Yumna Ozer Ibn Khaldun On Sufism

IBN KHALDUN ON SUFISM:
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN

SEARCH OF ANSWERS
Shifd' li-Tandhib al-Maseilil
Translated by Yumna Ozer
THE ISLAMIC TEXTS SOCIETY

Copyright © Yumna Ozer zorz CONTENTS
This first edition published 2057 by Acknowledgements vn
THE ISLAMIC TEXTS SOCIETY Translator's Introduction ix
MILLER'S HOUSE
KINGS MILL LANE
[Prologue i]
GREAT SHELFORD
CAMBRIDGE CB22 SEN, UK CHAPTER ONE: On the Way of the Sufis, Its General Examination
and Differentiation from the Other Lawful Paths. On the
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.
Meaning of This Name for the First Sufis 5
A catalogue record for this book is
available from the British Library. CHAPTER TWO: On the Aspirations of the Sufis Towards Spiritual
Struggles and the Reasons Why They Engaged in Them 19
ISBN: 978 1911141 28 0 paper CHAPTER THREE: On Spiritual Struggle in General, Its
Subdivisions and Its Conditions 35
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
CHAPTER FOUR: On How the Later Sufis Transposed the Name
installed in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form
Sufism from Its Original Meaning and Our Refutation of Them
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
on That Account 54
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publishers. CHAPTER FIVE: On the Shaykh and When His Presence Is
Required in the Spiritual Struggle 70
The Islamic Texts Society has no responsibility for the persistence
or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites
CHAPTER SIX: Arbitration between the Two Debaters:
referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any Ascertaining the Truth of Their Words and the Soundness of
content on such websites is, or will remain, Their Arguments 79
accurate or appropriate. 109
CONCLUSION AND ASCERTAINMENT
Cover design copyright © The Islamic Texts Society
Notes 111
Bibliography 143
Index 155
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the issues handled by Ibn Khaldim in Skiff li-tandhib

al-masa'il is the inadequacy of written communication to express
deeper realities. In acknowledging all those who helped me with this
project, I too feel this sense of inadequacy.
It is Safer Dal Efendi who taught me that the essence of Sufism
was hat (state) rather than gal (word). His name is engraved in my
memory and heart. As to Victor Danner, he was my shaykh
my teacher. He directed my PhD thesis with wisdom, patience and
that dry humour of his that endeared him to his students and to
all those who knew him. I will always remember him with respect
and love.
How could I ever express my thanks to all the members of my
family and to my husband Sami Ozer? In particular, I would like to
mention my youngest brother, Raja Adal, who was also my teacher.
He taught me by patiently commenting, suggesting, editing, encour-
aging and advising me at every step. Thank you, Raja, from the
bottom of my heart.
I would like to extend my thanks to William Chittick, who
encouraged me to turn my thesis into a book, to Yousef Casewit and
Mohammed Rustom for their comments and help, to our friends
Cemil Aydin and Juliane Hammer from the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, for their care and support, and to Mustafa
Demirci from the Ankara YAW.= University for his kindness and
help with many hadith references.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the members of
my thesis committee at Indiana University. The late Wadie Jwaideh,
whom we used to call 'a walking talking encyclopedia', will always
be remembered with respect and fondness, as will Salih Altoma and
Consuelo Lopez Morillas whom I thank for their interest in my
work. Jean Louis Michon also helped me locate two manuscripts in
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS
Rabat that were instrumental for my work, one of which had never
been worked on by scholars of the Shifat
I could not end this note without mentioning how rewarding
it was to work with Fatima Azzam from the Islamic Texts Society
and with my editor Andrew Booso. Both helped me improve my TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION
manuscript through an interesting exchange of ideas and construc-
tive dynamic communication. I am grateful to them and to the staff
at the Islamic Texts Society for their professionalism, their engage- i. A Sufi Debate and the Origins of the
ment in the editorial process, and their commitment to and love of Shifa' al-sa'il li-tandhib al-masa'il
their work. Towards the later part of the eighth/fourteenth century, a heated
I hope that this annotated translation of Ibn Khaldtin's Shift' discussion arose among the mystics of Andalusia. These disputes were
li-tandhib al-masa' il will shed some light into Ibn Khaldian's so intense that the verbal polemics often degenerated into 'fist and
inner life and will be of interest to lovers of Sufism. May Ibn sandal fighting'.' The debate revolved around the following ques-
Khaldun and the reader forgive me for the inevitable mistakes, tion: Can the wayfarer on the way to the Truth wholly depend upon
which are mine alone. the guidance of books on Sufism (ta,sawumj) or does he need the oral
teachings of a master, a shaykla2
Yumna Ozer The event was related by many later authors and Sufis, including
Istanbul, May 2017 Ahmad Zarruq (d. 899/1493),' Ahmad al-Wansharisi (d. 614/15o8),4
Abd al-Qadir al-Fasj (d. 1091/1680),' Abu Abd Allah al-Masnawi (d.
1136/1724)6 and Ahmad b. Ajjba (d. 1224/1806).7 They tell us that the
discussion was so drawn-out that the Sufis of Granada, unable to
find an answer or agree on a solution, decided to appeal to the eru-
dite and wise men in the Maghrib (the West). Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi
(d. 760/1388),' one of the renowned judges of Granada, addressed a
letter to several scholars, including the Malik' legist Abu al-Abbas
al-Qabbab (d. 779/1377),' who was also one of Shatibi's teachers, and
the famous Sufi Ibn Abbad al-Rundi (d. 762/1360).i. The texts of
both answers are reported by Wansharisi in his collection of legal
opinions (fatwas), Al-Micydr." We do not know whether Ibn Khaldun
(d. 808/1406), their contemporary, was involved in this controversy
and asked to give his opinion in this matter, but he wrote a treatise
in response to this controversy: the Shifd li-tandlab al-masd'il.
Much has been written about Ibn Khaldun the historian, politi-
cian and author, yet little is known about the man. Born in Tunis,
his peregrinations stretched from Andalusia to the Maghrib and the
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Translator's Introduction
Mashriq (the East). He started his political life at the age of seven- the leading 6th/12th century mystics, in particular Ibn Barrajan (d.
teen, holding several leading governmental posts in Granada, today's 536/1141)'9 and Ibn (d. 536/1141),2° coincided with the book
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and finally Egypt. His prolific writings burning'.a In Portugal, Ibn Qasi. (d. 545/1151) took advantage of the
include his seminal work the Muqaddima, in which he expounds his turmoil to rebel against the official stand and rule, organizing a pro-
philosophy of history. Beyond the celebrated statesman and social Ghazalian, syncretic-Sufi, anti-Almoravid uprising.a Nevertheless,
theorist, however, there lies the man in his inner voyage, which is a beyond the sometimes politicized auto-da-fe crisis, 'the Ihya' served
subject that is seldom broached. I believe the Shift' li-tandhib as a rallying point for alternative sources of religious authority and
al-masa'il provides such a glimpse into the spiritual life of Ibn Khaldun helped forge the self-identity of Sufism'.23 Ultimately, while it drew
and, more broadly, into the world of legists (fuqaha'; singular faqik) inspiration from Ghazali and Eastern ways, Western Sufism acquired
and Sufis in the fourteenth-century Maghrib and Mashriq. a distinctive nature and would become integrated and widespread in
the cities and rural areas of Andalusia and North Africa.==
ii. Historical Overview The Almohad dynasty also epitomized, at least in its initial stag-
es, another intense reaction against the excessive legalism that had
A. THE MAGHRIB (THE WEST)
prevailed during the reign of the Almoravids. The founder of the
Since the fifth/eleventh century, North Africa and Spain had been new dynasty, the self-proclaimed al-Mandi b. Tumart (d. 524/113o),25
under the influence of dynasties that had greatly contributed to professed a return to Islam's origins and a less literalistic approach to
the religious and doctrinal unity of the Maghrib. The Almoravids the Qur'an and Sunna, instead of the adherence to the canons and
and the Almohads, both Berber dynasties, repressed a number of regulations of a formalized Maliki juridical rite as understood by the
incipient heresies and confirmed Western Islam's strong orthodox, state jurists!' Many opposed his views and reforms, and among the
Ashcan" and Maliki heredity." The reign of the Almoravids was uncongenial were the legists. Ibn Trimart's beliefs did not survive
also that of the legists. So great was their power that, in 503/1109, him; and Abd al-Mu'min (d 558/1163), his successor, re-embraced
the state legists urged the sovereign Ali b. Yusuf b. Tashufin (d. the doctrine of the legists.'?
538/1143)4 to burn all the works of the Sufi Abu Hamid al-Ghazali Yet again, despite the official line, the more mystically-oriented
(d. 5o5/1111),ia including his seminal work, the Iliya! culam al-din. routes did not come to an end and Sufism flourished. One of the
In the Ihya', 'by bifurcating the Islamic sciences into worldly and most eminent saints who lived during the reign of the Almohads is
otherworldly, Ghazali contended that the politically connected undoubtedly the Andalusian Abu Madyan of Tlemcen, called the
legal scholars played second-fiddle to the mystics. The Ihya' thus Shaykh of Shaykhs (d. 594/1198)28 Among his teachers were the
equipped the latter with a set of arguments against the state-fuqaha' above-mentioned gad' Abu Bakr b. al-Arabi and Ibn Hirzihim of
and gave them a basis for claims to a superior form of knowledge:ia Fez, who introduced him to the teachings of Ghazali, as well as the
The auto-da-fe of Ghazali's books and the formalism of the power- controversial Malamati Abu Abd Allah al-Daqqaq of Fez (d. end of
ful state legists were met with resistance. Ali b. Hirzihim of Fez 6th/izth or early 7th/13th)29 and Abu Yafzza (d. 572/1177),
(d. 559/1164), a student of the famous Sevillian Qacli Bakr the wandering ascetic of the Berber mountains.3° The vast Shadhiliyya
b. al-Arabi (d. 543/1148),a who had introduced the Ihya' to the derives from Abu Madyan, through his follower Abd al-Salam b
Maghrib, continued propagating Ghazali's teachings!' Besides, the Mashish (d. 626/1228)31 and the latter's only disciple Abu al-Hasan
clash between the state legists and the Sufis or the opponents to the (d. 656/1258).3= Ultimately, neither the Almoravids nor
auto-da-fe was also intensified by the fact that 'the crackdown on the Almohads were able to smother the amazing surge of spiritual
life in the Maghrib or to suppress the influence of Ghazali and the never entering into direct conflict with the Marinid authorities.° It
reassertion of Sufism as part of Islam, within the boundaries of Sunni is difficult to ascertain the relationship between the more rural Sufi
Law. With time, Sufism became an integral part of Maghribi spiritual orders and the inhabitants of cities, where many individuals were
life, no longer disavowed by the legists. not officially affiliated with any specific order or community. Yet,
It was under the Marinids, the main dynasty that dominated we know that there were masters in the cities, such as Ibn Ashir of
North Africa during Ibn Khaldun's lifetime, that Maghribi rul- Sale, around whom highly erudite city dwellers, like Ibn Abbad,
ers became the defenders of Sulism.33 They were concerned with would gather in a communal manner. These individuals may have
the tentative reforms of the Almohad al-Mandi b. Tumart, which had ties with the Shadhiliyya, which had its roots in urban Morocco
they believed were laden with heresy, and they benefited from the and deeply influenced North African intellectual life,“ particular-
experiences of their predecessors. The Marinid rule was a blend of ly via the writings of Ibn Ata' Allah (d. 769/1366).45 The Shadhili
orthodoxy and Sufism that gave free reign to the intense intellectual approach emphasized the seeker's inward life over community rules,
activity that had commenced with the Almohads; and their creed and its geneses and principles fit with the way of life of the more
was pervaded with strong mystical tendencies which may have been independent people in the Maghrib, as was the case for Ibn Abbad,
the residue of the influence of Ibn Tffinart, but was more probably for instance.46
the direct consequence of the amazing proliferation of saints in the In North Africa, many 'independent' eminent Sufis were also
Maghrib.34 illustrious legists, and many a famous legist had a Sufi master.47 The
The Marinids venerated the great Sufis of the preceding era Marinid legists did not oppose Sufism provided it did not border on
like Abu Madyan and Salwi (d. 611 /1214),35 whose shrines were what they deemed to be heresy. In fact, the Sufi Path was not general-
built by Abu al-Hasan Ali b. Ùthman (d. 746/1348)3' and Abu ly considered to constitute a rupture with the legal way; rather, it was
Ìvan Faris (d. 758/1358),37 respectively. They also honoured living simply the very natural consequence of a believer's deep inclination,
saints such as Qadi al-Fishtali of Fez (d. 779/1377)38 and Ibn Ashir the outcome of a burning need for self-purification and realization,
of Sale (d. 764/1362).39 The fact that Ibn Ashir and Ibn Abbad held and one that remained in conformity with orthodox traditional Islam.
teaching positions in the Marinid cities of Sale and Fez is illustra- In the East, Ghazali had attempted to reconcile the Law and the Sufi
tive of the flourishing of tasawunsf in urban contexts. Sufism spread Path; but in the West, despite some demurrals and frictions—as in
in the rural areas as wel1.4° In his Musnad, Ibn Marzuq (d. 782/1380) the karamat al-awliya' polemic and the Ihya' crisis mentioned above—
confirms that one of the goals of the Marinid Abu al-liasan was the there was no dire need for such reconciliation because there was no
building of state-controlled madrasas, as well as Sufi lodges (zawiya), conspicuous breach between the two. This phenomenon is particu-
frontier outposts (ribat) and hostels (buyut al-fuqara').4' larly noticeable in the 'more independent' trend of Sufism described
As for Ibn Qunfudh (d. 810/1407/8), who travelled throughout above, precisely the one that attracted and united legists and mystics,
Morocco for some twenty years, he bequeathed to us in his Uns al faqir fugahii) and Sufis. With this background, Ibn Khaldun was an intellec-
wa-cizz al-baqir one of the most precious extant documents on the tual and legist who was first exposed to Sufism in the Marinid West
fourteenth-century tawa'if (sing. ta'la) or turuq (sing tariqa), or Sufi before encountering it in the Mashriq, where he spent his last days.
orders, whose meeting places were these zawiyas.4-2 According to him, B. THE MASHRIQ (THE EAST)
the numerous Sufi groups had many adherents, were closely connect-
Unlike in the Maliki West, Egypt saw no dominant school of Islamic
ed to the lives of the tribes and often exerted a strong influence on the
law. Like the West, however, the instability of the Ayyubida and
authorities, protecting and interceding for the population although
Translator's Introduction
Mamluko dynasties and the rapid turnover and corruption of the 778/1377), who visited Cairo in 726/1326, tells us that the Egyptian
rulers drew more and more believers away from worldly fighting khanaqas were meeting places 'assigned to a finfa of dervishes, most
to the Path of Sufism. Since the beginning of Islam, the Nile Valley of whom are men of culture trained in the way of Sufism'.52 They
had seen some of the greatest Sufis in the history of tasawwuf, start- were also houses where students, travellers, foreign Sufis and pil-
ing with Dhu (d. 245/859), the physicians' patron grims on their way to Mecca could lodge, rest, pray and meet each
saint and one of Cairo's legendary saints.5° But of all eras, the sev- other. Even more closely tied to the ruling dynasties than their
enth/thirteenth century was particularly prolific in saints. The Moroccan counterparts, the Cairo khanaqas were officially spon-
most revered among them were Abmad al-Badawi 676/1278),5' sored and their head was appointed by the authorities. Qalqashandi
his contemporary Ibrahim al-Dasfuji (d. 676/1277),52 Abu al-Hasan (d. 82o/1418) explains the rapport between the Egyptian khanaqas
al-Shadhili, his disciple Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi (d. 686/1287)53 and and the Mamluk government with the following words: 'Since these
Ibn 'Ala' Allah al-Iskandari. The Badawiyya (or Alirnadiyya) and institutions were in the gift of the Mamluk rulers and often very
Dasaqiyya (or Burhaniyya) tariqas were rustic orders that spread pri- lucrative to their heads, anyone whom the ruler wished to provide
marily in Egypt and drew most of their adherents from the rural with a sinecure without affecting his pocket was frequently given
population, although they also appealed to the less popular classes the appointment.'2' The statements of Ibn Battuta and Qlciashandi
and attracted some members of the ruling Mamluk dynasty. Ibn imply that the heads of the khanaqas were often high officials and
Taghribirdi (d. 874/1469) tells us of the wife of Sultan Khushqadam, intellectuals with knowledge of and possibly training in the Path of
who was buried in 871/1466 with the red flag of the Badawiyya cov- Sufism. This point is not lost on the reader who studies the Shila)
ering her coffin)°, of Ibn Khaldun, who was a judge (q&11) in Mamluk Cairo and the
As to the Shadhiliyya, its origins confirm the close connections appointed head of its main khanaqa, as we shall soon see.
between Eastern and Western Sufism. Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili was
born in Ghumara (today's Morocco), travelled to Tunisia and then in. Sufism in the Life of Ibn Khaldun
Alexandria, where he taught. His initiatic chain binds him to the
Little is known about Ibn Khaldun's links to Sufism; he was rather
two great Maghribi shaykhs: Abd al-Salam b. Mashish and, through
reticent to expose personal feelings or spiritual ideals. Moreover,
the latter, to the patron saint of Tlemcen (in present-day Algeria),
whenever religion is mentioned by him, some commentators have
Abu Madyan. The origins of his successors, or khdpias—namely the
perceived sarcastic hints, stylistic subterfuges or political guile on the
Spanish Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi and the Egyptian Ibn Ata' Allah
part of Ibn Khaldun, while others have exonerated him from what
al-Iskandari—also reflect the geographical and cultural inclusive-
they see as the inevitable reticence of a person in his position. In other
ness of Shadhih's teaching. They, too, followed his sober teaching
words, 'whenever the links between Ibn Khaldun and the Sufi Path
method and often attracted more intellectually-inclined characters.
are taken into consideration, it is generally to decry or deny them'.59
Unlike the Badawiyya and Dasaqiyya orders, the adherents to the
These interpreters see in Sufism the hermetic speculations of some
Shadhili path were both Easterners and Westerners, as attested in
strange groups, a discipline that is the polar opposite of the one delin-
Cairo, where the Shadhiliyya had many adepts of Maghribi origin.
eated by the religion of Islam and its substantive law (fiqh); and since
The meeting place of Sufis in Egypt was the khanaqa.,It resem-
they strived to associate Ibn Khaldun with purely contemporary sci-
bled its Western counterpart, the zdwiya or ribat. Like the Marinid
ences and trends, they either disregard, or else dismiss, the elements
rulers of the Maghrib, the Ayyubid and Mamluk sultans encour-
of mysticism in his works and life as flashes of obscurantism.
aged the building of both madrasas and khanagas.56 Ibn Battata (d.
To give here an exhaustive list of all of Ibn Khaldun's reviewers in religion of Islam, which had become a hindering ideology, and by the
this regard is impossible, but perhaps a few examples will help illus- general preoccupation with theology and Sufism, which could only
trate the aforementioned propensity.6° Even as early as the nineteenth paralyse intellectual life. Furthermore, Lacoste argues that Sufism
century, Alfred von Kremer, orientalist and politician, believed that was a purely scholastic movement that burdened the teaching in the
the religious references and formulae found in the Muqaddima were madrasas with illusionistic and anti-rationalistic speculations; it led to
but an Islamic stylistic device that the reader should not heed. Around renunciation, escapism away from reality, and was therefore endorsed
1930, scholars such as F. Gabrieli, G. Bouthoul, J. Ritter and others by the authorities since it could not represent a threat to the social
analysed the works of Ibn Khaldun in the light of positivism, deter- establishment.45
minism, sociology and nationalism, and wished to prove that, for Ibn Recently, many studies have insisted on the necessity for different
Khaldun, the driving forces behind history were such elements as the approaches to Ibn Khaldun's theories that rightly place him in his own
climate, standard of life, social milieu, tribal alliances or any other intellectual and religious context.66 The author grew and lived in a
positivist element, insisting that the historian's thought was clearly culture that was not secular but, on the contrary, spiritually oriented.
separated from any sort of religious consideration. To the Egyptian His own personal formation was a solid juridical and religious one,
writer and critic Taira Flusayn there was no religious influence in the and Sufism was omnipresent on the scene. There seems to be perti-
thought of Ibn Khaldun, and 'the arguments in the Muqaddima, that nent clues, for our purposes, in each phase of Ibn Khaldun's personal
could lead to the belief that such a [religious] influence exists, only biography: his early training; his sojourn in Andalusia, where his
show Ibn Khaldun's prudent desire to avoid blame for a purely histor- friendship with Ibn al-Khatib developed and matured; and finally, his
ical analysis, one that is liberated from any theological background'.6. tenure in the Mashriq, where he was appointed as the head of a Cairo
As to the writer Kai-nil Ayyad, he believes that, for Ibn khanaqa. As to his textual legacy, our sources are the Muqaddima's
the laws determining historical evolution were purely social and sixth chapter 'On Sufism' and his Ship', which is exclusively devoted
only these laws can justify history; Ibn Khaldun's principles are, in to tasawumf.
Àyydd's estimation, not theocentric at all since they oppose certain A. SHAYKH ABILI IN THE MAGHRIB
positions of Islamic theology and the traditional doctrine of causality Of Ibn Khaldun's early cultural training, we have scant relevant
and natural law. According to 'Ayydd, religion is to Ibn Khaldun a details. In his Tdrif, or autobiography, the author states that his
mere cultural and socio-psychological phenomenon, and the histo- father was his first teacher and that both his father and grandfather
rian 'shows great adroitness in interpreting the Islamic law with his had retired from the political and administrative world in order to
view, and so seeks to subordinate religion to his own scientific theo- lead a quiet religious life by joining one of the most respected zawiyas
ries'.64 For the social scientist Ali Wardi, there is no common ground in Tunis headed by Abu Alrd Allah al-Zubaydi (d. 740/134o).67 From
between the theologians' use of logic and the logical social tools the beginning, therefore, Ibn Khaldun grew up in a religious enviro-
handled by Ibn naldum.63 Moreover, according to Wardi and his co- ment and was taught the religious sciences by his family as well as
author Fuad Baali, 'Ibn Khaldun took the Sufite dialectic, deprived it by the most renowned teachers of the time. He recounts also that
of its spiritualistic colouring, and fixed it anew upon a materialistic `he learned the Qur'an, reading it twenty-one times according to
or sociological basis.'64 As to Lacoste, one of the Marxist interpreters the seven [canonical] readings until he had memorized it, studied
of Ibn Khaldun's work, he also believes that Ibn Khaldun's theories substantive law and Imam Malik's Muwatta”." To enumerate all his
are precursory to historical materialism. For him, Ibn Khaldun was teachers would serve no purpose, but it is perhaps more relevant to
unfortunately influenced by the bigotry prevailing in his time, by the deduce from the names and the subjects studied the nature of the
author's elementary education, namely the reading of the Qur'an, Sufi works were read at the court, and we are even told that Ibn
theology, religious Law and, as we shall see, Sufism.69 Ashir of Sale advised the Sultan Abu Ìvan to read Muhasibi's Kitab
The name of one of his teachers, Shaykh Abili (d. 757/1356), is al-rraya." The learned here lived in a world where, for most of the
notable!. Ibn Khalchan describes him as 'the greatest scholar in the time, there was no rupture between Islamic law and Sufism.
Maghrib and the master of the sciences based on reason'. Abili was Besides their interest in the science of Sufism or their commitment
a guest in the family's home in Tunis for many consecutive years." to the Sufi way of life, Abili and many of his students also shared
After his parents' death, Ibn Khaldhn followed his master from Tunis similar ideas about some of the burning issues at stake during the
to Fez in order to pursue his studies. With Abili, Ibn Khaldim studied Marinid era. For example, Abili and his disciples were among the
mathematics, logic and 'those disciplines that come after logic: the first to fear that, along with the successful blending of the legal and
fundamentals of religion, the Law and the philosophic sciences'." In mystical sciences that gave rise to the intellectual renaissance of the
his teaching, Abili did not follow any particular philosophical school Marinid era, there came a certain tendency towards standardization
but relied mainly on the works of Ibn Sind (d. 42_. 8/1037), including, that would lead to an eventual passivity and rigidity in the search
we are told, the sections dealing with mysticism in Kitab al-isharat for knowledge. Towards the end of the eighth/fourteenth century,
and Kitab al-shild' that the master studied with a few other privileged decadence seemed to threaten. Eminent scholars, such al-Sharif
students only." Interestingly enough, Abili himself had been taught (d 771/1369),79 and Abili's own students, including
by several teachers who were affiliated with Sufism, the most famous Ibn KhaldOn, Ibn Abbad and Maqqari, foresaw the dangers of an
of whom was Ibn al-Banna (d. 720/132o).94 excessive systematization of learning. Not only did Abili oppose the
That Abili not only taught rational sciences but also mystical building of madrasas—which he thought were a means to officialise
ones, that he had Sufi masters and that he used to visit the tomb and thus to control the intellectual activity in the country—but he
of Abu Madyan and teach in its zdwiya—all of this suggests that also disapproved of the proliferation of books, treatises and abstracts
besides being a mathematician and a philosopher, he was a legist that stifled personal effort and judgement, turning the students away
with an interest in the science of Sufism." Furthermore, some from 'the holders of the true sciences'.99 For him, the traditional
of his disciples were recognized Sufis, like Ibn Abbad al-Rundi master through whom knowledge was transmitted orally was being
(who is also believed to have been one of Ibn Khaldon's friends) supplanted, which is precisely the subject matter of Ibn Khaldidn's
or Maqqari (d. 758/1356).76 From Abili's interest in Sufism, or pos- Shift)." It is Abili who 'confronted Ibn KhaldOn with this question
sible connections to the Sufi Path, one cannot conclude that all of of knowledge, its sources, limits and transmission'.g. Ibn Khaldun
his students—including Ibn Khladon had official or non-official, reflected on this issue in the Shift', where he answered the question
theoretical or practical involvement in the practice of Sufism. Yet, posed by the eighth/fourteenth century Andalusian Sufis, his
it does confirm once more this all-important feature of Western contemporaries, namely the transmission of knowledge via books
Islam in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, namely that other or masters.
than some inevitable clashes, official Islam did not see Sufism as a
B. IBN AL-KHATIB IN ANDALUSIA
heterodox movement, as was often the case in the Mashriq despite
Andalusian and North African cultural lives were intertwined. If
Ghazali's effort to reconcile the two. In the West, 'Sufism was not
North Africa was the homeland of many a pious and saintly man,
only tolerated but incorporated into the life of Maghribi Islam'."
Andalusia was also immersed in a very intensive intellectual life. Yet,
Maghribi rulers as well as scholars seem to have been tinged with
after the sixth/twelfth century, the political situation progressively
mysticism, even when not directly involved in the mystical Path.
