G
D. g =gr

2. If a proton mass is 1.67 ×10−27 kg , an electron mass is 9.11× 10−31 kg and the radius of hydrogen atom is
10
0.50 ×10 m, calculate the gravitational attraction between the charges.
−47
A. 1.6 ×10 N
−47
B. 3.6 ×10 N
−37
C. 2.76 ×10 N
−57
D. 0.65 ×10 N
3. If the radius r of the earth is 6.4 × 106 m and the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is 9.8 m/ s2 , calculate the
escape velocity of a rocket from the earth’s gravitational field.
−3
A. 11×10 m/ s
3
B. 11×10 m/ s
−3
C. 1.1 ×10 m/s
D. 11m/s
4. Calculate the gravitational attraction between two spheres whose centres are 4m apart and whose masses
are 16kg and 24kg respectively. (G=6.67 ×10−11 N m2 kg−2 ).
4
A. 1.1 ×10 N
4
B. 2.1 ×10 N
−9
C. 1.6 ×10 N
−11
D. 4.1 ×10 N
E.
Essay
1. Considering a rocket launched from the earth’s surface, show that the velocity of escape V 0 is given by:
 V 0= √ 2 gR
2. Estimate the possible gravitational force between the earth and the moon at 4 ×108 m apart if their masses
are 6 ×10 24 kg∧7 × 1022 kg respectively.

READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’Electric Field’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.

WEEK 2: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: Electric Field
CONTENT:
1. Production of continuous charges: primary cells, secondary cells.
2. Electric circuit series and parallel arrangement of cells and resistors(c)Shunt and multiplier
3. Resistivity and conductivity (e)Principle of potentiometer (i)Meter bridge (ii)Whetstone bridge

Sub-Topic 1: PRODUCTION OF CONTINUOUS CHARGES

Continuous charges are also called current (or moving electrons). They are produce by a device called ‘a
cell’. There are two types of cells. Namely:
- Primary cells
- Secondary cell.
i. Primary cells: These are cells that cannot be recharged once they run down. E.g, torch batteries,
calculator batteries, leclanche cell, Daniel cell.
The components of the cell are shown below:

Bulb

Copper plate zinc plate

(Anode) (cathode)
Diluted H 2 S O 4

However, primary cells have two defects. They are:

a) Polarization: This is a defect that results from the production of hydrogen bubbles around the copper
plate of the cell. This will set up a back emf that reduces the emf in the external circuit.
As the cell works, hydrogen bubbles are released. These bubbles insulate the positive electrode and
then slow it down. It could be minimized by brushing the plate or by using a depolarizer called
manganese (iv) oxide ( MnO2), Potassium tetraoxomanganese (IV) KMnO, Potassium
Heptaoxodichromate (VI) K2Cr2O7... to oxidize the hydrogen bubbles to form water.
 b) local Action: This defect results from not using a pure zinc plate which makes it to wear away. It is
reduced by amalgamation i.e cleaning the zinc plate with H 2 S O 4 and then rubbing it with mercury.

ii. Secondary cells: These are cells that could be recharged when they run down using a suitable battery
charger. The two major types are lead acid accumulator and the nickel cadmium cell. E.g car
batteries, motorcycle batteries, cell phone batteries and all other rechargeable batteries.

EVALUATION

1. Which of these batteries is an example of primary cell?(a) Durcell (b) Lithium ion cell (c)
Lead acid accumulator (d) NiCd cell
2. The negative electrode of the electrochemical cell is called ---- (a) anode (b) cathode (c)
electrode (d) copper
3. Which of these is the cause of polarisation in electrochemical cell? (a) impurities in the
electrode (b) swapping of electrode (c) hydrogen bubble on the cathode (d) spillage of the
electrolyte
4. Which of these is not a care for battery? (a) don’t overcharge secondary cell (b) don’t allow
secondary cell to run down below 20% (c) store battery in cool place (d) don’t recharge
primary cell
5. Accumulators should not be charge in a stuffy place because the gas that emanate during
overcharge ---- (a) is lethal (b) is explosive (c) will react again with the electrolyte (d) can
cause cancer
I. Write a short note on polarisation and local effect
II. State how polarisation and local effect can be prevented

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS AND RESISTORS

a) Cell Arrangement:
i. Cells in Series: The total emf is the sum of all the emfs.

E1 E2 E3
ET =E 1+ E 2+ E 3

ii. Cells in Parallel:

E1

E2

E3

ET =E 1∨E 2∨E 3 ,if E 1=E 2=E 3 , i. e ,all emfs are e qual .

ET =E 3 , ( emf withthe highest value ) , ifE 3> E 2> E 1

b) Resistors Arrangement:
i. Resistors in Series: R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

VT

V T =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 (Circuital components in series have the same I but different V)

But V =IR
∴ I RT =IR1 + IR 2+ IR 3
I RT =I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )

Dividing through by I, we have RT =(R 1+ R 2+ R 3)

ii. Resistors in Parallel:

I1 R1

IT I2 R2

I3 R3

I T =I 1 + I 2+ I 3
V
But I =
R
V V V V
∴ = + +
RT R 1 R 2 R 3

∴V
( ) (
1
RT
=V
1
+
1
+
R1 R2 R3
1
)
Dividing through by V, we have:

( R1 )=( R11 + R12 + R13 )= R 1 R 2+R R11 R R2 R3+3R 2 R 3

T
EXAMPLES
1. If four 3𝛀 resistors are connected a) in series b) in parallel, find their net resistance in each case.
Solution:
a) in series, RT =R 1+ R 2+ R 3+ R 4=3+3+3+3=12 Ω

b) in parallel, ( )(
1
RT
=
1
+
1
+
1
+
R1 R2 R3 R 4
1
)
1 1 1 1 4
=( + + + )=
3 3 3 3 3

RT 3
=
1 4
RT =0.75 Ω
2. Three cells of value 2V, 2V and 3V are connected a) in series b) in parallel. Find their total emf in each
case.
Solution:
a) in series,
ET =E 1+ E 2+ E 3=2+ 2+ 3=7 V
b) in parallel,
Since 3V has the highest emf among the three cells, ET =3 V

Evaluation:
1. State the formula for finding the net emf and resistance when these components are in a) series b)
parallel.
2. When two cells of value 2V and 3V are in parallel, what is their total emf?

Sub-Topic 2: SHUNT AND MULTIMETERS

i. Shunt: A shunt is a low resistance usually used to convert a galvanometer to an ammeter. It is usually
connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
Ig Rg
I

Rs

I – Current to be measured
Ig - Current through the galvanometer
Rs - Resistance of the shunt
Rg - Resistance of galvanometer
Note: voltage across the shunt is the same as that across galvanometer.
V g=V s
 I g Rg =(I −I ¿¿ g)R g ¿
Example:
A galvanometer gives a full scale deflection when a current of 10mA flows through it. How would you
convert it to an ammeter capable of reading 3A if the resistance of the galvanometer is 5Ω ?
Solution:
To do this, we connect a resistor of low resistance called shunt in parallel with the galvanometer. The value
of such shunt is calculated below:
10mA = 10/1000=0.01A
0.01A, 5Ω
G
3A
2.99A
Shunt(R)

p.d across galvanometer = p.d across shunt

I g r g =I s R s
I g r g 0.01×5
R s= = =0.0167 Ω
Is 2.99
Thus, a shunt of 0.0167Ω is needed.

ii. Multiplier: A multiplier is a high resistance usually used to convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter. It is
usually connected in series with the galvanometer.

