ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

4ENCV1011

By
Dr. Stanley Chacko Salem
Assistant Professor, CMRU
 Course Learning Objectives(CLO’S)

The students will be able to understand:

CLO1: Basics of Civil Engineering and engineering
mechanics.
CLO2: Engineering aspects of different types of buildings
and its components.
CLO3: Equilibrium of forces, support reaction and friction.
CLO4: Moment of inertia, centroid and its applications.
CLO5: The fundamentals of force dynamics and its
applications
 Course Framework
Credits: 2-1-0-3:
Contact Hours / Week: 26+13
Total Contact Hours: 39
Level: 100
Prerequisite: Plus 1 (Class XI) & Plus 2 (Class XII) Physics & Mathematics
Mode of Assessment : IAT / CCE / Mini Project / SEE

1. Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) : 50 Marks

a. Average of IATs - 20 marks
b. CCE - 30 marks
2. Semester End Examination (SEE) Scheme (Theory): 100 Marks [scaled
down to 50
SEE Question paper pattern:
1. The question paper shall have FOUR main questions corresponding to the FOUR modules. Internal choices shall
be given only in the main questions.
2. Each main question will have TWO full questions carrying TWENTY FIVE marks each.
3. A full question may have a maximum of FOUR sub questions, covering the topics under the module.
4. The students will have to answer all FOUR main questions, selecting ONE full question out of the two full questions
from each module.
 Course structure
Grads:
▪ Assignments 30%
• Class Assignment (Tests) or/and
• Class Assignment (Quizzes) or/and
• Class Attendance or/and
• Home Assignment
• Advanced Assignments

▪ Internal Assessment Tests (IATs) 20%

▪ Final exam 50%

Course Materials
▪ Lecture notes
• Class Lecture – Power points slides
▪ Reference Books
• Jagadeesh T.R. and Jayaram. (2011). Elements of Civil Engineering. Sapna Book House;
7th edition.
• S.S. Bhavikatti. (2015). Elements of Civil Engineering. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi; 4th edition.
• Timoshenko & Young. (2017). Engineering Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
Delhi; 5th edition.
• F. L. Singer. (1963). Engineering Mechanics - Part I & II. Harper & Row; 2nd edition.
 Syllabus
Module 1:Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
▪ Civil Engineering: Introduction to Civil Engineering (Basic Knowledge of Surveying, Building Materials,
Construction Technology, Geotechnical engineering, Structural engineering, Groundwater engineering,
Hydrology, hydraulics, water resource engineering, irrigation engineering, transportation engineering,
environmental engineering, sustainable practices in construction), Role of Civil engineers in the infrastructural
development , effect of infrastructural facilities on socio-economic development of a country.
▪ Introduction to buildings: Types of building, selection of site for building, components of a residential building
and their functions, building by laws and relevance of National Building code (NBC).
▪ Engineering Mechanics: Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Basic concepts of idealisation- Particle,
continuum and rigid body; Force, Force systems; Principles: physical independence of forces, superposition,
transmissibility; Newton’s Laws of Motion; resolution and composition of forces; moment of force and couple.
Numerical Problems

Module 2:Resultant and Equilibrium of Forces, Friction and Support Reactions for Beams
▪ Resultant and Equilibrium of Forces: Resultant of coplanar concurrent force system: Parallelogram law of
forces, triangle law of forces; Resultant of coplanar non concurrent force system: Varignon’s theorem;
Numerical problems; Static equilibrium of a body: equilibrant, Free body diagram, Lami’s theorem, equations
of static equilibrium, Numerical problems on equilibrium of coplanar concurrent and non-concurrent force
system.
▪ Friction: Types of friction, laws of friction, limiting friction, Numerical Problems on single and connected
bodies on plane, wedge friction, ladder friction, rope and pulley system.
▪ Support Reactions for Beams: Types of loads and support, beam, types of beam, Numerical Problems on
support reactions in statically determinate beams.
 Syllabus
Module 3:Centroid and Moment of Inertia
▪ Centroid: Centroid of simple geometrical figures from first principle,
Numeric Problems on centroid of composite sections.
▪ Moment of Inertia: Moment of inertia of simple geometric figures
from first principle, parallel axis theorem, perpendicular axis
theorem, radius of gyration, Product of inertia, Numerical problems
on moment of inertia of composite sections.

Module 4:Dynamics
▪ Dynamics: Introduction to Kinetics and Kinematics, Linear Motion,
speed acceleration, acceleration due to gravity, relative motion,
Curvilinear Motion, projectiles, centrifugal and centripetal forces,
super elevation, work power energy, simple harmonic motion, free
vibration, D’alembert’s principle, motion of connected bodies.
numerical problems on D’Alembert’s principle and its application in
plane and connected bodies including pulleys.
 Course outcome
On successful completion of the course, students will be able to:

CO1 Explain the basics of Civil Engineering and related

fields.
CO2 Develop working models with the laws of mechanics.

CO3 Analyze equilibrium of coplanar, concurrent and

non-concurrent forces.
CO4 Determine centroid and moment of inertia of simple
geometric figures.
CO5 Apply D'Alembert's principle in any specific
application.
 CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering is the one that is directly associated with the welfare of the society.
 Definition

The American Society of Civil Engineers defines civil

engineering as “the profession in which a knowledge
of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by
study, experience, and practice is applied with
judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the
materials and forces of nature for the progressive
well-being of humanity in creating, improving and
protecting the environment, in providing facilities for
community living, industry and transportation, and in
providing structures for the use of humanity.”
Various disciplines of Civil Engineering
 Construction technology
Construction technology refers to the collection of innovative tools, machinery,
modifications, software, etc. used during the construction phase of a project
that enables advancement in field construction methods, including
semiautomated and automated construction equipment.
● Data Collection Apps
● Drones
● Building Information Modeling (BIM) Software
● Virtual Reality and Wearables
● 3D Printing
● Artificial Intelligence
● Green construction
Construction technology
 Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils and rocks
under the influence of loading forces and soil-water interactions.
Geotechnical engineers determine the physical, mechanical and
chemical properties of soil and rock to design foundations, retaining
structures and earthworks.
This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations, retaining walls,
earth dams, clay liners, and geosynthetics for waste containment.
The goals of geotechnical engineers could range from the design of
foundations and temporary excavation support, through route selection
for railways and highways, to the increasingly important areas of landfill
disposal of wastes and groundwater contamination.
A geotechnical site investigation determines the engineering parameters
of soil and rock and how they will interact with a proposed construction.
The aim of ground investigation is to assess the geotechnical, geological
and hydrological risks to humans, property and the environment.
In recent years, the activities of geotechnical engineers have also
involved geoenvironmental engineering. Geoenvironmental engineers
design strategies for the clean-up of contaminated soils and
groundwater and develop management systems for contaminated sites.
 Environmental Engineering
The goal of environmental engineering is to ensure that societal development
and the use of water, land and air resources are sustainable.