REMEDY FOR THE QDESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Translator's Introduction
deteriorated, the Spanish kingdoms surrendered to the Christian been a long time since I heard Abu Mandi tell it."5 The influence
advance and the centres of intellectual life slowly shifted from Spain of Abu Mandi b. al-Zayyat must have been profound on the two
towards North Africa. Nonetheless, one of the last great cities of friends. Both Ibn al-Khatib and Ibn Khaldun adopted his explanation
the Iberian Peninsula was the flourishing Granada, where political in justification of the tawbid-wabda doctrine as put forward by many
and literary life seemed to revolve around one man, Lisan al-Din b. mystics, including Ansari and his school. Ansai had been attacked
al-Khatib, Ibn Khaldun's friend. for refusing to profess divine unity (tawhid) when he in fact only
The many common patterns and similar experiences in the lives objected to the profession of divine unity in the case of the wayfarer
of the two friends captured our attention. Both had received a solid, who has attained a higher station. At this advanced level, the wayfarer
vast and refined education with a strong emphasis on the Islamic sci- experiences absolute oneness (wanda)—an intimate reality that can no
ences, participated in the political life of their time and faced the longer allow for divine unity.86
jealousies of their rivals. Both were recognized, in their time and A short distance south from Andalusia, across the strait of
today, as great writers and men of genius who evinced a solid faith, Gibraltar, the Moroccan city of Sale had become a Sufi gathering
an interest in mysticism and, somewhere in their agitated, adventur- centre. There lived a great master, Ibn Ibn al-Khatib was able
ous and worldly lives, a nostalgic yearning for solitude and peace. to meet with him during his forced exile to Morocco, whereas the
More is known about Ibn al-Khatib's links with Sufism than about Sultan Abu 'Irian himself tried unsuccessfully to obtain an audi-
Ibn Khaldim's. Yet, we know that both were students of Maqqari, ence from the much-respected saint. The happiest, most fervent and
who encouraged Ibn al-Khatib to adhere to Sufism.83 The name of peaceful days of Ibn al-Khatib were those he spent in Sale during the
another common teacher in mysticism deserves to be mentioned here year 762/1360. He withdrew there and, in his own words, 'lived in
as an additional link between Ibn al-Khatib and Ibn Khaldun: Abu retirement in the Sheilah necropolis, meditating and practising the
Mandi 10 b. al-Zayyat. There is little information about him besides litany (wird) and remembrance (dhikr) of the Sufis'.87 Ibn Khaldun
the writings of Ibn Khaldun, who devotes one of the sections of the shared with his friend Ibn al-Khatib the same need for withdrawal
Muqaddima to Ibn al-Zayyat's commentary on Abd Allah al-Ansarfs from the world, away from their turbulent lives. He also fled several
(d. 481/1089) Manazil al-sa'irin: 'I consider it appropriate to quote times the upheavals of political life and often retired to al-thbad,
here a remark made by our master, the gnostic Prif) and greatest the shrine of Abu Madyan in the city of Tlemcen."
saint in Spain, Abu Mandi Ìsa b. al-Zayyat. He commented very The correspondence between the two friends is our most pre-
often on [Abd Allah ahAnsari] Harawi's verse in his Kitab al-magamat cious source of information. When Ibn al-Khatib writes to his
[Book of Stations]. These verses seem to almost profess the theory friend telling him of his intention to renounce the world and
of absolute oneness (wanda mutlaga)'.84 Ibn Khaldun admits that he worldly ambitions, Ibn Khaldun answers, 'This is an admirable
copied this commentary from his friend's treatise on divine love, decision! Your soul has lofty aspirations; first its far-reaching desires
Rawdat al-tdrif al-shaqf, and he concludes this section with were fulfilled and now it aspires to spiritual blessings:89 However,
the following words: 'Here ends the quotation from Shaykh Abu when Ibn al-Khatib returns to Granada, he seems to relinquish his
Mandi b. al-Zayyat. I quoted it from the book on love by the wazir spiritual yearning for his previous worldly occupations. Again, he
Ibn al-Khatib entitled AI-Tdrif al-shayif [Information on the shares with Ibn Khaldun his regrets and grief: 'Since you left, I
Noble Love of God]. I heard it from our Shaykh Abu Mandi him- have compiled many collections and writings concerning which
self several times. However, I think that the written form, in Ibn one could say, "0 Ibrahim! But there is no Ibrahim today!'"9° In
al-Khatib's work, preserves it better than my memory, because it has this rather cryptic interjection, Ibn al-Khatib is actually referring
to Ibrahim b. al-Adham (d. 159/776), prince of Balkh, who was C. SA ID AL-SU ADA IN THE MASHRIQ
summoned by a mysterious voice while hunting, and immediately The life of Ibn Khaldun during this last Egyptian phase no longer
abandoned his dissipated life, put on the frock of the dervishes and reflects the conflict between the intriguing politician caught in the
wandered about the world.9' Ibn al-Khatib laments his inward con- wheel of power and the religious scholar aspiring to solitude and
flict between material and spiritual needs, his painful attachment to devotion. Twice while in the East, Ibn Khaldun performed the pil-
worldly vanities and his own vacillating spiritual state. Ibn Khaldun grimage to Mecca. In 1384, he was appointed chief Maliki judge (OA
will go through an analogous type of experience, although he did of Cairo, and in Rabic n 791/Apri11389, he was appointed head of the
not express himself as openly as his friend. However, in his letters Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya in Cairo.]]
to Ibn al-Khatib, he expresses his disillusions with the instabil- Macirizi reports that the Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya was the first
ity and the anarchy of life: 'We were the suns of glory, but they khanaqa to be built in Egypt. It was named after its founder, al-Muzaffir
all disappeared and the horizon is lamenting.' He then reflects on Rukn al-Din Baybars Ix aliashankar (d. 709/1309), as al-Khanaqa
uncontrollable human ambitions: `... [these] blind desires, this al-Baybarsiyya al-Salabiyya al-Muzaffariyya al-Rukniyya. It is
incurable disease, the perplexity that is about to take the soul...Is often more simply referred to as Said al-Su'ada'.0 According to Ibn
it of use, while my fortune is [leading me] down, to keep climb- Khaldun, this establishment was 'the greatest and most successful
ing after hopes?' He then concludes the letter with the following [khanaqa], its profits were the largest, and its endowments [awqiif,
words: ...and in your useful admonition may there be the cure singular waqf the most numerous'.97We know, for instance, that the
of this incurable disease, if God wills...For God alone is the sav- wazir Ibn al-Khatib had made several of his books an endowment
iour from the bondage of hopes and the guide to casting off these for the khanaqa. In a letter to his friend Ibn Khaldun, he writes, 'I
beguiling fortunes.'92 sent the Rawdat al-tdrif bi'l-hubb al-Marti to the East, along with my
Unlike his friend Ibn al-Khatib, however, Ibn Khaldun does book on the history of Granada and other works I wrote, and it
not give an explicit reason for aspiring towards withdrawal from was declared a wail at the khanaqa of Said al-Sucada' in Cairo and
worldly and political life. The cruel imprisonment and ignomini- people rushed to read it.'98
ous death of Ibn al-Khatib (also named dial' 1-mitatayn for having The head of the Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya was given the title of
been buried alive because he was condemned for holding heretical `Shaykh of Shaykhs' (shuyakh) by the Egyptian Mamluk sultans,
views) could more than account for our historian's excessive pru- `which, however, was only honorific and did not imply any wider
dence in the verbalization of what could be used against him. Ibn jurisdiction than that of his own establishmene.99 In the year
Khaldun made the final decision to abandon the world with its traps 791/1389, the Shaykh of Shaykhs Sharaf al-Din al-Ashqar died and
and deceptions more than twice.93 Yet, in 776/1375, after his return Ibn Khaldun was appointed to the directorship of the khanagan° by
from Granada, and like Ibn al-Khatib, he was pressed into service Sultan al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Barquq.'°' We do not have many details
by chieftains and monarchs who needed him to intercede and medi- concerning Ibn Khaldun's activities and responsibilities while he
ate for them. Again, in 784/1382, he departed for Egypt, once more held this position; however, we do know that in order to be able
aspiring to lead a less turbulent life, yet reluctantly acceding to the to hold this important and lucrative post, one had to be a member
sovereign's request that he meet with Tamerlane in 803/1401.94 It is of the Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya. Ibn al-Furat testifies: Ìbn Khaldun
only during the third and last phase of his life, in his Egyptian years, spent one day in the khanaqa, and became a member because it was
that Ibn Khaldun's yearning for peace and solitude was answered. required that the Shaykh of this khanaqa be one of its Sufi members.'nn
Nonetheless, he did not occupy this position for very long because
Barqiiq was dethroned and Ibn Khaldun was forced to resign.m3 We guide, and in spite of the rather generalized recognition of moderate
do not have more information on the subject but a final relevant fact Sufism in the Maghrib, it seems that a certain discretion was deemed
concerning Ibn Khalcian's death is telling. He was buried in a cemetery to be necessary when a student was reading works on mysticism with
outside Bab al-Nasr, on the road to Raydaniyya (now Abbasiyya), his teacher. Most likely, discretion was all the more essential when an
in a cemetery that was established by the Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya author was writing a treatise on the same subject.'°7 We must also bear
towards the end of the eighth/fourteenth century and was restricted in mind the torture and death of the wazir Pisan al-Din b. al-Khatib,
to the burial of Sufis. The exact site of this tomb is unknown to us.'°4 accused of heresy (zandaqa) by his enemies in 776/1374. We do know
The above-mentioned items bring to light some of Ibn Khaldun's that Ibn Khaldun wrote the Shifiz'ws after his friend had completed
feelings and his links with religion and the Sufi Path, opening the the Rawdat al-tdqf bi'l-hubb al-shayf (probably in 768/1367), and it
way for new perspectives and validating efforts to reintegrate the was four years later, in 772/1371, that the wazir's 'heretical views'
historian into his century and milieu. We are not trying to turn Ibn were denounced. Ibn Khaldun, who seems to have had the nature of
Khaldun into an eminent Sufi, but we would like to examine his a prudent diplomat who was aware of the dangers of certain views
attitude towards religion and Sufism, an unexplored and devalued on religion, became all the more cautious not to flaunt his ideas and
area although an essential and determining one in the study of his beliefs about mysticism. As to Tang, one of the greatest Khaldunian
thought. More important than the historical evidence about Ibn scholars, he simply construes this silence as very normal for a histo-
Khaldfm's links to Sufism is his textual legacy, and the study of Ibn rian and a courtier who was proud to mention his works only when
Khaldfin's treatise on Sufism, the Shifa', is the main source for such these were dedicated to royalty. This is why, according to him, Ibn
an investigation. Khaldun only referred to, quoted from and taught his two major
works, namely the Muqaddima and the Ìbar, and ignored all of his
iv. The Shifa', a Manuscript on Sufism other works.m9Ibn Khalchan's silence concerning the Shift' should not
raise doubts about its authenticity, as his lack of allusion to his other
A mysterious halo seems to surround the Shift' al-sd'il li-tandhib
so-called minor works (like the Lubab, for instance) has never called
al-masod'il. Not only do Khaldunian studies tend to slur over and slight
their legitimacy into question.
the treatise, but Ibn Khaldun himself forbears to mention it in his
letters, works or autobiography. Why should the scholar shroud his B. AUTHORSHIP
own treatise in secrecy? Despite our last assertions, it is legitimate to ask whether the author
of this book could be other than Ibn Khaldun. Tanji and Badawi
A. IBN KHALDON'S SILENCE
demonstrate that some statements of the historian himself and those
Ibn Khaldun left no exhaustive, systematic list of his works and did
of his commentators provide the proofs for the attribution of the
not even mention the early ones..., If we postulate that the Shifa' is Shifa' to Ibn Khaldun. After the conventional opening phrases,
one of Ibn Kinkhan's early works—a question that will be discussed
two manuscripts specify the name of the author as 'Abu Zayd Abd
later on—his silence is interpreted as follows by some Khaldunian
al-Rahman, son of the accomplished and versatile legist, the pious
scholars. Ibn Khaldun recounts in the Tdrif that some-of Abili's
and saintly late shaykh, Abu Bala Muhammad b Khaldun al-Hadrami
advanced students 'used to meet alone with the master in his house'
when studying works on mysticism.'" Besides, the fact that mysticism (may God have mercy upon his soul)'. This is the first substantial ele-
is by essence a secretive and well-guarded discipline that intimates a ment identifying the author of the treatise as Ibn Khaldun. Tanji, in
personal innermost search and a thorough bond with the spiritual his introduction to his edition of the Shift', stresses that one of the
manuscripts (our Ms.B) had belonged to a well-known Moroccan shaykh Ibn Sabin. He explains that Ibn Khaldun referred to them as
erudite named al-Hasan b. Mastid (d. 1111/1699):37 'a very the partisans of absolute oneness, 'in the answer we mentioned earlier
trustworthy scholar according to the sources'."' Tanji asserts that had [namely the shjfal ...So consult it if you wish!'339
Yfisi doubted the authenticity of the manuscript, he would certainly Yet, along with these valid and convincing references, there
have questioned its attribution to Ibn Khaldun."' Therefore, not only are two somewhat puzzling cases where Ibn Khaldun is alluded to,
do the manuscripts provide us with clear evidence as to the name of again in connection with the Shifi', but under an altered name. In
the author of the treatise, but several subsequent writers refer to Ibn the first instance, Abu al-Abbas Ahnaad al-Fasi (d. 1021/1612):22 in
Khaldun in connection with the Shifi' and the debate that took place his commentary on the poem Al-Ra'iyya fi al-suluk by Abu Bakr
in eighth-/fourteenth-century Andalusia. Muhammad b. Alimad al-Sharishi (d. 7th/13th),'' twice refers to
Ahrnad Zarruq refers to the treatise in three instances: he sum- Àbu Bakr Muhammad b. Khaldun' as author of a treatise entitled
marizes the debate in Qauidid al-tasawtauf, tells us in Iddat al-murid Shifts' a/-sei1.322 In the second instance, Ibn Ajiba (d. 1224/1809), in
that Ibn Khaldun wrote a treatise concerning this specific question, his commentary on Ibn al-Banna's Al-Mabakith al-asliyya, ascribes to
and refers to our author in his commentary on Al-Qasida al-nuniyya the historian a new agnomen (kunya), that of Abu Abd Allah:23 These
by Abu al-I-Jasan al-Shushtari,333 saying, 'Ibn Khaldun tells us in the two cases caused the critics to question and doubt the attribution of
Shifd al-sa'il that Plato was one of the Sufi masters and this is an this treatise to Abd al-Rahman b Khaldun. But the historian Tanji
unsettled question:334 Finally, he also alludes to the treatise and its solves this dilemma by considering both the names and agnomens of
author, although implicitly this time, in Al-Natilm al-kafiya, when he all the family members of Ibn Khaldun who could possibly have been
discusses the question of the one attracted to God (majdhub) and their the authors of the treatise and by matching the date of their death
sanctity, and quotes a rather lengthy passage from the conclusion with the date of composition of the ship. Although Ibn Khaldun's
of the Shifi', telling the reader, 'This was dealt with by one of the father was named Muhammad and had Abu Bakr as an agnomen, he
scholars:Hs One of Zarruq's commentators later clarified this latter died in 749/1348, the year of the plague. His brother was also named
statement, confirming that 'the scholar' is none other than 'Abu Zayd after his father, although we ignore his agnomen, but he died in
b. Khalclun'..6 As to Abd al-Qdir al-Fasi, he brings up the debate 735/1352. As to the agnomen Abu Abd Allah, it was never mentioned
that took place between the later Andalusian Sufis concerning guid- by the biographers and Tanji reaches the cogent conclusion that Abu
ance through books rather than through a shaykh, and adds that 'they al-Abbas Ahmad al-Fasi and Ibn Ajiba simply made an inadvertent
wrote down their questions and these were answered by Shaykh Ibn mistake. Since the debate between the Andalusian Sufis took place
Abbad [al-Rundi] , Abu Zayd b. Khaldun, and others, with each one during the third quarter of the eighth/fourteenth century, none
answering according to his knowledge'."7 Finally, Masnawi states in other than Abd al-Rahman b. Khaldun could possibly have written
Juhd al-muqill al-qasir: 'Ibn Khaldun said in his comprehensive answer the Shifitai Thus, Ibn Khaldun refers to himself as the author of the
concerning the need for a shaykh in the Sufi Path that the great Sufis treatise, and the subsequent Sufis and their commentators refer to it
must not divulge their knowledge in books, or in words, because or quote from it as a work by him. If Ibn Khaldun was the author, the
their knowledge is a secret between the servant and his Lord...and next question is when and where did he write his treatise on Sufism?
he [Ibn Khaldun] adds...al-Flusayn b. al-Hallaj was killed because
C. DATE OF COMPOSITION
of an order issued both by the people of the Law and the people of
It is around 768/1367 that Lisan al-Din b. al-Khatib wrote his
the Path', a comment that indeed pertains to the Shifi'." e Masnawi
Rawdat bi'l-hubb al-shayifi and since, as we mentioned earlier,
cites Ibn Khaldun a second time when he mentions Shushtari and his
Ibn Khaldfin admits having borrowed several passages from his referred to as Ms.C); it was copied in m75/1664 in Morocco and
friend's treatise on divine love, the Shift' could not possibly ante- belongs to the private library of Ahmad b. al-Mallih
date the Rawda. We also know that the debate between the Sufis We were able to obtain copies of Ms.A and Ms.B. we did not
of Andalusia took place during the third quarter of the eighth/ have a copy of Ms.C, so we did not consult it; however, according
fourteenth century. We know, too, the death dates of the schol- to Tanji, this third manuscript is not critical to this study.' Of the
ars involved, which considerably narrows down the rather vague two manuscripts we consulted, it is undoubtedly Ms.B that presents
period called 'the end of the century'. Ibn Abbad died in 792/139o, the most problems. Ms.B is 173 pages long and each page has twenty
Shatibi in 79o/1388 and Qabbab in 778/1386. The debate in Andalusia lines. It is written in a relatively clear and legible Moroccan script
obviously could not have taken place after 778/1386, death date of although the copyist has misvowelised some words and made many
Qabbab, who took part in it by writing a fatwa in answer to the grammatical mistakes, which seems to indicate, as Tanji suggests, that
question that so agitated these Sufis. Ibn Khaldun's life also helps he was not very well educated:29 Furthermore, three pages (pages To
determining the date of composition. The author went twice to to 12.) are missing and the order is disturbed (pages 75 to 84 in the
Fez, the city where Shatibi sent letters on behalf of the Andalusian numbering of Ms.B should actually be placed after page 9 of the
Sufis, asking Qabbab and Rundi for their opinion. Ibn Khaldun's same manuscript). The writing in Ms.B is small, tight and sometimes
first visit to Fez took place in 755/1354, a date that is cancelled by difficult to decipher. Ms.A seems to be by far the best manuscript. It
the first argument (date of composition of the Rawda). He went is forty-three pages long, with thirty-one lines per page; the order
there for a second time in 774/1372, this time for a period of two of the pages is undisturbed, unlike Ms.B, and no pages are missing.
full years. It seems more than likely that Ibn Khaldtm composed the There are fewer mistakes in Ms.A than in Ms.B and very probably
Shift' in Fez between 774/1372 and 776/1374, a time on which both than in Ms. C since Tanji and Badawi tell us that in this respect Ms.
scholars Badawi and Tanji agree.125 C is actually worse than Ms.B.
D. ASSESSMENT OF THE MANUSCRIPTS E. THE PRINTED EDITIONS AND THE TRANSLATIONS
To our knowledge, there are three extant manuscripts of the Shifa'. There are three printed editions available of the Shift'. The first
The first one (hereinafter referred to as Ms.A) was copied in 816/1413, one was published in Istanbul in 1984 by Muhammad b. Tawit
that is, seven years after the death of Ibn Khaldun. It is catalogued at al-Tanji, one of the most famous Khaldunian scholars. He had pub-
the Moroccan Royal Library in Rabat under the number 5522. The lished in 1951 Ibn Khaldun's Tdrif and was preparing an edition of
second one (hereinafter referred to as Ms.B) was copied much later, the Muqaddima, on which he had spent more than thirty years, but
in the year 89o/1485, eighty-two years after its author's death and unfortunately he died with his work still unpublished. His edi-
seventy-four years after Ms.A. It belonged successively to the well- tion of the Shift) is a critical one based on Ms.B and Ms.C. It is an
known Moroccan scholar Abu 'Ali al-Hasan b. Masàd al-YEsi, his extremely thorough work which shows not only his knowledge of
son Abd al-Karim, and ultimately the historian Abd al-Rahman b. Ibn Khaldfm but also his understanding of Sufism. The second edi-
Zaydan (d. 1365/1946)." In 1949, the librarian Abu Bakr al-Tatwani tion by Ignace-Abdo Khalife appeared in Beirut in 1959, about nine
took the Shifie to Cairo, where it was copied and kept in the Dar months after Tanji's edition. It is based only on a microfilm of Ms.B
al-Kutub al-Misriyya under the number 24299b. In 1967, he gave and reflects all the errors of this manuscript. Some pages are missing,
it to the Royal Library of Rabat where it is now catalogued under others are misplaced and many words were not read correctly. Abd
the number 12143. There is a third manuscript still extant (hereinafter al-Rahman al-Badawi harshly criticizes this edition for its deficiencies."
The third more recent edition, edited by Muhammad Mutf al-Flafiz are out of sight or physically distant, or to persons who live later
and published in Damascus in1996, is based on the two manuscripts and whom one has not met, since they are not contemporaries'.'33
that we consulted and provides the reader with a well-structured, Indeed, this was the only way Ibn Khaldun could communicate with
meticulously edited and reader-friendly text. Finally, one should the distant-in-space Sufis of Granada, effectively tackle a present-day
mention a Turkish translation of the Shift' by Suleyman Uludag, issue and leave a message for present and future generations.
published in Istanbul in 1977 and again in 1984; this translation is
based on Tanji's edition and the commentary reflects the editor's v. Ibn Khaldun's Understanding of Sufism
knowledge of Islamic and mystical literature. The Shift' was trans-
lated into French by Rene Perez and published in Paris in 1991, under A. SUFISM' AND THE 'SCIENCE OF SUFISM'
the title La Vole et la Loi ou le Maitre et le Juriste. It is a very thorough For Ibn Khaldun, Sufism always existed. It was an abiding reality
work that shows a deep knowledge of Ibn Khaldun, the Maghrib and an integral and immutable part of Islam. Thus, it was born with
and Sufism. Rene Perez (like Tanji and Khalife) was not aware of the Islam; or, rather, it was Islam since the first Sufis were the Prophet and
existence of Ms.A, by far the best of the three existing manuscripts. his Companions. However, Ibn Khaldun makes a distinction between
`Sufism' (tasawwuf) and the 'science of Sufism' (71m al-tasawwuf) that
F. NATURE AND PURPOSE appeared subsequently.
The Shift' is a written treatise born out of an oral debate around The pious earlier generations of Muslims led virtuous lives that
the question of orality or writing, which in the Middle Ages refers largely accorded with the Law (sharica) and the teachings of the Sufi
to the debate between the need for a master's oral transmission or Path. This was a period in which Sufism had not yet become a formal
the sufficiency of a book's written testament.'3' According to Ibn science, as it was a lived reality. After this initial wholesome period of
Khaldun, every science can be compiled. Scientific technical terms widespread unity, there came a second age when more disagreements
and logical arguments are tools that help convey meanings, but these appeared among the members of the Islamic community. These disa-
tools become hazardous when dealing with the mystical domain. In greements caused breeches between the Law and the Path; this led to
the shifa', Ibn Khaldun denounces the Sufis who compiled books splits within the individual himself that, consequently, roused dichot-
in which they tried to describe with technical words some mysti- omies among the members of the community as well. Many people
cal truths that no book could possibly contain and no word could forgot the importance of inward deeds and neglected the actions stem-
possibly express because spiritual realities go beyond the limits of ming from the heart. The signs of aging and decline were already
conventional language. This is especially true for the mystic who has visible but Sufism was still alive. Nevertheless, it became necessary for
reached the more advanced stages of development in the wayfaring. the legists to standardize ritual observances and codify laws, and for
Yet, Ibn Khaldun wrote a treatise on Sufism, the orally-transmitted a number of Sufis to put into writing some of the recordable aspects
science par excellence. of the Path. This was a sign of growth and maturity perhaps, but also
According to Ibn Khaldun, communication takes place through a precursor to the somewhat inevitable ultimate third age that Ibn
verbal expression or written form."2. The cibra, or spoken word, is a Khaldun considered to be defined by heretical and distorted doctrines.
medium between the speaker and the listener. The recorded word is Around the year 200 An, 'the elect among the Sunnis were those who
inferior to direct conversation but is necessary when the purpose is valued the actions stemming from the heart, and isolated themselves,
urgent and when the need can only be met in this way. It is needed following the steps of their worthy predecessors both in their inward
when an author wishes to communicate his thoughts 'to persons who and outward deeds. They were called Sufis.''34
Already by the fourth/tenth century, Ali b. Ahmad al-Bushanji not be probed with the same tools. So long as this hierarchical view
had described the fundamental transformation in Sufism with a few of knowledge is respected, so long as the gap between the rational
words that epitomize Ibn Khaldun's historical theory for the devel- sciences of the scholars, philosophers and theologians (ahl al-na?ar
opment of mystical science in Islam: 'Today Sufism is a name without or ashab al-dalil) and the intuitive way of the Sufis (ahl al-kashf wa'l-
a reality, while it used to be a reality without a name.'.35 Nascent mushahada) is maintained, each method is sound and reliable. As soon
Islam had no need for a label or a codified science of tasawwuf, but as any confusion appears between the methods of the two ways,
the subsequent schools of Sufism developed their own separate legal their validity is to be questioned.
systems, and the 'reality without a name' slid down towards the level The rational is the key element to the philosophical and a tool in
of any other scientific endeavour in Ibn Khaldra's epistemological the theological sciences. Philosophy is essentially a search, and there-
structure, to become a category of science, 'the science of Sufism'. fore a step from ignorance to knowledge. It is not the science of
philosophy as such that Ibn Khaldun attacks, but the philosophers, or
B. IBN KHALDITIN'S EPISTEMOLOGY rather 'the pretenders to philosophy' who believe that ultimate Truth
Ibn Khaldun's epistemological system is one of the issues that has
can be reached through speculation:39 And as to the positive, trans-
puzzled many a scholar who came to believe the historian was
mitted, legal sciences (al-cult- n al-wacriyya al-nagliyya wa'l-sharciyya),
torn between two tendencies: 'the most sublime rationalistic trans-
reason has some role to play in their verification or application,
ports... and the most obvious mystical obscurantist propensity':36
although a very restricted role; for it is one that is limited to relat-
Some detected contradictions in Ibn Khaldun's theory of knowl- ing 'subsidiary problems to the fundamental'.14° Thus, reason is not
edge because they wished to see in him an early representative of
completely disqualified, but is given a limited role. As such, reason is
materialistic dialectic or positivism.'" These misunderstandings and but a tool of the mind: it differentiates true from false, but is also the
misinterpretations of his epistemological methodology stem partly
source of many illusions. Its shortcomings become apparent when it
from a secular critical interpretation that has tended to forget that tries to deal with that which is beyond our own being and our human
Ibn Khaldun's work was produced in an intellectual context in which perception:4' For Ibn Khaldun, when the rational infiltrated the spir-
belief in a spiritual world was prevalent and divine agency was held itual domain, mysticism deviated from its original course and was no
to be omnipresent.'" longer a way of life, or a gradual inward wayfaring, or a harmonious
Ibn Khaldun defines knowledge according to its object and the balance between the Law and the Path.
object of Sufism is knowledge of the ultimate Truth. His episte-
mological system is a hierarchical one with three ways of knowing: C. THE LAW AND THE PATH
the scientific or acquired learning (ìlm kasbi) by scholars; inspired Despite the overall cordial relationship between the legists and the
knowledge (ì/m i/hamf) or intimate finding (wydani) open to saints Sufis in the period under discussion, some Sufis held that their Path
and Sufis; and prophetic knowledge, which is only accessible to and the way of the legists had diverged.142 Ibn Khaldun's position
prophets through revelation (wahy). In this epistemological structure is here noteworthy. Not only was he a legist, a Maliki judge, and
the science of history belongs to the first level, as it uses scientific therefore an eminent supporter of the state religion, but he was also
methods of inquiry, whereas Sufism, which fits in the second catego- a man with an interest in and ties to Sufism. If there are some criti-
ry, does not. If facts can be observed and measured and their causes cal references to Sufism in Ibn Khaldun's writings, 'none pertain to
perused in a purely deductive, methodical and objective way, the the Sufi theory of knowledge'.43 Indeed, Ibn Khaldun did denounce
inscrutability of revelation and the Laws of God cannot and should some later mystical systems that he thought were strange and harmful.
L. REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Translator's Introduction
His critique and objections focused on two groups, the first that Law, namely the one related to the outward only, and therefore he
believed in [Self] disclosure (ashab al-tajalli) and the second in Oneness can only pass judgement on the validity or invalidity of the actions in
(ashab al-wanda). Nonetheless, in other instances, he actually defends view of this worldly life. Then this is a different problem'. 45 Ideally,
Sufism against the attacks of the legists. however, the wisdom of the legists and the Sufis should be all-inclu-
Ibn Khaldun does not believe, like Ibn Abbad, that the solution sive. As a maliki, Ibn Khaldun follows in the way of Imam Malik
for the wayfarer on the mystical Path lies in the outright shunning of who is reported to have said, 'He who studies the Law (tafaqqaha)
the representatives of the Law. But he believed that the legists lacked and does not study Sufism is perverse (Pig); he who studies Sufism
the intuitive experience of the Sufis and were unable to understand and does not study the Law is a heretic (zindiq); and finally, he who
what lay beyond demonstration (burhan) and proof (dali1).'44 Neither studies both, will reach the truth.'4' So spiritual perfection lies in the
does Ibn Khaldun fully endorse Ghazal': s theory of reconciliation knowledge of and fidelity to the Law, whereby the legal structure
between the Law and the Path. But he does agree with Ghazali (and absorbs the teaching of Sufism and Sufism conforms to orthodoxy.
Ibn Abbad) that the legist concentrates on the actions related to the Ibn Khaldun agrees with Ibn Abbad when the latter insists that 'he
physical body and worldly needs, whereas the Sufi deals with the who transgresses the Law goes against the Truth (haqiqa), and he who
deeds of the heart and struggles in view of the Hereafter. Yet, the goes against the Truth transgresses the Law'.'49 But for Ibn Khaldun
distinction between the legist and the Sufi is not so trenchant in Ibn there should be no conflict because the Law and the Path are one.
Khaldun's thought. For Ibn Khaldun, by trying to reconcile the The legists should understand that the Law applies to the believer's
people of the outward (ahl al-zahir) and the people of the inward outward life as well as to his inward life. As to the Sufis, they should
(ahl al-batin), Ghazali only succeeded in further widening the gap return to the Sufism of the Companions of the Prophet and the early
that separated the two factions. While acknowledging the rift, Ibn masters, for in that time tasawwuf was Islam.