Example:
To convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter , we need a multiplier R so that the galvanometer could read 20V
at full scale deflection of 10mA. Find the value of R if the internal resistance of the galvanometer is 6 Ω .
Solution:

R (multiplier)
0.01A G
r = 6Ω
V1 V2
20V

20V = V1 + V2
∴ 20=0.01r + 0.0 R
R=1994 Ω

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

Experiment shows that the resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the length of the wire
and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area.
L
i .e , R ∝
A
 ρL
∴ R=
A
RA
Hence , ρ=
L
Where ρ the constant of the equation called the resistivity, expressed in ohm-meter (Ωm ¿

Resistivity of a wire is defined as the product of the wire’s resistance and its cross sectional area, divided
by the length of that wire. It can also be defined as the resistance of unit length of material of unit cross
sectional area. It is the ability of a substance to restrict heat.
2
πd
If a wire has a diameter d, then A=π r 2 =
4
4 ρL πR d
2
∴ R= 2 and ρ=
πd 4L

Conductivity on the other hand, is a measurement of the ability of a substance to conduct heat. It is the
reciprocal of resistivity and denoted by σ
1
Hence , σ =
ρ
L 4L
σ= =
RA πR d 2

Example:
A 2m resistance wire, area of cross-section 0.50mm 2, has a resistance of 2.20Ω . Calculate
a) the resistivity of the wire.
b) The length of a wire which, when connected in parallel with the 2m wire will give a resistance of 2.0Ω .
Solution:
RA
(a) ρ=
L
−6
2.2 ×0.5 × 10
ρ=
2
−7
ρ=5.5× 10 Ωm

Evaluation:
1. Define resistivity.
2. What is the relationship between resistivity and conductivity?
3. What is a shunt?

Sub-Topic 3: THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The wheatstone bridge is one of the most accurate method of measuring resistance. It consists of four
resistors of resistance R1, R2, R3 and R4 connected as shown below.

I1R1 I1R2

G
I2R3 I2 R4

e.m.f
 I 1 R1

When no current flows through the galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced.
Therefore, p.d across R1 = p.d across R3
And p.d across R2 = p.d across R4
Hence , I 1 R1 = I 2 R3 −−−−−(1)
And I 1 R2 = I 2 R 4−−−−−(2)
Diving (1) by (2), we have
R1 R3
=
R2 R4

Where R1 is the unknown resistance, R2 is a fixed resistance of known value, R3 & R4 are variable resistances
of known values.

THE METRE BRIDGE

It consists of a straight uniform resistance wire AB of length 1m stretched along a metre rule. The unknown
resistor X is placed at the left side, while the known R is placed at the right side.

X R

jockey
A B
l1 l2
Key battery

When the circuit is closed, a point is located along the resistance wire with the jockey when G reads zero.
At this point, X ∞ l 1∧R ∞ l 2
∴ X=k l 1∧R=k l 2
X R
Since k is the same ,∴ =
l1 l2
R l1
∴ X=
l2
Precautions:
a. The value of the known resistance R should be chosen so that the balance point comes
between 30cm and 70cm.
b. The battery key should always be depressed before the G contact is made on the bridge wire.
c. A very small current should be passed through the galvanometer to avoid damage.
d. In other not to destroyed the uniformity of the wire, the jockey should touch the wire lightly.

THE POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer consists of uniform resistance wire AB of length 100cm through which a source of emf
maintains a steady current.
Since the wire is uniform and current constant, V ∝ R ∝l
V =kL

A B

When a potentiometer is used to compare the emfs of two cells, at balance point when G reads zero,
E1 l 1
=
E2 l 2

MERITS OF POTENTIOMETER OVER VOLTMETER

a. The potentiometer is a more accurate in measuring voltage than the voltmeter.
b. There is no zero scale error as that associated with pointer instrument like voltmeter.
c. It passes no current at the time current is being taken.

ELECTRIC FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS CHARGES

(COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATIC FORCE)

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Based on this Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force came into
being. The law states that, ‘The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion F C between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their distance
apart.’

Mathematically,

Q1 Q2
FC∝ 2
r

Q1 Q2
F C =k 2
r

1
Where k =
4 π ϵ0

Q1 Q2
Hence , FC = 2
4 π ϵ0r

Where ϵ 0=8.85× 10−12 F /m

9 2 2
¿ k =9 ×10 N m /C

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY OR STRENGTH ∈

This is defined as the electric force experienced per unit charge. It is a vector quantity and expressed in N/C.

Mathematically,

FC
E=
Q

Q
∴ E= 2
4 π ϵ0 r

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL V E

The electric potential V E at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in taking a unit charge
from infinity to that point. It is a scalar quantity and expressed in volt.

Mathematically,

V E=Er

Q
but E= 2
4 π ϵ0 r

V E=
( Q
4 π ϵ0 r
2
r
)
Q
V E=
4 π ϵ0 r

WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1. Calculate the electrostatic force that exist between two charges of values 5.3 μC∧−3.2 μC
placed at 6.0 ×10−4 m. (k =9 ×10 9 N m2 /C2 )

Solution:

Q1 Q2 9 −6
9 ×10 ×5.3 ×10 × 3.2× 10
−6
5
F C =k 2
= =4.24 ×10 N
−4 2
r ( 6.0 ×10 )
Example 2. Determine the electric potential due to charge 5.3 μC placed at that point.

Solution:
−6 9
Q 5.3× 10 ×9 × 10
V E= = −4
=79,500 KV
4 π ϵ0 r 6 ×10

Example 3: Three charges +10C, - 20C and 16C are distributed as shown in the figure below. Find the
resultant force acting on the 10C charge.

+ 10C - 20C
3m

2m
Solution
Let the Force of attraction between +10C and – 20C be
Q 1 Q2
F 1=k 2
r

1
= 9 x 109 x 10 x 20 / 32 = 2 x 1011N (k = 9
2 9 x 10 )
4 π ϵ0 r

Let the Force of attraction between +10C and – 16C be

Q 1 Q2
F 2=k 2
r
= 9 x 109 x 10 x 16 / 2 x 2 = 3.6 x 1011N (3.6 x 1011)2

F1

θ
F

Net force = √ ¿2+ F 22) F2

(2 x 1011)2 + (3.6 x 1011)2

= 4.2 x 1011N
Tanθ = F1 / F2 = 2 x 1011/ 3.6 x 1011 = 0.555
θ = tan – 1 0.555 = 32.280
The net force is 4.12 x 1011N in a direction 32.280 to the line joining the +10C and – 16C charges.

Example 4: two similar but opposite point charges – q and + q each of magnitude 5.0 x 10 – 8 C are separated
by a distance of 8.0cm in a vacuum as shown below.

-q p +q
5cm 3cm

1
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field intensity E at the point p. ( k = 2 9 x 10
9
4 π ϵ0 r
Nm2C – 2 )
Solution
At p the direction of the field vector is towards the left since the positive charge at p is attracted towards the –q
charge.
−q −8 9
5.0× 10 ×9 × 10 1.8 x 105NC – 1
E–= 2 =
4 π ϵ0 r ¿¿
The field vector due to +q charge is also directed towards the left since the positive charge at p is repelled by +q
 +q −8 9
5.0× 10 ×9 × 10 5 x 105NC – 1
E–= 2 =
4 π ϵ0 r ¿¿
Resultant electric field is E = E – + E +
E = ( 1.8 x 105 + 5.0 x 105) NC – 1
The field is directed towards the left or towards –q charge.