This goal is achieved by managing these resources so that environmental

pollution and degradation is minimized.

Environmental engineers study water, soil and air pollution problems, and
develop technical solutions needed to solve, attenuate or control these problems
in a manner that is compatible with legislative, economic, social and political
concerns.

The activities of such engineers include, but are not limited to, the planning,
design, construction and operation of water and wastewater treatment facilities
in municipalities and industries, modelling and analysis of surface water and
groundwater quality, design of soil and remediation systems, planning for the
disposal and reuse of wastewaters and sludges, and the collection, transport,
processing, recovery and disposal of solid wastes according to accepted
engineering practices.
 Environmental Engineering
The Importance of Environmental Engineering to Society

It guides us on how our developmental and daily activities affect the environment and
how we are affected by changes in environmental conditions.

It guides us to create a pollution free environment (which includes clean air, water,
land and food) by adopting various methods of prevention and control of pollution.

It guides our natural resources such as water, forests, minerals and fossil fuels to be
utilized in an efficient way, with maximum utility and minimum waste by adopting
conservation and recycling strategies.

Adopts the above three characteristics, namely, knowing one’s environmental impact,
prevention and control of pollution, and efficiently utilizing resources efficiently in daily
activities to lead the general public in an environmentally friendly way.

It allows industries to operate in an environmentally friendly mode by adopting clean

and efficient technology and installing pollution control systems.
 Environmental Engineering
Role of Environmental Engineering for Sustainable Development

To protect soil erosion for safeguard of forest.

Air pollution can be minimized up to a maximum extent by utilizing
Environmental Engineering.
Development of agriculture is necessary and the requirement can be
fulfilled through Environmental Engineering.
Environmental Engineering is utilized for preservation of social
energy.
Global crises on environment can be minimized by utilizing
Environmental Engineering technology.
Facilitate for sustainable development of the society.
It helps for social and economical development.
 Environmental Engineering
Scope of the Environmental Engineering:

Management of natural resources,

Conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity, and
Prevention and control of pollution.
 Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that
involves the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of
transportation systems to help build smart, safe, and livable
communities.
Any system that moves people and goods from one place to
another falls under the scope of transportation engineering, which
includes:
● Highways and roadways
● Railways
● Harbours
● Public transport systems
● Traffic control systems
● Automated transport systems
● Space transport systems
 Transportation Engineering
Transportation has always played an essential role in the development of
society, originally with regard to trade routes and harbours, but more
recently with regard to land- and air-based systems as well.
It is the transportation engineer's responsibility to plan, design, build,
operate and maintain these systems of transport, in such a way as to
provide for the safe, efficient and convenient movement of people and
goods.
The transportation engineer faces the challenge of developing both network
links and major terminals to satisfy transportation demands, with due regard
for the resultant land-use, environmental and other impacts of these
facilities.
Key emerging focus areas in transportation engineering
Understanding and modeling the emerging transportation systems which
are radically evolving driven by the rapid growth of various transportation
mobility forms (e.g., e-hailing, car sharing, autonomous taxi)
Leveraging large data collected from various traffic sensors to understand
transformation in travel supply and demand
Planning and operating multi-modal transportation systems
Traffic control systems.
Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering
Water resources engineering is the study and management of
equipment, facilities and techniques that are used to manage and
preserve life’s most plentiful resource i.e water.
In addition to assessing how and the best ways in which to control
water as it pertains to water-related activities – such as irrigation,
waste disposal and canal development – water resource engineers
are also frequently involved in water management to ensure that it’s
safe to drink both for humans, plants and animal usage.

Applications include
▪ the management of the urban water supply
▪ the design of urban storm-sewer systems,
▪ and flood forecasting.
 Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering
Irrigation can be termed as the artificial process of applying water
to the soil to help in growing agricultural crops or maintaining the
landscapes when there is shortage of natural water by rain
Irrigation engineering deals with the analysis and design of
irrigation systems which include dams, weir, barrage, canals,
drains and other supporting systems etc.
Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid
mechanics to water flowing in an isolated environment (pipe,
pump, turbine) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean).
 Structural Engineering
Structural engineering is the field of engineering that
deals with the structural integrity and strength of a
building or structure.

Structural engineering is a specialty of civil engineering

that ensures the structures are safe, stable and don’t
collapse under applied loads.

It is mainly focused on analysis and design of the

structure.

Structural engineers are concerned with the conception,

analysis, design and construction of components or
assemblies to resist loads arising from internal and
external forces.
Civil Engineering in Infrastructural development
The infrastructure is of two types.
Economic infrastructure: It contributes directly to
the economic development of any country.
transport and communication,
power supply,
irrigation networks,
financial institutions
Industrial development etc.

Social infrastructure: It contributes to the process

of economic development of any country indirectly.
Education & training,
health & family welfare,
Housing & water supply and
other civic amenities
Significance of infrastructural development
Foreign exchange can be generated

Export of surplus food products industrial

products is possible.

Unemployment can be reduced through

increased job opportunities

Prevention of unhealthy urbanisation can be

prevented, which in turn solves many problems
such as urban congestion, acute housing
shortage, traffic problems, crimes, pollution etc.

Self sufficiency in food sector can be achieved

Significance of infrastructural development
Per capita income is increased.

Living standards of people can be enhanced.

Public health can be improved

Inflation can be reduced.

Draught and flood related problems can be

controlled / minimised

Literacy level of people can be increased

Public awareness gets improved

 Perils of infrastructural development
Small scale industries, handicrafts industries and rural
industries are adversely affected.

Increased power consumption.

Environmental pollution (air, water and ground pollution)

continues to increase.

The culture of the society can be adversely get affected.

Health related problems can be on the rise.

Labour problems will increase.

Inflation will increase.