Khaldun the historian ascribes this rift to historical factors and not D. BOOKS OR MASTER?
to any inherent difference between the two ways.'45 After the sec- Time had altered Sufism and its transmission methods. It was meant
ond/eighth century, one unified and unique science was split into to be a reality attained through mystical tasting (dhawq) and insight
two, namely the knowledge of the outward (fiqh al-zahir) and the (basira), and passed on from master to disciple. When decline loomed
knowledge of the inward (fiqh al-batin) or Sufism. Therefore, the and its transmitters, the Sufi shaykhs, became rare and difficult to
original synergy that had existed between the outward and inward find, some scholars strived to compile Sufi teachings in books or
facets of life faded away, leaving the legist only in charge of the laws manuals. Can books replace the master? This is the question that so
regulating worldly matters. For Ibn Khaldun, the shift', or cure, is agitated the Sufis in Andalusia and the debate that is at the root of
neither reconciliation (as exemplified by the thought of Ghazali) nor Qabbab's fatwa, Ibn Abbad's letter and Ibn Khaldun's
eschewal (like Ibn Abbad). Instead he argues for a voyage back in Abu al-Abbas Ahmad Qabbab was a Maliki legist who taught
time, a return to an earlier Islam when there was an 'absolute com- substantive law in Gibraltar and Fez and followed for some time
plementarity' or harmony between inward and outward, because the the Sufi Path with Ibn Ashir in Sale. In his fatwa, Qabbab humbly
Legislator did not set two separate ways, one for the outward and one and cautiously starts by apologizing for his lack of both theoreti-
for the inward life: cal and practical knowledge about Sufism.15° He then proceeds with
Accordingly, the upholders of the Law should be able to help the argument, insisting on the need for a guide as a general rule
guide the individual to salvation. This is possible, he writes, unless
in whichever discipline is sought, because no art, whether it be
the 'particular mufti's knowledge is limited to the first half of the
grammar, law, medicine or any other science, can be mastered from need one, just like the chronically ill need a competent physician.'4
books alone. This rule is even more rigorous in the particular case As to those 'who have expansive minds and who have their lower
of Sufism since it is a discipline whose adherents often convey per- selves under control', they need a shaykh al-tarbiya who will direct
ceived realities through symbols or allusions. Qabbab takes a firm every individual according to his specific needs.
position in favour of the need for a living master by telling us that On the question of books, Ibn Abbad recommended that the
the seat of knowledge used to be the hearts of men but when it wayfarer read the writings of the Sufis, provided the authors have
was transferred to books, the keys to these books moved to the sufficient learning and intimate knowledge; but the writings must
hands of men. Besides, he adds: 'As far as I know, it is not enough be by Sufis with a genuine spiritual genealogy and their writings
to learn about the science of Sufism—one has to taste it; it is no must be perfectly consistent with the demands of the Law. Yet, in
use studying the doctrine or the written material without assum- order to gauge all these criteria, the disciple might need the help
ing the qualities, or realizing its spiritual states!'" Sufism has two of a teaching shaykh. Therefore, books do not altogether dispense
aspects: an inward mystical side dealing with the knowledge of the with teachers who, anyhow, are very difficult to find these days.
states and stations, for which the presence of a shaykh is indis- Instead of siding with either of the two Granada factions, Ibn
pensable; and an ethical facet involving the awareness of the flaws Abbad offers his advice: rather than depending on either books
and blemishes in the self, and the learning about their appropriate or masters, the wayfarer should rely on God. It is no use waiting
cures. Knowing this second part of the science of Sufism is the duty for a shaykh because a spiritual master and the Sufi Path are but
of all believers and it is a much easier task that could perhaps be gifts from God, signs of divine grace, and it is equally pointless for
achieved by way of books, but only in case the novice cannot find the aspiring wayfarer to relinquish his goal. The final object in the
a master, although again following a guide would be preferable. quest is neither books nor masters, but inheres in the attitude of the
As to the works that dwell on the ecstatic experiences of the Sufis, believer who must concentrate on his spiritual activity while also
Qabbab describes them as unessential and even dangerous, as they hoping and praying for a guide.
can lead the reader astray. This is why a Sufi like Fishtail sought But the question that seems to preoccupy Ibn Abbad most is the
to erase from works like Ghazali's Ihyd' and Qushayri's Risala all change in Sufism that not only led to the excessive reliance on other
the cryptic passages devoted to the world of the Unseen (ìlm al- than God, but also to the excessive need for a teaching shaykh. Ibn
cAbbad relates the increased demand for teaching shaykhs to a deep
ghayb), and leave only the sections dealing with the Law:52 Indeed,
adds Qabbab, these explanations are usually more confusing than change in the nature of the wayfarers: Ì do not know which of the
enlightening to the average reader. As to those who contend that a two calamities is greater: the disappearance of the spiritual guide
shaykh can also lead his disciple to error, Qabbab concludes that is with profound understanding, or the lack of sincere discip1es;'55
true, but so can books. Ibn Khaldun, like Ibn Abbad, deplores the change that has occurred
As to Ibn Abbad al-Rundi's letter, it is a long and interesting in the Sufi way. Ibn Abbad the Sufi regrets the excessive need of
essay in which the renowned Sufi refuses to get involved in the an increasing coarser-minded majority for the teaching shaykh and
Granada quarrels and chooses to concentrate on the role ofthe spir- disapproves of the developing dichotomy between the teaching
itual guide.w There are two types of spiritual guides: the teaching shaykh and shaykh of spiritual direction:0 Ibn Khaldun the legist
shaykhs (shuyukh al-taclitn) and the educating shaykhs or spiritual deplores the failure of the majority to value the deeds of the heart
guides (shuyakh al-tarbiya). Not all wayfarers need a shaykh and the life of the spirit and hence disapproves of the dichotomy
but those 'who have a banal mind and rebellious lower self' definitely between legist and Sufi.
Translator's Introduction
Ibn Khaldun views the question of teaching or guiding in terms and secret realities rather than with conventional ideas and scien-
of spiritual struggles (mujahadat). The first struggle, God-wariness tific rules; and these cannot be contained in words or summarized
(taqwa), is incumbent upon all Muslims; and Ibn Ibn in books. Nonetheless, quite remarkably for one who was to all
Abbad—affirms that the novice must not wait for a master in order intents and purposes a 'friend' of Sufism, Ibn Khaldun considers
to start working on himself. At this stage, books such as Muhasibi's this 'third spiritual struggle' to be 'utterly reprehensible to the
Ricaya are sufficient and 'the shaykh will not add anything to the point of being prohibited, or even more'. However, he then quickly
writings of scholars who transmit the teachings of the Book and steps back from this stance and concedes that the wayfarer 'can still
the Sunna'.'57 Yet, collaborating, emulating and learning from a seek unveiling and progress a little on its path', but 'it is a difficult
teacher cannot harm the novice; on the contrary, it would perfect and dangerous path strewn with dangers and obstacles, so he must
his struggle. heed and avoid'. Yet if he pursues it, Ibn Khaldun stresses that he
In the second struggle, the wayfarer strives to walk on the straight must travel the Path under the guidance of a spiritual master and
path and cure his heart of its imperfections. This step is not an obli- educating shaykh.
gation on every individual subject to the Law, nor is the presence of Like Ibn Khaldun, most Sufis have always urged the seeker to
a shaykh required because the foundation of this path is the Qur'an follow a shaykh in wayfaring (suluk), often adducing the following
and the Sunna, and these are thoroughly and openly expounded in Qur'anic verse: '0 believers, fear God, and seek the means to come
books such as qushayrfs Risala and Awarif al-mdarif by Suhrawardi to Him, and struggle in His way; haply you will prosper' (5 :35). The
(d. 633/n34).158 Nevertheless, since it is difficult to know the self, the `means' (wasila) is understood as being the spiritual guide who can
wayfarer may need a teaching shaykh to guide him, correct him and in no way be replaced by books. As the Sufi-aspirant (mutasuww)
help him in his study of such writings and laws. progresses in his wayfaring, books prove inadequate and the need
As to the struggle towards the third combat of unveiling (kasly) for a guide is no longer a favoured option but becomes an urgent
and witnessing (mushahada), its aim is to uncover and witness the need. When the Sufi, with God's help, reaches towards the ultimate
realities of the spiritual world. In it, the guidance of a shaykh is stages in the Path to become the receptacle of ephemeral inrushes
imperative. The shaykh must not only be a teacher (mdallim) but (waridat) or Self-disclosures (tajalliyat), then the need becomes vital.
he must also be a guide in spiritual training (murabbt). '59 Four givens Certainly, 'seduced, deceived and outwitted on this path is he who
render the shaykh indispensable in this last combat. Firstly, unlike imagines himself able to traverse the limitless desert and attain the
the Sufis who see in this struggle the ultimate essential goal of the Karba of union with the strength of his mere human footsteps,
spiritual search, Ibn Khaldun the legist thinks it has become a spe- without guide or escort', warns Najm al-Din al-Razi 161 Therefore,
cial path with its own laws and rules different from the common the advanced stages in the spiritual struggle are safe inasmuch as
way of the Law to which all Muslims are subjected. Secondly, the they are fought under the direction of an educating master who
wayfarer will go through spiritual states (ahwal) for which he needs has knowledge of the Path and of men. There are two exceptions
to be watched over by a shaykh who can correct his conduct and to the general rule: some will follow an initiatic path without the
modify his behaviour. Thirdly, the essence of this Path is-premedi- guidance of a living master but guided by his spiritual essence
tated death, which implies `the extinction (ikhmad) of all human (ruloniyya), as in the case of the Uwaysis, for instance; and the ones
forces until the wayfarer is dead in body but alive in spirie,th° and attracted to God who have lost their mind and are not accountable
man cannot grasp this phenomenon by himself. Fourthly and lastly, for legal observance, as discussed by Ibn Khaldun in the appendix
the nature of this search is one that has to do with mystical tasting to the Shifct '62
100CILLIL
For the Sufis, it is the presence of the beloved guide that vali- of which is the heart. In all this, Ibn Khaldun was an 'intellectual
dates the third struggle, which for Ibn Khaldun is a debatable [who] handles an intellectual issue that he patiently examines from
endeavour. Ibn Khaldun the legist does not dwell on the bond of all its facets':65 He was first and foremost a legist 'who could not
love, which is the sole catalyst in the initiatic chain binding the possibly have understood tasawwuf in the same way as the disciples
wayfarer onto his Lord and authenticating the mystical wayfaring of a more contemplative mind did...':66
to its utmost stages. Unlike foremost Sufi works by realized Sufis, Ibn Khaldun was a man of action and a pragmatic scholar, but
one word is remarkably absent from the Shifrt': cishq, at best trans- with lofty ideals; and his life fluctuated between adventurous journeys
lated perhaps with the hackneyed English `love'.'63 Had cishq been and yearning for peace. His works voice lucid rationalism in mat-
alluded to in the Shift', even if hastily, the intellectual argument ters pertaining to this world and echo the recognition of a believer's
put forward by the Sufis of Granada would have crumbled and the limitations in the face of spiritual realities. Ibn Khaldun is first and
questioner would have found its cure. The intellect overthrown, foremost a child of his time, a Muslim who lived in the fourteenth-
the lover would have trampled on books in his burning journey to century Maghrib and Mashriq. He was a Maliki legist, an advocate of
the Beloved, and 'whilst the pen was making haste in writing, it some aspects of Sufism, and we can now say, after reading the Shift'
split upon itself as soon as it came to Love', cries out Jalal al-Din al-sd'il li-tandhib al-masa'il, a historian of Sufism, a Sufi 'sympathizer'
al-Rumi:64 For the Sufi lover, meanings evade their wordy prisons, and, even if very prudent, one who was nevertheless involved in the
questions are not posed and answers are not needed. The lover is Granada debate among his contemporary Sufis.
deprived of personal will, with no possible choice but one. So the
wise bondsman submits to the guidance of a loved master leading Note on Chapter headings and Sub-headings
him onto the Beloved.
The original Arabic text of the Shift?' contained descriptions of the
The Shift' does not touch upon this vital quintessence of content of sections of the text that could be considered as chapter
Sufism. Ibn Khaldun does point his finger at the differences and headings. These descriptions are too long to be included as actual
complementarities between the teacher (shaykh al-tdiim) and the chapter headings in an English text. We have therefore taken from
educator or shaykh of spiritual education (shaykh al-tarbiya), or the original what is suitable for chapter headings in a translation. We
between the legist and the Sufi. He informs us of the gap between have done the same for the sub-headings and in places added new
imitation (taqltd) and realization (tabqiq), and the difference between sub-headings in order to clarify the text.
the three levels of realization: the science of certainty ( ilm al-yaqin),
the vision of certainty (àyn al-yaqin) and the truth of certainty
(baqq al-yaqin). In addition, he deals with the issue of the spoken
word (0) and spiritual state (I:00, the harmonies and dichotomies
between the written book (kitab) and the spiritual guide (shaykh),
oral and written transmission of knowledge, and conveyed report
(khabar) and direct vision (nazar). He throws light on the-difference
between the outward science enclosed in the written treatise (maga),
acquired through the mind, and the orally-transmitted knowledge,
transferred by the recognized spiritual master, which leads to the
realization or mystical tasting of the spiritual states (abwal), the seat
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN
SEARCH OF ANSWERS
[Prologue]
In the Name of God, Most Compassionate and Merciful

May God bless and grant peace to our lord and master
Muhammad, his family and Companions.
Said the shaykh, the leader, the venerable legist and accomplished
teacher, the skilled scholar, whose versatile knowledge embraces
many fields, the most learned and unique master, the pole of the
religious sciences, the bearer of the standard thereof, he who unlocks
and solves all obscure intellectual questions and the precursor to
the ultimate object thereof, Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman, son of the
accomplished and versatile legist, the pious and saintly late shaykh,
Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Khaldfin al-FIadrami (may God have mercy
upon his soul).
Praise be to God who, by His grace, bestowed inspiration upon
us that we may glorify Him; and may His blessings and benedictions
be upon our lord and master Muhammad, His servant and noble mes-
senger, and may His approval be upon the members of his family and
his Companions!
To proceed: certain brethren (may God protect them) made me
aware of a document that arrived from the Andalusian region, the
homeland at the frontiers (dinar) of the holy war (jihad), the shelter
of the righteous (salihun), ascetics (zuhhal), legists and worshippers
(cubbad). This document was addressed to some of the eminent people
of the city of Fez, a city where royal power is in effervescence, where
the seas of science and religion are overflowing, and where God's
Prologue
promised rewards are secured to the supporters of His religion and Yet, even though they had deviated from the correct answer, they
caliphate. The document hoped to shed light on the Path of the Sufis, were closer to it than they thought.
the people who seek self-realization (tahaqquq) through the mystical I have therefore decided to clarify this issue and to answer these
tasting of divine unity (al-tawhid al-dhawqi) and intimate finding of questions. Can one arrive to the goal or not in this Path? Can the
gnosis (al-mdrifa al-wijddniyya). The question raised by the brethren novice attain it with books and compiled material alone, or is it nec-
was the following. essary for him to follow carefully a guide, to listen to him and act
Is it possible to travel this very way, taste this knowledge and see upon his words? I have relied upon God in this, inasmuch as all help,
the veil lifted from the spiritual world by studying the books writ- protection and sustenance come from Him. God sufficeth me! What
ten by the Sufis and conforming to their counsels which describe the a wonderful Provider!
nature of the Path? Is it sufficient to study the written tradition, to Discussion of this issue requires us to examine the Sufi way
peruse these sciences and to rely upon books of guidance, such as the closely and distinguish it from the other ways. Why was Sufism,
Ihyd' and the Ricaya, which offer ample knowledge concerning the in its beginning, known as an expression of worship (ìbada) and
beginning and arrival in this Path?' Or is it indispensable for the dis- spiritual struggle (mujahada) and referred to in these terms? How did
ciple (murid) to have also a spiritual master (shaykh), who would point the name Sufism (ta5awwuji) become the common appellation when
out to him the signs along the Path, caution him against its dangers subsequently the Sufis started practising other forms of inward
and differentiate for him between an ephemeral inrush (wand) and a struggle? Why did some of the later Sufis use this appellation when
true state (hat) in instances when confusion occurs? In this way, the referring only to the results of these combats, rather than to the
shaykh would assume the role of a physician to the ailing or the just combats themselves, and how can their theory be refuted? Defining
guide to the unruly community. all these terms will help greatly in clarifying this issue. And God is
This same document told of a debate that took place between the guide to the Truth!
two students, one of whom had a negative attitude and the other a
positive one. The discussion encompassed arguments deriving from
rational reasoning (macqul) on the one hand, and the inherited tradi-
tion (matmal) on the other. One student believed that the way could
be followed without a shaykh whom the wayfarer could emulate,
without a leader's method to follow. As to the other student, he
held that a shaykh was indispensable for he would train the way-
farer on this path (sank), caution him about the dangers he perceived
and give him the enabling strength to sustain the ensuing spiritual
visions (matlat. The shaykh would also distinguish between lawful
spiritual states and heretical innovations (bidd); and consequently,
as a result of his guidance, the disciple's life becomes filled with spir-
itual joy and he is protected from the errors that could separate him
from God or cause His wrath. The debate was long and many saints
(abda1)3 and learned men (ùlama') took part in it. Finally, all mod-
eration and temperance disappeared between the two disputants.
CHAPTER ONE
On the Way of the Sufis, Its General Examination and

Differentiation from the Other Lawful Paths.
On the Meaning of This Name for the First Sufis
The Individual's Legal Obligations Prescribed by the

Law Divide into Two Groups
Know that God—glory be to Him, and may our hearts be filled with
the light of His guidance—has imposed upon our hearts certain acts
of belief (dmalan min al-ictiqachit) and upon our limbs some acts of
obedience (dmalan min al-tgat). The individual's legal obligations
regarding the worship of God, as prescribed by the Law, divide into
two groups.
Firstly, there are principles of behaviour (ahkam) which relate to
external actions (al-dmal al-zahira), namely worship (7badat), customs
(adat) and daily affairs (mutanawalat).
Secondly, there are principles of behaviour which relate to
inward deeds (al-dmal al-batina), namely faith (iman) and the vari-
ous qualities (gat) involving the heart and colouring it. Some of
these qualities are praiseworthy, such as chastity (ìffa), justice (cad°,
courage (shajda), generosity (karam), modesty (hag') and patience
(5abr); others are blameworthy, such as conceit NO, dissemblance
(riya'), jealousy (hasad) and hatred (haqd). Although all actions are
important for the Legislator (sharic), the deeds of the inward (basin)
are even more consequential than outward actions (zaIT); and this
is because the inward always rules the outward, and conditions
it. Inward actions are the principle of outward ones, which are
their mere effects. If the principle is good, then its effects are too,
whereas if the principle is corrupt, so are its effects. The Prophet
REMEDY FOR THE Q1JESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter One
(may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'There is a piece for it does not see any being more perfect than Him.' To achieve this
of flesh in the body which, if healthy, renders the whole body so, end, thinking contends with the chains of thoughts and concepts that
and if corrupted, corrupts the whole body. This piece of flesh is succeed each other in it, separating and intertwining them together
the heart." and then scattering and re-examining them again. All this activity
is aimed towards drawing nearer its Creator. It proceeds in an unin-
God Created Instincts and Forces within the Heart terrupted, unceasing fashion without the slackening or sloth that is
common to the rest of the body. Discursive thinking moves faster
This means that God (may He be glorified) has created instincts
than lightening and faster than a burning wick in the wind. In his
(ghara'iz) and forces (quwa) within the heart. Each one of these
supplications, the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace)
instincts or forces was created with its own specific need, the fulfil-
often pleaded, '0 Director of the hearts!'; When taking an oath, he
ment of which gives it satisfaction and brings it to completion. Thus,
would say, 'No, by the Director of the hearts r4 He (may God bless
the instinct of anger finds satisfaction and fulfilment in reprisal and
him and grant him peace) also said, 'The Merciful holds the believer's
revenge, whereas the instinct of appetite finds pleasure in the edible
heart between His two fingers '5
and the carnal. In short, the instinct demands what befits its own
Nevertheless, not everything the heart imagines to be perfection
nature. Similarly, the instinct of the intellect (àql) naturally seeks and pleasure for these instincts is indeed so when viewed against the
learning (ì/m) and gnosis (mdrifa). Moreover, since God has put in Hereafter and eternal life, the felicity or wretchedness of which has
the intellect the love of perfection (kamcil), it is constantly operating been described to us by the Legislator. On the contrary, the derivation
in order to perfect itself by utilizing discursive thinking (fikr) as its of pleasure in the satisfaction of these instincts is only experienced
servant in all of this, to link, analyse, synthesize and differentiate. through that which is immediate and temporal. What remains are
For instance, the intellect will envision the enmity that a particular
only the effects these actions leave upon the heart and the dispositions
person has for it, and so will provoke the bodily members to seek to that colour it, leading in the Hereafter to either goodness and bliss or
avenge upon this very person. It can also see perfection and beauty to evil and chastisement. This applies also to the instinct of the intel-
in another person, and so will urge the bodily members to find its lect for even when its beliefs and concepts are related to its Creator,
pleasure in that person. When in a state of hunger, it can fancy a some of these very beliefs and concepts lead to felicity while others
dish as being agreeable and therefore stimulate the bodily members lead to wretchedness. It is only by means of the Law (shar) that one
to obtain this food. It can also become convinced that it has found can come to know which deeds, of both the spirit and the body, will
perfection in another human being, hence its desire and anxiety to
lead to eternal felicity.
win over and possess this being exclusively. It might be irritated with The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) has differ-
some other person and will devise a way to avenge itself upon this
entiated between the praiseworthy (mahmud) and the blameworthy
person. The instinct can also imagine that perfection resides in itself,
(madhmiim), separating the good (tayyib) from the evil (khabith). He
so it consequently becomes self-conceited and disdainful of others, also insisted upon the greater importance of the inward deeds, for
deeming them to be inferior to itself. it is the inward that leads to walking on the straight path and is the
In this manner, also, the instinct of the intellect demands the source of goodness or corruption in all actions, as shown in the
fulfilment of its own nature in knowledge and learning and incites
tradition cited above. This tradition is interpreted as follows: recti-
discursive thinking to pursue them. Thinking yearns for the highest tude must be observed in the actions of the external body members
perfection (al-kamal al-dla) through the knowledge of its Creator, (istiqcimat al-jawarih) in order to leave its effect on the soul (nafs).
1
111
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter One
With constant reiteration, the soul becomes the guide; and without this? What Ùmar feared was another type of hypocrisy: the hidden
any constraint, it leads the wayfarer in all his deeds towards walking dangerous fault that lies in the inward deed and that strikes suddenly
on the straight path. without man being aware of it.
The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'God As God had granted him the ability to see through the hearts
does not reckon with your external aspects or possessions, but with (ittila"ala al-qulab), the Prophet was able to penetrate their secrets and
your hearts and deeds.' This is why faith (iman) is the source of all read them. The word hypocrisy came to designate this type of action,
action and the highest level of felicity, being the loftiest among all in which the inward reality is in contradiction with the observable
the inward deeds; and worth how much more than the outward ones! outward claim. Now the believer claims and displays rectitude, but
When God opened the hearts of the Prophet's Companions (may errors hide in his inward self. And despite the fact that errors happen
God be pleased with them), they embraced Islam and accepted, with against his will, these do nonetheless vilify rectitude because they are
the light of their Lord's guidance, clear evidence of Him.' They con- concealed in the heart and, consequently, resemble hypocrisy in that
centrated their efforts mainly on inward deeds, much more so than they reflect a contradiction between the outward and the inward.
on outward ones. They examined themselves and scrutinized their Therefore, in spite of the difference in meaning with hypocrisy as
thoughts, well-aware of their hearts' deceiving tendencies. It is this commonly understood, the word has also been used metaphorically
issue that they discussed most of the time, warning and seeking each and by extension to designate this particular type of blameworthy act
other's help against their hearts' errings. that can elude the man subject to the Law (mukallaf). The believer is
Listen to tmar b. al-Khattab's8 question to kludhayfa? (may God to watch over the states of the inward, exerting it to go straight, so
be pleased with them both) and meditate upon it. One day kludhayfa that the outward in its totality is guided to felicity. If a man is ever
brought up the subject of the Hypocrites (munafiqun) and repeated heedless or slack in this duty, he becomes a hypocrite.
what the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) had said In a similar way, the word associationism (shirk) has become inter-
concerning them. Ùmar asked, 'I implore you by God who permit- changeable with dissemblance (riya') since many objects become the
ted the heaven and earth to be, do you know if the Prophet (may God target of worship. The dissembler's prayers are not directed solely to
bless him and grant him peace) included me among them?' Fludhayfa God, but partly also to the object of his dissemblance. In this, he is
answered, `No, although apart from you, I cannot exonerate anyone like the associationist who worships two gods, which explains why
else.'1° Look at how vigilant Ùmar was (may God be pleased with the word associationism has been used in lieu of dissemblance. The
Him) with respect to this hypocrisy (nifaq), and reflect upon its nature. Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'Dissemblance
You will therefore understand that you need to beware of the hidden is a lesser associationism (al-shirk al-asghar).'" All this clearly proves
aspects of inward actions and what is to be blamed and avoided there- that the inward is of the greatest significance. To concern oneself
in. This will make you realize how important and dangerous they are with curing it is the wayfarer's most important duty.
in religion. For if by hypocrisy Hudhayfa or tmar were referring
to that which is generally implied—namely the action of display- Intention Is the Principle of All Actions
ing Islam while actually hiding misbelief (kufr), like the Let us go further in our explanation. Outward actions are all sub-
of Medina, or others—Ùmar, well aware of his innocence in this, jected to free choice and man's power, whereas most inward actions
would not have been alarmed and would not have asked kludhayfa are not governed by free choice and rebel against human rule. The
this question. Indeed, any man knows that which he discloses and human rule has no control over the inward while the outward is liable
that which he conceals, so how could Ùmar possibly be unaware of
to free choice, since it is governed by it and operates under its author- Then an era of calamitous innovative beliefs followed. The
ity, command and instruction. This is why intention (niyya) is the Muctazila,4 R_aficiis" and Khaki's' arrogated worship and renuncia-
principle (mabda') of all actions, the foundation of (as° and the spirit tion. Since their belief—and belief is always the root of all things—was
(rah) behind all acts of worship. So much so that, if an action is devoid distorted, their attempts to improve their deeds, whether inward
of good intention, it is considered null and is not counted as an act or outward, was in vain. The elect among the Sunnis were those
of obedience for the man subject to the Law. The Prophet (may God who valued the actions stemming from the heart and isolated them-
bless him and grant him peace) said, 'It is the good intention that selves, following the steps of their worthy predecessors both in their
counts in an action. Every man is granted that which he longs for: inward and outward deeds. `7 They were called Sufis. The teacher Abu
if he yearns for God and His Prophet, he is led to them; if he aspires al-Qasim al-QushayrT. said, 'The name "Sufi" became widespread
to the world, he obtains it; if he desires a woman, he will marry her. around the year zoo AH. "8 Generation followed generation and nation
Thus, he reaches the object of his migration (hjra)."2 followed nation. The predecessors guided their successors, who in
turn transmitted the knowledge of God (fiqh Allah) that they had
Those Who Value Actions Stemming from the inherited from their elders to those God led to their Path.
Heart Are Called 'Sufis'
The Law Is Divided into Two Branches
When the Companions (may God be pleased with them) passed
away, and the second generation of Muslims came upon the scene, In the period after the Followers of the Followers, the knowledge of
those who had been guided by the Companions themselves, the Law (fiqh al-sharica) was divided into two branches.
through oral teaching and instruction, were called the Followers The first branch is the knowledge of the outward (fiqh al-zahir),
(tabican). The generation after them was called the Followers of the which either applied to the actions of the physical members (afal
Followers (atba` al-tabicin). But thereafter people divided into differ- al-jawarib) and concerned the person subject to the Law as an indi-
ent opposing groups and many deviated from the main road and the vidual, or else applied to worship, customs or other outward actions
straight path. The actions stemming from the heart were forgotten and therefore concerned the individual as a part of the community.
and neglected. The majority engaged in the betterment of physical This body of rules is generally called substantive law (fiqh); the spe-
actions and conformity to religious rites, while totally disregarding cialist in it is the legist, who issues formal legal pronouncements and
the inward. The legists worked on what had become a generalized is the guardian of religion.
need: the standardization of outward worship (al-cibaclat al-zahira) The second branch is the knowledge of the inward (fiqh al-batin),
and the codification of the principles dealing with human interaction and it is the knowledge of the actions stemming from the heart Weil
(alikam al-mdamalat). They dealt with both fields either according al-qulab). It concerns the individual subject to the Law on a personal
to the people's need for guidance, or as doctors of the Law dealing level as it applies to his worship and to the necessities of life.19 It is
with a collectivity in need of formal legal pronouncements (futya). called variously the knowledge of the heart (fiqh al-qulub), the knowl-
Those who were endowed with hearts (arbab al-qulub) were then edge of the inward, the knowledge of moral care (fiqh al-want), the
referred to as ascetics, worshippers, seekers of the Hereafter, or knowledge of the Hereafter (fiqh al-akhira), and Sufism (tasawwuj).
those dedicated to God. They held on to their religion like those The first—the knowledge of the outward—was dealt with exten-
who grip live coal between their palms', according to the reported sively because it simultaneously fulfils the needs of the majority and
tradition." answers a ruler's need for changes in formal legal pronouncements.