Evaluation
1. State two advantages of potentiometer over voltmeter.
2. Mention two precautions to be ensured in using the metre bridge.
3. State Coulomb’s law.
4. Define electric potential.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Mention an instrument used for comparing the emf of cells.
2. Write down the formulae for net resistance and emf in a circuit.
3. Define conductivity.
4. Write down the relationship between conductivity and resistivity.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Calculate the total resistance of three resistors of values 2 Ω ,3 Ω∧4 Ω connected in parallel.
A. 9Ω
B. 24 Ω
C. 0.92 Ω
D. 5Ω
2. Three 5Ω resistors connected in parallel have a potential difference of 60V. Find the current in each
resistor.
A. 15 A
B. 25 A
C. 12 A
D. 1A
3. A battery of emf 20V and internal resistance of 5 Ω is connected to a resistor of 3 5 Ω. Find the terminal
p.d. (E=V + Ir)
A. 19.5 V
B. 17.5 V
C. 20 V
D. 40 V
4. Find the force of electrostatic repulsion between two particles of equal charges of 1.6 ×10−19 C , if the
distance between them is 5.3 ×10−11 m. (k =9 ×10 9 N m2 /C2 )
−8
A. 8.2 ×10 N
−8
B. 6 .8 ×10 N
−6
C. 1.2 ×10 N
5
D. 2.0 ×10 N
Essay
1. Show that the net resistance of three resistors in parallel is given by the equation

( R1 )=( R11 + R12 + R13 )

T

Hence, deduce the total resistance for 3𝛀, 4 𝛀 and 5 𝛀 when connected a) in parallel b) in
series.
2. State the Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’ Properties of Waves’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.

WEEK 3: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: Electromagnetic Waves and Field
CONTENT:
1. Electromagnetic spectrum. E.g, radio waves, infra-red, visible light, etc.
2. Uses of electromagnetic waves.
1. Concept of electromagnetic field (i) Interaction between magnetic field and currents in: A current
carrying wire in a magnetic field (b)A current carrying solenoid in a magnetic field
2. Moving coil galvanometer , Electric motor
3. Electromagnetic induction:(i)Faraday’s law (ii)Lenz’s law (iii)Motor generator effect (d)Eddy
currents.

Sub-Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Unlike mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves are waves that require no material medium for
propagation. Thus, they can propagate through a vacuum or free space.
The human eye can only see light of which the wavelength lies between 3.8 ×10−7 m∧7.2×10−7 m. Other
examples of electromagnetic radiation differ from visible light only in wavelength and in the ways of
producing them. However, they all have the same velocity of value 3.0 ×10 8 m/s .
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The below table shows the electromagnetic spectrum with their wavelength and uses.
S/N Electromagnetic Wavelength (m) Uses
Spectrum
−3 3
1. Radio waves 10 ¿ 10 i) Used in radar & cooking
−6
2. Infra-red 10 i) Used for taking pictures in the
dark,
ii) to dry paints,
iii) for treating muscular
complaints.
−7
3. Visible light (red) 7 ×10 For visibility (ROYGBIV)
−7
Visible light (violet) 4.5 × 10 For visibility
−8
4. Ultra-violet 10 i) they cause fluorescence,
ii) they cause sunburn,
iii) they affect photographic plates.
−10
5. X-rays 10 i) to destroy malignant growths in
the body,
ii) to locate broken bones,
iii) to locate cracks in metal
castings, etc.
−11
6. Gamma-rays 10 i) they cause fluorescence,

Evaluation:
1. What are electromagnetic waves?
2. Differentiate electromagnetic waves from mechanical waves.
3. What is the common speed value of all electromagnetic waves?
4. List the components in the electromagnetic spectrum.
5. What is the wavelength range of the radio waves?
6. Mention two uses of the x-rays.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Itemise the sub-components rays in the visible light.
2. Of what use is the x-rays to health professionals?
3. Compare the penetrating power of x-rays and gamma-rays.

Sub-Topic 2: CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

An electromagnetic field is that field that results from the interaction of the electric and magnetic fields.
When a current carrying conductor is passed in a magnetic Direction of current field,
the conductor will experience a force.
Direction of magnet field
To identify the directions of the force (motion), current and field, Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is employed.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

It states that, ‘’If the first three fingers are mutually at right angles to each other, with the Forefinger in the
direction of the field, B and the mIddle finger in the direction of the convectional current, I, then, the thuMb
is in the direction of the motion, M or force on the conductor’’.

I
B

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is for current-carrying conductor, used to determine the direction of current in a
conductor. The rule can only be used if the magnetic field and current are perpendicular or inclined to each
other but not when they are parallel.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS

The below rules govern the direction of the magnetic field round the current-carrying conductors.
1. Maxwell: If a right handed cork screw is turned so that it travels along the direction of the current, the
direction of the cork screw is the direction of the magnetic field.
2. Clenched Fist Rule: If the wire is grasped with the right hand so that the thumb point in the direction of
the current, the Clenched Fist direction is the direction of the magnetic field.

Direction of the magnetic field

Direction of the current

Case I: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in opposite directions.

 Repulsive force

Here, a repulsive force is created between the two conductors. Hence, they tend to move away from each
other.
Case II: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in the same direction.

Attractive force

Here, an attractive force is created between the two conductors. Hence, they tend to move towards each
other.

Evaluation:
1. What is an electromagnetic field?
2. State Fleming’s left hand rule.
3. Where is the rule applicable?

Sub-Topic 3: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

1. Moving-Coil Galvanometer
Components:
1. A rectangular coil with many turns.
2. A powerful magnetic field between the curved pole N & S, and a soft iron cylinder.
3. Spring to control the angle of rotation of the coil.
4. A pointer and a linear scale.

Workability:
The coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field. When a current flows, it enters the
meter from the terminal connected to the spring, goes round the coil and returns back. As the circuit is
completed, the coil then rotates about the V-axis between the jewelled bearings. The rotation is due to the
two opposite forces of the current and the magnetic field.
This rotation is then opposed by the forces due to the springs. The pointer attains equilibrium position when
the forces causing the rotation are equal to the forces due to the springs.
The angle of rotation is proportional to the current strength, that is, increase in current increases the angle of
rotation.
The uniform scale is calibrated in a way that equal divisions represent equal changes in current. The value of
the current can then be read on the scale.

2. The Electric Motor

Components:
1. A coil of wire called the armature, which turns about a fixed axis.
2. A powerful magnetic field in which the coil turns.
3. A cummutator ( split rings).

Workability:
When the armature is horizontal and current flows through the coil, the direction is clockwise. This produces
S-pole on top of the armature, which then is attracted to the N-pole of the permanent magnet; likewise the N-
pole of the armature at the bottom, which also gets attracted to the S-pole of the permanent magnet. Hence,
the armature rotates through 90 ° about its axis to the vertical position.
As the armature rotates, the cummutator also rotates with it, making the split rings to interchange contact.
This therefore reverses the polarity because the battery connection to the coil is reversed, thus, reversing the
current’s direction.
This reversal in current produces N-pole in place of the S-pole. This created N-pole will now be repelled by
the N-pole of the permanent magnet, making the armature to rotates another 90 ° about its axis to attains its
horizontal position.
As the current continues to flow, the process is repeated, making the armature(coil) to rotate continuously.

Evaluation:
1. What are the applications of the electromagnetic field?
2. State three components of the moving coil galvanometer.
3. What is another name for the coil in the electric motor?

Sub-Topic 3: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Michael Faraday in 1832, at the age of 41 discovered that electricity could be produced without any battery
by using magnetic fields. This phenomenon is called ‘’Electromagnetic when the speed of the relative
motion Induction’’.
‘’Electromagnetic induction is thus defined as a process whereby an emf is produced or induced in a
conductor by the relative motion of the conductor and a magnetic field’’.
Experiments show that:
a) An emf is induced in the coil whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
b) The magnitude of the induced emf increases when the speed of the relative motion between the
magnet and the coil, the strength of the magnet, the number of turns of the coil all increases.
c) The induced emf would also increase if there is soft iron core inside the coil.
However, current can also be induced in a straight conductor when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular
to it. The direction of the current is given by FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE, which state that, ‘’If the
first three fingers of the right hand are held at right angle to each other, with the Forefinger in the
direction of the field, and the thumb in the direction of the motion, then the mIddle finger is in the
direction of the induced current’’.
Note that FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE is used to determine the direction of current in a conductor;
while FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE is used to determine the induced emf in a magnetic field.