Various disciplines of Civil Engineering
Various disciplines of Civil Engineering
Building Materials
Building Materials
Sand
Natural Sand
Pit Sand
River Sand
Sea Sand
Artificial sand:
Crushing of granite
or basalt rock
Stones
 Brick
Bricks are the most commonly used construction
material.
Bricks are prepared by moulding clay in rectangular
blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning
these blocks.
In order to get a good quality brick, the brick earth
should contain the following constituents
o Silica
o Alumina
o Lime
o Iron oxide
o Magnesia
 Brick
Silica
o Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.
o It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
o It also affects the durability of bricks.
o If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick
becomes brittle.
Alumina
o Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
o It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in
moulding operation.
o If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
Lime
o The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick
earth.
o It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
o It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
o Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
 Brick
Iron oxide
o A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron
oxide.
o It gives red colour to the bricks.
o It improves impermeability and durability.
o It gives strength and hardness.
o If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark
blue or blakish.
o If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick
becomes yellowish in colour.
Magnesia
o Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of
magnesia about 1%)
o Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
o It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
o Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
 Brick

Below mentioned are some of the ingredients which

are undesired in brick earth.
Lime
Iron pyrites
Alkalis
Pebbles
Vegetation and Organic Matter
 Brick
Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four categories on the basis of its
manufacturing and preparation, as given below.
1. First class bricks
2. Second class bricks
3. Third class bricks
4. Fourth class bricks
First Class Bricks:
These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns. The surface and edges of the bricks are sharp,
square, smooth and straight. They comply with all the qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used for superior work of
permanent nature.
Second Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of these bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also
slightly irregular. These bricks may have hair cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly
used at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
Third Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in clamps. These bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with
irregular and distorted edges. These bricks give dull sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary
structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
Fourth Class Bricks:
These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundations,
floors, roads etc, because of the fact that the over burnt bricks have a compact structure and hence they are sometimes found to
be stronger than even the first class bricks.
Quality tests
 Cement
Cement is a binder, a substance
that sets and hardens and can bind
other materials together.

Use
Cement mortar for Masonry
work, plaster and pointing etc.
Concrete for laying floors, roofs Types of Cements
and constructing Ordinary Portland cement
lintels,beams,weather-shed,stair Rapid hardening Portland
s,pillars etc. cement
Low heat Portland cement
Construction for important Sulphate resisting Portland
cement
engineering structures such as Pozzolanic cement
bridge,culverts,dams,tunnels White Portland cement
Coloured Portland
etc. Expansive cement
High alumina cement
 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in
general use around the world.

This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with

small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln,
in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon
dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide,
or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have
been included in the mix.

The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a

small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland
Cement'(often referred to as OPC).

Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most

non-specialty grout.

The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of

concrete.
 Hydration of Cement
In the anhydrous state, four main types of minerals are normally present: alite, belite, celiteand felite. Also present
are small amounts of clinker sulfate (sulfates of sodium, potassium and calcium) and gypsum, which was added
when the clinker was ground up to produce the familiar grey powder.

When water is added, the reactions which occur are mostly exothermic, that is, the reactions generate heat.
We can get an indication of the rate at which the minerals are reacting by monitoring the rate at which heat is
evolved using a technique called conduction calorimetry.
Almost immediately on adding water some of the clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve producing an alkaline,
sulfate-rich, solution.Soon after mixing, the (C3A) phase (the most reactive of the four main clinker minerals) reacts
with the water to form an aluminate-rich gel (Stage I on the heat evolution curve above).
The gel reacts with sulfate in solution to form small rod-like crystals of ettringite. (C3A) reaction is with water is
strongly exothermic but does not last long, typically only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours of
relatively low heat evolution. This is called the dormant, or induction period (Stage II).
The first part of the dormant period, up to perhaps half-way through, corresponds to when concrete can be placed.
As the dormant period progresses, the paste becomes too stiff to be workable.At the end of the dormant period, the
alite and belite in the cement start to react, with the formation of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide.
This corresponds to the main period of hydration (Stage III), during which time concrete strengths increase. The
individual grains react from the surface inwards, and the anhydrous particles become smaller. (C3A) hydration also
continues, as fresh crystals become accessible to water.The period of maximum heat evolution occurs typically
between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing and then gradually tails off. In a mix containing OPC only, most of the
strength gain has occurred within about a month. Where OPC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as
fly ash, strength growth may occur more slowly and continue for several months or even a year.Ferrite reaction also
starts quickly as water is added, but then slows down, probably because a layer of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating
the ferrite and acting as a barrier, preventing further reaction.
 Products of Hydration
During Hydration process several hydrated compounds are formed most important of which are, Calcium
silicate hydrate, calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminium hydrates which is important for strength gain.
Calcium silicate hydrate:
This is not only the most abundant reaction product, occupying about 50% of the paste volume, but it is also
responsible for most of the engineering properties of cement paste. It is often abbreviated, using cement
chemists' notation, to "C-S-H," the dashes indicating that no strict ratio of SiO2 to CaO is inferred. C-S-H forms
a continuous layer that binds together the original cement particles into a cohesive whole which results in its
strong bonding capacity. The Si/Ca ratio is somewhat variable but typically approximately 0.45-0.50 in hydrated
Portland cement but up to perhaps about 0.6 if slag or fly ash or microsilica is present, depending on the
proportions.
Calcium hydroxide:
The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S are calcium hydroxide. In contrast to theC-S-H, the calcium
hydroxide is a compound with distinctive hexagonal prism morphology. It constitutes 20 to 25 per cent of the
volume of solids in the hydrated paste. The lack ofdurability of concrete is on account of the presence of
calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in soils or water to form calcium
sulphate which further reacts with C3A and cause deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.
To reduce the quantity of Ca (OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad effects by converting it into
cementitious product is an advancement in concrete technology.The use of blendingmaterials such as fly ash,
silica fume and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps toovercome bad effect of Ca(OH)2 in concrete.
However, Ca(OH)2 is alkaline in nature due to which it resists corrosion in steel.
Calcium aluminium hydrates:
These are formed due to hydration of C3A compounds. The hydrated aluminates do notcontribute anything to
the strengthof concrete. On the other hand, theirpresence is harmful to the durability of concrete particularly
where theconcrete is likely to be attacked bysulphates. As it hydrates very fast it may contribute a little to the
earlystrength.
 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material composed
mainly of water, aggregate, and cement.

Often, additives and reinforcements are included

in the mixture to achieve the desired physical
properties of the finished material.

When these ingredients are mixed together, they

form a fluid mass that is easily molded into
shape.

Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which

binds the rest of the ingredients together into a
durable stone-like material with many uses.
 CONCRETE
A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous
mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water
which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical
action between the cement and water.

Each of the four constituents has a specific function.

The coarser aggregate acts as a filler.

The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste

and the coarse aggregate.

The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder.

The mobility of the mixture is aided by the cement paste.

 CONCRETE
The stages of concrete production are:
Batching or measurement of materials
These proportions are best measured by weight.
Measurement by volume is not as accurate, but
is suitable for minor projects.
 CONCRETE
Mixing
The mixing operation consists of rotation or stirring,
the objective being to coat the surface the all
aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blind
all the ingredients of the concrete into a uniform
mass; this uniformity must not be disturbed by the
process of discharging from the mixer.

The mixing may done by manually or by mechanical

means like, Batch mixer, Tilting drum mixer, Non
tilting drum mixer, Pan type mixer, Dual drum mixer
or Continuous mixers.

Transporting
Placing
 CONCRETE
Compacting
The operation of placing and compaction are
interdependent and are carried out simultaneously.

They are most important for the purpose of ensuring

the requirements of strength, impermeability and
durability of hardened concrete in the actual
structure.