Chapter One
With every new era, its transmitters increased and its subjects mul- he does perform his duty. In a similar fashion, he sets
tiplied.2° The second—the knowledge of the inward, and the most apart the lawful from the unlawful, as in the case of a
essential for the individual on a personal level was scarcely dealt man who has disposed of someone's property: should
with at all. At times, some learned men feared that this knowledge this property be restituted to its legitimate owner or
(filth) would fall into oblivion and its upholders would disappear; not? In view of that, should justice be put into effect
or not? All these matters are of a worldly nature.
they feared that God's decrees governing the acts of the heart and
the movements of the inward would be ignored. Indeed, these are Ghazali also says that for the Sufi-aspirant all this can be explained in
more important for the believer subject to the Law and more likely terms of wounds in the heart, affecting his walking on the straight
to bring him salvation. For this reason, works of great benefit, even path, which is the foundation of salvation (najat). The Sufi-aspirant
though not too numerous, were written by some men of wisdom sees ritual prayer as an act of worship, the essence of which is the
like Ibn cAta',n Muhasibi with his Ricaya and Ghazali with his Ihya'. heart's focus on divine unity (al-tawbid bi-7-qa1b).23 Yet, ritual prayer
In view of the two explanations mentioned above, the Sufi- will only supply provisions in the Hereafter when performed with
aspirant (mutasawwifi and the legist converge concerning the actions a conscious heart. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him
related to the physical members and the way an individual subject to peace) said, À man is only rewarded for the moments during which
the Law is to deal with his needs. However, the Sufi-aspirant and the he performed his prayers in a state of consciousness.' Also, À man
man concerned with moral care (mutawarric) insist on the importance might perform his prayers and not be rewarded with a half, a third,
of the deeds of the heart, its beliefs and colourations. They differenti- a fourth, not even a tenth of it.'24 Islam is both [inward] affirmation
ate between praiseworthy and blameworthy, salutary and pernicious. (igrar) and [outward, verbal] confession ((Ural). If this is not mir-
They distinguish the ailment from the remedy. As to the legist, he rored in the heart—so that, in turn, the effects of this confession
discusses the general need of all men subject to the Law with respect can be reflected in the physical members' obedient subjection—then
to social interaction, marriages, buying and selling, legal limits and it bears no consequence whatsoever in the Hereafter. Likewise, the
other aspects of substantive law. Sufi-aspirant only looks at the lawful and the unlawful in as much as
Ghazali compared the attitudes of the legist and Sufi-aspirant they constitute wounds in the soul or illnesses that must be uprooted.
with regards to worship and daily affairs." The legist views them The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, `Leave
with the benefits of this life in mind, the Sufi-aspirant with those of that which is doubtful and reach for that which is sure.'" He said
the Hereafter. Ghazali says: (may God bless him and grant him peace), À man is not among the
God-wary (muttaqin) until he has forsaken that wherein there is no
The legist considers the religious practices—the root
of which is Islam—and determines the following. evil out of fear of an evil therein.'" Ghazali adds: `The legist does
Are these practices valid, and therefore deserving of not investigate the wounds that mark the heart and the way to avoid
reward, as they do comply [with the Law] and do them. Everything he deals with is tied to this world, since it contains
not draw on a binding juridical sentence [forbidding a valid road that leads to the Hereafter. If the legist is to ponder
them]? Or, are these practices corrupt and therefore do about sin, the attributes of the heart and the rulings of the Hereafter
not deserve reward, as they do not comply [with the as such, he would be going beyond the limits of his own science.'"
Law] and will bring about a binding juridical sentence
As for me, I believe these words must not be taken in an abso-
[prohibiting them]? The legist must judge when the
blood of a man is licit because he refuses to perform lute sense. The legist's viewpoint is not limited to this world as such
his duty, or when a man is to be protected because because it is a worldly point of view, but for other reasons related to
his position. Indeed, as explained earlier, those who were charged to you might be more convincing in his arguments. If I pronounce any
impart the Law split into two groups. The first group gathered for judgement in that man's favour at the expense of his brother's right,
deliberations and issued formal legal pronouncements. The ruler and then I have only allotted him a share in Hellfire:29
the community relied on them to implement God's rulings in their The difference between the three levels at which the Law can
external aspects for all His people. The second group, namely the be kept corresponds to the three stations: submission (islam), faith
worshippers and the ascetics, stressed the aspects in God's laws that (iman) and excellence (ihsan). In the station of submission, the deed is
concerned them as individuals. Besides, some legists might indeed performed outwardly and the religious prescription is either accepted
uphold both laws at once. or rejected. In the station of faith, there is agreement between the
The prophets guide men to God. They drag them by the belts outward and the inward in the fulfilment of the worship, albeit with
to protect them from Hellfire. They lead them to felicity and safe- some heedlessness. There is hope for salvation at this level. At the
guard them from torment by reprimanding, beating or killing them, level of excellence, there is harmony between the inward and the
depending on how harmful their actions could be with regards to outward; and constant self-examination is sustained so that no heed-
their future life. From the prophets, we learn that the most perfect lessness can ever infiltrate the actions. This is the most perfect level
level in salvation is attained by submitting to the prescriptions of the for the one who seeks salvation. Every act of worship or religious
Law and implementing them in the best and most complete way, prescription is performed within one of these three levels. Indeed,
through ensuring that the inward and the outward are in harmony. when some eminent scholars say that the Law has both aspects the
The inward should be guarded and examined until no heedlessness outward and the inward—they mean that it concerns the individual
or slackness permeates it. who is subject to it, not only in his outward actions, [but also in
But there is also another level inferior to the preceding, at which his inward actions].39 This does not imply, as some Batinis3i claim in
religious prescriptions are sometimes kept; and that is where the out- trivial statements contradicting the foundation of the Law, that the
ward and the inward will still agree, but while the outward is perfect, Legislator has divulged some laws while He has concealed others.
the inward has been infiltrated with heedlessness and slackness. This And God is above their words!
level differs from the first; but even there, salvation might be granted Accordingly, the expert legist (al-faqih al-mufti) is the one to
since it is but a grace and mercy from God. understand all of this. If he is consulted in reference to the believers'
Then, there is the lowest level of performance of the religious pre- actions in view of the Law, and has to judge whether these are good
scriptions which are observed to perfection outwardly, but are totally or corrupt, valid or invalid, his judgement (fatwa) is passed according
neglected inwardly. In this case, man is not rewarded for his obedi- to this worldly life, a matter wherein he is competent, as Ghazali says.
ence and this does not lead to salvation. However, the Legislator's If an individual seeks advice concerning his own salvation, the mufti
pronouncements that befall those who completely neglect the Law's will set forth a judgement that will guide the individual in question
prescriptions inwardly, namely sanctions, trials or even death, do not to salvation. This will be so, unless this particular mufti's knowledge
apply to this last group because He did not give right of access to the is limited to the first half of the Law, namely the one related to the
inward. Every man subject to the Law is answerable to himself, since outward only, and therefore he can only pass judgement on the valid-
he is best aware of his own ailment. This being the case, one can only ity or invalidity of the actions in view of this worldly life. Then this
hope that the amended inward will match the outward. The Prophet is a different problem.
(may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'Did you split his heart As to the few capable of observing both the states of the inward
open?'" He also said, 'You come to me with your quarrels and one of (ahwal al-basin) and the knowledge of the heart, they kept decreasing
Chapter One
with every new age; and remained hidden in every district where Thus, the elite gave precedence to the deeds of the heart over the
the Law was transgressed and the souls had degenerated, [whereby actions of the bodily members in both the prescriptions of the Law
they were] busy pursuing their desires and being slaves of their lower and customs. Junayd (may God be pleased with him) said, Ìf you see
thoughts. [This latter state of affairs was] so much so that the Path a Sufi concerned with his outward, then know that his inner is in
of these few had become a burden to most men's hearts, for it went a state of ruin '3° This group was then referred to by the name and
against their nature's innate dispositions, their instinctive propensity appellation Sufi.
to yield to passions and the delusive ambition [of thinking] that salva-
tion can be reached by means of outward actions only. The Etymology of the Name 'Sufi'
Nevertheless, in their innermost hearts, people regarded the few
Some people took upon themselves to find the etymology of this
with reverence and longed for the qualities that only this minor-
name, but their analogies did not help them much.. Sufi was said to
ity possessed: the knowledge of the Islamic dogma (àqa'id islcimiyya)
be an appellation for the man clothed in wool (saf), but Sufis did not
they had studied and were taught, and their natural love for purity
use wool exclusively.. Only their imitators wore wool, thinking that
and good. Indeed, had he shown determination, one single thought
the Sufis' occasional wearing of a woollen garment as a token of aus-
would have animated the soul of the Muslim who had truly compre-
terity (tagallul) and asceticism (zuhd) was a distinguishing feature. This
hended his parents' religious practices: only by walking the Path that
thought was pleasing to the imitators and this is how they became
this minority had followed would he be led to the Truth;. and only
the instigators of this derivation. Actually, the Sufis who wore wool
by imitating them would he be ensured of right guidance.
did it to emphasize austerity and asceticism, since they preferred to
Yet, the scarce number of supporters and the lack of assistance
be clothed in the habit of poverty like those whose primary attach-
induce laziness and is a step towards idleness. Even though a man
ment is not this world. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant
might be certain that felicity lays in the path followed by the elite
him peace) said, let not this world be your main concern for it will
(khawwas), he will tend to follow the majority and blindly conform
destroy you as it destroyed those before you.'39 The Prophet (may
to the fathers and teachers of the time, in words and actions. Man is
God bless him and grant him peace) also said in a sacred tradition
wrapped up in the life of this world, which he cherishes more than
that conveys His Lord's words, 'Be in this world like a stranger or
anything else. His soul is attached to that which is familiar to him
like a passer-by.'44 It is also said that 'Omar b. al-Khattab (may God
and to others and will indulge in the hope of going straight in future
be pleased with him) used to patch his clothes with pieces of leather..
times to secure divine mercy and salvation. May God Most High
Some claim that the name Safi derives from suffa, which they
make his dreams come true and lead wretched souls to His mercy!
think explains the origin of this Path. Some of the Emigrants abided
The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) conveyed [in
by the veranda of the Messenger of God's mosque (may God bless
a sacred tradition (hadith qudsi)], 'I am of the same thinking as My
him and grant him peace) and they were called the People of the
servant is towards Me. So let him think of Me as he wills. Wisha " Veranda (ahl al-suffa). Among them were Abu Hurayra
(may God be pleased with her) said, 'On the Last Day, people will
Abu Dharr al-Ghifaxi,44 Bilal al-Habashi,45 Suhayb al-RI:unto Salman
be judged by their intentions/34 Those who lived a life of bliss in
al-Faxisi44 and others. Know that, during the life of the Prophet (may
this world might also enjoy His mercy in the next. 'Say: 0 my peo-
God bless him and grant him peace), the People of the Veranda were
ple who have been prodigal against yourselves, do not despair of God's mercy;
not singled out by any kind of worship peculiar to them, but because
surely God forgives sins altogether; surely He is the All-forgiving, the All-
they resembled the Companions, both in their acts of worship and
compassionate' (Q.xxxix.53).35
in their performance of the legal duties q' The People of the Veranda
were distinguished only because they were poor, strangers and abid-
ed by the mosque. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him
peace) made the Emigrants of Quraysh brothers with their hosts from
the neighbouring tribes of Aws and Khazraj.49 But since the People CHAPTER TWO
of the Veranda remained strangers, the Prophet gave them shelter
with himself. He shared his mosque with them and ordered that they On the Aspirations of the Sufis Towards Spiritual
should be helped. He would seek their company and they would Struggles and the Reasons Why They Engaged in Them
accompany him when he was invited to a meal. Bukharis° cites Abu
Hurayra (may God be pleased with him) who said in a long tradition,
`The People of the Veranda are the guests of Islam. They did not seek Let us first go through some preliminary definitions in order to clar-
refuge with a family, in wealth, or with anyone. If the Prophet (may ify the nature of the Sufi Path.
God bless him and grant him peace) was given alms, he would send
it to them without retaining anything from it. If he received a gift, Preliminary
he would call for them, keep a portion of it for himself and share the
On the Meaning of the Spirit, the Soul, the Intellect and the Heart
rest with them.'si In spite of all this, it is an etymological mistake to
On the State of Perfection and What Befits It
derive the world Sufi from suffa.52
Similarly, others argue that scifi comes from .safa' (purity), but Know that God (glory be to Him) created man of two substances:
etymologically this is also incorrect.53 There remains that the name the first is a visible corporeal mass with a tangible frame, namely the
Safi is merely a name to designate this group and to differentiate it body (jasad); and the second, a subtle reality (latifa rabbaniyya) that He
from others. It is only later that various forms were derived from it, bestowed upon man and deposited in the body, its seat. The subtle
such as Sufi-aspirant or Sufi, their path being called Sufism, and their reality is to the body what the horseman is to his mount or the sultan
people the Sufi-aspirants (mutasawwifun) or the Sufis (safinian)., to his people. The body yields to its authority and submits to its will.
Since we have agreed that the name Sufi is used to refer to the peo- The body has no power over the subtle reality and is incapable, even
ple on this specific Path, let us now elucidate its meaning by defining for one moment, of rebelling against it since God gave the subtle real-
and describing it. We say that Sufism is the observation of the rules ity mastery and diffused in it power over the body. The Law refers
of proper conduct vis-a-vis God in both inward and outward deeds, to it as spirit, heart, intellect or soul. At the same time, these terms
respecting the limits He has imposed upon us, giving precedence to denote other concepts; if the reader wishes to know more concerning
the deeds of the hearts, watching its secret recesses, while aspiring this point, he can consult Ghazali's book.'
therewith to salvation. This is what characterizes this Path as such. By subtle reality, the Legislator might designate the trust (amana).
This will also explain the way of the last among the Predecessors God Most High said, 'We offered the trust to the heavens and the earth and
(salad') as well as the earlier Sufi generation, and how, after them, the the mountains, but they refused to carry it and were afraid of it; and man car-
name Sufi came to designate one of the spiritual struggles only: the ried it. Surely he is sinful, very foolish' (Q.xxxm.72). According to one
one leading to the lifting of the veil (rail al-hijrib). We will now elu- of the interpretations of trust, man is sinful for he dared to carry it,
cidate and clarify this. despite the immense dangers it entailed for either his future felic-
ity or wretchedness. May God protect us and shower us with His
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Two
kindness! The word 'carrying' (haml) is only a metaphorical approxi- in strength, its frame is completed, and it develops naturally for the
mation because, in reality, man is helpless, capable of neither bearing young man who reaches maturity. Actions and learning have the same
nor shedding this burden or trust. His carrying of the burden, and his function for the subtle reality. When it first comes into the world, the
acceptance to carry it, actually refers to that which has been preor- subtle reality is like a young child who is just starting to grow up;
dained in the Mother of the Book, namely a 'carrying' that will lead yet, it is in this world that it reaches perfection as it is affected by the
either to his felicity or to his wretchedness. imprint that learning and actions leave upon it.
God has created the subtle reality. It originated in the World Because the world is in essence a world of opposites (calm
of Divine Command; and its essence was still incomplete when al-mutadaddcit), the actions with their effects redounding on the subtle
God granted it an innate disposition that aspires to perfection. The reality are of two kinds. Some, such as good deeds and virtues, help
Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'Every child it advance towards perfection, while others, such as evil deeds and
is born according to his primordial nature (Jitra); it is his parents vices, are obstacles that divert it from perfection.
who lead him to Judaism, Mazdeism. or Christianity."' The reality If the effects attained promote goodness and purity, then the sub-
was then brought into this world in order to obtain the perfec- tle reality's aspiration for perfection increases, and so does its yearning
tion that befits its essence and conforms to its nature (tab). Since and longing for good; it also becomes easier for the subtle reality to
this subtle reality emanates from the Spiritual World (al-`clam lean towards and perform such actions. If the good action is repeated,
al-ruhani), wherein knowledge is intrinsic and does not need to the effects that permeate the subtle reality are multiplied; and with
be acquired by the essences, the perfection of the subtle reality's reiteration, this process continues and increases until the virtues that
essence lies in its acquisition of the science and knowledge related secure perfection become firmly rooted in the subtle reality, over-
to the reality of existents (mawjudat). With this knowledge and sci- whelming it and preparing it for its eternal felicity.
ence, the reality is then able to envision its own original world and If, however, the deeds further evils and vices, the subtle reality
to know the Attributes of its Creator and His effects. In order to is diverted from its aspiration to perfection and becomes incapable
attain this stage of perfection, the subtle reality has to be brought of reaching it. This, in turn, paves the way for other vices and more
into a world that was created for it and is a gift from God to the evils to beset the reality, finally leading it to ultimate wretchedness,
individuals subject to the Law (mukallaftin). As it is repeatedly said unless God in His compassion and mercy saves it. God Most High
in the Qur'an, 'God has subjected to you what is in the heavens and earth' said, 'As for him who gives and is God-wary and confirms the reward most
(Q.xtii.3i); He 'assigned to you...heaven' (Q.I1.22); 'He who made the fair, We shall surely ease him to the Easing. But as for him who is a miser,
earth [submissive to] you' (Q.Lxvir.T5); `He who has appointed for you the and self-sufficient, and cries lies to the reward most fair, We shall surely ease
stars' (Q.vI.97), and many other verses. Accordingly, in this world him to the Hardship' (Q.xcit.5—io); 'Whoso does righteousness, it is to his
the body acts, animated by the forces suffused in it by the subtle own gain, and whoso does evil, it is to his own loss' (Q.xLI.38); 'Every soul
reality. The effects of the body's actions, in turn, redound to the shall be pledged for what it has earned' (Q.Lxxlv.4o); and 'God charges no
subtle reality. In so doing, the subtle reality's aspiration towards soul save to its capacity, standing to its account is what it has earned, and
perfection increases and its incentive to acquire knowledge intensi- against its account what it has merited' (Q.11.286). The Prophet (may
fies. And thus it is until this knowledge is disclosed and its essence God bless him and grant him peace) said, [On Judgement Day],
partially or fully completed. your actions will be given back to you:' If God illuminates the
Actions (a`mal) and learning (ìlm) are, then, to the subtle reality subtle reality with the light of faith, purifies it through good deeds,
what sustenance is to the body. With nutrition, the body increases and keeps it from the foulness of vile ones, then it can return to
God liberated from the impediments of this world and its obsta- felicity emanating from the higher realms. Thus the light of learning
cles. The subtle reality will have then captured the perfection for and gnosis can shine in the heart.
which it was created and brought forth into this world. God Most The subtle reality is cleansed and liberated from impurities
High said, created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship through spiritual combat in two ways. The first is whereby the real-
Me' (Q.12.56); and, according to Ibn Àbbas,4 'to worship means to ity is purified by way of an instinct (ghariza) settled in its innate
know'.5 God Most High said, 'Then unto Us you shall return, then We disposition from the moment it was created. This instinct is called
shall tell you what you were doing' (Q.x.23). preservation (`tsma) since its role is to prevent the reality from
yielding to what could involve any wrongdoing (mukhalafa). If the
Preliminary it opaqueness of the human condition is obliterated, and the lot of the
devil in the human heart extirpated by the light of prophethood,
On the Difference between Acquired Science (al-cilm al-kasbi), God will bring about the knowledge shining forth from that higher
Inspired Science (ilham) and Revelation (wahy) realm and cast it along with the contemplation of the transmitter
Know that, when the body became the seat of the subtle reality, of this knowledge, who is an angel. This is revelation (wahy), the
the latter diffused in it a strength emanating from itself and aiming knowledge of the prophets (may God's blessings be upon them). It
at reaching perfection in this worldly existence. Because the reality is the highest level of knowledge.
emanates from the World of Divine Command (Warn al-amr) and the On the other hand, if the process of purification (tasfiya) and lib-
Dominion (malakut),6 two possible ways were determined for it to eration (takhlis) of the subtle reality is undertaken through a matter
perfect itself through sciences and knowledge. of acquisition (iktisab) and artificial labour (twig find°, the result-
The first way lay within the world that was created for the subtle ing knowledge imparts neither consciousness of its cause nor of its
reality, and where everything is subjected to it. The second way is transmitter; it is but a breath in the innermost heart. This type of
through the subtle reality's own world, from where it originates and knowledge is inferior to the first and characterizes the saints (awliya')
with which it partakes of the same essence. Through the way of life and the sincere believers (siddipan). It is called inspiration (ilham),
in this lower world, the subtle reality acquires sciences and learning in unveiling (kashf), or God-given learning (laduni). God Most High
the following manner: it apprehends the objects of perception with said, 'We had taught him knowledge proceeding from Us' (Q.xvin.65).
the external senses; with the help of the imagination, it draws out Revelation and acquired learning are two obvious matters:
the forms these objects, and from these forms it abstracts their intel- acquired learning is obtained through the senses, whereas revela-
ligible meaning; finally, discursive thinking deals with these concepts tion comes necessarily through religion. As for inspired knowledge
through synthesis, analysis and the setting of analogies. This contin- al-ilhami), it is almost agreed that it is a finding of an
ues until the subtle reality attains its goal. This type of knowledge is intimate nature (wijdani). Its clearest and most truthful proof is
called acquired learning (aVilm al-kasbi). the station of dreams (hal al-ru'ya), when the veil of slumber is
The other way is that of the higher realms: the World of Divine removed, the burden of the external senses is lifted from the heart
Command and the World of Spiritual Entities (Warn al-rah:min at), and its powers concentrate on the inward. The subtle reality seizes
wherefrom the subtle reality draws its knowledge by way of cleans- a perception pertaining to its own world in a straightforward man-
ing itself from the impurities engendered by vile deeds and freeing ner, through an image or by way of a similitude. The veracity of
itself from the darkness of the human condition. Then it becomes this type of perception is confirmed in the states of wakefulness.
receptive to the breezes of compassion and flows of perfection and These states result from a lessening of many factors that normally
impede this perception, such as the numbness of the external senses. sensory existence (al-wujud al-hissi), but did so gradually and in
And what if the corporeal obstacles were to be lifted and all the phases. First, God deposited all of its realities (bap lq) and essences
other traits peculiar to the human condition erased! The Prophet (dhawat)—great or small, collectively or individually—in a Book
(may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'A true vision He named the Tablet. He called the Creative Principle (HIS) the
(al-ru'yd al-sdliha) is one of the forty-six gifts of prophethood';7 Pen (galam), as attested to in the Qur'an. On this Tablet are record-
and 'A vision is a heralding sign (mubashshirat).' 8 Revelation (wally) ed the realities that have been, are and will be until the Day of
from and spiritual perception (itti/d) into the Dominion Plant Resurrection. Then, from this Tablet, and according to a gradual
al-malakut) always start with a vision. Wisha (may God be pleased progression in the created universe, God brought out His creation
with her) said, 'The revelations of the Prophet began with a veridi- into sensory existence. All of this is well known and we will not
cal vision (al-ru'ya al-scieliqa). All his visions arose like the breaking linger on this point.
of dawn in the morning '9 When God brought forth the subtle reality, He created it with a
Ghazai illustrates these two different sources of knowledge for desire to perfect itself; through knowledge of and learning about the
the soul with two examples.' In the first example, there is a pond, realities of the existents and the Attributes of its Creator. For this
the water of which flows in from outside springs or from a spring purpose, He created it with two facets. One side of the subtle reality
located in the pond's bottom that has been silted up with mud. What is turned towards sensory existence wherefrom it draws the forms of
the outside springs are to the pond, the senses (bawds, sing hiss) and the existents, which are then brought by the senses to the intellect
discursive thinking (filer) are to those who work to acquire knowl- where their abstract meanings are disengaged Finally, the imagina-
edge. What the removal of the mud at the bottom is to the pond, tion and discursive thinking arrange them in a significant order. The
purification and spiritual struggle are to those who are endowed with other facet of the reality is turned towards the Tablet and the forms
inspiration. The second example tells the story of Indian and Chinese of the existents are impressed therein. However, the human condi-
artisans. They were ordered to engrave two walls that faced each oth- tion and the corporeal state can prevent and hinder this imprint, as
er in the king's palace. The Indians toiled in order to create masterly they are a veil between the Tablet and the reality. If the veil is lifted
images, creative sculptures and unprecedented inscriptions. As for the through purification and deliverance from impurities, then percep-
Chinese artisans, they polished the wall facing the Indians. A lowered tion (idrak) is achieved in its most perfect aspect; more perfectly so
curtain separated the two walls. When the artisans' task was over, the than by means of the first facet. Indeed the senses and the imagina-
Chinese were told, 'What did you achieve?' They answered, 'We per- tion cannot always be relied upon to transmit faithfully the forms
fected our work.' They were asked, 'Prove it to us.' The curtain was and realities of the existents to the subtle reality, nor can discursive
lifted and the engravings of the Indian artisans, with all their statues, thinking as it disengages and orders them to allow their conceptual-
were reflected on the polished surface of the facing wall: more perfect ization (tasawwur).
in beauty and more truthful in its reflection. These two examples Senses and imagination as well as discursive thinking are only
might not constitute a proof for all. Yet, he who is endowed with a means and tools used by the subtle reality to grasp what it can of
healthy nature, a penetrating insight and a sound taste will find them its own essence. Actually, the subtle reality could faithfully imprint
helpful. For the Sufi, no proof can better testify to the validity of these forms in itself, because they are part of 'its' self. Therefore, to
inspired learning (ìlm al-ilham) than vision (ru'ya). reach the subtle reality's essence through itself is safer than reach-
Let us go further in our explanations. When God (praise be ing it through something other than itself; and reliance on itself
to Him) created the world, He did not immediately thrust it into is safer than reliance on other than itself. The perception one can
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER. IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Two
attain through the second possibility, the way of the spiritual world, them.'" As to Abu Yazid, he said, 'The learned man is not the one
is clearer than the one attained through the first one, the way of who has memorized part of God's Book by heart—indeed if he for-
sensory existence. Plato, the greatest Sufi amongst the ancients, did gets, he will become an ignorant man—rather, the learned man is the
not believe that peripheral perception of the spiritual world through one who draws his knowledge directly from his Lord: whenever He
acquired learning constitutes an irrefutable certainty." According to wishes to He bestows it upon him, without any need for memory or
him, such learning only grasps what is most probable and most suit- study.' Let us also quote the words of God Most High, 'And We had
able. He thought that the difference between acquired and inspired taught him knowledge proceeding from Us' (Q.xvm.64).
knowledge is comparable to the difference between opinion (?ann) As we have mentioned earlier, knowledge is imparted directly
and knowledge (Cu) m. from God. If it is acquired through learning, it is not God-given
The Qur'an and the Sunna affirm that God-wariness is the key to (cam laduni). God-given knowledge will blossom in the innermost
guidance and unveiling. It is knowledge obtained without a learning heart without any external habitual cause. There are innumerable
process. God Most High said, And [in] what God has created in the heav- examples of it, especially among the followers of the Prophet, their
ens and the earth, surely there are signs for a God-wary people' (Q.x.6); 'This followers and those who came after them. Abu Bakr told Wisha (and
is an exposition for mankind, and a guidance, and an admonitionfor such as are may God be pleased with both of them), 'They are your [two broth-
God-wary' (Q.111.138); and '0 ye who believe! If ye keep your duty to God, ers and] two sisters' ; his wife was then with child and she indeed
He will give you discrimination (between right and wrong)' gave birth to a girl." Similarly, the famous story of Ùmar (may God
Discrimination Aron) is described as a light with which man can be pleased with him) who said during his sermon, '0 Sariya, the
differentiate between truth and falsehood and with which he will mountain, the mountain!' Many other examples could be given if
avoid uncertainties. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him we wanted to examine this aspect in depth. This, however, would
peace) often prayed for light in His supplications: '0 God, enlighten lengthen our explanation and distract us from our study.
me; increase the light in me; and fill my heart, my hearing, my sight,
my hair, my skin, my blood and my flesh with light."3 Preliminary in
God Most High said, 'But those who struggle in Our cause, surely We
shall guide them in Our ways' (Q.xxlx.69); And fear God; God teaches On the Meaning of Felicity and Its Degrees
you' (Q.11.282). The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) Know that felicity lies in attaining the bliss and pleasure that are
was asked about the meaning of the words of God Most High, 'Is he obtained through the satisfaction of the instinct, when granted what
whose breast has expanded unto Islam, so he walks in a light from his Lord. . . it longs for and what fulfils its nature. Therein lies perfection for the
(Q.xxxrx.a2). He explained that expansion results from the light cast instinct. The pleasure of the instinct of anger lies in revenge, that of
into the heart, and the chest expands and lies receptive to it. The concupiscence in food and coupling, and that of sight in vision. The
Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) also said, 'He who pleasure that fulfils the subtle reality lies in learning and gnosis since,
acts according to what he knows, God will grant him the knowledge as we said earlier, it is through them that it is able to fulfil its nature."
of what he does not know' ;'4 'He who has sincerely worshipped God Thus, the degrees in pleasure vary with the degrees of the different
for forty mornings will see sources of wisdom gush forth from his instincts themselves.
heart unto his tongue'," and 'Beware of the believer's perspicacity It was made evident that the subtle reality is the most perfect
(firasa) for he does see with the light of God."6 He also affirmed, among the faculties of perception. Consequently, the pleasure that it
`There are inspired people in my community, and 'Dinar is one of derives from perception is also the most complete and most intense.