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Faraday’s Laws:
- Whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) linked with a circuit, an
emf is induced in the circuit.
- The induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking
the circuit.
2. Lenz’s Law: It states that the induced emf flows in such a way or direction as to oppose the motion
producing it.

EDDY CURRRRENTS
When a metallic sheet such as an aluminium sheet swings in a magnetic field, it cuts through the magnetic
lines of force. Hence, the sheet quickly comes to rest and such motion is said to be damped. This is in line
with Lenz’s law because the induced emf in the sheet opposed the sheet’s motion, making it to come to rest.
This induced emf also produces induced current, known as Eddy Current, because it flows in circular paths
or closed loops within the conducting material like the eddy current in water.
Advantages of eddy currents are:
- They are desirable in moving coil instruments because of the resulting damping known as
electromagnetic damping
Disadvantages are:
- They generate heat in materials;
- The heat generated leads to wastage of energy in electrical devices.

Evaluation
1: Define an electromagnetic induction.
2. State the laws of electromagnetic induction.
3. What is eddy current?

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Highlight the applications of the electromagnetic field.
2. Discuss the magnetic field around two parallel current-carrying conductors whose current’s direction is
the same.
3. Itemise the demerits of the eddy current.
4. What is electromagnetic induction?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Fleming’s left hand rule is used to ---
A. determine the induced emf in a magnetic field.
B. determine the direction of current in a conductor.
C. Determine the magnitude of an induced emf
D. None of the above
2. The law or rule that determines the induced emf in a magnetic field is the ---
A. Fleming’s left hand rule
B. Ohm’s law
C. Fleming’s right rule
D. Coulomb’s law.
3. In the Fleming’s right hand rule, the middle finger is in the direction of ---
A. The field
B. The flux
C. The motion
D. Non of the above
4. The following are components of the moving-coil galvanometer, except ---
A. The spring
B. The pointer
C. The rectangular coil
D. The blade
1. With the aid of diagrams, discuss the verification of Lenz’s Law showing the relative motion between the
magnet and coil.
2. With the aid of diagrams, discuss the workability of
i. The A.C Generator
ii. The D.C. Generator.

READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’Fundamental and Derived Quantities’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.
WEEK 4: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: MAGNETIC FIELDS :
CONTENT:
1. Concept of magnetic field
2. Magnetic field around (i)A bar magnet (ii)A straight conductor carrying current (iv)A solenoid
3. Magnets: (i)Temporary and permanent (ii)Making magnets (d)Application of electro-magnet

Sub –Topic 1: CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is a region around a magnet where magnetic influence is experienced or felt. It is also a
region where it exerts force on other magnets. It is a vector quantity.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

i. They originate from the N-pole and end in the S-pole.
ii. Two magnetic lines of force do not cross each other.
iii. Where the lines of force are close together, the intensity of the field is greater; where they are widely
separated, the intensity is less and where they are parallel, the intensity is uniform.

Magnetic field intensity at a point in a magnetic field is defined as the force experienced per unit N-pole
placed at that point.
Magnetic potential at a point is the work done in moving a unit N-pole from infinity to that point.

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN

1. Field of a bar magnet:

S N

2. Attraction between unlike poles:

N S
3. Repulsion between like poles:

N NP N

S NP S

4. Earth’s magnetic field acts at a certain angle to the horizontal. The angle between the line of action of
the earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal is called the ‘’Angle of Dip’’
Earth’s surface

horizontal

Angle of dip
Line of action; earth magnetic field

Earth’s magnetic field

5. A neutral point NP is defined as a point at which the resultant magnetic flux density is zero. At this
point, no magnetic influence is felt.

Evaluation:
1. What is a magnetic field?
2. Enumerate three properties of magnetic flux.
3. Define a neutral point.
Sub-Topic 2: MAGNETIC FIELD IN A STRAIGHT CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR.

Direction of the
magnetic field

Direction of the
current

Case I: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in opposite directions.

Repulsive force

Here, a repulsive force is created between the two conductors because the magnetic field moves towards the
same direction. Hence, they tend to move away from each other.

Case II: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in the same direction.

Attractive force

Here, an attractive force is created between the two conductors because the magnetic field moves towards
different directions. Hence, they tend to move towards each other. This is why you see sticks attached to the
PHCN 240V lines in our streets, which prevent the conductors from moving towards each other.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN A SOLENOID

A solenoid is a long insulated cylindrical coil. The field produced outside a solenoid is similar to that of the
field produced by a bar magnet but the field is straight in the middle of the solenoid. The end where the
direction of the current appears anti-clockwise behaves like the N-pole, while the end where the current’s
direction appears clockwise behaves like the S-pole.
 S
N

Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid.

Evaluation:
1. What is a solenoid?
2. What is the direction of the magnetic field in a conductor carrying current upward?
3. What force exit between two current-carrying conductors in the same direction?

SUB-TOPIC 3: MAGNETS & MAGNETISATION

A magnet is a piece of material that can attract iron and other ferromagnetic material.
Generators used in production of electrical power all depends on powerful and efficient magnets and
magnetic materials.
Properties of bar magnets include:
i. Direction: When a magnet is freely suspended, it comes to rest in the South-North direction of the
earth.
ii. Attraction: A magnet has the ability to attract magnetic materials e.g, steel, iron, etc.
iii. Force: A magnet exerts force on other magnets in such a manner that like poles repel and unlike
poles attract.
iv. The inseparable nature of poles on the magnetic dipoles: If a magnet is broken into small pieces,
however small it may be, it will still have a North and South Poles. The smallest bit of a magnet is a
dipole.
v. Magnetic lines of force originate from the North pole and terminate at the South pole.

METHODS OF MAKING MAGNETS

1. Electrical Method: The best method of making magnets is to use the magnetic effect of an electric
current.
The material, a steel bar X to be magnetized is placed inside a solenoid; then, the current is switched on for a
few seconds and then switched off. When the bar is tested, it is found to be a magnet.

D.C
2. Single Touch: The material X to be magnetized is placed on a table(bench). The pole of a magnet Y is
then dragged alone X from one end to the other and lifted well away. It is brought back again to X at the far
end and the process is repeated several times.
Y

N-Pole X

3. Divided or Double Touch: The material X is stroked repeatedly in opposite direction by the opposite
poles of the two bar magnets A and B. The stroking begins in the middle of X each time.

N
S

A B

N X S

4. Hammering in the Earth’s Field:

A weak magnet could be made by using the influence of the earth’s magnetic field. This field acts at an
angle to the horizontal called the ‘’angle of Dip’’. It varies from place to place. It is about 70 ° in England
and Britain. If it is done in the N-hemisphere, the lower end will be N and same with S-hemisphere.

hammer
Earth’s surface

Earth’s magnetic field

DEMAGNETIZATION
This is the process of making a magnet to lose its magnetic properties. It is the removal of the ferromagnetic
properties of a body by disordering the domain structure of that body.
Methods of demagnetization include:
1. Hammering: magnets can be partially demagnetized by hammering them hard when they are pointing
East-West, that is , at 90 ° to the earth’s magnetic field direction.
2. Heating: They can also be partially demagnetized by heating them strongly.
3. Electrical method: This is the best method of demagnetization. Here, alternating current is used. The bar
magnet to be demagnetized is placed inside the solenoid with its axis pointing east-west. A rheostat is added
to adjust the current’s value. The a.c is switched on and after a few seconds, the bar is slowly withdrawn
from the solenoid to a far distance away.