As for as placing is concerned, the main objective is

to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its
final position so that segregation is avoided and the
concrete can be fully compacted
 CONCRETE
Curing
Curing is the process of making the concrete surfaces wet for a
certain time period after placing the concrete so as to promote
the hardening of cement.

This process consists of controlling the temperature and the

movement of moisture from and into the concrete.

Curing is the process of controlling the rate of moisture loss

from concrete to ensure an uninterrupted hydration of Portland
cement after concrete has been placed and finished in its final
position.

Curing also helps maintain an adequate temperature of

concrete in its early stages, as this directly affects the rate of
hydration of cement and eventually the strength gain of
concrete or mortars.
Finishing.
 Building
National Building Code of India defines Building as A
structure constructed with any materials whatsoever for any
purpose, whether used for human habitation or not, and
includes:-
Foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys,
plumbing and building services, fixed platforms etc.
Verandahs, balconies, cornices, projections etc.
Parts of a building or anything affixed thereto;
Any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or
space, sign and outdoor display structures; etc.
Tanks constructed or fixed for storage of chemicals or
chemicals in liquid form and for storage of water, effluent,
swimming pool, ponds etc.,
All types of buildings mentioned in the sub classifcation,
except tents, shamianas and tarpaulin shelters
erected temporarily for temporary purposes and
ceremonial occasions, shall be considered to be
"buildings
 Types of Buildings
Residential buildings - includes a building in which sleeping and living accommodation is
provided for normal residential purposes, with cooking facilities and includes one or more
family dwellings, apartment houses, flats, and private garages of such buildings

Educational buildings - Includes a building exclusively used for a school or college,

recognized by the appropriate Board or University, or any other Competent Authority
involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation incidental to educational use and
including a building for such other uses as research institution. It shall also include quarters
for essential staff required to reside in the premises, and building used as a hostel captive
to an educational institution whether situated in its campus or outside.

Institutional buildings - Includes a building constructed by Government, Semi-

Government Organizations or Registered Trusts and used for medical or other treatment,
or for an auditorium or complex for cultural and allied activities or for an hospice, care of
persons suffering from physical or mental illness, handicap, disease or infirmity, care of
orphans, abandoned women, children and infants, convalescents, destitute or aged
persons and for penal or correctional detention with restricted liberty of the inmates
ordinarily providing sleeping accommodation and includes dharamshalas, hospitals,
sanatoria, custodial and penal institutions such as jails, prisons, mental hospitals, houses
of correction, detention and reformatories etc.
 Types of Buildings
Assembly buildings - A building or part thereof, where groups of people (not <
50) congregate or gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic,
civil, travel and similar purposes and this includes buildings of drama and cinemas
theatres, drive-in-theatres, assembly halls, city halls, town halls, auditoria,
exhibition halls, museums, "mangal karyalayas", skating rinks, gymnasia,
restaurants, eating or boarding houses, places of worship, dance halls, clubs,
gymkhanas and road, railways, air, sea or other public transportation stations and
recreation piers.

Business buildings - Includes any building or part thereof used principally for
transaction of business and/or keeping of accounts and records including offices,
banks, professional establishments, court houses etc., if their principal function is
transaction of business and/or keeping of books and records.

Mercantile buildings - Includes a building or part thereof used as shops, stores

or markets for display and sale of wholesale and or retail goods or merchandise,
including office, storage and service facilities incidental thereto and located in the
same building.
 Types of Buildings
Industrial buildings - Includes a building or part thereof wherein products or
material are fabricated, assembled or processed, such as assembly plants,
laboratories, power plants, refineries, gas plants, mills, dairies and factories etc.

Storage buildings - A building or part thereof used primarily for storage or shelter
of goods, wares, merchandise and includes a building used as a warehouse, cold
storage, freight depot, transit shed, store house, public garage, hanger, truck
terminal, grain elevator, barn and stables.

Hazardous buildings - Includes a building or part thereof used for

▪ Storage, handling, manufacture of processing of radioactive substances or
highly combustible or explosive materials or of products which are liable to
burn with extreme rapidity and/or producing poisonous fumes or explosive
emanations.
▪ Storage, handling, manufacture or processing of which involves highly
corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalis, acids, or other liquids, gases or chemicals
producing flame, fumes and explosive mixtures etc. or which result in division
of matter into fine particles capable of spontaneous ignition.
 Slums and Unsafe Buildings
“Slum” – Buildings that are in poor condition of
maintenance or have compromised habitability due to
poor ventilation, sanitation or otherwise are termed
slums.
These are generally declared or notified as slums under
relevant legislation by competent authority.

“Unsafe Building”- Includes a building which:

▪ Is structurally unsafe, or
▪ Is insanitary, or
▪ Is not provided with adequate means of ingress or egress
or Constitutes a fire hazard or
▪ Is dangerous to human life or
▪ In relation to its existing use, constitutes a hazard to
safety or health or public welfare by maintenance,
dilapidation or abandonment.

Note: All unsafe buildings /structure will require to be restored by repairs, demolition or dealt with as
directed by the Authority. The relevant provisions of the Act shall apply for procedure to be followed
by the Authority in taking action against such buildings.
 Components of a building
A building has two basic parts:
Sub-structure or foundations
Super structure

Sub structure or foundation is the lower portion of the

building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the load of the superstructure to the supporting soil.
A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in
direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.
Superstructure is that part of the structure which is above
ground level and which serves the purpose of its intended use.
 Components of a building
A part of the superstructure, located between the ground and
the floor level is known as plinth.
Plinth is therefore defined as the portion of the structure
between the surface of the surrounding ground and surface of
the floor, immediately above the ground.
The level of the floor is usually known as plinth level.
The built up covered area measured at the floor level is known
as plinth area.
 Components of a building
A building has the following
components:
Foundations
Masonry units: Walls and
columns.
Floor structures
Roof structures
Doors, windows and other
openings
Vertical transportation structures
such as stairs, lifts, ramps etc.
Building finishes.
 Structural system of building
Structural system, in building construction, the particular
method of assembling and constructing structural elements
of a building so that they support and transmit applied loads
safely to the ground without exceeding the allowable stresses
in the members.