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER. IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Two
Here, also, pleasure varies according to the levels of the object of perception of Beauty in the presence of the Lord, 'I have prepared for
knowledge. For example, the sciences of grammar, poetry and sub- My good servants what no eye has ever seen, no ear ever heard and
stantive law are not the knowledge of God, His Attributes and His no heart ever witnessed:"'' After death, the process of perception and
acts. Learning about subjects and peasants is different from know- knowledge that had been impeded by the body is further unveiled
ing the secrets of kings and the ruling of their kingdoms?' As we and clarified, whereby the object of perception and knowledge is
mentioned earlier, this knowledge and acquired learning are different then seen. This is called a vision (ru'yn)."
from each other. The explanation is the following: if an observer looks at another
If the object to be known is more sublime and noble, if a science man and then lowers his eyelids, the image of this man remains in
is more complete and clear, if the longing to know this object is more the imagination. When he opens his eyes again, the object will be
intense, then learning about this object is undoubtedly most pleasur- perceived as it was perceived the first time; yet, the second perception
able. Since there is nothing loftier, nobler and more perfect than the differs from the first one in intensity of evidence and clarity; in every
Creator of all entities, the Giver of existence and order, how could other respect, however, the observed object has not undergone any
there be a supreme presence more sublime, perfect and beautiful change. Similarly, if a man perceives a human silhouette in the dark,
than the Lord whose Majesty none can even attempt to describe. It at dusk or at night, he is unable to distinguish the person and he can
is through God-given and inspired learning, spiritual perception and only imagine it; when morning comes, daylight renders his percep-
unveiling that one can grasp the secrets and know the order encom- tion clearer and he can then see the object from all perspectives; yet,
passing all the existents. This is the highest type of knowledge, the the observed object has still undergone no change.'
most perfect, clearest and pleasurable. This learning fosters delight, These are two levels of perception: the object when imagined
joy and awareness of perfection." and the object when seen. Thus, it is not too far-fetched to say that
It was made clear that learning is pleasure, and that the most there are also two degrees in the knowledge of non-illusory existents,
pleasurable type of learning is the knowledge of God, His Attributes, such as the Creator (al-Bari) and His acts. One perception is clearer
His acts and the ruling of His kingdom. This is inspired God-given and the other dimmer, the latter being clarified after death occurs,
knowledge (al-cam al-laduni), as we explained earlier. He when corporeal veils and hindrances are removed. The body—like
who perseveres in his pondering and wishes to grasp the secrets of the eyelids, dusk or darkness—prevented the perfectly clear percep-
the Dominion will experience an even greater joy when the veils are tion of the object and only allowed it to register in the imagination.
removed. He will then be beside himself with joy. This can only be Since clarity depends on perception, what is to prevent God from
understood when experienced through mystical tasting, so trying to giving the eye, an organ or any other bodily member He chooses
describe it with words is useless. The students in some acquirable the ability to perceive? When the veil is lifted after death, the seat
science will have a foretaste of this pleasure when, after a long and of vision is freed of all corporeal uncleanness and moral impurities
fervent perseverance, they finally solve an ambiguous question. and brought to perfection by God. It is then that the Truth manifests
There are two types of pleasure. The first relates to the corporeal Himself. The Self-disclosure (tajalli) of the Truth and the removal of
instincts and lies in the satisfaction of their needs; the second relates the veil (inkishan perfect man's prior perception, just as the vision of
to the heart and is attained when its essential nature and need for the observed object in full light completes the work the imagination
knowledge are fulfilled. The highest pleasure is the knowledge of did beforehand.
God Most High and His Attributes. The Prophet (may God bless The vision is without shape or substance; however, it is a real
him and grant him peace) describes the pleasure resulting from the image. It adds clarity and further unveils the knowledge gathered
Chapter Two
in this world. Knowledge is a seed to the vision that will turn into rather, I worshipped Him out of love and desire for Him.'32 She
unveiling (mukashafa), just like the seed grows to be a tree or a harvest. was also asked, 'What do you say about Paradise?' Her answer was,
He who does not have a date pit will not grow a palm tree. Hence, he `The neighbour has precedence over the house.'33 There are many
who has not enjoyed some knowledge in this life will not enjoy any stories in this vein.34
vision in the Hereafter, because no one will ever be granted what he
did not pursue in this world. The Hereafter is the abode of recom- Preliminary iv
pense (jaza'), not the abode of prescriptions (taklif). The Prophet (may
God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'Man dies in keeping with On the Pleasure Resulting from Knowledge Obtained
how he lived. He will be raised [on the Judgement Day] in the state through Unveiling in This Life and on Its Different Levels
he was in when he died.'" Thus, gnosis must lead to direct vision and Know that, if the subtle reality that is in us reaches the level of
witnessing. The pleasure will then intensify, just as the lover's does inspired knowledge (Wm ilhami)—also called unveiling (kashf) and
when he beholds the object of his love. spiritual perception (i//i/d)—through purification and spiritual strug-
The knowledge that can be gathered in this world has countless gle, as explained earlier, knowledge is granted according to different
degrees. Likewise, there are different levels of Self-disclosure. As levels, which vary with the degree of purification and cleansing the
we explained earlier, there are different stages in the visual percep- soul has achieved. Its initial point is the state of presence with God
tion of the observer who looks at an object in the darkness of the (muhadara), which constitutes the last level after the removal of the
night. This also applies to the disclosure of essences (dhawat) when veil and the first level in the unveiling; then comes [the fullness of]
unshackled by the imagination. The Prophet (may God bless him unveiling (mukashafa), followed by witnessing. This last stage only
and grant him peace) said, 'Verily, God manifests Himself to the occurs if all the traces of the individual existence (aniyya) are erased.
people in general and to Abu Bakr in a special way.'28 This was Al-Junayd (may God be pleased with him) said, 'He who is in the state
due to Alia Bakr's perfect knowledge. The Prophet (may God bless of presence with God is still tied to his individual existence; he who
him and grant him peace) said, 'Abu Bakr was not superior to you has reached unveiling is drawn closer [to God] by his knowledge; as
because of his frequent praying and fasting but because of some- to him who has attained witnessing, he is obliterated by his gnosis:35
thing which had settled in his heart.'" This connotes knowledge, The teacher Abu al-Qushayri said, "Presence with God"
as shown previously. can be reached by means of a chain of arguments. It is the presence
It is evident that, for the individual subject to the Law, felicity of the heart which is overwhelmed with the power of remembrance,
in the Hereafter is two-fold: firstly, corporeal felicity related to the yet it is still behind the veil. "Unveiling" is the presence with clear
pleasure of the instincts and their forces; secondly, felicity pertain- evidence of His Attributes (huduruhu bi-ndt al-bayan); in it there is no
ing to the heart, which lies in the vision of God's Face. Even though need to reflect upon established proof (dalil), or to search for the way
the visual faculties are a corporeal vehicle, the pleasure resulting or to protect oneself from the allegations of doubts; and in it there
from the knowledge initiated by this perception [of God's Face] is no veil that would prevent ascribing an attribute to the Unseen
lies in the heart. This type of knowledge is more important to -and (ghayb) Finally, "witnessing" is the presence with the Truth with-
loftier for the gno sties (arifan), who give it priority. Thawri3° asked out any trace of doubt left (titular al-Haqq min ghayr baqdi tukma).' 36
Rabica," 'What is the true nature of your faith?' She answered, 'I The difference between the three degrees in evidence is illustrated by
did not worship Him for fear of His Hellfire or out of ambition for the following example. If one sees Zayd in the house from a close
His Paradise, for then I would have been like the vile mercenary; distance or in the courtyard at noon, this perception of Zayd in the
radiant sun will be perfect and total. If another person sees Zayd from The observance of the rules of proper conduct defined by the
a room, from afar or at sunset, he will know from the shape that it is Law (al-adab al-sharciyya) in both the inward and the outward became
Zayd, yet he cannot picture the details of the concealed facets of his the first step in the ascensions (maccirij) towards witnessing. However,
shape. This is similar to the difference between the degrees of unveil- the experienced Sufis did not prompt to the seeking of this station
ing in the religious sciences. The highest level of unveiling is that of because of its dangers and due to the fact that human forces are una-
witnessing; it is the most perfect knowledge of God, His Attributes, ble to sustain the spiritual vision. They see that a slight lifting of
His acts and the secrets of the Dominion. the veil and a bit of inspired knowledge are like seeds in the heart
We explained that knowledge is like a seed within the subtle real- for obtaining vision in the Hereafter, even though the seeds be few
ity, leading it in the Hereafter to ultimate felicity (al-sacada al-kubra): in number. Fewer seeds are safer than many that carry with them
the vision of God's Face. In the other world, felicity, which is Self- great perils and grave dangers. What follows proves this. Many of
disclosure, varies according to the degree of knowledge attained in the Sufis, whose purification was completed and perfected after the
this world. Witnessing is its highest level; it is most precious and veils were removed, have been suddenly bewildered by the light of
noble, rare and evanescent. It will overwhelm him whose heart has Self-disclosure and witnessing. They were obliterated and drowned
been purified to the most perfect degree possible. in an ocean of annihilation (Tana'). Some died on the spot, like the dis-
After these introductory points, let us now clarify the position ciple who said repeatedly, 'I saw God,' to which Abu Yazid replied,
of the Sufis with regard to this spiritual struggle and purification; the `Should he see me, he would die.' The disciple was brought to his
preconditions, principles and rules of proper conduct they stipulate presence and as soon as his eyes fell on Abu Yazid, he died.37 This is a
for the attainment of the station of unveiling; what they set down well-known story and there are many others. Some were struck with
as technical terms, and how the word Sufism came to prevail as a madness, drawn into a state of rapture and divine attraction (jadhb),
name and a surname for the Path. We will elucidate all of this, as we and they lost their minds and abandoned the religious prescrip-
promised earlier. tions; among them are the madmen and the lunatics, like the famous
Know that we have explained the meaning of this Path for the Bahlal." Other Sufis remained staring fixedly, motionless until they
first generation among this group, and how it required the obser- died Finally, there are those who are able to withstand the lights of
vance of the rules of proper conduct (rrayat al-adab), inwardly as witnessing and Self-disclosure (anwar wa'l-mushahada); but
well as outwardly. Inasmuch as the Sufis started watching their inner they are few. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace)
selves (bawatin) and concentrated on liberating their hearts, heedful of said, 'God has seventy veils of light. If He were to remove them from
their secrets, then purification was achieved and the lights of inspired His Face, the sublimity of His Face would burn whatever He would
knowledge could shine forth. This knowledge, as we explained glance at.'"
before, resulted from purification and the removal of the veil and led He who has reached witnessing and progresses beyond it becomes
them to experience pleasure. With perseverance, the Sufi who had firmly rooted therein and is obviously stronger and more able to
steadily progressed on the Path and whose heart was in a perfect state withstand Self-disclosure. When the disciple gains control over a
of purity reached unveiling and witnessing. Many Sufis were eager to particular station, then, so long as he has control over it, he has even
pass beyond all these steps to attain witnessing, the elixir of ultimate more mastery over the previous ones. In a chapter on sudden inspi-
felicity in the Hereafter and the vision of God's noble Face. They set rations (bawadih), the teacher Abu al-Qasim says, 'Some people can
conditions for this spiritual struggle and for the purification leading withstand what can strike them unexpectedly because of their station
to inspired knowledge, but we shall be talking about them later. and strength; they are the masters of the moment (abna' al-waqt).'4°
He who does actually return from this journey victorious, having

reached the goal, will caution those who risk this path and warn
them about its dangers and even its goal, which seldom brings about
salvation. May God protect us! What a great victory for the one who
is protected from all this! CHAPTER THREE
The shaykh of the gnostics said, `Do not seek witnessing, because
when man witnesses the Truth (shuhud al-k-laqq), he perishes.'4' Abu On Spiritual Struggle in General, Its Subdivisions
Ali al-Fizajani said, 'Be a man who walks on the straight path and and Its Conditions
not one who solicits miracles; it is your soul that urges you to per-
form charismatic acts (karama) and your Lord who calls upon you to
To recapitulate briefly what we have come across while examining
walk on the straight path:42 Another Sufi master said, after having
the doctrines and the statements [of the Sufis], we say that spiritual
defined spiritual struggle and clarified the Path of Sufism, 'We have
struggle divides into three distinct, gradually-ascending kinds.
mentioned this to caution the one who hastens to attain the pleasure
of witnessing and longs to be in a state of annihilation before he has
firm roots and before its due place. Our masters reject this:45 He The First Spiritual Struggle
added, 'You would be seeking that which should be deferred to its As we said in the beginning of this book, God-wariness signifies
proper abode, namely the Hereafter, where there is no action any- cautiously observing the limits imposed by God, because the aim
more. It would have been preferable for you had you spent your of this struggle is salvation and fear of His punishment. Outwardly,
time trying to perform outward actions while searching for some all transgression [of the Law] is to be avoided; if any transgression
inward knowledge, rather than reaching out for witnessing...The occurs, repentance (tawba) is necessary. It is also imperative to forsake
beauty and virtue would then have increased in your soul, which that which would lead to a transgression, like the pursuit of fame,
longs for its Lord, and in your self, which longs for its Paradise. If you excessive riches, an unrestrained way of life or fanatical religious
renounce the world of religious prescriptions, which is the ground opinions. Inwardly, the deeds of the heart must be watched because
for ascensions and advancement, then you will reap only what you they are the source and principle of all actions, lest the forbidden
have sown:44 (This is the extent of his words).45 is yielded to or an incumbent duty neglected. Ibn Ata.' said, tod-
Listen how these words forbid seeking witnessing. In truth, more wariness consists of both the outward and the inward. Outwardly it
inward knowledge is necessary for reaching witnessing after death. It is to abide by the divine limits, and inwardly it is to have the right
is safer indeed, because more plants will harvest more fruits. intention and sincerity (ikh/ds:). '5 This struggle is essentially based on
moral care (ward). The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him
peace) said, 'That which is lawful is evident, and so is that which is
unlawful; yet between the two lies uncertainty. He who is wary of
the uncertain is cleared from blame in his honour and religion; but
he who is drawn to the land of ambiguity is like the grazing animal
on the verge of a forbidden area, about to fall in it. Indeed every king
has some forbidden lands and God's forbidden lands are His interdic-
tions!. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) also
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Three
said, leave that which is doubtful and reach for that which is not:3 [While he is trying to amend his soul], the wayfarer must show
As to Ibn Ùmar, he said, 'God-wariness is to discard the acceptable forbearance because the remedy is bitter. Shaykh Abu al-Qasim
for fear of the unacceptable'; and 'The servant of God is not fully al-Junayd said, 'Know that only great men can withstand walk-
wary of Him until he is able to ignore that which generates doubt in ing on the straight path, because it implies departing from the
his heart:9 Finally, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq said, 'We used to leave seventy habitual and parting with the conventional and customary. A man
kinds of lawful things for fear we would fall into the unlawful:5 must stand between God's hands with total sincerity.'s When the
Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'Had and
The Second Spiritual Struggle its sisters made me turn grey',9 he was referring to the imposition
of walking on the straight path in the words of the Most High,
The struggle of walking on the straight path is that of the soul
`So go thou straight as thou hast been commanded' (Q.XI. H2). Initially,
striving for rectitude and moderation in all its natural traits until it
performing right actions is unnatural, difficult and arduous, but
is polished and realized. Then, good deeds emanate from the soul
with repetition the effects of these actions slowly penetrate the
with ease. Thereafter ascetic discipline (riyada), spiritual education
soul until they become deeply rooted qualities and innate disposi-
(tandhib) and the teachings of the Qur'an and the prophets become
tions. The man who is learning to write goes through a similar
natural as if they were part of the soul's innate disposition. The
experience: at first he finds it difficult, but gradually the traces of
incentive behind this struggle is the pursuit of the higher degrees
the act of writing rise to his inward self, the quality of writing
of 'those whom God has blessed, the prophets, sincere believers' (Q.Iv.69).
becomes part of him as if it were a natural disposition, and fine
Going straight is the path to these levels. God Most High said,
writing originates with utmost ease.
`Guide us in the straight path, the path of those whom Thou hast blessed'
As the wayfarer is struggling to walk on the straight path, the
(Q.1.7). If God has urged man to pray for rectitude seventeen times a
therapy does not imply the stifling or total renunciation of his
day during the seventeen obligatory prayer units, when the believer
human traits; these are natural dispositions and each one of them
recites the opening chapter of the Qur'an, it is precisely because
is created for a purpose: if the appetite in man were suppressed, the
going straight is arduous, its goal is lofty and its fruit noble.9 The
human race would either die out from hunger, or become extinct
Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, `Go straight
out of abstinence. If anger were extirpated, man would perish due
and no charge will be held against you:7
to being unable to defend himself against the oppressor. The pur-
In order to go straight, the soul's character traits (khuluq) must be
pose of this therapy is to establish rectitude firmly in the soul.
cured and healed by opposing passion (shahwa) and caprice (hawa), and
Then, the soul can govern its instincts naturally, according to the
resisting the traits' urges, inclinations or predispositions. This is carried
laws of conduct set by God. In so doing, the soul becomes accus-
out through opposite action: miserliness is cured with generosity,
tomed to life after death, when it will sever its ties with this world
arrogance with humbleness, covetousness through the renouncing of
and meet its Creator with a heart freed of anything that would
the coveted object, and anger with gentleness. God Most High said,
keep it from walking on the straight path. Indeed, with every devi-
`[Those] who when they expend are neither prodigal nor parsimonious, but
ation, one of the soul's natural traits will cling to it and alienate
between that is a just stand' (Q.xxv .67); 'And eat and drink, but be you not
it from God. This is what is meant by erasing the blameworthy
prodigal' (Q.vii. 31); 'And keep not thy hand chained to thy neck, nor outspread
dispositions in the heart, and purifying it through praiseworthy
it widespread altogether' (Q.xv11.29); [And those who are with him] are hard
virtues. Any departure from the middle course and moderation is
against the unbelievers, merciful one to another' (Q.3a.vm.28).
reprehensible.
27
Know that striving to walk on the straight path is an individual will is not a 'wilier', just as in a grammatical sense, he
obligation (lard cayn) with respect to the prophets (may God's bless- who does not have a will is not a `wilier'." Essentially,
ings be upon them). God Most High said, 'So go thou straight as thou will is the awakening of the heart to the quest for the
halt been commanded' (Q.x1.113); and 'Thou art truly among the Envoys Truth. It has been called 'a burning desire that dispels
all fear.'13
on a straight path' (Q.xxxvi.3). He also told Moses and Aaron (peace
be upon them both), 'So go you straight, and follow not the way of those As for ascetic training, it consists in cleansing the heart from all
that know not' (Q.x.89). When Wisha (may God be pleased with her) vices and blameworthy faults and purifying it through praiseworthy
was asked to describe the nature of the Prophet (may God bless him virtues, namely through rectitude and moderation in all of its traits,
and grant him peace), she said, 'Have you not read the Qur'an? His instincts and natural dispositions.
nature (khuluq) was the Qur'an.'m The Prophet (may God bless him The therapy concerns the outward first: the wayfarers must ignore
and grant him peace) was taught what to do and what to avoid by the that towards which men tend to lean and with which the Devil can
Queanic verses. He (may God bless him and grant him peace) was tempt the believers' hearts, such as the seductions and lures of this
the first to be taught and educated thus; and from him, light shone worldly life, honours, riches, social involvement, the cravings of the
unto the rest of humankind. First he was taught by the Qur'an and flesh, lust and the luxury of sleep. God Most High said, 'Decked out fair
then he taught men. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him to men is the love of lusts—women, children, piled-up heaps of gold and silver,
peace) said, 'I was sent to bring to perfection the noble character traits horses of mark, cattle and tillage. That is the enjoyment of the present life; but
(makarim al-akhlaq).'n God—with Him is the fairest resort' (Q.m.13). So long as he is likely to
Will (irada) is the first condition in this struggle and ascetic disci- deviate from the straight path, and until he masters it and firmly estab-
pline is the second one. By will, the Sufis do not refer to that which lishes himself in this station, the wayfarer must avoid and renounce
is commonly implied, namely fancying an object and then striving [these worldly pleasures] and keep away from them as he would from
for it; this is the way of the soul. Rather, for the Sufis, will is a state a deadly snake.
of absolute certainty (hal al-yaqin) that overcomes the heart to the Then, the wayfarer has to remedy his inward by liberating it from
point whereat an act is determined upon so fully that the disciple the traces left by these faults, just as he had severed the outward from
seems compelled rather than free in his purpose. The teacher Abu the causes behind the traces. The struggle is a long one and varies
al-Q:45in says: with the different factors, age, character and the predominant blame-
Will is the initial step on the Path of the wayfarers worthy traits [of each wayfarer]. This is an abstruse science except
and it is called will because it is the first station for the to the one whose path God has eased= We shall surely ease him to the
travellers on their way to God. The attribute of will is Easing' (Q.xcn.7). A shaykh might be the one sent by God to guide
the premise of every action, because if a man does not and ease the way [of the wayfarer] to his Lord.
will, he does not act. Since this is the first station for As we said above, in this spiritual struggle and healing process, the
the wayfarers, it is called 'the will' by analogy with 'the general rule consists in resisting caprice and curbing passion as well
purpose' (qua) that sets off an action. According to the as all the motives behind the traits likely to dominate the wayfarer's
rules of etymology, the 'wilier' (murid) is he who has soul. The disciple must do so until his soul reaches moderation and
a will (irada), just as the learned (à/im) is he who has
knowledge (ìlm). Nevertheless, in this particular Path, rectitude, and until the desire and leaning of the instincts towards
the wayfarer or 'wilier' has no will. In the mystical one direction or another—disappear. The wayfarer is to become
Path, he who has not stripped himself of his own indifferent to action (fi 'it) or non-action (tark), prosperity (wajd) or
x8 on
poverty (faqr). He concentrates with all his strength on submitting fully achieved God-wariness and fully examined his self (muhasaba)
to the Truth and the Just (al-Ad1), and devotes himself exclusively has not reached unveiling and witnessing.'"
to God Most High. He no longer shows any preference for renun- The second condition is to have secured the aforementioned sec-
ciation over enrichment (tamawwul), or for monasticism (rahbaniyya) ond struggle: going straight. Wasiti said, 'Walking on the straight
over a life of enjoyment (tamattul The Prophet (may God bless him path is the quality through which beautiful virtues (mahasin) are
and grant him peace) said, 'I fast and break my fast; I sleep and I perfected.'" The reason going straight is indispensable before the
stay awake; and I also marry women. Whoever does not follow my wayfarer can devote himself to the third struggle bears upon the
tradition is not amongst my followers.'" The disciple must apply substance of the term unveiling. The heart, through purification,
these spiritual exercises gradually, not too rigorously, for then, as unveiling and Self-disclosure of the realities in it, becomes like a pol-
the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, he will ished body that mirrors the images facing it. Yet, the images are not
be 'like the rider who overloads his mount and neither travels far nor unconditionally reflected in the mirror. They are reflected faithfully
spares the back of his mount'." He (may God bless him and grant him if the polished surface has a spherical shape with equal radii from its
peace) also said, 'The effort that is most pleasing to God is the one centre to its periphery. Only then are images mirrored as they are
that is most persistent' ;16 and 'Undertake only what you are able to in their reality. If the polished surface is rectangular, quadrangular,
accomplish.'" There are many similar statements. If the heart is given concave or convex, the images are not mirrored as they are in their
the quality of rectitude, if it is modelled on the Qur'an and guided by reality, but according to the reflecting surface and its shape. So it
its rules of conduct, then this means that [the wayfarer] respects the is with the heart: if it has acquired the quality of going straight, if
Sunna and follows in the straight path of 'those whom God has blessed, the deeds emanating from it—whether action or non-action—are
prophets, sincere believers, martyrs, the righteous; and how excellent are those in equal proportion, then it resembles the circle's surface. The forms
companions!' (Q.D t .69). of the existents and the realities of the objects of knowledge (haqd'iq
al-mcadmat) are disclosed in it as they are. Then perception is true and
The Third Spiritual Struggle knowledge complete.
On the contrary, if the heart has not acquired the quality of
This is the struggle towards unveiling and spiritual perception. In this
going straight, if the deeds emanating from it—whether action or
struggle, the human qualities (al-silat al-bashariyya) are obliterated,
non-action are in uneven proportion, so that it tilts away from
and the corporeal forces (al-quwa al-badaniyya) in man are neutralized,
the straight path by leaning towards it with some deeds and moving
the way they are after death or virtually so!' This is achieved through
away from it just as much with other deeds, then the heart resembles
ascetic discipline and spiritual struggle. Then the subtle reality faces
the Truth, the veil is lifted and the secrets of the universes and the the rectangular, quadrangular, concave or convex-shaped polished
surface on which perfect reflection is impossible. The realities are dis-
sciences are made transparent to the witnessing soul. This is inspired
closed according to the heart as it is, not according to what they are.
knowledge, a knowledge which is attained through purification, as
we explained earlier. According to the Sufis, there are several condi- In this case, the heart harvests nothing but weariness and deprivation.
This is why many wayfarers, longing for unveiling, pursue it before
tions to this struggle.
they have even firmly settled themselves in the previous station, i.e.
The first condition is to have realized the first stage described ear-
lier: God-wariness. Indeed, this is the foundation of worship; its goal going straight. Sometimes erroneous ideas can infiltrate their hearts;
then, the realities are reflected according to what is in their hearts and
is the first level of bliss, namely salvation. Jariti said, 'He who has not
in no way according to what they are. These wayfarers turn into free-
Chapter Three
thinkers; they ignore the revealed Laws and become outright atheists. between action and non-action becomes an innate disposition to the
May God protect us from such a fate! Walking on the straight path, heart. However, in this particular struggle, the wayfarer is asked to
then, is a precondition for this unveiling, which is the key to inspired avoid all action, as well as numbing and mortifying all other human
knowledge and to the flawless and faithful disclosure in the heart of forces, including discursive thinking. He must become dead to his
these realities as they are indeed. flesh and awaken in his spirit." His heart must be void of all things but
Yet, some can experience unveiling—namely the lifting of the Him, as though his corporeal side were obliterated, extinct the way it
heart's veil (raf` bijab al-qalb)—by purifying their selves of that which is for the dead man. The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him
is not God (aghyar), and polishing their hearts through hunger, fast- peace) referring to this state says, 'Die before you die.'zs
ing and sleepless nights without having fulfilled the pre-condition The fifth condition is sincerity of intention (sidq al-irada). This
of walking on the straight path. This is why many people, follow- is where the love of God overwhelms the wayfarer's heart, and he
ers of different religions as well as adepts of the magical sciences, becomes like the fervent lover with only one desire. If these condi-
labour towards unveiling by calling upon the power of celestial spirits tions are fulfilled, the course of the struggle is the following: the
(ruhaniyyat al-aflak); and with their help, they exercise free disposal shaykh asks the disciple to devote himself to the constant remem-
(tasarruj) over the natural world. To them, the realities of the objects brance of God and to avoid excessive outward litanies (al-awrad
of knowledge are not revealed as they are, but rather as they are in al-zahira) and Quranic recitation; he limits the disciple's prayers to
their selves. They can only reap 'the manifest loss' (Q.xxxtx. the obligatory (furad) and supererogatory acts of devotion (rawatib).
The third condition is to follow a shaykh who is a wayfarer, has The disciple's litany consists in the incessant remembrance of God
experienced the spiritual struggles and travelled the Path to God. To in a heart that has been emptied of anything else. Shibli2o told
him, the veil has been lifted and the lights have radiated. He has gone klusart 'If, from one Friday to the next, anything other than God
through the different states and can lead the disciple step by step on crosses your mind, then do not even come to see me.'27 The shaykh
the ascending paths until the latter is bestowed divine mercy (al-rahma instructs the disciple to withdraw for a spiritual retreat in a secluded
al-rabbaniyya) and attains the station of unveiling and spiritual per- place away from people (zawiya) and asks someone to give him the
ception. If the disciple succeeds in finding such a shaykh, he should necessary amount of lawful food; indeed lawful food is essential
imitate him, be guided by his words and deeds and hold on to him in all religions. The shaykh gives the disciple a specific [formula
like the blind man on the seashore holds on to his guide.2' He should of] remembrance with which he will occupy his tongue and heart.
submit to him and be in his hands like the corpse in the hands of the The disciple will sit and repeat, 'Allah, Allah, Allah!' or 'There is no
mortician." He should know that it is more to his benefit to follow god but God, there is no god but God' (la ilaha ilia Allah, la ilaha illa
in his master's footsteps, even in his mistakes, rather than rely on his Allah)!" He must persevere until the tongue's movements subside
own personal opinion albeit sound.93 and the imagination of the movements remains. Then the trace of
The fourth condition is to sever all the ties binding the wayfarer's the imagination disappears from the tongue and the word's image
soul through the practice of asceticism, isolation (infirad), spiritual remains in the heart.29 Ultimately, the image of the word is erased
retreat in obscure places, by covering the head with one's robe; or from the heart—that has become void of everything—and only
wrapping the body in a tunic or heavy cloth, as well as by total the word's meaning (macro) remains in it, present and permanent. It
silence, days of fasting and sleepless nights. As he struggles to walk is at this stage that the wayfarer must be most wary of the Devil's
on the straight path (mujahadat al-istiqama), the disciple aims at realiz- whispers and worldly thoughts. He must watch his inward states
ing all this within the limits of moderation until the even proportion unremittingly and inform his shaykh if he detects any indifference
Chapter Three
or ardour, laziness or sincere effort. The wayfarer must discuss his earlier, the first struggle used to be called Sufism. Then, when the
state with none but his shaykh for he knows how to best nurture him aspirations of the wayfarers led them to the levels of the just (abrar)
The shaykh, too, must be cautious because this phase is very and to the stations of the sincere believers, they devoted themselves
dangerous for the wayfarer as his mind might be invaded by some to going straight. Some of them longed for the ultimate felicity
[distracting] imagining, whereby the disciple might become lax and and sought the struggle leading to unveiling. This is how the name
his efforts will be invalidated. Even him whose heart is solely occu- Sufism came to refer to the two later struggles. Subsequently, the
pied with the remembrance of God is threatened by the dangers of followers of this path taught about a new kind of personal strug-
conceit, joy and self-satisfaction (qumdc) at the first charismatic acts gle, different from the one fought by the majority. In their teaching,
(karamat) or spiritual states he experiences, which could bring about they began to use a nomenclature and specific words that referred to
a feeling of indifference in him and become an obstacle in his way- their own endeavours, like the following: station (maqdm); state (had);
faring. The wayfarer must sustain his effort all his life as if he were annihilation (fang') or abiding in God (baqa'); obliteration (mahu) or
a man whose thirst even the seas cannot quench. Withdrawal from affirmation (ithbat); soul (nafs); spirit (rah); the innermost conscious-
the world (ingird') and spiritual retreat are his capital wealth. If the ness (sirr); unexpected impulses (bawadih); spontaneous intuitions
wayfarer escapes all these dangers and if his heart concentrates on his (hawajim); incoming suggestions (khawatir) and ephemeral inrush
Lord, the supreme presence unveils and the Truth discloses Himself (wand); glimmers (lawa'ih); flashes (lawami) and divine rays (tawali`);
to him. The wayfarer is then transported with joy and pleasure; colouration (talwin) and stabilization (tamkin); separation (farq); unifi-
and divine subtle realities, that no word can possibly describe, are cation (jam') and ultimate unification (jam' al-jam`); mystical tasting
manifested. (dhawq) or drinking (shurb); absence (ghayba) or presence (hudur);
After the lifting of the veil, the greatest danger for the wayfarer sobriety (sahw) or intoxication (sukr); the science of certainty (ìlm
lies in divulging all this and occupying himself with counselling and al-yaqin); the vision of certainty (àyn al-yaqin) and the reality of cer-
advising other people. The soul finds pleasure in leadership by means tainty (haqq al-yaqin); the presence of the heart with God (muhcidara);
of teaching, referring to the Sunna and being listened to wholeheart- unveiling (mukashafa) and witnessing (mushahada); interaction with
edly and intently. The wayfarer will think he is a guide to God. God (mdamala); union with God (muwasala) and descent of the divine
Nonetheless, there is yet another danger for him, namely relinquish- graces (munazala); the science of interaction (7/m al-nidaima/a); and
ing work and efforts, which are the means to Self-disclosure. The the science of unveiling (cilm al-muleashafa).
disciple will here think that he has reached the goal and thenceforth Let us explain these terms. As we said earlier, the essence of the
does not need the means to reach it; so, consequently, the state of spiritual struggle is the soul's gradual sequential acquisition of and
Self-disclosure abates and the veil is lowered again These obstacles colouration with praiseworthy virtues, namely will (irada); repent-
can drown him in a shoreless ocean of destruction. His plight is such ance (tawba); God-wariness (taquth); moral care (ward); renunciation
because he has simply aspired to the level of witnessing. If he had (zuhd); spiritual struggle (mujahada); contentment (qanda); trust in
sincerely restricted himself to the struggle of walking on the straight Him (tawakkul); reverence (khushd); humbleness (taivacht); gratitude
path and waited for the witnessing until its proper time—namely in (shukr); certainty (yaqin); patience (sabr); self-examination (muraqaba);
the Hereafter, the abode of recompense (dar al-jaza'), as He prom- satisfaction with God's decree (Had); servanthood (ùbudiyya); going
ised—then the wayfarer would have escaped such mortal dangers straight (istiqama); sincerity (ikkia,$); truthfulness (sidq); the profession
May God, in His bounty, protect usli° of divine unity (tawhid); gnosis (mdrifa); love (mahabba); and yearning
These are the spiritual struggles of the Sufis. As we mentioned towards the Beloved (shawq).