East-West direction

Withdrawn to a far place

About 12V
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
An electromagnet is made up of a soft iron core around which an insulated wire is wound. It becomes a
magnet only when current flows in the wire. It is a temporary magnet and all temporary magnets are made of
soft iron core.
The strength of electromagnets increases with:
i. Increase in the current within the coil;
ii. Increase in the number of turns of wire of the coil;
iii. Decrease in distance between the poles of the magnet.
The applications/uses include:
i. Electromagnets are used in cranes to lift up heavy loads and objects made of magnetic materials like
iron.
ii. They are used in making electric devices like electric bell, magnetic relay, switches, telephones
earpiece, etc.

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT MAGNETS

1. A temporary magnet is made up of soft iron core while a permanent magnet is made of strong iron.
2. A temporary magnet only becomes a magnet when current flows through it; but a permanent magnet
still maintains its magnetic alignment structure even when there is no flow of current.

s/n Temporary magnet Permanent magnet

1. Made from soft iron, mu-metal Made from steel, ticomal,
alicomax, cobalt, nnickel
2. Can be easily magnetized Cannot be easily magnetized
3. Can be easily demagnetized Cannot be easily demagnetized.

Evaluation:
1. What is demagnetization?
2. State the uses of electromagnets.
3. Mention the various ways of making magnets.
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. List two applications of electromagnets.
2. How can the strength of electromagnets be enhanced?
3. Itemise the various ways of making magnets.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. When a bar magnet is dropped into iron fillings, they will tend to concentrate more
A. at the ends of the magnet
B. at the centre of the magnet
C. at one end of the magnet
D. uniformly round the magnet
2. The following are properties of magnet, except ---
A. direction
B. force
C. attraction
D. swinging
3. Which of the following methods of making magnet is the most effective way?
A. Single touch
B. Double touch
C. Electrical method
D. Hammering
4. A piece of iron was found along the street of London by a school boy. At what angle should the iron be
hammered into the ground in other to make it a magnet?
A. 70 °
B. 60 °
C. 90 °
D. 80 °
5. One of the following is not a method of demagnetization.
A. Electrical method
B. Hammering
C. Heating
D. Breaking
Essay
1. A piece of iron left on a bridge, pointing N-S on testing was found to be a magnet. Discuss.
2. What is a magnetic shield?
3. Differentiate between angle of dip and angle of declination.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’ Earth’s magnetic field’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.
WEEK 5: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: MAGNETIC FIELDS (CONT):
CONTENT:
1. Earth’s magnetic field(i)Description and use (ii)Mariner’s compass
2. Magnetic force on a moving charge.

Sub-Topic: EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

When a magnetic needle or a bar magnet is freely suspended, it comes to rest roughly in the N-S poles of the
earth. This shows that the earth acts like a magnet, hence, the earth must have N-S Poles near the
geographical poles.
The angle between the magnetic North and the geographical North directions at a place is called ‘’the angle
of Declination or Variation’’.

Geographic North
Magnetic North
Angle of Declination

ANGLE OF DIP S
This is the angle between the horizontal and the resultant earth’s magnetic field. It can also defined as the
angle between the total intensity of the earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal.

Magnetic needle
Horizontal plane

However, the angle of dip, declination and the earth’s horizontal field strength are called magnetic
element.

Evaluation:
1. Distinguish between angle of dip and angle of declination.
2. Enumerate the magnetic elements.
Sub-Topic 2: FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD.
The magnetic field exerts a force on a charge moving in the field because charges in motion constitute an
electric current. E.g, the motion of electrons along conducting wires.
The strength of magnetic field, a vector quantity, is represented by Β, called the flux density or magnetic
induction. If θ is the angle between the magnetic field direction and the direction of motion of the charges,
then, the force, F on the charge is given by:
F=qvBsinθ
This force will be maximum when sin θ = 1 ( i. e θ=900 . The charge moves in a direction perpendicular
to the magnetic field)
This force will be zero when θ=0. (i.e the charge moves in the same direction as the magnetic field)
Where:
F is force ∈Newton , N
q is the charge∈coulombs ,C
v is the average velocity of the charge∈m/s
2
Bis the flux density∨magnetic induction∈tesla , T ( 1Tesla=1 Weber per m ).

Example:
Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron projected into a magnetic field of flux density 8Tesla
with a velocity of 4.0 × 106 m/s and in the direction of 60 ° .
Solution:
F=qvBsinθ
−19 6
F=1.6 ×10 × 4.0 ×10 ×8 × sin 60°
−12
F=4.43 × 10 N

Note:
a. When an electron is projected perpendicular to the magnetic field, θ=90 °,
∴ sin θ=sin 90°=1

Hence , F=qvB
b. When an electron is projected parallel to the magnetic field, θ=0 °,
∴ sin θ=sin 0° =0
Hence , F=0

Evaluation:
1. State the formula for calculating the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
2. What is the value of F if an electron is projected parallel to the field.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Define angle of declination.
2. When F = 0, what is the value of θ and why?
3. What is the value of q?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron projected into a magnetic field of flux density 8Tesla
with a velocity of 4.0 × 106 m/s and in the direction of 40 ° . Also find F when the electron is projected
normal to the field.
2. A force F projected an electron into a magnetic field of flux density 10 Tesla with a velocity of
7 −19
2 ×10 m/s and normal to the field. (electron charge=1.6 ×10 C).

READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’ Electromagnetic Field /Induction’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.

WEEK 6 DATE ……………………………

TOPIC: APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

CONTENT

- Electromagnetic field
- Galvanometer
- Transformer
- Electric motor
- generator

SUB-TOPIC ONE: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

The electromagnetic field is a combination of the electric field and the magnetic field. The electric field
component is produced by the voltage on a current carrying conductor while the magnetic field is
produced by the flow of electric current. The two fields permeate all the space around a current carrying
conductor.

Galvanometer

When current flows through a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
This principle is applied in the design of galvanometer. The force is:

- directly proportional to the current flowing in the conductor

- directly proportional to the magnetic field strength of the magnetic
- directly proportional to the length of the conductor

The magnitude of the force is given as

F=BILsinθ … . … . … . … .(i)

Where;

B - is the strength of the magnetic field of the magnet

I - is the current flowing in the conductor

L - is the length of the conductor

ϴ - is the angle the conductor makes with the direction of the magnetic field

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for detection of very small current. It consist of

- magnet
- a coil
- a soft iron core. This is place in the centre of the coil to concentrate the magnetic line of flux.
- Pointer and a scale

When current flow through the moving coil galvanometer, it coil turn a give the pointer a deflection
which is directly proportional to the current flowing in. the torque experience by the coil is given as:

Γ =BANI … … … (ii)

Where Γ is the torque, B is the magnetic field strength, A is area of the coil, N is the number of turns in
the coil and I is the current.

The galvanometer can be adapted to measure large current like ammeter or to measure voltage like
voltmeter

Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter

To convert a galvanometer to an ammeter, resistor of low resistance (called a shunt) is connected in

parallel to the galvanometer.
Ig Rg
I

(I - Ig)
shunt

Rs

The voltage drop across the shunt is equal to the voltage drop across the galvanometer

V s =V g

( I −I g ) R g=I s R s
Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter

A galvanometer can be converted to voltmeter by connecting a resistor of high resistance in series to it.

Vg V-Vg

multiplier
He same amount of current flow through the shunt and the galvanometer

V g V −V g
=
Rg Rm

Transformer

Transformers are used in the transmission of electricity.