Three different types of structural system are

Load bearing structure
Framed Structure
Composite Structure
 Load bearing structure
The system of building comprising of slabs, beams and load bearing
walls is known as a load bearing structure.
Most of the residential buildings are small in size and are up to three
storey are generally constructed as load bearing structures.
 Framed Structure
It is a structure comprising of slabs resting on
beams which are supported by a network of
columns.
As shown in figure below the live load from the
slab is transferred to the cross beams, which in
turn transfer it to main beams through rigid
joints.
Main beams rest over I shaped columns and
load from the beam is transferred to the soil
through columns and their footings.
All the walls may or may not be a partition walls
as none of them bear any load.
All the walls rest on plinth beams and not
provided with any footing or foundations.
Generally all multistoried buildings or high-rise
buildings are constructed as framed structure.
As partition walls can be shifted easily
anywhere on the floor, higher degree of
flexibility is available while planning a framed
structure.
 Composite Structure
Some of the buildings are constructed with combination of both load
bearing as well as framed structure. Such structure is called composite
structure.
In this type of structure external walls are treated as load bearing walls
and all intermediate supports are in the form of R.C.C. columns.
Composite structures have advantages of both load bearing as well as
framed structure.
Composite structures are preferred for the buildings having large spans
such as warehouses, workshops, halls, large factory sheds, etc.
 Site selection for buildings
For good planning and designing of buildings, the site selection of the building is the
most important. The following general principles should be kept in mind while selecting
a site for a building:
The purpose of the building and extent of privacy is desired.
The site should be located in fully developed or fast developing locality.
The site should be located in such a way that community services like police and
fire protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning, utility services like
water-supply, electricity, drainage, etc., amenities like school, hospital, market,
cinema, bank, etc., shopping facilities and means of transport are also available
within short distance.
Before selecting a site, one should study the bye-laws of the local authority, which
before restrictions regarding proportions of plots to be built up, open spaces and
margins to be left in front and sides, heights of buildings etc.
Area of plot should be such that the building constructed on it meets the
requirement of the owner, after following certain restrictions of local authority.
Shape of the plot should be regular or be not having any sharp corners.
The site-should be situated on an elevated place and also levelled with uniform
slopes from one end to the other to provide good and quick drainage of rainwater.
The soil of the site should be good enough with high safe bearing capacity to
provide economical foundations.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
A bye-law is a local law framed by a subordinate authority.
The building codes or bye-laws are defined as the standards and
specifications designed to great minimum safeguards to the workers
during construction; to the health and comfort of users; and to provide
enough safety to the public is general.
An order prescribed is known as the regulation, while the law of a local
authority is known as bye-law. Bye-law is supplementary law or
regulation.
Main objectives of framing bye-laws
It becomes easier to pre-plan the building activities and provisions of
bye-laws give guidelines to the designing architect or engineer.
The building bye-laws prevent haphazard development without any
resemblance to the development of the area as a whole.
The provisions of the building bye-laws usually afford safety to the
human beings who work and live in them against fire, noise, health
hazard and structural failure.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Set-back or building line:
A set-back may be defined as frontage margin or open space in front of the
abutting street or road.
The land contained in set-back belongs to the owner of the property.
It is also referred to as a building line and is laid down in each case parallel to
the plot boundaries by the local authority, beyond which nothing can be
constructed towards the plot boundaries.
The fixation of building line depends upon the site of the proposed building,
keeping in view the present width and future widening requirements.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Advantages of the building line or set-backs are as follows:
If absolutely necessary, part of the set-backs may be acquired for the purpose of
widening the road.

If the set-back is uniform, the buildings are constructed in one line parallel to the axis
of road, resulting in improvement of road.

The provisions of the set-backs results into better conditions of air, light and
ventilation of the buildings.

The set-backs at street corners improve visibility and impart safety to the traffic.

The space of set-backs can be conveniently used as a parking place or for

developing as garden

They are necessary for the protection of the buildings from street nuisance.

They reduce the danger of fire by increasing the distance between opposite
buildings.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Floor space index or built-up area:
The built up area or covered area equals to the plot area minus the
area due for open spaces.
The ratio of the total floor area inclusive of all the floors to the area of
the plot on which building stands is known as the floor space index
(F.S.I.) or floor area ratio (F.A.R.).
The value of F.S.I. or F.A.R. is determined by local authority and it
may be different for different areas and for different buildings of the
town.
Floor area means built up area excluding area of walls. The F.S.I,
controls the development activity on the plot of land and
consequently.
It can be used as a measure to check density of population. For
instance, if the plot area is 600 m2 and if permissible F.S.I, is 0.80,
the maximum built-up area' which can be put up on the plot is 480 m2
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Open space requirements around the buildings:
The sufficient open a spaces, inside and around the building should
be left to meet with the requirements of lighting and ventilation.

In case of buildings abutting streets, in front, the open spaces to the

rear or sides of the building should be provided to serve the purpose
of future widening of such streets.

All interior or exterior should be kept free from any erection thereon
and shall be kept open to the sky and no cornice, roof, or weather
shed more than 0.75 m in width shall project over such open space.

Following are the requirements of open space for varying heights of

building as per National Building Code:
Building codes or Bye-laws
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Size of rooms:
Considering the point of health and ventilation, NBC has
fixed certain minimum areas or sizes for individual rooms
and apartments.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Height of rooms and buildings:
General criteria to decide the height of the building as per N.B.C.is
1.5 times the width of the street to which the building abuts on its
front side.

If street width is above 8 m or equal to 12 m, the height of the

building should not be more than 12 m and in case of more than 12
m wide street, the height of the building should not be more than
street width and in no case more than 24 m.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Lighting and ventilation of rooms:
For sufficient lighting and ventilation in the rooms of building openings
like windows, ventilators or direct opening to external air should be
provided.
The area of such openings excluding area of doors should be minimum
1/10th of the floor area for dry and hot climate and minimum 1/6th of
the area for wet hot climate.
The aggregate area of doors and windows shall not be less than 1/7th
of the floor area of room.
Water supply and sanitary positions:
Certain minimum requirements for water supply and sanitary
conveniences like water tap, sink, nahni trap, water closets, urinals,
wash basins, etc. shall be provided as per N.B.C. for different types of
buildings.
 Building codes or Bye-laws
Structural design or sizes and sections:
Each structure should be designed for safe loads, earthquake
resistance, bearing capacities, etc. as per the; latest relevant I.S.
codes and N.B.C.
Each component of the building should be designed with its specific
requirements.
Some general thumb-rules for structural design are as follows:
▪ Depth of foundation: 0.75 m to 1.0 m - for single storeyed building
below ground level. 1.0 m to 1.3 m below G.L. for two storeyed
building.
▪ Width of foundation of wall: Double the thickness of wall just
above the plinth and then add 30 cm to it will give the width of the
foundation
▪ Concrete in foundation of wall: It should be nearly equal to 5/6th
of the thickness of wall above the plinth.
 Surveying
Surveying, also called geomatics has
traditionally been defined as the science, art,
and technology of determining the relative
positions of points above, on, or beneath the
Earth’s surface.

Surveying (geomatics) can be regarded as that

discipline which encompasses all methods for
measuring and collecting information about the
physical earth and our environment, processing
that information, and disseminating a variety of
resulting products to a wide range of clients.
 Surveying
Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative spatial
location of points on or near the surface of the earth.

It is the art
▪ of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects,
▪ of measuring angles between lines,
▪ of determining the direction of lines, and
▪ of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.