The first among these qualities is will, which, as explained earlier, As long as the disciple is progressing on the Path from one
is not submitted to the power of choice. The last, the ultimate pur- spiritual state to the next, he is said to be going through different
suit and noblest goal, is gnosis, Self-disclosure or witnessing. While colourations. When the goal is attained and the quest fulfilled, he is in
the soul is struggling in order to acquire these virtues, it is at the a state of stabilization. Similarly, as long as he sees objects as entities
same time overtaken by and coloured with other qualities that are not emanating from God, he is in a station of separation (maqam farq), for
acquired or submitted to any choice but are divine gifts (mawahib). indeed, although he sees God, he still sees the existents as well. If he
Among these gifts are joy (surur) and sadness (huzn), delight (tarab) and sees the existents in God, he is in a station of unification (maqamjam`).
turmoil (ihtiyaj), yearning (shawq) and uneasiness (inzraj), hope (raja') Finally, if he sees God only, he has reached the station of ultimate
and fear (khawf), expansion (bast) and contraction (04 reverence unification (maqiim jam' al-jam`).
(hayba) and intimacy (uns).
After the Self-disclosures, the wayfarer experiences other spir-
The virtues that depend on choice or acquisition are called 'sta- itual states that are described in terms of mystical tasting or drinking,
tion'; and among these are trust in Him, patience, satisfaction with and that derive from Self-disclosure also. Sometimes the witness can
God's decree and so forth. As to the virtues that cannot be acquired, lose consciousness and find himself in a state of absence or intox-
they are called `state'; and they include joy, sadness, hope, fear and so ication; and when the vision fades away, he awakens in a state of
on. Nevertheless, the praiseworthy virtues only penetrate the heart presence and sobriety. The Sufis believe that, as long as a science is
after the blameworthy ones have been extirpated from it. The removal based on demonstration Pim burhani), it is 'the science of certainty'
of that which is blameworthy is called annihilation and obliteration, (ì/m al-yaqin). When the wayfarer's knowledge results from evidence
and the gaining of that which is praiseworthy is called affirmation or (bukm al-bayan), it is called 'the eye of certainty' or 'the vision of
abiding in God. certainty' (àp/ al-yaqin) Finally, when the Sufi realizes the evidence
To the Sufis, the heart has three facets: it is the soul, insofar as (ndt al-bayein), it is called 'the truth of certainty' (haqq al-yaqin). These
it is a place wherein vice gathers; it is the spirit, insofar as it the three stages are also known as presence, unveiling and witnessing.
place wherein virtue gathers; and it is the innermost secret, insofar These are the levels of the wayfarer in relation to the degrees of
as it is the place wherein the lights of witnessing and gnosis gather. the science aforementioned, or rather in relation to the levels of the
Sometimes, the heart is suddenly overtaken by feelings of sadness knowledge within him
or joy; these feelings come from the world of the Unseen, and they The Sufis speak about interaction with God, descent of divine
are known as unexpected impulses or spontaneous intuitions. As to graces and union with God. By interaction, they mean wayfaring and
what befalls the conscience (damir), if it happens in the manner of an spiritual struggle; by graces, the lifting of the veil and the unveiling;
address (khita b), it is an incoming suggestion (khatir) originating from finally, union is gnosis and witnessing. Within the spiritual struggle,
an angel, a devil or the soul. If it is not in the manner of an address, various stations need to be acquired; and these include repentance,
it is called an inrush. When the struggle comes to its end, when the trust in God, moral care, asceticism and so forth; the explanation of
stages of development are over and while the veil is being lifted, lights these terms varies depending on the motive underlying the spiritual
intermittently flare through the soul like lightening. These illumina- struggle, such as God-wariness, walking on the straight path or gno-
tions are called divine glimmers, flashes and rays. When the lifting of sis (ìrftin). Indeed, the repentance of the beginner is different from
the veil as such occurs—namely [full] unveiling—these illuminations the repentance of the realized wayfarer. Dina al-Nun said, 'Common
become radiantly revealing and are known as gnosis, witnessing and people repent for their sins, the elite repent their heedlessness of
Self-disclosure. God (ghafia) and the gnostics repent for all that which is not God.'3'
it
The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) says in a tra- one incumbent duty for a worthier one and abandoning one obliga-
dition, `0 my people, repent! For, I do repent one hundred times a tion for one more deserving.
day.'32 The same rule applies to trust in God: 'The believers rely on All of this required the Sufis to develop a nomenclature so that
God's promise, the elite are content with His knowledge and the they could communicate with each other and explain the rules and
gnostics are satisfied with His judgement:33 For the common people, laws regulating their struggles, their various stations and teaching
moral care is withdrawal from that which is uncertain; for the elite, methods. Furthermore, some of their obscure statements and utter-
it is the relinquishing of all personal undertakings; and for the gnos- ances also had to be clarified. All this is a special science called the
tics, it is not allowing anything other than God infiltrate the heart. `science of Sufism' Pm al-tasawwuf).
So it is with asceticism: the common people shun the unlawful, the To reiterate, there are three levels to the spiritual struggle. The first
elite disregard that which is unnecessary even in the lawful, and the struggle towards God-wariness (mujahadat al-tagwa) consists in abiding
gnostics forsake that which deters their attention from God. by God's rules, in both the outward and the inward: respecting the
In the same way, the explanation of the words divine unity, limits set by Him while watching inward states as well. Its incentive
gratitude, certainty, patience and other qualities varies according to is the above-mentioned search for salvation. This was the Path for
the motives behind each struggle, as we determined from the Sufis' the first generations among the Sufis. The second struggle of walking
books. Sufis follow different rules and methods in their struggles. on the straight path concentrates on the amendment of the soul as it
They keep their distance with people, and even more so when discord strives towards the straight path. With training and spiritual education,
and deviation from the straight path becomes widespread. the soul is able to conform to the rules laid down by the Qur'an and
It is possible that the gnostic might express a truth that the masses the prophets until they become its innate disposition. In this struggle,
hasten to disavow because it is beyond their capacity to comprehend the wayfarer longs for the levels of 'those whom God has blessed, proph-
it. Some have been condemned for statements which should have ets, sincere believers, martyrs, the righteous' (Q.Iv.69). In the third struggle
been clarified, such as the following, say, "0 God, 0 Lord," and for unveiling and spiritual perception (mujahadat al-kashf we7-ittilit)
find it heavier upon me than mountains:34 In this instance, the Sufi all human forces, including reflective thoughts, must become extinct.
cries out because he is behind a screen. Have you ever heard of a The goal is to be in the lordly presence (al-hadra al-rabbaniyya); and the
man calling out to someone sitting right next to him?34 Without this aim is the lifting of the veil and witnessing the Divine lights in this
explanation, this saying is criticized and the speaker condemned. This life. In so doing, the vision of God's Face in the next life is obtained.
also applies to the rule defining retreat and the remembrance of God This is the highest level for the blessed ones (sdada').
for the aspirant to witnessing: the wayfarer must refrain from lita- The name Sufism refers to all three struggles separately and joint-
nies and from qur'anic recitation and concentrate on the obligatory ly. This label, however, has come to designate the last two levels only.
prayers and the remembrance of God. This is because Qp/anic reci- The first level was described as knowledge of moral care, with the
tation comprises rules and stories, and the heart becomes dispersed knowledge of moral care and the knowledge of the heart as its sci-
while trying to understand them, whereas the aim [of the spiritual ences. As to God-given learning (al-cam al-laduni), that is called `the
retreat] is to concentrate on the One remembered in order to behold science of Sufism' (Wm al-tasawwuf), it is the knowledge of the last
the light of witnessing (nut- al-mushahada). Without this interpreta- two struggles, their laws, paths and rules. It also consists in under-
tion, the rule stating that litanies and Queanic recitation must be standing what impairs or obstructs the wayfarer on his Path. This
relinquished could be objected to. However, if we take into consid- science, in addition, includes the explication of the terms used by the
eration the incentive behind the struggle, this rule means giving up Sufis in their discussion of these matters.
Varying Definitions for the Sufi Path the two spiritual struggles differ and it is difficult to contain them
in one single definition. Here we have dealt with each separately,
Many have tried to define Sufism in one comprehensive sentence, but
but both are part of Sufism. The reader who wishes to have more
no statement has ever been complete. Some have described the Sufi
detailed and comprehensive explanations concerning this subject
Path in terms of its initial stages. JarIri said, 'Sufism is the acquisition
can consult the books of the Sufis. We have only touched upon the
of elevated virtues and the abandoning of vile traits.'36 Qassab said,
difference between this Path and the others; and `had not God guided
Ìt is noble virtues coming from a noble man in a noble era.'"
us, we had surely never been guided' (Q.vii.43).
Others spoke of the Path in terms of its last stages. Junayd said,
`The Truth makes you die to yourself and live by Him.',' As to
Ruwaym, he declared that Sufism is `to abide with God as He wills,
Concluding Remarks on the so Path and the Law
possessing nothing and possessed by nothing' 39 Finally, for Samnun, We have described the spiritual struggles, their characteristics in gen-
it was 'to be with God, unattached to anything other than God'.4° eral as well as the differences between them; let us now talk about
Some Sufis spoke of one characteristic of the Path. For Baghdadi, their statutes with regards to the Law.
`The sincere Sufi is the one who experiences poverty after having The first inward struggle is an individual obligation upon eve-
lived a wealthy life, the one who is disgraced after having been hon- ryone subject to the Law since the duty of every Muslim is to fear
oured, and the one who is forgotten after having been celebrated; the God's chastisement. He must, therefore, observe the limits set by
pretender is the one who follows the reverse route.',' Him (hudad) and know that 'Whosoever transgresses the bounds of God—
Others defined the Path according to its principles and founda- those are the evildoers' (Q.11.229), the unbelievers and the ungodly.
tions. Ruwaym said, 'Sufism is based on three qualities: holding fast The second inward struggle is legally permissible for the commu-
to poverty (faqr) and deprivation gaga* realizing the qualities of nity and an individual obligation for the prophets (God's blessings be
bounty (badhl) and altruism (ithar); and finally, renouncing all claim upon them). Its source is evidently the Law. The Legislator, inasmuch
(tacarrud) and free choice.'42 Sometimes principle and foundation were as He was intent upon saving mankind—and because both legal and
not separated; Rattan' said, 'Sufism is having good character traits; customary wisdom prescribe the elimination of wrongs before ben-
the one who increases in goodness will increase in Sufism.'43 efits can accrue urged men to enter the path to salvation and to be
There are many such definitions. Every Sufi describes what he safe from perdition and Hellfire. These are the general rules for those
has achieved and his definition reflects his state. Actually, Sufism subject to the Law. The Legislator spelled out the various degrees of
cannot be confined in one phrase. Indeed, in the mystical Path, salvation and damnation and the different degrees in felicity. Indeed,
the wayfarer first assumes the traits of the struggle that are suit- the sincere believers, the martyrs and the righteous reach a level of
able for walking on the straight path, at which point his wayfaring felicity higher than salvation. The second struggle is walking on the
may come to an end. If, subsequently, he assumes the traits of the straight path, `the path of those whom Thou halt blessed' (Q.1.5). In it, the
struggle for unveiling, he will take on the qualities of both strug- most sublime felicity is the vision of God's Face.
gles at once because going straight is one of the pre-requisites for As for the third inward struggle, [namely] unveiling, it is, in our
unveiling. The outcome reflects the underlying motive. Behind the view, utterly reprehensible (mahzura) to the point of being prohibited
struggle for going straight lies the desire for felicity in the Hereafter (hazy al-karahiyya), or even more. God Most High said, Ànd We set in
without any aspiration for unveiling in this life, while behind the the hearts of those who followed him tenderness and mercy. And monasticism
other struggle lies the desire to lift the veil in this life. Therefore,
CC, i
they invented—We did not prescribe it for them—[whereby they] only sought
CT
the good pleasure of God; but they observed it not as it should be observed. So thought that he would not fast.'5° The Prophet (may God bless him
We gave those of them who believed their wage; and many of them are ungodly' and grant him peace) forbade uninterrupted fasting: 'I am not like
(Q.iv11.27).44 This inward struggle is monastic since the meaning of you: I remain awake all night long and my sustenance comes from
monasticism (rahbaniyya) for the past generations implies celibacy and my Lord.'“ This means the following: since knowledge of the spir-
seclusion in hermitages. God Most High has shown that monasticism itual world and witnessing of the divine presence are both an innate
was not an imposition on those who practised it, but they did it to gift to and an inborn quality of the prophets, the preservation (isma)
seek His pleasure and did not observe it the way they should have. manifested in their hearts is a spontaneous characteristic. God made
God Most High said that 'many of them were ungodly'. Indeed, it is them travel their path guided and inspired by their own primordial
deplorable and blameworthy to follow monasticism and not observe nature and good character. To them, the path is easy and obvious.
it rightly. Qacli Abu Muhammad b. Atiyya explains, Ìt follows, from They are like the baby who knows the way to his mother's breast and
the interpretation of this verse, that everyone who begins a voluntary like the bee who knows how to build its hexagonal hive: 'Our Lord is
or supererogatory act of devotion must do so to perfection, must He who gave everything its creation, then guided it' (Q.xx.so). God Most
persevere therein and observe it with proper care.'4' Notice God Most High sustains the Messenger with food and drink and whatsoever He
High's words, 'as it should be observed'. It is difficult to persevere in this wills from His provisions.
particular struggle, because it is difficult to observe it. As for the helpless man, for whom witnessing is neither part of
The degree of observance varies because, as we explained earlier, his primordial nature nor of his innate disposition, he faces many
the states that befall the wayfarer in this struggle are not subject to obstacles that block his way. He can still seek unveiling and progress
the will. This can lead to sinfulness and loss of faith. The Prophet a little on its path, even though he is incapable of reaching the stations
(may God bless him and grant him peace) said, Ì fast and break my of the prophets (may God bless them). But as we mentioned earlier, it
fast, I sleep and I stay awake, and I also marry women. Whoever is a difficult and dangerous path, strewn with dangers and obstacles,
does not follow my tradition is not amongst my followers.'46 When so he must heed and avoid.
the Prophet learned that Abd Allah b. Anar had sworn he would fast
every day and stay up all nights in prayer, he forbade him from doing
so and told him to fast three times a month only; to this Abd Allah
answered, `But, 0 Messenger of God, I can endure more than this!'
The Prophet replied, `The fast kept by the Prophet David was most
beneficent; he would fast every other day, pray half the night, sleep
one third of it, and then wake up and pray for one sixth of the same
night.'o The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) also
forbade Ùthman b. Maz`fin from leading a life of celibacy.a He said,
`Walk on the right path; and if not, walk as well as you can, early in
the morning, in the evening and also a little towards the end of the
night. '49
Furthermore, A'isha said, `The Messenger of God (may God bless
him and grant him peace) fasted in such a way that we thought he
would never break his fast, and he broke his fast in such a way that we
Chapter Four
al-qadr) and the ascension of the Prophet (rn(raj). It learns about angels
and devils, comprehends the enmity of the devils towards human-
kind, the meeting between angels and prophets and their apparition
to them, the descent of revelation to the Prophet, the charismatic
CHAPTER FOUR acts bestowed upon the saint (wall), the Path and its struggles, and the
cleansing and purification of the heart. The meanings of heart and
On How the Later Sufis Transposed the Name Sufism spirit are here made manifest. The heart sees through the Hereafter
from Its Original Meaning and Our Refutation of Them and the circumstances of the Resurrection; and all things [pertinent
on That Account to those events] become transparent to it: the Bridge over Hell (sird!),
the Scale (mizan), the Reckoning (hisab), the Basin of the Prophets
(bawd) with their Intercession (shafaa), the Torments of the Grave
Know that, as we explained earlier, the struggle for unveiling encom- (adhab al-qabr), Heaven (fauna) and Hellfire (nar), Chastisement and
passes the two prior struggles, namely walking on the straight path Bliss. Ultimately, it comprehends what the encounter (liqalwith God
and God-wariness, and both are pre-requisites to the third. Therefore, is, what it is to behold His Face and what nearness to Him means.
the last combat consists in spiritual struggle and ascetic discipline, The heart will fully apprehend all the terms he had heard of and to
followed by unveiling and witnessing. Consequently, this particular which he had ascribed vague and obscure meanings.'
science divides into two sections: firstly, the study of the science of The science of unveiling uncovers these matters until the Truth
interaction, or the rules and conditions of ascetic discipline and spirit- is fully disclosed with such clarity that certainty is experienced, as
ual struggles. Secondly, the science of unveiling and knowledge of the though visualized, without any need whatsoever for study or acquisi-
inward, or the science of the lifting of the veil, with its ensuing states. tion. As we explained earlier, it is possible to reach this state through
Indeed, when the heart is purified and cleansed from the repre- the subtle reality, which was itself barred from this very vision
hensible and when human forces have been subdued therein, it can because of being tarnished by the full spectrum of humanness and
then face the Truth. The veil is lifted and divine light irradiates the burdened with corporeal chains.
heart, as we explained earlier. The secrets of both lower and higher The science of the soul's interaction [with God], which is the
existence as well as earthly and celestial realms are thus disclosed science of the way to the Hereafter (cam prig al-akhira), is also the
and the meanings of sciences and arts are elucidated. As a result, all method applied to cleanse the heart (al-cam bi-kayfiyya tathir al-qalb)
doubts and uncertainties are dissolved; the secrets of the hearts and from its evils and impurities by controlling the passions, subduing
existence are clarified; and the ambiguities of the Law are under- human forces, severing all corporeal chains and emulating the proph-
stood. The heart proceeds in this way until it knows all the realities ets in all their states (may God's blessings be upon them). The more
of the existence intrinsically, from the Divine Essence (dhdt Allah) to polished the heart is, the more turned towards the Truth [it becomes]
His Attributes (silat), Acts (alai), Principles (ahledm), Decree (gat/di), ., and the more divine realities shine in it. This is the ascetic discipline
Destiny (qadar), Throne (arsh), Footstool (kursi), Preserved Tablet
(lawl?) and Pen (qalam). The heart grasps the wisdom behind the crea-
tion of this world and the next, and understands how life in the
Hereafter is contingent upon life in this world. The heart discovers
the meaning of prophethood, revelation, the Night of Destiny (/ay/at
if. aand the struggles mentioned earlier.
the attscience of interaction is of two types. If salvation only is the
disciple's goal and ultimate aspiration, then moral care and struggle of
heart suffice The wayfarer needs to observe the limits imposed by
God in both his outward and inward deeds. As we mentioned earlier,
<
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Four
this is called 'the science of the inward', but it used to be called Sufism expresses the inexpressible. It is reported that Abu Yazid said, `Glory
during the first Islamic era, before the aspirations of the Sufis led be to me, how great is my majesty!' and 'I have traversed seas at the
them towards the struggle for unveiling. Al-Rlaya, the well-known shores of which the prophets halted.'' As to R_Thica, she exclaimed,
book by al-I-Jarith b. Asad al-Muliasibi (may God be pleased with 'If I were to remove my veil, there would be no one left inside it
him), is designed for this particular path. [but Him];] There are many more examples.
If the wayfarer aspires to the ultimate felicity, the loftiest levels Know that it is forbidden to become absorbed in such statements
and wishes to realize the means leading to them, namely walking for a number of different reasons.
on the straight path and the lifting of the veil in this life, he must Firstly, it is so because it is difficult, not to say impossible, to
know the following: the nomenclature used by the Sufis, their rules talk about perceptions or meanings emanating from the Dominion.
of proper conduct, the particulars followed in the struggles and their In all languages, words were set to express that which is tangible,
methods of teaching, the different levels of the struggles and the imaginary or conceivable and hence known by people. Words state
stations (magamat), as well as the manner in which a struggle varies the well-known and the familiar, not that which has been perceived
according to the station in which it takes place. The wayfarer must by one single person in a generation or in a century. Furthermore,
apply all this and commit himself to the emulation of the masters. words should not be used figuratively because a metaphorical
All this ultimately became known as Sufism. The book designed for expression implies the existence of a common quality or ground
this path is the Risala by the teacher Abu al-Q]asim al-Qiishayri., and for comparison, and there is none between the the Dominion and
among the later authors Suhrawardi's Alva& al-mdarif. the Corporeal World (`clam al-mulk), and between the Unseen World
Since the struggle for unveiling depends on both struggles (`clam al-ghayb) and the Visible World (àlam al-shahada). Describing
walking on the straight path and God-wariness—the wayfarer who the realities of the Dominion (ahwal calm al-malakut), therefore,
hopes to see the veils lifted must know the rules governing all strug- is difficult not to say impossible. Can one talk—let alone write
gles. Ghazal wrote the Ihya) and his book encompasses both ways: books—about that which has not been understood? Indeed, when
moral care and the science of the inward described in the Ricata, as Sufis start expressing themselves through examples and in a general
well as [the matters of how to] go straight and unveiling that are way their Path becomes obscure.
dealt with in the Risala. As to the science of unveiling, the fruit and Secondly, because of their primordial nature, the prophets (may
result of all struggles, it does not have a set path for the wayfarer to God be pleased with them) are the masters of unveiling and wit-
engage in because the Sufis (may God be pleased with them) warn nessing. The glimpse perceived by some saintly or sincere men is
against recording it in books or discussing it at all, except through discerned through labour (takalluf) and acquisition. The prophet's
symbols, allusions, examples or in very general way. The Sufis do knowledge of the Dominion is more complete than that of the
not divulge these meanings to anyone because they know others gnostic or saint; indeed, there is no comparison between the two.
cannot understand them. Besides, they watch the limits set by the God enlightens the prophet who is then able, with His assistance,
Law, which cautions against questioning that which is not a direct to talk about the Dominion In spite of this, the Prophet (may God
concern to man and respect the rules of proper conduct towards bless him and grant him peace) did not divulge this knowledge.
God by keeping divine mysteries hidden. However, if an allusion When asked to talk about the Spirit, he replied, `Say: the Spirit is of
related to these meanings happens to emanate from the mystic, it is . the bidding of my Lord. You have been given of knowledge nothing except
called an ecstatic utterance (shath). It can arise when a state of absence a little' (Q.xvii.85). 'Say: the Spirit is of the bidding of my Lord' was
and intoxication overwhelms the wayfarer, and at that moment he his reply to the Jewish scholars who knew that his non-answering
c6
proved the truthfulness of his prophecy and the sincerity of his during the pilgrimage, would enter the houses from their back doors.
message. The prophets did call upon all the people to seek salvation Thus, His injunction not to interpret signs is succeeded by a divine
and informed them of its different levels. They alluded to some rule; in this instance, there is a sign and a warning to the man subject
aspects of the Dominion because these had to be conveyed as doc- to the Law who is asked to forgo such questioning
trines of faith (aqa'id al-iman). Some can be understood literally Some later Sufis occupied themselves with the sciences of unveil-
in the Corporeal World, like [certain] Divine Attributes and the ing, engaged in discussing it and made it another science or technical
circumstances of the Resurrection, while others, like many of the domain. They taught their own personal method, arranged existents
Divine Attributes, are considered ambiguous. In contrast, some in a special way according to their own perception and claimed that
scholars even considered all these aspects ambiguous. What, then, it stemmed from intimate finding or witnessing. At times, some Sufis
is your opinion of those who are not prophets, who cannot pre- made different allegations. Consequently, the schools of thought
tend to a prophet's perception, who have not drunk from the basin proliferated, whereby different claims and dissensions arose. The
of prophethood, and above all whose mission did not include the various ways and itineraries contradicted each other and the diverg-
disclosure of the above? ing groups isolated themselves one from another. The name Sufism
Thirdly, according to the Law, sciences and knowledge divide came to refer to the sciences of unveiling and the search for the secrets
into forbidden and permissible.4 The rule inferred from the Law is of the Dominion (asrar al-malakut) through technical and acquired
the following: that which does not concern a man subject to the Law sciences. The Sufis started explaining ambiguous points in the Law,
in his daily life or faith must not be investigated. The Prophet (may such as the Spirit, the Corporeal World, Revelation, the Throne, the
God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'One of the signs of a good Footstool, with explanations that were obscure, even impossible to
Muslim is to disregard that which does not concern him.'s This tradi- grasp, and that sometimes contained reprehensible statements and
tion has been said to constitute a third of the religion.° That which heretical doctrines.
does concern the man subject to the Law in his daily or religious life The Bacilli school, for instance, saw hidden meanings in many
is permissible, indeed so essential that it becomes an obligation. obviously clear Qur'anic verses, thus veiling their transparent mean-
Since that which does not concern the individual subject to the ing with the cloud of their interpretation. To them, Adam and Eve
Law in his faith and life is forbidden, this led to the study of the symbolized the soul and nature (tabra); the slaughter of the cow
believer's essential duties because they become most important with referred to [the fight against] the animal soul (nafs); the People of the
regards to religion. Reflect upon the words of God Most High, 'They Cave were those who drifted towards an existence of passions, and
will question thee concerning the Spirit. Say: the Spirit is of the bidding of my so forth.? Many misguided hearts revel in these kinds of statements
Lord. You have been given of knowledge nothing except a little' (Q.xvu.68). because they covet the goals while still in the beginning stages and
This denial connotes a prohibition (hazr). He also said, 'They will wish to enjoy the butter without going through the tiresome whisk-
question thee concerning the new moons. Say: They are appointed times for ' ing process. They answer their opponents' questioning claiming their
the people, and the pilgrimage' (Q.11.189). In other words, you only need allegations stem from intimate fi nding; and this can neither be proved
to know that new moons herald the pilgrimage, a religious matter. nor ascertained by anyone else besides themselves. 'Had God willed,
There are also signals for people in their farming and commerce, they would not have done so' (Q..137). Indeed, they should have fol-
matters of daily life. You do not need to know more than this. This lowed their predecessors who forbade delving into this. Moreover,
i
statement is followed by another of greater importance still, in which what is the use of explanations if they are but vague and cryptic? It
God Most High disapproves of the custom of some pilgrims who, s then safer to resume the study of the Law and accept its meanings
<CI
as set by traditional commentaries. Even though these are not alto- for all the developments in their theory, neither does it support it
gether devoid of vagueness, referring to them is safer than relying with any clear proof.