Principle: Whenever there is change in the magnetic flux linking a conductor or there is relative motion
between a conductor and a magnet, electric current is induced.

The transformer consists of two coils of wire wound on opposite ends of a soft iron. When an
alternating current is flowing in one of the coil, current will be induced in the other. The alternating
current in the (primary ) coil generates a changing magnetic flux. In accordance to the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction,

Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit, an electromotive force is
induced, the strength of which is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the
circuit.

−∂∅
E=
∂t

The magnitude of the induced emf E is

- Directly proportional to the rate of change of the flux

- Directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil
- Cross sectional area of the coil.

The direction of the emf is given by the Lenz’s law:

This state that the direction of the induced emf in such that it tends to oppose the change that is
causing it.

Types of inductance

1. Self inductance
This occurs when there is a change in the current flowing in a coil. This alters the flux in the coil
thereby inducing an emf in the coil. This type of induction is called self induction. The emf
generated is given as:
 δI
E=L
δt
The energy stored in the inductor is given as:
1 2
energy= L I
2

B K

Ln Varying the resistor R causes change in the current in the circuit. Consequently, th
C

R L
2. Mutual inductance
This is when the change in current in a coil induced emf in another coil close by.
The induced emf is given as Coil 1
δ I1
E 2= M
δt
M is the mutual inductance and it is given as:
A N 1 N2 Coil 2
M =μ0
I

For a transformer, the alternating current flowing in primary coil generates a changing flux link to the
secondary coil. This induces a emf in the secondary coil. Below is the ideal (100% efficiency) transformer
equation.

np I s
=
ns I p

np V p
=
ns V s

np V p I s
= =
ns V s I p

Laminated iron core

Vp Vs

Primary coil Secondary coil

The coil that brings current flow into the transformer is called the primary coil. The coil through which
current flow out of the transformer is called the secondary coil
In practice, the efficiency of the transformer is never 100% because energy is lost in the transformer
due to:

1. Heating in the coil: this is as a result of the resistance in the primary and secondary coil of the
transformer. It can be reduced by thick wire or wire with low resistance for the coils
2. Eddy current losses in the coil: eddy current are produced by the varying flux cutting the iron core.
They consume power from the primary coil. It can be reduced by laminating the core
3. Hysteresis loss: This is wasted energy due to reversing of magnetization of core. It can be reduced
by using a special alloy in the core of the primary coil or by using soft iron core.
4. Flux leakage: This arises because not all the lines of induction due to current in the primary coil pass
entirely through the iron core of the secondary coil. It can be reduced by using special form of coil
winding

All these tend to reduce the efficiency of the transformer.

Transformer formula

number of turns∈ primary coil voltage∈ primary coil

=
number of turns∈ secondary coil voltage∈ secondarycoil

Np Vp
=
Ns V s

also

number of turns∈ primary coil current∈secondary coil

=
number of turns∈ secondary coil current ∈ primary coil

N p Is
=
Ns Ip

Efficiency of a transformer.

power output at secondary coil

ɳ= ×100
power input at primary coil

P0
ɳ= × 100
PI

I sV s
ɳ= ×100
I pV p

Solved examples

1. A step down transformer operates a 2000 volt line and supplies a current of 60 A. the turns ratio of
the transformer is 1/24. calculate
i. The secondary voltage
ii. Primary current
iii. And the power output if the transformer is 100% efficient
 Solution

primary voltage, Vp = 2000 V

secondary current Is = 60 A

ns 1
turn ratio for step down transformer =
n p 24

(since it is a step down transformer, the np is bigger)

ns V s
i. =
np V p
1 Vs
=
24 2000
24
V s= =0.012V
2000
ns I p
ii. =
np I s
1 Ip
=
24 60
60
I p= =2.5 A
24
iii. Power output P0=I s V s
P0=60× 0.012=0.72 W
2. A transformer is design to convert a 25 V supply to an output of 240 V. if the transformer is 90%
efficient, calculate the current in the primary winding when the output terminal are connected to a
240 V 80 W lamp.

Solution

Primary voltage Vp = 25 V

Secondary voltage Vs = 240 V

Power output P0 = 80 W

Efficiency η = 0.9

P0
=η
Pi

80
=0.9
Pi

80
Pi= =88.9 W
0.9

but Pi =I p V p

88.9=I p ×25
 88.9
I p= =3.6 A
25

EVALUATION

1. Differentiate between self inductance and mutual inductance

2. List the factors that reduces the efficiency of a transformer
3. State the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
4. Describe the process by which a galvanometer is converted to a ammeter.

Electric motor

This is a device which can convert electric energy into rotational mechanical energy. It consists of coils
of wire pivoted in a magnetic field. When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque which

makes is to spin about its axis in the magnetic field.

How to make a simple electric motor

Required Materials

- Magnet
- Insulated wire guage-18
- A battery
- A transparent cup
- Rubber band Insulated coil wound into a ring of ten turns
- Two large paper clip
- Connecting wire and alligator clip

Paper clip bent to P shape

Disc magnet

Rubber band to hold the paper clip in position

cup
battery
 The insulated wire guage is wound round the battery ten times. The end if striped. On one of the end
half is coated with a permanent marker. The other half is left uncoated. On the other side, the end is
strip bear. The wire gauge is given a gentle tilt and it begin to rotate.

Generator

This device converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is a reverse of the electric motor. It
contains a coil pivoted in a magnetic field. When the coil s rotated in the magnetic field electrical
energy is generated.

The D.C generator has a split ring

commutator and the emf generated is
unidirectional
emf

The A.C generator has a slip ring

commutator and the emf generated is
bi-direction.

EVALUATION

1. State the difference between the ac generator and the dc generator

2. Explain the principle of an electric motor.
3. with the aid of diagram explain the principle of operation of a transformer
4. a galvanometer has a resistance of 5Ω. By using a shunt wire of resistance of 0.05Ω, the
galvanometer could be converted to an ammeter capable of capable of reading 2A. what value of
current flows through the galvanometer?
5. The magnetic flux in a coil having 200 turns changes at the time rate of 0.08Wbs -1, the induced emf
in the coil is ---

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. what are the type of transformer?

 2. write a short note on (i) self inductance (ii) mutual inductance
3. If the current in a solenoid increases from 0A to % A in 0.002 s. calculate the
(i) Magnitude of the self induced emf ( take the inductance as 25mH)
(ii) Energy stored
4. A transformer is connected to a 220Vrms supply. The primary turn has 22,000turns and the
secondary voltage is found to be 20V; calculate the number of turns in the secondary coil
5. Explain what is meant that the efficiency of a transformer is 88%. And give two reasons why this is
so. Draw a labelled diagram of a transformer suitable to convert 240Vac to 20Vac. Give details of the
materials used in its structure.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Read page 264-269 of senior school physics by PN Okeke

WEEK 7: MID – TERM BREAK

WEEK 8: DATE………………………….

TOPIC: CAPACITOR

CONTENT

- Definition of capacitor
- capacitance
- Factor affecting capacitor
- Energy stored in a capacitor
- Application of capacitor

SUB-TOPIC ONE: CAPACITOR

A capacitor can be defined as a device which can store electrical energy. It consist essentially of two
metal plate separated by an insulator. The insulator is called dielectric material. When the capacitor is
connected to a pd source, opposite charges is gradually built up on each of the plate.

Q Q
+ - Insulator/ dielectric
+ -
+ -

V
The ratio of the charge Q stored on the capacitor to the potential difference between the plates is
called the capacitance of the capacitor. The unitof capacitance is called farad.
 Q
C= … . … . … .( i )
V

Q isthe charge∧V isthe pd between the plate .