Along with the actual survey measurements are the mathematical

calculations.

Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and

volumes are thus determined from the data of the survey.

Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of maps,

profiles, cross sections, and diagrams.
 Surveying : Types
Based on whether curvature of earth is
considered

Geodetic Surveying:
The type of surveying that takes into
account the true shape of the earth.
These surveys are of high precision and
extend over large areas.

Plane Surveying:
The type of surveying in which the mean
surface of the earth is considered as a
plane, or in which its spheroidal shape
is neglected, with regard to horizontal
distances and directions.
Plane surveying is done on an area of
less than 250 km2.
 Surveying : Types
Based upon the nature of the field of survey
Land survey:
It is carried out to measure various objects on land.

Hydrographic survey:
It is carried out to map coastlines, produce
navigation charts and control works such as oil
explorations, construction of harbours, water ways,
etc

Astronomical survey:
It is carried out for determining locations i.e latitudes
of different places on earth surface with reference to
heavenly bodies and vice versa.
 Surveying : Types
Land survey is further classified as:

Topographical survey:
It is concerned with the measurement and mapping of the
physical features of the earth. These features are all
natural and manmade features.
.
Cadastral survey:
Cadastral Surveys are concerned with the measurement,
definition and mapping and recording of property
boundaries.

City Survey:
They are made in connection with the construction of
streets, water supply systems, sewers and other works.
 Surveying : Types
Based upon the purpose of survey
Engineering survey:
This is undertaken for the determination of quantities or to afford
sufficient data for the designing of engineering works such buildings,
roads and reservoirs, or those connected with sewage disposal or
water supply.

Military survey:
This is used for determining points of strategic importance.

Mine survey:
This is used for exploring mineral wealth.

Geological survey:
This is used for determining different strata in the earth’s crust.

Archaeological survey:
This is used for finding rests of antiquity.
 Surveying : Types
Based on the instrument used
Chain survey

Theodolite survey

Tacheometric survey

Compass survey

Plane table survey

Photographic survey

Aerial survey
 Survey Process
The following sequence of steps is commonly followed when carrying out a survey:

Reconnaissance
During the reconnaissance phase, the surveyor will obtain an overall picture of
the area that the project will be conducted in. They will select where the
control points will be located, the accuracy required for the control, and which
survey instruments will be required for the project.

Measurement and Marking

During the measurement and marking phase, the surveyor will perform all the
observations in the field required to accurately determine the control points, as
well as placing and observing to any temporary points such as wooden pegs.
They would also perform any calculations from the observations, such as
angular and linear measurements to find and area, volume and other details.

Plan Preparation
During the plan preparation phase, the calculations that were performed from
the field observations would be further enhanced and used to produce the final
plans for the project.
 Surveying : Functions
The determination of the size and shape of the earth and the
measurements of all data needed to define the size, position, shape
and contour of any part of the earth and monitoring any change
therein.

The positioning of objects in space and time as well as the positioning

and monitoring of physical features, structures and engineering works
on, above or below the surface of the earth.

The development, testing and calibration of sensors, instruments and

systems for the above-mentioned purposes and for other surveying
purposes.

The acquisition and use of spatial information from close range, aerial
and satellite imagery and the automation of these processes.

The determination of the position of the boundaries of public or private

land, including national and international boundaries, and the
registration of those lands with the appropriate authorities.
 Surveying : Functions
The design, establishment and administration of geographic
information systems (GIS) and the collection, storage, analysis,
management, display and dissemination of data.

The analysis, interpretation and integration of spatial objects and

phenomena in GIS, including the visualization and communication of
such data in maps, models and mobile digital devices.

The study of the natural and social environment, the measurement of

land and marine resources and the use of such data in the planning of
development in urban, rural and regional areas.

The planning, development and redevelopment of property, whether

urban or rural and whether land or buildings.

The assessment of value and the management of property, whether

urban or rural and whether land or buildings.

The planning, measurement and management of construction works,

including the estimation of costs
 Measurements
Linear and angular measurements
Pythagoras theorem and Trignometric relationships
Sine and cosine law of triangles

Units
The system of measurement used is SI units
Basic laws of triangles
 Survey control stations
The primary purpose of surveying is to locate points of precise position on the earth’s surface.

To achieve this, a network of primary survey control stations (or points) have been established.

From these primary control points further secondary survey control stations have been located.

A Survey Control Station (also known as a Standard Survey Mark - SSM) is a permanent point of known
Reduced Level (height) and Horizontal Position (Latitude and Longitude).

A Reduced Level is a known height above or below Mean Sea Level.

A Bench Mark is a point of known Reduced Level. Only the vertical position of a Bench Mark is known,
whereas both the horizontal and vertical positions of a Standard Survey Mark are known.
 Survey control stations
From the primary Survey Control Stations, a surveyor will need to extend the control
onto the work site in the form of Secondary Control.

They will do this by performing a Bearing and Distance traverse commencing at a

primary survey control station to obtain the horizontal control of the secondary
control point and a level traverse to obtain the Reduced Level of the point.

Often a surveyor will use a nail driven into the road or a mark on the road, usually
near a street corner as a survey mark.

Such a survey mark is a Temporary Survey Mark (TSM) that can be destroyed or
forgotten after the particular task has been completed.
 Distance measurement

Distance can be measured by many methods,

including:
pacing
odometer readings
optical range finders
Tacheometry or stadia
subtense bar
taping or chaining
electronic distance measurement
Satellites
 Distance measurement
The primary purpose for measuring any distance
is to place that distance onto a plan.

When a distance is measured, it is measured

along the ground, and will therefore assume the
same slope as the ground.

This distance must be converted to a horizontal

distance before it can be shown on a plan, as a
plan is a vertical view of the ground, and if a
slope distance is not converted to a horizontal
distance, it will distort the plan.
Distance measurement
Slope measurement
Distance measurement
 Distance measurement equipments
The more common pieces of equipment needed to
measure distances by traditional methods are
described below:
a. Steel Tape
b. Fibreglass or Cloth Tape
c. Chaining Arrow
d. Range Pole
e. Abney Level
f. Clinometer
g. Plumb-bob
h. Optical Square
Distance measurement equipments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVNhDZOwVU8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjuiKhbZPMs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wAdtfIbO5-g
 Distance measurement equipments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
_MYF81-_U7E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
0XXiSC7Kq54
 Electronic Distance Measurement
EDM instruments (also known as Tellurometer) operate by the
instrument transmitting electromagnetic energy to another
instrument or reflector and then receiving the return signal.

A common misconception is that the duration of travel is

measured, and the distance thus deduced.

In fact, a method of `phase comparison' is utilised to derive the

measured distance.

Using `phase comparison', the EDM instrument uses a range

of wavelengths to precisely determine the total length of the
line.