upon some unintelligible postulates that are based neither on reason- To these Sufis, Self-disclosure contains perfection; it is the effu-
able evidence nor on the Law. sion (ifada) of existentiation (ijad) and manifestation. Perfection here
In spite of their numerous divergent ways, these schools can be does not relate to Unity, which is the exclusion of multiplicity, but
thought of as [representing] two main opinions (rdy).8 to Unicity, which is the locus of manifestation. It is divisible into
THE FIRST OPINION believes in Self-disclosure and loci of manifesta- perfection relating to Oneness (katnal wandani) and perfection relat-
tion (mazahir, sing. mazhar), in Divine Names (asma") and Presences ing to the Divine Names. If multiplicity is considered as a totality
(hadarat). This is a strange and philosophical approach. Among its most that happens in a single instant, or as a unique entity (aynan wahida)
well-known advocates are Ibn al-Paric1,9 Ibn Barrajdn,- Ibn Qasi," in the witnessing of God, then one is referring to the perfection that
Bani," Flatinar3 and Ibn Sawdakin.r] The essence of this theory lies stems from Oneness (al-kamal al-wandant). On the other hand, if
in the order it ascribes to the emanation (sudur) of existents from the multiplicity is considered in terms of the particularization of reali-
Necessary Truth (al-wajib al-kiaqq), the existence (aniyya) of which ties and apprehensions descending successively into existence, and
is Oneness (wabda). From Oneness, Unity (ahadiyya) and Unicity in terms of its role as the intermediate world (barzakh) containing
(wahidiyya) arise, which are both aspects of Oneness. If Oneness is all these separate individuals, then one is referring to the quality of
considered in terms of the exclusion of multiplicity and the negation perfection stemming from the Divine Names as it descends divid-
of apprehensions ((tibarat), then it is Unity; whereas if it is consid- ed into the realities. It is the world of ideas (calant al-mdani), the
ered in terms of multiplicity and infinite realities, then it is Unicity. Nebulous Presence (al-hadra al- cama'iyya), that is the Muhannnadan
Unicity is to Unity what the outward is to the inward and the visible Reality (al-baqiqa al-Mubammadiyya). Among these entities are the
(shahada) is to the hidden (ghayb). Unicity is the locus of manifestation realities of the Pen, then the Preserved Tablet, then nature and then
of Unity. Unicity is to Unity what the locus of manifestation is to the body, leading up to Adam both in his essence and existence.
the revealed Object (mutajalli). Then, that all-encompassing Oneness According to these Sufis, the Nebulous Presence encompasses, in
(al-wanda al-jam(a), which is the Essence itself and the source behind its plurality and divisibility, the realities of the seven Divine Names
the existence of these two apprehensions—namely the inward with which are the Attributes. The most universal and comprehensive
the exclusion of multiplicity and the outward with the inclusion of reality is the reality of life, then the realities of the prophets, mes-
multiplicity—stands between the inward and the outward like the sengers and perfect men among the Muhammadan saints, who are
man who speaks to himself with himself. the Poles (aqtab) and the seven Substitutes (abdal). All these realities
The first of the degrees of manifestation (zultar) is His mani- are a particularization of the Muhammadan Reality. These realities
festation to Himself. The first consequence of this manifestation are the origin and source of other realities, other disclosures and
is the perfection relating to the Divine Names in order for Him to loci of manifestation for the Unique Essence (al-dhat al-abadiyya).
address Himself. The first of the Self-disclosures is that of the Most thha
T ordered according to several established hierarchies, end-
Sanctified Essence to Itself. This particular group of Sufis quotes-the -- ing with the sensorial and visible world (slam wa'l-shahada)
following tradition of the Prophet as the point of departure for their et isthe
the world of rending (`clam al-fatq). They call them worlds
creed: 'I was a hidden treasure; I wanted to be known; so, I cre- (caatu ot r Presences; they are also called the domains of realities
ated mankind so that they would know Me!' Only God knows the thatt are at times connected with the Truth and at times related to
soundness of this tradition! However, if sound, it does not account the created universe (kawn).
an AT
The first presence that followed the Presence of the Dark Clouds true, the other false. When falsehood—the side connected to illu-
(al-hadra al-cama'iyya), according to these Sufis, was the Presence sions—vanishes, only the Truth remains.
of Fine Dust (al-hadra al-haba'iyya), which is called the Level of These Sufis went astray as they meddled with the Law and its
the Image (martabat al-mithal). It is followed by the Throne, the ambiguous aspects. To them, only he who understands the hidden
Footstool, the celestial spheres (aflak) in their particular order, the secret of existence has attained the level of the gnostics who have
world of elements (àlam aljanasir) and, finally, the world of com- reached realization (tahqiq), which is the word they use to designate
position Plain al-tarkib) from beginning to end. So long as these this type of science that [they claim] the prophets, learned men and
realities are related to the Truth and seen in respect to the essence saints taught those they considered worthy of it. According to them,
of that intermediate world (al-dhat al-barzakhiyya) that encompasses there are several degrees [of realization]: the Sufi reaches detachment
all particularization and successive hierarchies, they are in the world (tajrid); the realized sage (muhaqqiq) reaches gnosis of Oneness (mdrifat
of mending (alam al-ratq). But, when they are related to the created al-wanda); and the one who is close to God (muqarrab) is content with
universe and reveal themselves in its loci of manifestations, then the Essence of His Essence (àyn cayniki) rather than with its effect
they are in the world of rending (àlam al-fatq). This is explained (athar). Abd al-1-1aqq says in one of his books that this is a new theory:
with many details, vague sentences and irregular terminology. In `We wish to call attention to something that was never heard of in
short, if this topic with all its issues were to be sorted out and clari- past centuries, which did not arise ever in past times, and was never
fied, the existential hierarchy of these Sufis would appear similar recorded in desert or city.' Then he added, and here he is not truthful,
to that of the philosophers in their discursive thinking and theories 'It stems from the word of God and His Prophet'"?
but built neither on proof nor evidence. From the interest of this group in the science of unveiling there
THE SECOND OPINION believes in Oneness (wanda), and their arose the belief in the Divine Names related to perfection, in which
opinion is even stranger than the first group's, both in content and [it was claimed that] their loci of manifestation are the spirits of the
argumentation. Among its most famous advocates are Ibn Dahhaq,16 celestial spheres and stars. Since the first creation (al-ibda` al-awwal),
Ibn Sabìn, Shushtari and their followers. In brief, after they care- the nature of the letters (burg') and their secrets pervade the Divine
fully examined and considered what had been said about the One Names and the universes, moving within their phases and expressing
(al-Wahid) and that which originates from the One, they stated that their secrets. This gave rise to the science of the symbolism of let-
the Creator (al-Barr) (may He be exalted and glorified) is the total- ters. It is impossible to examine all the problems and aspects of this
ity of what is visible and invisible: there is nothing besides this. science. Buni, Ibn Arabi and their school wrote extensively on the
The multiplicity of this Absolute Reality and the All-encompassing subject. In sum, they believe that the power of the spiritual souls can
Existence (al-aniyya al-jamra)—which is the source of every exist- freely dispose of the world of nature (tasarruf al-nufFts al-rabbaniyya)
ence and of the Essence (huwiyya) which is the source of every by means of the Most Beautiful Names of God (al-asma' al-husnd) and
essence—is only the consequence of illusions (awham), such as time, the Divine Words (al-kahmdt al-llahiyya) arising from the letters that
space, difference, occultation and manifestation, pain and pleasure, encompass the secrets pervading the universe. Then, they disagreed
it
being and nothingness. This opinion affirms that all things, if delved concerning the secret of the power of the letters (tasurruf al-hurdf), as
into, are but illusions that refer back to the elements of information they wondered where this power stems from.
..
in the conscience and they do not exist outside it. If there were no Some say it depends on the temperament (nizaj) of the letter;
such illusions, the whole world and all it contains would be the and they divide letters into four groups, like the four elements. Each
One and the One is the Truth. The servant has two sides: one is nature is linked to its group of letters, so that its influence, active
and passive, is implemented through that particular group. Letters It is very difficult to understand the secret of the interrelation
are classified, according to an artificial rule they call 'breaking down' between the letters and their temperamental nature, or between let-
(taksir), into fiery, airy, watery and earthy, reflecting the same classifi- ters and numbers. Indeed, it is neither a scientific domain nor is it
cation as the elements. The alifis fiery, the ha' is airy, the jim is watery, an analogical deduction. Rather, according to these Sufis, it rests
the dal is earthy and so on, through the alphabet and elements. Thus, upon mystical tasting and unveiling. Ban' said, 'Do not think that
seven letters are fiery: alif, ha', , sin and dal; seven are airy: the secret of the letters can be understood through rational analogy
ba' maw, yd', nun, dad, ta' and ?a'; seven are watery: /Dm, zay, leaf, sad, (al-qiyas al-caq1i); it can only be understood through witnessing and
qaf, tha' and ghayn; finally, seven are earthy: dal, ha', lam, cayn, kha' with divine help (al-tawfiq al-ilea/li).' Nevertheless, it is undeniable
and shin. Fiery letters repel cold diseases and multiply the power of that letters, and the Divine Names composed with these letters, have
heat whenever desired, in its physical or figurative sense; for instance, power over the natural and created worlds; this fact has been repeat-
during wars, massacres and destruction, the power of the planet Mars edly established by many.
can be increased. Watery letters repel hot diseases, such as fevers and One might think that this type of power and the power exerted
other disorders, and multiply the power of cold whenever desired, by the people who believe in talismans (talasim) is one and the same;
either physically or figuratively, thus increasing the power of the but this is not true. Indeed, according to the makers of talismans, the
moon or other such things. nature of the talisman and its influence stem from spiritual powers
These Sufis claim that the secret of the letters' power lies in their deriving from the substantial nature of Might (jawhar al-qahr). The
numerical value so that the letters of the alphabet assume a well- powers exert their ruling and constraining control over the object of
known numerical value, both intrinsic and conventional. Furhermore, the talisman with the help of the secrets of the spheres, numerical
because of the existing correspondence between the numbers, there is interrelations and incenses. They draw out from the talisman in ques-
also a correspondence between the letters themselves—for instance, tion an influence that is concentrated in it by means of a purposeful
between the letters ba' , leaf and roil, because they all have a numerical energy (himma); and as a consequence, superior natures become tied
value of two, in units, tens and hundreds, respectively. A similar rela- to the inferior ones. Their makers think the talisman is like ferment,
tion exists between the letters dal, mim and ta' because they all have made of earthy, airy, watery, fiery elements and their combinations.
a value of four; and since four is a multiple of two, there is also a The talisman can transform and transmute the object it penetrates
relation between two and four. The Sufis established 'magic squares' into its own essence and form, as does the philosophical stone which
(awfaq) for letters and numbers in which each group of letters belongs ferments and transmutes into itself the metals it infiltrates. In this
to a corresponding magic square depending on the numerical value way, they say that the subject matter of alchemy is 'a body in a body'
of the figure and number; and from this interrelation between the because the philosophical stone is a corporeal substance and so is the
secret of the letters and the secret of the numbers stems the power metal it penetrates. On the contrary, the subject matter of the talis-
above-mentioned: man is 'a spirit in a body' because it links superior natures to inferior
ones, the inferior being corporeal and the superior spiritual.
Fire ai li, t.l. m r ft:3 s u.. dh_i
Before one asserts the real difference between those who use
Air by w ' y5 n3 cljo tc, zS the power of talismans and those who use the power of the Divine
z} k .a s Lia qv th.)
: gh L Names, one should realize that any influence on the natural world
Water j E
). stems from the human soul and human energies because the human
Earth d) 17 c lj `L r j lch E. sh j, soul by its essence embraces and governs nature.'9 Nevertheless, the
A<
power exerted by those who use talismans is one based on calling For them, the interrelationship [between the Divine Names
down the spiritual force of the spheres and connecting it to forms or and the stars] stems from the Presence of the Dark Clouds (al-hadra
numerical relations, which causes some kind of fusion that, because aljamdiyya), that is intermediary (barzakhiyya) for the perfection
of its nature, transforms and transmutes, in the way the ferment- relating to the Divine Names." It causes the differentiation of the
ing agent acts with the substance it is mixed with. Yet, the power Nominal perfection to descend in detail upon the realities in accord-
used by those who deal with the Divine Names is the result of spir- ance with this very interrelationship, which is, as we said earlier,
itual struggle and unveiling, and it is achieved with divine assistance established through witnessing. If the one who believes in the Divine
and His light. These people are able to compel nature to obedience Names lacks the witnessing and has learned the interrelationship
rather than rebellion. They do not need the help of astral powers or through transmission only, then his activity resembles that of the
any other, because the help they dispose of is a higher one. Those talisman maker, although the latter is more trustworthy, as we have
who operate with talismans need very little ascetic discipline, or just already noted.
enough, to give the soul power to call down upon the spirits of the In the same way, a talisman maker can mingle his actions and
spheres. And what a worthless discipline and aim! The ascetic disci- the astral powers with the power of invocations that are composed
pline practised by those who use the Divine Names is the great ascetic of special words reflecting the interrelationship between words and
discipline (al-riyada al-kubra). They do not aim at interfering in the stars. However, for the talisman makers, the interrelationship between
created world because that is a veil. Their own influence is but one of words is not what it is for the people who believe in the Divine Names
God's graces (karama), accidentally bestowed through them. and have been granted the witnessing. Rather, it is based upon their
If the one who is concerned with the Divine Names fails to own magical practices that allocate stars to all things in the created
understand them and the realities of the Dominion, which is the world, from substances to accidents, essences to minerals and letters
result of witnessing and unveiling, and if he limits himself merely to to names, amongst other things. The talisman makers build strange
the relations between the Divine Names and the natures of the let- and blameworthy theories according to this system, such as dividing
ters and words and exercises his power therein in that fashion, then the Queanic verses and chapters, in the way Maslama al-Majriti did
he becomes a practitioner of magic as it is well known. In that in his Ghaya.'''
case, there is no difference between him and the maker of talismans. From the Anmat, it is clear that Bain accepted their method. If
Indeed, the latter is more trustworthy for he relies upon scientific you read through the Anmat and the invocations that are divided
natural principles and structured laws. As to the one who works with according to the times of the seven stars, and then you examine the
the Divine Names' secrets and is not able to lift the veil from their Ghaya with its standing invocations to the seven stars, you will see
reality and the effects of the interrelationships, and is not guided by that either the Anmat drew its inspiration from it, or this was made
any demonstrative rule in these technical matters, he occupies an infe- necessary by the interrelationship that exists between the root of cre-
rior position. He might mingle the power of words and the Divine ation (a.51 al-ibdd) and the intermediary knowledge (barzakh
Names with the power of the spheres and so determine times for And 'You have been given of knowledge nothing except a little' (Q.xvir.85).
the remembrance of the Most Beautiful Names of God, drawing up One cannot deny the existence of everything the Law declares rep-
magical squares for these Names—or for all Names—and determin- rehensible. Indeed, even though magic is forbidden, it still exists.
ing times for their remembrance depending on the interrelationship However, we are content with the knowledge God gave us.
between the star and the Name in question. This is what Simi did in With time, the works written by the Sufis who engaged in the
Al-Anmat. science of unveiling multiplied, their involvements were protracted
Chapter Four
and their explanations abstruse. Many idle people became involved in favour of intimate finding. This leaves one sole alternative, namely
perusing these works. They did so out of laziness and weakness, evils acceptance of their words out of sheer trust in them; yet, the lat-
against which the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) ter is, of course, [only possible] whenever they are able to expound
warned us." They thought happiness lay in knowing the secrets of their goals. Nevertheless, how can they be trusted, when many of the
the Dominion and they believed these secrets were buried between literal meanings of their words are in contradiction with the literal
the pages of their books. How wrong this is! That which led to this text of the Law? Those who are at variance with the Law cannot be
madness is nothing else besides the involvement in the sciences of trusted neither in word nor in deed. Abu Yazid was told of a man
unveiling, the very sciences great Sufis warned us not to rush into—it well-known for his gnosis (ìrfan) and wished to visit him 25 When he
is God's secret and no gnostic should divulge it. arrived, he saw the man spit in the mosque, upon which Abu Yazid
Al-Husayn b. Mansur was put to death following a juridical immediately turned back saying, 'How can we trust someone with
opinion issued by legists and mystics.23 The best excuse his defenders God's secrets when this person does not even believe in one of the
could provide was that he was in a state of intoxication and revealed rules of proper conduct prescribed by the Law?'26
the secret; therefore, his punishment became necessary. Otherwise, If the Law forbids these people from plunging into the sciences
he is most often subject to anathematization (takfir). The authors of of unveiling, and still they do not forsake these sciences, how can
the Ghaya did report one of his magical activities that no ordinary they be trusted in their knowledge of the divine secrets of God Most
Muslim would ever practice, much less a gnostic. Indeed, it is a sign High, and how can one accept in good faith what they have to say?
of idleness to engage in the science of unveiling, and to become And this, when their words are not cryptic, but what if their words
absorbed in its subjects and in the texts written by those who follow are laden with innovation and misbelief? May God protect us from
this Path. this! What they call 'Sufism' is not Sufism, nor is it the lawful goal.
If the soul of the wayfarer aspires to gnosis and to the understand- And God knows best!
ing of the Dominion (al-Wm bi-abwal al-malakat), then it is through
struggle and proper conduct that he will be led to it. There is no
possible way to attain knowledge and to the understanding of the
conditions of the Dominion through mere nomenclature and sheets
of paper, since—as we explained earlier—words cannot convey the
meaning of these realities: they have never before been recorded and
cannot possibly be interpreted through [attempted understandings
of] interrelationship either.
If the soul is lazy and does not aspire to such knowledge, if it is
reduced to the lowest conformism (hadid al-taglid), then why should
the wayfarer need to study a nomenclature which would only lead
him to a type of science that is close to that of the philosophers?"'
Philosophy at least is a mentally conceived argumentation based
upon the organization of analogies and sequences of proofs. Anyway,
this contradicts the method of the partisans of Oneness for whom
technical demonstration (al-burhan al-fincici) should be relinquished in
Chapter Five
in spite of the fact that it eventually referred to the last two. The
great Sufis and their followers, whose lives are compiled in the Risdla,
spoke of Sufism as these last two struggles, together with their prop-
erties, rules and nomenclature.
CHAPTER FIVE The teacher Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri has explained how the
difference between the struggles towards walking on the straight path
On the Shaykh and When His Presence and unveiling lies in their different underlying motives. He said, 'If
Is Required in the Spiritual Struggle the wayfarer believes in the Sufis' teachings and in gradual wayfaring
(suluk wa-tadarruj) towards the goal, he will share in the knowledge
Sufis have been given, namely the unveiling of the Unseen World
Know that our study has led to the conclusion that basically Sufism (mukashafat al-ghayb). The disciple will not need to intrude upon and
consists of spiritual struggle and wayfaring, the perfecting of which seek support from anyone foreign to their Path. But if the disciple
leads to unveiling and witnessing. Subsequently, the wayfarer is giv- is not of an independent nature and wishes to follow a more con-
en the knowledge of God, His Attributes, His acts and the mysteries ventional way within a conforming pattern (night() until he reaches
of His Kingdom (asrar mulkihi), as well as all the above-mentioned. realization, then he should imitate his predecessors and travel their
We have demonstrated why the knowledge resulting from unveiling Path, for it is best for him to follow them rather than anyone else.'
and witnessing should not be registered in books. We also explained Know that the need for the teaching master (al-shaykh
why some later Sufis erred when they labelled these very stations as and for the advising educator (al-murabbi al-nosin) varies according
Sufism, turning them into a `codifiable' science that can be acquired to the struggle. Sometimes his presence renders the struggle more
in books and records. complete and appropriate, or worthier and safer, and sometimes his
Actually, Sufism is a light that God sends forth into the heart that presence is so imperative that the struggle cannot be without him.
has been purified through spiritual struggle and orientated towards Let us explain and describe this in detail.
the Truth. At times, this light elucidates a divine mystery, a lordly
wisdom, an obscure legal problem or an ambiguous aspect of the The Struggle for God-wariness
Book and the Sunna. However, the Sufi must neither dwell upon this
gift nor be contented with it lest it become a veil that disrupts the Firstly, the struggle for God-wariness, which is achieved through
Path. He must persevere on his way to God and never disclose the moral care, does not require the presence of a shaykh. It suffices to
secret. God's secret is most deserving of being kept hidden. know God's decrees and His limits, and this knowledge can be drawn
We have explained how spiritual struggles differ according to from a book, taught by a teacher (mdallim) or transmitted by a master
their underlying motives. If the goal is salvation only, then the novice (ustadh). This is so because, as we said earlier, this particular struggle
struggles towards God-wariness and moral care. If the goal is felicity is incumbent upon every man subject to the Law. How could it be
and the loftiest levels of realization (al-darajat aljula) in the Hereafter, right, then, that a man should wait for a shaykh and thus neglect his
then the wayfarer struggles towards walking on the straight path.' duty and delay the fulfilment of God's commandment? Anyway, the
Finally, if the goal is knowledge through the lifting of the veil and shaykh will not add anything to the writings of the scholars who
witnessing of God in this world, the combat is unveiling. We have transmit the teachings of the Book and the Sunna, informing us of
also mentioned that the name Sufism applies to all three struggles, their references and sources.
7T
Chapter Five
Nevertheless, this particular struggle is bettered if the wayfar- his own memory. He is taught by them and learns the rituals by
er follows a teaching master who will set an example to act upon. watching them. Indeed, the soul trusts sensory perception more than
Indeed, the use of the senses in the teaching of any science is a con- words. Thus in this struggle [to attain God-wariness], to follow a
dition for perfecting it The science of God's decrees and limits is to shaykh is only a condition for its perfection (shart kamal), not a condi-
know how to perform actions. The science of this performance is tion for its validity or an obligation (shag sihhat wa-wujitb).
based either on transmission (naql) and a conveyed report (khabar), or
on senses and observation (mdayana). The reliance on senses is more The Struggle Towards Walking on the Straight Path
perfect.
Secondly, in the struggle towards walking on the straight path,
This is why the &hilt tells us that the Prophet (may God bless
wherein the wayfarer must be moulded by the good character traits
him and grant him peace) was actually shown how to pray: 'Gabriel
of the Qur'an (al-takhalluq In-PI-Qur'an) and the character traits of
came and prayed, so did the Prophet (may God bless him and grant
the prophets (khuluq al-anbiya'), the wayfarer may need a teaching
him peace); then he prayed and so did the Prophet (may God bless
master.6 Indeed, not only is it difficult to know the character traits
him and grant him peace); then he prayed and so did the Prophet
of the self (khuluq al-nafs) and the hidden colourations of the heart
(may God bless him and grant him peace); then he prayed and so he
(talawwunat al-galb), but it is also arduous to cure them and set them
prayed...'; thus [this happened] five times.3 Gabriel taught the prayer
free. As the struggle towards walking on the straight path is not an
entirely through example. This was necessary to make His teaching
obligation binding upon everyone subject to the Law, it is strongly
perfect, as it had to be.
recommended that the wayfarer should look for a shaykh who knows
When Arab delegations came to the Prophet (may God bless
its path and its difficulties. This, however, is not an obligation or
him and grant him peace), asking to be taught their religious duties,
compulsion because the source of this struggle is the Book, the Sunna
he would not only convey oral information, but he would send
and customary nomenclature. Even the many obscure aspects of the
one of his eminent Companions to teach them by visually show-
teaching and wayfaring in this combat do not escape free choice, and
ing them how to perform their duties, and the men imitated them.
they remain part of the acquirable sciences (al-mdarifal-kasbiyya). The
Sometimes these men were given directions only, as in the tradition
wayfarer who clings to the Sunna is safe from the dangers of this Path
about the delegation from the tribe of Rabta: 'He ordered you four
and can set it right again if he errs. He can refer to his own judge-
things and forbade you four.'4 Another time: 'Remember them and ment, whilst also benefitting from talks and discussions and from
transmit them to those who will come after you:3 However, this
the writings of the scholars on the practices and theories [of this
was rare; usually the Companions would be sent to instruct the particular Path].
inquirers.
In the same vein, we see that it is often more effective to perform
The Struggle for Unveiling and Witnessing
duties like prayer or ablution in front of Muslim children through
example rather than statements and words. So much so that the pil- As to the third struggle for unveiling and witnessing, its aim is the
grimage rituals, for instance, are taught during the pilgrimage season lifting of the veil and spiritual perception of the spiritual world, and
on the days set for them, by those who had learned and taught them. the Dominion of the heavenly and earthly realms. In it, the way-
Notice that the legist who writes the chapter on the laws regulating farer must have an educating teacher (al-mucallim al-murrabi), the one
the pilgrimage—although he has thoroughly memorized the sub- referred to as shaykh. It is not only an imperative but a necessity,
ject—will rely more on the knowledge of these instructors than on without which this goal can seldom be attained, for several reasons.
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER_ IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Five
Firstly, the foundation of this struggle is the Book and the and their results. They depend on each other and eventually lead
Sunna. Yet, as we said earlier, its recent monastic trends are hereti- to witnessing. They are hidden and uninterrupted. If imperfec-
cal innovations (bkra); and the Path set by the Law is considered tion has penetrated a spiritual state, the ensuing one is affected
the common way for everyone subject to this Law. It leads to inasmuch as the prior state has been because every state rests upon
salvation and felicity after death occurs. But this particular [last] what precedes it. Corruption in a spiritual state reaps its opposite:
struggle is a select way for the wayfarers with spiritual aspirations leading the wayfarer to his ruin may God protect us! One can
(ahl al-himam) who wish to attain, before death, the seed of ultimate never remedy or reform such a state because it escapes free choice.
felicity and the unveiling which normally occur at the time of death If corruption takes place and triggers a series of like states dam-
only. Therefore, this struggle has its own law, principles and rules aged by the initial corruption, then the duration and importance
of proper conduct. In it, the wayfarer can only imitate those who of the evil increases thereon and its impact spreads. Neutralizing
have turned this particular way into a tradition to follow. All do this corruption is no longer possible except by setting forth on
agree on the need for a shaykh in this struggle and warn against another way which would deal anew with the virtues that are to
self-reliance and solitude in the wilderness of its Path. They enjoin be acquired. In this manner, the wayfarer opens himself to divine
the wayfarer to lay the reins of his life into the hands of a shaykh compassion for the eradication of the corruption that has crept
who has travelled this Path. Their shaykh has been led to the goal into his heart in the initial states.
and has experienced—rather than just heard of—its perils, hidden Sometimes it is difficult to resume the Path because the heart,
ambushes, dangerous moments and adversities. The wayfarer is like the seat of all states, is unable to free itself from what might have
the corpse in the hands of the mortician, or the blind man on the settled in it. Corrupted spiritual states breed heresy (zandaqa),
seashore who holds on to the hand of his guide."' Since our knowl- licentiousness (ibaha), rejection of the Law (raid al-sharra), ensuing
edge of this struggle and its laws comes from the shaykhs only, how slackness (futur) and laziness (basal). The wayfarer thereby loses his
could we forgo a condition set by them in their own Path? incentive and motivation. It becomes extremely difficult to cure
Secondly, in this struggle, the wayfarer is liable to realize two this condition and it may in fact be too late to repair the damage.
qualities. The first quality lies within his power of acquisition and God Most High says [by way of quoting those who are damned],
free choice, and is the purification and cleansing from blameworthy `Would that we might be returned, and then not cry lies' (Q.vI.27); but it
traits through the acquisition of praiseworthy virtues. The second is too late [for them] to then lament.
quality does not lie within his power of acquisition and free choice, It is different if the wayfarer is closely watched over by a
and has to do with the spiritual states that befall the wayfarer before, shaykh, as the disciple's deeds and wayfaring are amended. The
during and after the unveiling. The teacher Abu al-Qasim said, 'A shaykh himself has walked this Path and can differentiate between
servant is characterized by his deeds, virtues (akhlaq) and spiritual corrupt and sound spiritual states. He knows what fosters progress
states. Deeds are the actions he does by free choice. Virtues are his and what causes an interruption in the Path. He understands the
innate disposition—although they can change with work, time and relation between the states that are not submitted to will power and
repetition. Spiritual states prevail as from the beginning [of- the the deeds that are submitted to it.' He is aware of the correlation
way] and their purity is in accordance with the purity of his deeds.' between the degree of purity of deeds and states, and has realized
(Those are his words.) ..! all this by test, hardship and training—not via books and stories. If
The spiritual states that do not depend on free choice are the all these conditions are fulfilled, then the wayfarer is following the
fruits of acquired virtues (al-gat al-muktasaba), namely deeds (dmal) right path, fears can be dispelled and perils avoided.
The wayfarer in his endeavour is similar to the dyer who tries

out red, yellow or green dyes but the assimilation of the colour by
vs n omenon
Chapter Five
Any mentally conceived teaching will parallel some natural phe-

and a man cannot grasp it by himself. To learn it, he must
the cloth is neither within his competence, nor does it depend on his have a guide who teaches him the secrets of its workings because the
choice. His responsibility is merely to immerse the cloth in special ways of nature are hidden and—almost always—very difficult to see.
dyes, either mineral or vegetal, according to set proportions and dos- If the teacher is competent, then the ascetic discipline is successful
ages. The cloth must be ready for the absorption of the envisaged and useful; otherwise, it is not. This is true for all mentally conceived
colour. For this, a skilled master is indispensable, one who knows sciences.
the dosages of the different elements, their proportions, the amount Fourthly, and the following is the most obvious reason in our
of time necessary for the mixture, the call for cooking or fermenta- discussion of the issue, this particular wayfaring rests on meanings
tion, the immersion method and the timing of the whole process. that are of two kinds.