The most common type of capacitor is the parallel plate capacitor. The capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor depends on the following factor:

i. Area of overlap of the plates: the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly
proportional to the area of overlap of the plates.

C∝ A

ii. Distance between the plates: the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is inversely
proportional to the distance between the plate.
1
C∝
d
iii. Dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates: the capacitance of the capacitor is
directly proportional to the dielectric constant of the insulator. The dielectric constant is the
permittivity of the insulator to electric line of flux.
C∝ε
Summarily the capacitance of the capacitor is given as:
εA
C= … . … .. … ..(ii)
d

EVALUATION

1. What is meant by dielectric substance?

2. List the factors which determine the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor and state the effect of
each of them has on the capacitance.
3. Explain what is meant by the statement, ‘the capacitance of a capacitor is 5µF’

SUB-TOPIC TWO:

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR.

A capacitor stores electrical energy. When the capacitor is connected to a pd source, the charge on it plate
built up gradually from zero to Q. The workdone is charge with an average voltage is :

1
W = QV
2

1 2
W= CV
2
2
1Q
W= …. … … … ..(iii )
2 C

The charging and the discharging process for a capacitor is given below:
Charge Q Charge Q
ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors can be arrangement in a circuit in parallel or in series.

Series arrangement

Here, the capacitors are connected end to end as shown below.

C1 C2 C3

V
For capacitors in series;

- Equal charge Q will be stored in the capacitor.

Q1=Q2=Q3
- The sum of the potential difference across each plate is equal to the potential difference supplied
by the source.
V =V 1+V 2+V 3
Q Q
but ,C= hence , V =
V C
Substituting this into the expression for V,
Q Q Q Q
= + +
C C 1 C2 C 3
cancellin Q out ,
1 1 1 1
= + + … . … . …. ( iv )
C C1 C 2 C 3
The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance for capacitor in series is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of the individual capacitors in the series.

Parallel arrangement.

Here, capacitors are arrangement as shown below.

C1
C2
C3

V
For capacitor in parallel,

- The potential difference across the plate of the capacitor is equal.

V =V 1=V 2=V 3
- The total charge stored is the sum of all the charged stored in each capacitor.
Q=Q 1+Q2 +Q3

Q
But, C= , Q=CV, substituting this into the expression for Q,
V

CV =C 1 V +C 2 V +C 3 V

C=C 1+C 2 +C3 … … . … …(v )

The equivalent capacitance for capacitors in parallel is the sum of capacitance for the individual
capacitor.

Solved question

1. A work of 30 J is done to transfer 5 mC of charge from a point B to a point A in an electric field. The
potential between B and A is
Solution
Charge Q = 5 mC
Work = 30 J
Note that W =QV
W 30
V= = =6000V
Q 5 ×10−3
2. A capacitor of capacitance 3.0µF is subjected to a 2000 V potential difference across its terminals.
Calculate the energy stored in the capacitor
Solution
Capacitance C = 3.0µF
Potential difference V = 2000V
Energy E =?
1 2
Recall E= C V
2
−6 2
3.0 ×10 ×6000
E=
2
E=54 J
3. A series arrangement of three capacitors of value 8 µ F , 12µF and 24 µF is connected in series with
a 90V battery.
i. Draw an open circuit diagram for this arrangement
ii. Calculate the effective capacitance in the circuit
iii. On close circuit, calculate the charge on each capacitor when fully chargeg
iv. Determine the voltage across the 8µF

Solution 8µF 12µF 24µF

i.
 ii. For capacitors in series, effective capacitance is given as

1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C 2 C 3

1 1 1 1 3+2+1
= + + =
C 8 12 24 24

1 6
=
C 24

Taking the reciprocal of both side

C 24
=
1 6

Effective capacitance C=4µF

iii. Recall for capacitors in series,

The charge stored on each capacitor is equal
Q=CV
Q=4 µ ×90
−6
Q=4 ×10 ×90
−4
Q=3.6 × 10 C

iv. Recall,
Q=CV

Q
V=
C
−4
3.6 ×10
V= −6
8 × 10
2
V =0.45× 10 =45V
The voltage across the 8µF capacitor is 45V

EVALUATION

1. A series arrangement of three capacitors of value 8µF, 12µF and 24µF is connected in series with a
90V battery
(i) Draw an open circuit diagram for this arrangement
(ii) Calculate the effective capacitance in the circuit.
(iii) On close circuit, calculate the charge when the charge on each capacitor when fully charged
(iv) Determine the pd across the 8µF capacitor
2. The plate of a parallel plate capacitor, 5.0 x 10-3m apart are maintained at a potential difference of
5.0 x 104V. calculate the magnitude of the:
 (i) Electric field intensity between the plate
(ii) Force on the electron
(iii) Acceleration of the electron
(Electronic charge = -1.6 x 10-19C, mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31kg)
3. A capacitor of capacitance 3.0µF is subjected to a 200V potential difference. Calculate the energy
stored in the capacitor

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Calculate the effective capacitance in the circuit below

3µF
2µF

5µF

6V
(ii) What is the charge stored in the 5µF capacitor?
(iii) Calculate the total charge stored in the capacitor.
(iv) What is the energy stored in circuit?

READING ASSIGNMENT

Read page 377-380 of New School Physics by MW Anyakoha and answer question 1-4 on page 380.

WEEK 9: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: SIMPLE A.C. CIRCUITS:
CONTENT:
1. Alternating current circuits (i) Nomenclature in a.c circuits(ii) Peak and r.m.s values
2. Series circuits containing resistance, and capacitance, inductance, and capacitance.
(iv)Reactance and impedance
3. Power in an a.c. circuit.
Sub-Topic 1: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
An a.c. circuit is one in which the magnitude of the current changes periodically with time. The a.c. is
produced by an alternating voltage supply. The pattern of the a.c. voltage is sinusoidal in nature, that is it
varies like the sine curve with constant amplitude and frequency.

V a cycle
M

O N t/s

V 0 is the maximum or peak voltage, which represent the maximum displacement (amplitude).
V is the instantaneous voltage, representing the displacement.

V
Now , sinθ=
V0

Hence , V =V 0 sinθ=V 0 sinωt

The rms voltage is defined as the steady voltage which would produce the same heating effect per second in
a given resistor.

The rms value of current is defined as the steady current which would dissipate at the same rate in a given
resistor.

V 0=√ 2 V rms

∴ V =√ 2 V rms sinωt

Thus , V =√ 2(V rms sin 2 πft )

Where ω=2 πf

Similarly,

I =I 0 sinθ=√ 2(I rms sinωt)

I =√ 2(I rms sin 2 πft )

I 0=I rms √ 2

Where:

V : Instantaneous value
V 0 : Peak value

V rms : root mean square value.

Also,

I: instantaneous value

I 0 : peak value

I rms : root mean square value.

θ : phase angle between voltage and current

ω : angular velocity

A.C IN RESISTORS

The ability of a resistor to restrict the flow of current in an a.c circuit is called its resistance R.

When an a.c is applied to a resistor, both current and the voltage attain maximum and minimum at the same
time. Hence, they are in phase.