The techniques utilised by the EDM instrument are complex,

and only a generalised procedure is shown below.
Electronic Distance Measurement
 Reflectorless EDM
Reflectorless EDM has become standard in surveying. Today, up to 1 km can be bridged
without using a prism eluding the need to access the target.

The range depends on the strength of the emitted signal and the reflectivity and geometry
of the target.

Inaccessible objects or targets located at dangerous sites can thus be mapped easily.

To detect returns from bare surfaces, i.e. using no prisms, requires laser pulses with a
high energy level typically in the range of 1 to 20 watt.

In contrast, most phase-based EDMs using prisms emit signals at a level of a few
milliwatt.

The EM signal will be reflected on any surface it meets.

 Theodolite
The theodolite is an angular
measuring instrument that can read
both horizontal and vertical angles.

Angles measured in surveying are

classified as either horizontal or
vertical, depending on the plane in
which they are observed.

Horizontal angles are the basic

observations needed for determining
bearings and azimuths.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=PI_-hDcbIYU
Vertical angles are used in
trigonometric leveling, for referencing
slope with horizontal.
 Total Station Instruments
Total station instruments (also sometimes called electronic
tacheometers) combine an EDM instrument, an electronic
digital theodolite, and a computer in one unit.

These devices, automatically observe horizontal and zenith

(or altitude) angles, as well as distances, and transmit the
results in real time to a built-in computer.

The horizontal and zenith (or altitude) angle and slope

distance can be displayed, and then upon keyboard
commands, horizontal and vertical distance components
can be instantaneously computed from these data and
displayed.

If the instrument is oriented in direction, and the

coordinates of the occupied station are input to the system,
the coordinates of any point sighted can be immediately
obtained.
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=5wLPX7HhrXg
These data can all be stored within the instrument, or in a
data collector, thereby eliminating manual recording.
 Angles
The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly
observed in surveying are
interior angles,
angles to the right, and
deflection angles.
 Meridian

The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal

angle between the line and an arbitrarily chosen
reference line called a meridian.

Different meridians are used for specifying

directions including
geodetic (also often called true),
astronomic,
magnetic,
grid,
record, and
assumed.
 Meridian
Geodetic meridian is the north-south reference line that
passes through a mean position of the Earth’s geographic
poles. The positions of the poles defined as their mean
locations between the period of 1900 and 1905.

The Astronomic meridian is the north-south reference line

that passes through the instantaneous position of the Earth’s
geographic poles.

Geodetic and astronomic meridians are very nearly the

same, and the former can be computed from the latter by
making small corrections.

A magnetic meridian is defined by a freely suspended

magnetic needle that is only influenced by the Earth’s
magnetic field.

Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from

the geodetic meridian to the magnetic meridian.

The declination can be obtained through comparison of

GNSS data and compass while sighlighting along the
respective meridian or interpolation from an isogonic chart.
 Meridian
Surveys based on a state or other plane coordinate
system employ a grid meridian for reference. Grid north
is the direction of geodetic north for a selected central
meridian and held parallel to it over the entire area
covered by a plane coordinate system.

In boundary surveys, the term record meridian refers to

directional references quoted in the recorded documents
from a previous survey of a particular parcel of land.
Another similar term, deed meridian, is used in the
description of a parcel of land as recorded in a property
deed.

An assumed meridian can be established by merely

assigning any arbitrary direction—for example, taking a
certain street line to be north.The directions of all other
lines are then found in relation to it.
 Azimuths
Azimuths are horizontal angles observed
clockwise from any reference meridian.

Azimuths may be geodetic,

astronomic,magnetic, grid, record, or
assumed, depending on the reference
meridian used.

To avoid any confusion, it is necessary to state

in the field notes, at the beginning of work,
what reference meridian applies for azimuths,
and whether they are observed from north or
south.

A line’s forward direction can be given by its

forward azimuth, and its reverse direction by
its back azimuth.

In plane surveying, forward azimuths are

converted to back azimuths, and vice versa, by
adding or subtracting 180°.
 Bearing
Bearings are another system for
designating directions of lines.

The bearing of a line is defined

as the acute horizontal angle
between a reference meridian
and the line.

The angle is observed from

either the north or south toward
the east or west, to give a
reading smaller than 90°.
 Bearing
When lines are in the cardinal directions, the
bearings should be listed as “Due North,” “Due
East,” “Due South,” or “Due West.”

Geodetic bearings are observed from the

geodetic meridian, astronomic bearings from the
local astronomic meridian, magnetic bearings
from the local magnetic meridian, grid bearings
from the appropriate grid meridian, and assumed
bearings from an arbitrarily assumed meridian.

The magnetic meridian can be obtained in the

field by observing the needle of a compass, and
used along with observed angles to get
computed magnetic bearings.
 Azimuths Vs Bearing
The azimuth of a boundary line is 128° 13’ 46”.
Convert this to a bearing.

The first course of a boundary survey is written as

N37°13’W. What is its equivalent azimuth?
Azimuths Vs Bearing
 Surveyor's compass
The instrument consists of a metal baseplate (A) with two sight
vanes (B) at the ends.
The compass box (C) and two small level vials (D) are
mounted on the baseplate, the level vials being perpendicular
to each other.
When the compass was set up and the bubbles in the vials
centered, the compass box was horizontal and ready for use.
 Surveyor's compass
The compass box of the surveyor’s compass was covered with
glass to protect the magnetized steel needle inside.
The needle was mounted on a pivot at the center of a circle
that was graduated in degrees.
In using the compass, the sight vanes and compass box could
be revolved to sight along a desired line, and then its magnetic
bearing could be read directly.
 Levelling
Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various
processes by which elevations of points or differences in
elevation are determined.

It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for

mapping, engineering design, and construction.

Leveling results are used to

▪ design highways, railway tracks, canals, sewers, water
supply systems, and other facilities having grade lines that
best conform to existing topography
▪ lay out construction projects according to planned
elevations
▪ calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials
▪ Investigate drainage characteristics of an area
▪ develop maps showing general ground configurations
▪ study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
**
Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities.
 Levelling
Method of obtaining differences in height

Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic

Methods
▪ through use of reflector EDM or tape
▪ Typically used for assessing floor levels and also during
excavation etc

Differential Levelling
▪ Through levels and other accessories

Barometric Heighting
▪ Inversely evaluate height from barometric pressure

Trigonometric Heighting
▪ Use of Trigonometric relationship between established
lines
 Differential levelling
Differential levelling is done to to obtain height differences of points above or below
a horizontal line.
If this horizontal line is at a known height with respect to a known datum, then the
reduced level of points may be determined.
 Levelling Instruments
It requires a telescope to create a line of sight and
enable a reading to be taken on a graduated rod and
a system to orient the line of sight in a horizontal
plane.

A telescope, with a compensator for setting a line of

sight horizontally are referred to as Levels.

Levels are of different types

▪ Dumpy levels
▪ Tilting levels
▪ Automatic levels
▪ Digital levels
 Levelling Instruments
Both Dumpy and Tilting levels have the line of
collimation (sight) set horizontal by means of a levelling
tube (bubble).
This will set the line of sight at 90° to the vertical axis ie
to the direction of gravity.
‘Automatic’ levels will still produce a horizontal line of
sight if the telescope is almost horizontal which will put
it in the range of the compensator.
To level these instruments, the vertical axis is set
vertical by centring the circular bubble.
 Levelling Instruments

Level vials
▪ Tube type level
vials
▪ Bulls eye level
vials
Levelling Staff or
level rod
Tripods
Staff Bubble
Levelling Instruments
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
During the 1970s, a new and unique approach to
surveying, the global positioning system (GPS), emerged.

This system, which grew out of the space program, relies

upon signals transmitted from satellites for its operation.

It has resulted from research and development paid for

by the military to produce a system for global navigation
and guidance.

The entire scope of satellite systems used in positioning

is now referred to as global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS).

Receivers that use GPS satellites are known as GNSS

receivers.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
These systems provide precise timing and
positioning information anywhere on the Earth
with high reliability and low cost.

The systems can be operated day or night, rain

or shine, and do not require cleared lines of sight
between survey stations.

This represents a revolutionary departure from

conventional surveying procedures, which rely
on observed angles and distances for
determining point positions.
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
The global positioning system is based on
observations of signals transmitted from satellites
whose positions within their orbits are precisely
known.
Also, the signals are picked up with receivers located
at ground stations.
However, the methods of determining distances from
receivers to satellites, and of computing receiver
positions, are different.
 Measurement of GPS signal

In order to measure the travel time of the radio

signal, the satellite broadcasts a very
complicated digital code.
The receiver on the ground generates the same
code at the exact time and when the signal is
received from the satellite, the receiver
compares the two and measures the phase shift
to determine the time difference.
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Precise distances from the satellites to the
receivers are determined from timing and signal
information, enabling receiver positions to be
computed.

In satellite surveying, the satellites become the

reference or control stations, and the ranges
(distances) to these satellites are used to
compute the positions of the receiver.

The global positioning system can be arbitrarily

broken into three parts:
▪ the space segment,
▪ the control segment, and
▪ the user segment.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) -The space segment
The space segment consists nominally of 24 satellites operating in six
orbital planes spaced at 60° intervals around the equator.
Four additional satellites are held in reserve as spares. The orbital
planes are inclined to the equator at 55°.
This configuration provides 24-h satellite coverage between the
latitudes of 80°N and 80°S.
The satellites travel in near-circular orbits that have a mean altitude of
20,200 km above the Earth and an orbital period of 12 sidereal hours.
Precise atomic clocks are used in the satellites to control the timing of
the signals they transmit.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) - The control segment

The control segment consists of monitoring stations which monitor the

signals and track the positions of the satellites over time.

The initial GPS monitoring stations are at Colorado Springs, and on

the islands of Hawaii, Ascension, Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein.

The tracking information is relayed to the master control station in the

Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC) located at Schriever
Air Force base in Colorado Springs.

The master control station uses this data to make precise, near-future
predictions of the satellite orbits, and their clock correction
parameters.

This information is uploaded to the satellites, and in turn, transmitted

by them as part of their broadcast message to be used by receivers to
predict satellite positions and their clock biases (systematic errors).
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) - The user segment

The user segment in GPS consists of two categories of receivers that are
classified by their access to two services that the system provides.
These services are referred to as the Standard Position Service (SPS)
and the Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is a positioning and timing
service provided on GPS L1, L2 and L5 frequencies and available to all
GPS users.
The L1 frequency contains a coarse acquisition (C/A) code and a
navigation data message.
The L2 frequency contains a CM-code and CL-code signals whereas
I5-code and Q5-code signals are transmitted in L5 frequency.
The Precise Positioning Service (PPS),is a highly accurate military
positioning, velocity and timing service broadcasted at the GPS L1 and L2
frequencies.
Both frequencies contain a precision (P/Y) code ranging signal with an
encrypted navigation data message that is reserved for authorized users.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) - The user segment

Moreover, the performance obtained with GPS

depends strongly on the mode of operation.
For instance, a stand-alone receiver that uses only
the signals received from the satellites, the levels of
performance are:
▪ C/A-code receivers ~ 5 -10 m.
▪ P/Y-code receivers ~ 2 -9 m

In case of using GPS in a differential mode, DGPS,

the performances that can be expected are:
▪ C/A-code DGPS receivers ~0.7 -3 m.
▪ P/Y-code DGPS receivers ~0.5 -2.0 m.
 Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry may be defined as the science, art, and technology
of obtaining reliable information from photographs.

It encompasses two major areas of specialization: metrical and

interpretative.

The first area is of principal interest to those involved in surveying

(geomatics), since it is applied in determining spatial information
including distances, elevations, areas, volumes, cross sections, and
data for compiling topographic maps from measurements made on
photographs.

Aerial photographs (exposed from aircraft) are normally used,

although in certain special applications, terrestrial photos (taken from
Earth-based cameras) are employed.

Interpretative photogrammetry involves recognizing objects from

their photographic images and judging their significance. Critical
factors considered in identifying objects are the shapes, sizes,
patterns, shadows, tones, and textures of their images.
 Geographic Information systems (GIS)

A geographic information system can be defined as

a system of hardware, software, data, and
organizational structure for collecting, storing,
manipulating, and spatially analyzing
“geo-referenced” data and displaying information
resulting from those processes.
Geographic Information systems (GIS) - Key functions
Collect, store, and retrieve information based on its spatial
location

Identify locations within a targeted environment that meet

specific criteria.

Explore relationships among data sets within that environment

Analyze the related data spatially as an aid to making

decisions about that environment.

Facilitate selecting and passing data to application-specific

analytical models capable of assessing the impact of
alternatives on the chosen environment

Display the selected environment both graphically and

numerically either before or after analysis.”
 LIS Vs GIS
Land Information systems (LIS) has its focus directed
primarily toward land records data.Information stored within a
LIS for a given locality would include a spatial database of land
parcel information derived from property descriptions.

It might include the actual deeds and other records linked to

the spatial data.

Land information systems and geographic information

systems can share data sources such as control networks,
parcel ownership information, and municipal boundaries.
However, a GIS will usually incorporate data over a broader
range and might include layers such as topography, soil types,
land cover, hydrography, depth to groundwater, and so on.

Because of its narrower focus, there is a tendency to consider

a LIS as a subset of a GIS.
 Surveying Details in India

Details relating to various maps and surveying

activity relating to India can be found in the link
given below:

https://surveyofindia.gov.in/