R
I

t/s

V
According to Ohm’s law, R=
I
V0
I 0=
R
V rms
I rms =
R

Evaluation:
1. Define an alternating current.
2. Describe the path of an a.c.
3. State the mathematical relationship between I 0∧I rms.
Sub-Topic 2: A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR
π
When an a.c is applied through a capacitor, current leads by 90 °∨ radians . They are out of phase.
2

C V

t/s

The ability of a capacitor to resist the flow of current in an a.c circuit is called its ‘Capacitive Reactance X c’.
The reactance of a capacitor, X c is given by:
1 1
X c= =
ωC 2 πfC
V rms V0
I rms = ∧I 0=
Xc Xc
The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in Farad F.
A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
π
When an a.c is applied through an inductor, voltage leads by 90 °∨ radians . They are out of phase.
2

L
V I

t/s

An inductor has an inductance (L), measured in Henri (H). The ability of an inductor to restrict the flow of
current in an a.c circuit is called its ‘Inductive Reactance X l ’.
The reactance of an inductor, X l is given by:
X l =ωL=2 πfL
V rms V0
I rms = ∧I 0=
XL XL

WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1. A capacitor of 1 μF is used in a radio circuit where the frequency is 1000 H z and the current is
2 mA . Calculate the voltage across the capacitor.
Solution:
V =I X c
1
But , X c =
2 πfC
2
Also , I =2 mA= =0.002 A
1000
I 0.002
V= = =0.32 V
2 πfc 2 π × 1000 ×1 ×10−6

(NB: μ=10−6 , m=10−3 ¿

Example 2. An inductor of 2H and a negligible resistor is connected to 12V mains supply. If the frequency is
50 H z , find the current flowing.
Solution:
V 12 12
I= = = =628.3 A
X L 2 πfL 2 π ×50 × 2

SERIES CIRCUITS
1. Capacitor and Resistor in series (RC circuit):

R
C

When a capacitor is connected in series with a resistor, the total opposition to the current flowing through the
circuit is called ‘Impedance, Z’. Here, current leads voltage by 90 ° .
From the vector diagram above,
2 2 2
V =V C +V R
2 2 2 2 2
∴ V =I X C + I R
2
V 2 2
2
= XC + R
I
2
V 2 V
But Z= → Z = 2
I I
2 2 2
∴ Z = XC + R
∴ Z = √ X C 2+ R 2
For the phase angle,
V C I XC XC
Tanθ= = =
VR IR R

2. Inductor and Resistor in series:

R
L
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor, voltage leads by 90 ° on the current.
Considering the vector diagram,
2 2 2
V =V L +V R

2 2 2 2 2
∴ V =I X L + I R
2
V 2 2
2
= XL + R
I
2
V 2 V
But Z= → Z = 2
I I
2 2 2
∴ Z = XL + R
∴ Z =√ X L + R
2 2

For the phase angle,

V L I XL X L
Tanθ= = =
V R IR R

3. Capacitor, Inductor and Resistor in series(RLC Circuit):

C L R

2 2 2
Now ,V =V R +(V L−V C )
2 2 2 2
V =I R +(I X L −I X C )
2 2 2 2 2
V =¿ I R + I (X L− X C )

2
V 2 2
2
=R +(X L −X C )
I

√
Z= ( R + ( X L −X C )
2 2
)
Note that the two reactance must be subtracted before squaring.
V L −V C X L− X C
For the phase angle , tanθ= =
VR R
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 3. A 2.5 μH inductor is connected in series with a non-inductive resistor of 300 Ω across a 50V
alternating at 160 H z . Calculate the r.m.s value of the current in the circuit.
Solution:
V rms =I rms Z
V rms
I rms =
Z

Now , Z=√ X L2 + R2
−6 −3
But , X L =2 πfL=2 π 160× 2.5 ×10 =2.5 ×10 Ω

√
Z= 300 + ( 2.5 ×10 ) =300 Ω
2 −3 2

50
I rms = =0.17 A
300

Example 4. A 2.0 μF capacitor is connected in series with a resistor of 300 Ω across a 240V a.c alternating at
160 H z . Find the rms value of the current in the circuit.
Solution:

V rms
I r .m . s=
Z

Now , Z=√ X c2 + R2
1 1
But , X C = = =497.4 Ω
2 πfC 2 π 160 ×2.0 ×10−6

∴ Z =√ 300 2+ ( 497.4 ) =580.8 Ω

2

240
I rms = =0.41 A
580.8

Evaluation:
1. State the mathematical relationship between Z , X C ∧X L.
2. Define an impedance Z.
3. Define the reactance of a capacitor and an inductor.
Sub-Topic 3: POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS
The average power dissipated in an a.c. circuit per cycle is given as:
1
P= I 0 V 0
2
But I 0 =√ 2 ( I rms ) and V 0=√ 2 ( V rms )
1
∴ P= (√ 2 ( I rms ) × √ 2 ( V rms ))
2
2 I rms V rms
∴ P=
2
∴ P=I rms V rms
According to ohm’s law, V =IR
2
2 V
∴ P=I R=
R

Power is always dissipated in a resistor. This because the current and the voltage are in phase.
In an inductor, power dissipation is zero due to the fact that power is positive when energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the coil and negative when the energy is given back to the voltage supply on the next part
of the cycle.
In a capacitor, power dissipation is also zero due to the fact that power is positive when energy is stored in
the electric field between the capacitor’s plates and negative when the energy is given back to the voltage
supply.
In essence, power dissipation is zero both in an inductor and a capacitor because the voltage and current are
out of phase by 90 ° .
Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing inductor, capacitor and a resistor in series, power is only dissipated in
the resistor.
2
2 V
Hence , P=IV =I R=
R

Example 5: A circuit consists of a resistor 500ohms and a capacitor of 5μF connected in series. If an
alternating voltage of 10v and frequency 50 Hz is applied across the series circuit, calculate
(a) The reactance of the capacitor
(b) The current flowing in the circuit
(c) The voltage across the capacitor
(d) If the capacitor is replaced with an inductor of 150mH, calculate the impedance and voltage across the
inductor

Solution
1 1
(a) XC= = =636.62 ohms.
2 πfC 2 π ×50 ×5.0 ×10−6

(b) Z=√ R 2+ X C 2 since there is no L

Z=√ 500 + 636.62 = 809.5 ohms

2 2

❑
V 10
I= = A = 12.35 x 10 – 3 A
Z 809.5
(c) vc = IXc = 12.35 x 10 – 3 x 636.62 = 7.86V

(d) XL¿ ωL=2 πfL=2 × π x 50 x 10 – 3 ohms = 47.12ohms

Z=√ R 2+ X L2=√ 5002 +47.122 =502.2 ohms

I = V/Z = 10/502.2 = 19.9 x 10 – 3 A

V = IXL = 19.9 x 10 – 3 x 47.12 = 938 x 10 – 3 V
Evaluation:
1. Why is power only dissipated in the resistor in a series circuit containing resistor, capacitor and an
inductor?
2. State the formula for power.
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Tell the meaning of the following denotations: V 0 , V rms , I 0 , I
2. In what component of the series circuit is voltage and current in step with each other?
3. Critically examine the passage of an a.c through an inductor.
4. Define the reactance and the resistance of a capacitor and a resistor respectively.
5. Discuss why power is not dissipated in an inductor when current passes through it.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Find the peak value of an electricity supply of 240V rms .
A. 169.7V
B. 339.4V
C. 480V
D. 24V
2. Calculate the instantaneous value of current flowing through a circuit if the r.m.s. value is 15A with a
phase angle of 30 ° .
A. 30A
B. 21.2A
C. 10.6A
D. 2.0A
3. Which of the following is the expression for the reactance of an inductor?
A. X L =ωC
B. X L =ωL
1
C. X L =
ωL
1
D. X L =
ωC
4. When an a.c. flows through a resistor,
A. current leads voltage by 90 ° .
B. voltage leads current by 90 °
C. both are in phase.
D. non of the above
Essay
1. A circuit consist of a capacitor of 2 μF and a resistor of 1000 Ω . An alternating emf of 120 V rms and
frequency of 50 H z is applied. Find
i. The current flowing;
ii. The voltage across the capacitor;
iii. The phase angle between the applied emf and the current.
iv. The dissipated power in the circuit.
12. Revision.
13. Examination.