The master teaches his apprentice by showing him, lest the latter The first meanings belong to the category of the conventional,
apply a dye other than the one suggested. Since it is the first colour namely sensorial and rational perceptions (al-maksasa wa'l-macqala).
that settles into the cloth and renders it impervious to other dyes, the These meanings are set down in rules and expressed in books and
dying process is irreversible. So it is with the wayfarer who wishes to words. They deal with the tangible part of the wayfaring; the sever-
colour his heart with gnosis that leads to felicity. If the wrong colour ing of the ties binding the soul; the observance of spiritual retreat; the
has settled in his heart, the damage can no longer be rectified. For remembrance of God in particular ways; and after the struggles for
this reason, the educating shaykh (al-shaykh al-murabbi) will show the God-wariness and walking on the straight path have been traversed,
wayfarer how to apply the dye, its ingredients, dosages, proportions the adequate observance of obligatory prayers and supererogatory
and the durations of the process. A shaykh is therefore indispensable acts of devotion.
because a dye cannot be applied at random and approximately. One is The second kind of meanings does not belong to the category of
always careful not to damage a fine cloth; so how much more careful the conventional and is not familiar to the minds (adhhan) or set in
one should be not to ruin the heart when eternal suffering may be concepts (ta,sawwurcit). These meanings cannot be grasped by the sens-
the result! May God protect us from this! es, the intellect or through acquired sciences. They rely on mystical
Thirdly, the essence of this Path is premeditated death (al-mawt tasting and intimate finding (umur dhawqiyya wa-wijdaniyya). A man
almsindi), which is, as we said earlier, the extinction of all human will discover these meanings in his self, but will not be able to describe
forces until the wayfarer is dead in body but alive in spirit. Hence them to others except through metaphors or remote examples. It is
the wayfarer tries to experience death before he actually dies in order not possible to capture them with scientific rules and nomenclature,
to reach the spiritual vision that normally happens at the moment or to classify them in artificial chapters and sections. They come forth
of natural death only (al-mawt al-tab(i). If ultimate spiritual percep- in the shape of unexpected ailments (ìlal), spiritual states, ephemeral
tion has not been reached, the wayfarer strives to attain the spiritual inrushes, castings (ilqecit) and mystical findings (mawajid), as well as
states closest or most similar to it. He longs to enjoy this perception in all that befalls the itinerant from the beginning to the end of his
before he leaves his physical body; and for that reason, he submits it wayfaring until his immersion in the sea of gnosis and divine unity
to ascetic discipline in order to experience death. These wayfarers (babr al-mdrifa wa'l-tawhid).
refer to the above-cited words of the Prophet (may God bless him This set of meanings deals with the core of the wayfaring, its
and grant him peace) in order to justify their ascetic discipline, tie secret and reality, without which nothing can be achieved. So long
before you die.'9 as the wayfarer does not understand these meanings, distinguish them
from one another or differentiate between that which tends towards

the goal and that which withholds him from it, his effort is useless
and his search is neither partially nor fully realized. Books are of no
avail at all in this and his mind will not grasp the explanations. The
wayfarer must have a shaykh who, because of his mystical tasting, CHAPTER SIX
recognizes their existent entities (dycin) and differentiates between
the harmful and beneficial. He can call the wayfarer's attention to Arbitration between the Two Debaters: Ascertaining the
these realities the way the dumb man does, by pointing his finger to Truth of Their Words and the Soundness
sensorial objects without being able to describe them with words. of Their Arguments
Pointing out realities is more eloquent than using words. This is why
you will not find these matters summarized in books or set out in
manuals on the meanings of `Sufism' They are only hinted at in allu- Now that we have provided the reader with the necessary back-
sions or stories, the words of which do not uncover the essence of ground to this debate and described the Sufi Path, its various routes
the goal. The teacher Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri said, 'This group of and determined when a shaykh is needed or not, we can, as we prom-
people communicates with a specific terminology that discloses the ised earlier, arbitrate between the two disputants. The adjudication
meanings particular to their own Path to each other exclusively while has been eased by our introductions and we shall proceed by citing
hiding them from those who oppose their way. Thus, the meanings the exact words of the two parties. Then, we shall intervene at each
remain vague to outsiders and their secrets are jealously protected point of divergence by referring to the introduction.
from outsiders. Indeed, these realities are neither gathered through
personal effort, nor collected in a clever system. They are meanings First Argument
deposited by God into the hearts of some men He purified in order Those who believe in the need for a shaykh say to those who do not
to safeguard them in their innermost being.'"° (This is the end of believe in this need—and advocate reliance on books and teachers in
Qushayrfs statement—may God have mercy upon him!) legal matters, rather than on guides in spiritual detachment—Why
do you rely on books and reject the guidance of spiritual masters
(shuyaleh al-rariqa) when the Sufis themselves followed shaykhs and
ignored books?'
THE SHAYKH-DENIER' WILL ANSWER [the above in this manner]: The
foundation of the wayfaring is the Qur'an, the Sunna and that which
has been derived therefrom. These are recorded and available to us;
their transmitters are appointed to teach us and the spiritual masters
at reamong them. Why should we, then, be unable to fare without
them?
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN'S REPLY is the following: If mere trans-
' mission through written material were enough to attain this—or
that—goal in any science or skill, then those who memorize the
external description of sciences and skills without having acquired
^7 CI
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Six
any experience in them should be the equals of those who have to the two struggles, the way of which is the Qur'an and the Law,
actually practised and mastered them. This is impossible. Therefore, namely God-wariness and walking on the straight path, then this
you are in the wrong when you fancy one can succeed through mere is true and we are not in want of a shaykh, as we said earlier. On
[bookish] transmission. the other hand, if this statement refers to the struggle for unveiling,
i SAY: We have previously described the different types of spiritual which is the main way of Sufism, then this is impossible. When the
struggles and concluded that the struggle for unveiling necessitates shaykh-denier claims that some aspects of this last struggle have been
an educating master (al-shaykh al-murabb0 for the following reasons: recorded, it is only true for some notions that were put in writing in
its Path is peculiar and very dangerous. Its spiritual states and fruits a general and indirect fashion because most of them do not partake
are not liable to the wayfarer's efforts, power and free choice. It is a of the habitual and conventional. So it is for all the spiritual states
specific Path, different from the common way of the Law. As you and ephemeral inrushes the Sufis claim. When words can no longer
well know, this is a recent struggle that had not yet surfaced dur- describe a reality because it is indescribable, the presence of one who
ing the time of our Predecessors. We never came across instructions has 'witnessed' (ìyan) becomes necessary. The witness can attest to
[from the Predecessors] concerning a method for its wayfaring, spir- the genuineness of the conveyed report and brush illusory presump-
itual retreat, remembrance, or a description of its fruits, such as the tions aside. Only the itinerant who has experienced this wayfaring
disclosure of the lights or the lifting of the veil. Besides, were it not will recognize witnessed perceptions (al-mudrakcit al-ciyaniyya). He is
for the valid interpretations of its itinerants, many of the sayings aware of the delusions that threaten the wayfarer who believes in
and rules in this struggle seem to contradict the Law on its external solitary progress and mere [unguided] imitation of conveyed reports,
plane. The saints of God and His elite found this Path when they as we said earlier.
isolated themselves and severed the ties binding their hearts to the When the shaykh-denier says 'the spiritual masters are among
world. They did explain its wayfaring and clarified its ascending steps them', my answer is the following: shaykhs can educate, discipline
(maccirij) so that the aspirant could reach felicity and goodness. They and lead to spiritual states and observation; yet, the above-mentioned
wished to find sources for their Path in the Qur'an and the Sunna, are not submitted to free choice and are not part of sensory or known
and this in spite of the meddling of the legists and supporters of the sciences. The teachers who issue legal edicts and transmit the Law
Law; but, then, we mentioned this earlier. As to God-wariness, it is relayed the tradition by showing us and teaching us how to per-
the main way of the Law, the course to salvation. Unveiling is the form an action that, on the contrary, is submitted to human power.
main way of 'Sufism', the ascending steps towards spiritual vision Many among them have both functions [as spiritual master and legal
(micraj al-matla), the seed for ultimate felicity (al-sdada aljudhma) and authority]. However, if we assume that when the shaykh-denier says
the highest degrees (al-darajat al-culd). Walking on the straight path `[the spiritual masters of this Path] are among them' they mean that
is the main way of the Qur'an and prophethood. Law is clearly the all shaykhs must be recognized, honoured and followed, then this
source and explanation of both struggles [God-wariness and walking is true. Many stories support our belief, that of CUmar and Uways,2
on the straight path], and its transmitters are many. Shiban the shepherds and Shafil,4 Muhasibi and Ibn Hanba1,2 as well
When the shaykh-denier says: 'The foundation of the wayfaring as others.
is the Qur'an, the Sunna and that which has been derived therefrom. The shaykh-partisan also argues that when the itinerant relies
These are recorded and available to us; their transmitters are appoint- on transmitted knowledge (nag!) and does not seek the guidance of
ed to teach us and the spiritual masters are among them. Why should a teacher, then this implies a certain conclusion, namely: Ìf mere
we, then, be unable to fare without them?' I say: if they are referring transmission through written material were enough to attain this-
Ri
or that—goal in any science or skill, then those who memorize the of the cure of the above.' It requires recognizing the nature of the
external description of sciences and skills without having acquired ephemeral inrushes that befall the heart and knowing whether these
any experience in them should be the equals of those who have actu- stem from the self, the Devil, the angels or God. It involves under-
ally practised and mastered them.' s tanding the mystical experiences along with their preliminary and
However, I say that this is a weak argument because the shaykh- ensuing stages, determining their authenticity or their fallacy and
denier could refute it in the following manner: it is true that there displaying a great deal of experience as to the particular instances
is a difference in level between the one who has experienced knowl- when wayfarers can err. Indeed all of the ambushes and dangerous
edge and the one who has not, but this does not prove that a shaykh areas must be known, lest the wayfarer—when he sets out on this
is needed. It only says that he who has spent energy learning with Path—lose his faith and become an unbeliever, slide away from the
a shaykh might reach a certain level of knowledge, while he who Sunna towards heretical innovation, or give up his freedom and turn
has learned without a shaykh might, through books, reach a level into a slave of the world. The itinerant could call a halt to all further
less exalted. In reality, we believe the wayfarer needs a Shaykh, and spiritual states, pursue charismatic gifts, unveiling or sound dreams
books alone do not lead him to his goal not because of a possible dif- ,saliba). From the onset of the Path and throughout his far-
ference between the levels achieved, as was mentioned, but because ing, the seeker must be equipped to face these issues as well as other
the perceptions (madarik) in this Path are not amongst the known, minor aspects that cannot be encompassed in definitions or described
acquirable sciences and skills; rather, they are findings of an intimate in books.
inspirational nature (wijdaniyya ilhamiyya). Most of the time, they i SAY: This argument is sounder than the preceding one. Knowing
escape free choice. They are the outcome of performed deeds and the above uncodifiable issues does not mean acquiring them, but
manifest themselves in specific ways. Thus, these perceptions can- rather finding them. The shaykh is the only one able to do this, as
not be ascertained through acquired sciences but need a shaykh who he identifies these matters and points them out to the disciple singly
knows because he witnesses, testifies and teaches the nature of the and visually
various deeds and their ensuing spiritual states. As to the comment about the issues [in the wayfaring] 'that can-
not be encompassed...in books', I say: in any case, it is neither the
Second Argument would-be compilation in books of these matters nor their apprehen-
sion through scientific definition that would lead to gnosis. On the
THE SHAYKH-DENIER PROCEEDS TO SAYING: The Path of Sufism rests
contrary, had these matters been encompassed in books, they would
on good work (carnal) and detachment (tajarrud) in view of service
have become part of the acquired sciences rather than remaining in
(khidma) that needs to be depicted in a book, by a shaykh or a trans- their own category. Only the discerning teaching shaykh and the
mitter which fulfils the need.
inquiring disciple who pursue these matters as they are in their real-
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERS: This is not so! The Path is divided
ness can return them to their own category.
in two sections. The first section is of lesser importance. It is a guide-
line for good works, given by way of a simple description or the help
Third Argument
of a book. For the time being, we shall tolerate and accept this view
without discussing it. The second section is grander. It is the Path of THE SHAYKH-DENIER SAYS: All this is recorded in books and you only
Sufism. It calls for a sound diagnosis of the sicknesses that can befall need to read the book [Aram al-din] of Abu admid [al-Ghazali]
the wayfarer in his self, heart or spiritual state, as well as the science (may God be pleased with him). In it, he speaks about all these things
0- R,
extensively and really more than sufficiently. He is recognized as a wisdom, is not sufficient. How could a man cross this Path without a
spiritual master by the Sufis themselves and by other knowledgeable guide? In most cases, it is not possible.
and fair men. So why should not his words, advice, or the books SECONDLY, the books indicated above are loaded with stories about
written by other great spiritual teachers be followed? great spiritual masters (arbab); and some were enslaved by their spir-
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERS: You have called upon US to talk itual states while others mastered them. However, most of the stories
about three levels. concern the first type, who cannot be emulated so long as they are
FIRSTLY, it is said that the shaykh on the Path to God (may He be glo- in this [enslaved] condition. The wayfarer who tries to follow them
rified) compares to a guide on a tangible road at the end of which is a might deviate from the commendable path and disrupt it. Indeed, this
treasure. The road is full of precipices and dangerous lands inhabited befalls most of the wayfarers who have emulated the state-enslaved
by brigands and highwaymen from whom very few travellers escape. mystics; they divide into several groups:
If the shaykh were to describe the road to you, its dangers and perils, I. Some harm their bodies, wear it out, or almost so.7
the traps set by the enemy with the manner to avoid them—and if ii. Some lose their minds or almost so.
you decide to rely only on this description in order to travel this III. Some do violence to the religion by overstepping the bounda-
journey for the very first time in your life—you will find that the ries of the divine orders and finally become overcome by it.
guide's instructions are totally pointless. There are several ways and iv. Some wayfarers on their way to God despair of the Divine
ramifications in the road, which all look alike, and at every turn Soul, or almost so.
you dread that the highwaymen and enemies will attack you unex- v. Some follow a good path in their action or learning; however,
pectedly. A description is only an approximation of the truth and it is disrupted by some obstacle, such as dissemblance, vanity,
cannot lead to it, particularly when its object is hidden and remote love of the world or glory. They do not know if the obsta-
from all imaginings and conjectures. This is what will happen unless cle is real or insinuated by the Devil. They give up all action
a guide accompanies you, urges you to follow the main road, helps and learning, thinking they are giving them up for God's sake,
you in the perilous places or prepares you to face dangers. When the when in fact they are merely presenting the Devil with what
foe appears, the shaykh will have readied you with the amount of he had intended to obtain.
strength and device you need to face it. Then, victorious, you reach vi. Others doubt this Path and its adherents and call it a lie, and
the treasure, seize it and leave the enemy territory protected and there are many other cases.
safe. Otherwise, you would have been imprisoned or killed. Such is Following Sufi books does not help solve the above-mentioned
the way towards the self-realization of the gnosis of God (al-tahaqqug problems; but, on the contrary, ignites them. These are matters that
bi-macrifat Allah). only great spiritual masters know thoroughly; and indeed, never in
There are two expanses the wayfarer must traverse in order to the past or present have such ills befallen a wayfarer who placed him-
reach it: the world that is inhabited by the enemy Satan, and the self under the protection of a realized Sunni shaykh (shaykh sunni
Hereafter that is ruled by the desire to reach it. The enemy has strewn mubaqqiq). The shaykhs who have mastered their spiritual states are
both expanses with so many schemes that no book could possibly the ones to be emulated because they control their selves and states,
comprehend or describe them adequately, because of the remoteness and because they themselves have emulated [the predecessors]. As to
of their purposes, covert targets and subtle planning. These schemes those who could not control their spiritual states, they contradict—
are not related to the familiar; and therefore a mere description, with- at least outwardly—the Sacred Law, for which they may—or may
out an insight borrowed from the Divine through the light of His not—be excused or justified. The difference between the two groups
is difficult to construe with the above-mentioned books. Yet, it is this and dogmatic matters (fiqhiyya wa-rtiqadiyya), as well as the matters
very difference that determines when emulation is valid and when it related to the wayfaring (sulideiyya), are based. Therefore, he who
is not. Therefrom, if we do not ascertain this difference, how shall wishes to become a Sufi without a shaykh who has been taught by
we, with total trust, emulate [a shaykh]? a shaykh, connecting him through an initiatic chain (sanad sul filet) to
This is why we say: the wayfarer who is guided by books can the First Teacher (al-mdallim al-awwal) and True Guide (al-murshid
either reject the guidance of the shaykh who deserves to be followed al-itaqq) (may God bless him and grant him peace), will have a dif-
and emulate the one who should not be emulated, or else he may ficult voyage to a distant harbour.
attempt to follow both shaykhs at once. The spiritual states of the THIRDLY, even though there is essentially one path to Him, the ways
two shaykhs followed concomitantly differ and they may disagree on to God Most High are as many as the breaths of all His creatures. Each
many points; and as a result, the wayfarer's behaviour becomes contra- wayfarer deserves an education (tarbiya) that corresponds to his nature
dictory. Furthermore, a given man can be simultaneously enslaved by and not to others'. Spiritual states and mystical experiences, ephem-
some spiritual states and in control of others, and therefore the imita- eral inrushes, divine gifts, sciences, inspirations (ilqa'at) and accidental
tion is valid in the second instance and not in the first. Only a shaykh manifestations (atvarid) on the way vary with each individual, their
can ascertain the difference. Besides, those who evince spiritual states experiences, the beginning and end of their journey, their strength
are of many types: and weakness. The method of spiritual travelling varies with each
I. Some do not truly experience a mystical state. wayfarer. Two men might be on equal footing as far as action, learn-
ii. Some truly experience authentic spiritual states. ing and the sequential order in their ascetic discipline, but if they are
III. Some experience a spiritual state that is triggered by a sickness faced with two different obstacles they will need specific remedies.
of the self [They experience] loss of consciousness, trances, One unique remedy for both individuals would be useless and many
tears, screaming or such usual patterns for spiritual states that different remedies for both would prove just as useless. Besides, two
are but sheer simulation (mubtal). In the same manner, the men might come across the same obstacle and yet the same remedy
person in question can perform some charismatic acts, but in may help one of them and be useless for the other. Mystical states,
reality he has fallen into the Devil's grip. experiences and inspirations will befall both wayfarers in a similar
iv. Some are trustworthy in all these things. way or in a different way. In accordance with what God shows him,
v. Some are untrustworthy. it is the shaykh who separates between the similar and links together
Some did in fact experience a certain spiritual state but let up in the different.
the practice that had brought it about.' As a consequence, the This is what befalls the wayfarer who strives to assume good
state abated and they were driven to despair. This is the door character traits and travels on the path to self-realization. Now the
to disorder and [surrender to one's] caprices (hawa). self-realization of divine unity is the most powerful. Instead of try-
Moreover, while some spiritual states and mystical experiencing to apprehend it by means of a book, it is better and safer to attain
es are integrally authentic, others are integrally fraudulent; some it guided by a shaykh who has traversed the sea of unity and halted
belong to both categories at once; others are authentic from one at its shore, inviting wayfarers to follow him there. This journey
angle and fraudulent from another; and some are questionable. In is most important; and safety is indispensable because the obstacles
all cases, it is the shaykh who must examine these spiritual states, as that can befall the wayfarer are most formidable and calamitous,
he is the only one who can explain them. It is upon the examination most numerous and bitter. Nonetheless, destruction is closer to him
of and differentiation between all the various states that the legal than his shoelace. Most of the Batinis, Utilidis,9 Zanadiqa,' Thais,"
5)4
Tanasukhis,12 jabarisi3 and all such sects originally strayed from the states and mystical experiences, but in truth they only tell tales of
right path. Either they travelled it without a knowing realized shaykh wayfarers [in the main]. Yet, wayfarers are different from each other
or they escaped his surveillance. The wayfarer needs the shaykh like since they can either be in control of their spiritual state or they can
the body needs sustenance. be controlled by it. A spiritual state can be sound or corrupt, authen-
i SAY: This is a long debate, difficult to grasp for the one who tries tic or fraudulent, in harmony or in contradiction with the Path in
to understand its content. To start with, let us summarize it since our which case it becomes the source of undesirable results. A book can-
comments are based on the above. not ascertain all this. Only a teacher endowed with insight can expose
To recapitulate: Those who deny the need for a shaykh as a these differences and point them out to the wayfarer.
condition in this Path claim, as mentioned above, that the course to Thirdly, there is more than one road in the mystical wayfaring
follow needs to be clarified through a description—which in turn and the ways to God are as many as the breaths of all His creatures.
becomes an image in the mind of the wayfarer, whose subsequent Each wayfarer follows a course and a tutoring that correspond to
actions can conform to this image. Regardless of whether this is his nature. Just as the roads in the wayfaring vary, the ailments,
achieved through a shaykh, a shaykh's transmitted teaching or a Sufi spiritual states and ephemeral inrushes also differ. Furthermore,
book, the wayfarer must act according to this image within him and each way has its corresponding experiences. The wayfarer cannot
must be contented with it. discern these differences unless he is in direct contact with a teacher
Those who believe in the need for a shaykh answer that, in this endowed with insight into all these matters, and this is especially
Path, we need to understand the course to follow. But that we also relevant when the itinerant reaches the station of professing divine
need to know the particulars that befall the wayfarer by way of ail- unity.
ments, spiritual states, ephemeral inrushes, mystical experiences, their This is, in substance, what the interlocutor mentioned. As you
varieties and differences and the differences between their diverse and can see, the discourses of both debaters totally lack proofs. The one
infinite repercussions. If mere description is sufficient to understand who rejects the need for a shaykh merely offers allegations, and the
the nature of the Path, it is not for the [particulars listed] above; one who opposes a path without a shaykh does not provide any
rather, a shaykh endowed with insight is indispensable because he proof. The shaykh-partisan discusses the three issues that he calls
understands the Path as an entity and in its particulars. `stations' (maqamat). In the first, he draws a concrete comparison
The shaykh-denier claims that books—such as the Ihyii' or oth- [between the mystical wayfaring and a tangible road] and postulates
ers—deal with all the above-mentioned matters sufficiently and even the dangers within, with the intention of disavowing book guid-
more than sufficiently. ance and dismissing it as uncommon In the second level, he spells
The shaykh-partisan replies that there are three notions that ren- out the itinerants' spiritual states, mentions the difference between
der the shaykh's teaching necessary. states and between wayfarers, and then concludes that none of
Firstly, by and large, the mystical wayfaring resembles the tangi- this can be realized with books only. Finally, in the third level, he
ble road wherein many fears, dangers, perils, enemies and risks are to enumerates the number of paths and their various types, and then
be expected. A mere description of the road is generally insufficient simply concludes again that the wayfarer cannot do with books
and the traveller needs to be accompanied by a guide endowed with only.
insight in all these matters. Only then can the traveller hope for a safe We believe the need for a teaching master is substantiated by the
journey. This is also the case for the mystical wayfaring. following proof, as we mentioned earlier. All the perceptions in this
Secondly, books tell about ailments, ephemeral inrushes, spiritual Path and all that befalls the one who travels it—namely ailments,
00
spiritual states and ephemeral inrushes—are related to intimate find- descriptive books suffice in the Path. They do not exempt from [fol-
ing and mystical tasting. They do not pertain to the conventional, lowing] the guidance of the above-mentioned Sufis or their followers
acquirable sciences (al-cult-1m al-kasbiyya al-mutddrifa) and cannot be who tried to fall heir to their predecessors. This is the point of the
apprehended with conventional linguistic usages or fixed in artificial debate. The Sufis' writings are useful in that they exhort and instigate
rules. Furthermore, most of the spiritual states, ailments and mysti- the aspirant to seek lawful conduct and sound spiritual states, and to
cal experiences are not only unconventional, but they are not subject embark upon [the Path] according to the rules. Any book will suffice
to free choice either. So they must be dealt with according to their to teach any given field but [Sufi] books are useless unless imparted
place of origin. The information that has been recorded in books is to the disciples by the masters, personally. Truly, the most necessary
related to the acquired, conventional sciences, but the spiritual states condition in the Path is the presence of a shaykh who does not merely
pertaining to this Path are only described by way of metaphors; and explain written material matters as related in books, but who points
their reality is unknown. A shaykh is therefore indispensable for at the contents of books in your own self.
conveying to us a knowledge that we do not possess at all. This is The Path rests solely on that which is acquired through finding.
the true answer to the debate; and it also provides clear evidence. The content of books on Sufism is fully grasped by the one who
Nonetheless, this answer only applies to the struggle for unveiling. In has found these realities and turned them into qualities of his own.
the struggles towards walking on the straight path and God-wariness, Only those who have attained mystical experiences can understand
it is safe and sound to rely on the written, the recorded and valid legal the Sufis' occasional testimony. As to the others, they assume true
opinions. And God knows best! is false and false is true because all this is so remote from familiar
notions. Sometimes, the wayfarer will understand the Sufis' expe-
Fourth Argument riences correctly, but errs when it comes to applying them in the
wayfaring because he is ignorant of its occurrences. In all this, the
THE SHAYKH-DENIER THEN SAID: If the Sufis' writings implement the
wayfarer needs a shaykh.
purpose for which they were written, then we are in the right and all
Moreover, Sufi authors disclosed little and withheld much
you said is useless. But if their writings are useless and even, in your
more. Their statements are but general rules the outer meaning of
opinion, misleading, then they were written in vain. This is an opin-
which needs to be explained in innumerable cases. Their expres-
ion that belittles the great Sufis who are actually and unanimously
sions are extreme and must be interpreted. Their summaries must be
recognized guides. Therefore, your discourse—which dispossesses
expounded and their generalizations specified. As we said earlier, this
them of their function—is unanimously declared vain.4
is necessary because of the differences between the circumstances of
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERED: The statements of the Sufis in
the paths and the spiritual states of the wayfarers.
their books are true. I refer here to Sufis like Abu Hamid, Muhasibi,
I SAY: We have spoken about spiritual struggles and their degrees.
Ibn Ata', all those who followed the same recognized way, the peo-
The first struggle involves experiencing God-wariness through
ple of the Sunna and the leaders to the right path. We exclude those
moral care, which is a duty incumbent on all men. In the second
who departed from their way and turned it into a philosophy (fal-
;t struggle, walking on the straight path, the wayfarer needs to assume
safiyyan).
• the character traits of the Qur'an and the prophets. This particular
All that was said above is correct. The statements of Abu- Hamid
struggle is an obligation upon the prophets and is lawful to those
and the other authors stem from their self-realization and adoption
who aspire to the higher levels in the community. The discourse
of virtuous traits (i.t.thaf). But their statements never implied that
on both struggles is part of common knowledge and their learning
(yr
part of the acquirable sciences. The writings of the recognized Sufi nothing wrong with the fact that these writings do not fully answer
guides are filled with rules concerning these two struggles, namely the need of this purpose—although they partly do so, namely by
God-wariness and walking on the straight path. Among these writ- describing the methods of this last struggle's wayfaring. However,
ings are the Ihyd', the Ri'dya, the Qut, the works of Ibn Atal and the Sufis' writings will not deal with ailments, ephemeral inrushes,
others., mystical findings, spiritual states and all that occurs in this particu-
The goal of the third spiritual struggle, namely unveiling and lar wayfaring. Doubtlessly, these occurrences are the pillar of this
spiritual perception, is the lifting of the veil in a specific way and journey and the main road in its wayfaring, and can only be clarified
manner. As we previously mentioned, there are disagreements and transmitted by a shaykh.16 Truly, it is impossible to express them
regarding the lawfulness of this particular combat. Since its realities and neither explanatory words nor man-made rules prove adequate
are not part of the acquirable customary sciences, most of its rules because these perceptions are not part of the acquirable sciences, as
are transmitted by competent masters who have grasped them by we have already stated.
personally finding them (al-wajidin laha). As no words in the conven- As to the claim of the shaykh-partisan, namely: 'The Sufis'
tional language can express these realities, very few are set down in writings are useful in that they exhort and instigate the aspirant to
the Sufis' books, besides a few describing the nature of the wayfaring seek lawful conduct and sound spiritual states.' We wonder: how
methods and some rules. The latter are not found through mystical can the debater limit the usefulness of the books to these achieve-
tasting (al-mawdjid al-dhawqiyya) and thenceforth can be transcribed. ments only? How is this possible when such books are filled with
As to the rules and concepts that are found through mystical tast- laws about the struggles towards walking on the straight path and
ing, they are not touched upon or deposited in books. It is the duty moral care that ensure salvation and lead the wayfarer to the level
of the shaykh to transmit them since, at most, the Sufi writers will of the sincere believers (maratib al-siddiqin)? And is there anything
relate some vague stories and make general hints about a spiritual greater than the spiritual struggle of the prophets and assuming
state, an ephemeral inrush or a mystical experience (waft!). Yet, all the good character traits of the Qur'an? It is only the wayfaring
this lacks clarity and needs the interpretation of a shaykh. And do towards unveiling that escapes these writings because mystical
not ever imagine that the nomenclature adopted by the Sufis can help tasting can hardly, if ever, be put into words. There is no harm
non-Sufis conceive of their real meaning! They set it down in order in the fact that these writings cannot contain this last wayfaring,
to communicate with one another, and not to address those who and certainly their other benefits outweigh this omission. We also
have not tasted what they have tasted; we have cited the teacher Abu expounded earlier on the disagreements concerning the legality of
al-Qasim in this respect. the Path to unveiling, but be that as it may, the shaykh will make
When the shaykh-denier says: 'If the Sufis' writings implement sure the itinerant harvests the books' benefits.
the purpose for which they were written, then we are in the right The shaykh-partisan was ending his speech when he added—if
and all you said is useless. But if their writings are useless and even, in only he had said it earlier!—Truly, the most necessary condition in
your opinion, misleading, then they were written in vain.' We say the the Path is the presence of a shaykh who does not merely explain
following: what is the meaning of the word purpose (mavad) here? If written material matters as related in books, but who points at the
purpose refers to the spiritual effort towards God-wariness and walk- contents of books in your own self. The Path rests solely on that
ing on the straight path, then the writings of the Sufis help insofar as which is acquired through finding.' And the rest of his discourse is
their principles and rules of proper conduct are concerned. If purpose related above. Indeed, here his words are pertinent and they provide
refers to the effort towards unveiling and spiritual perception, there is a summary of the substance of our topic.
PC)
Fifth Argument he is claiming a new law, and this is an ignominious accusation!'

We have explained earlier that the wayfaring [towards unveiling] is
THE SHAYKH-DENIER ARGUES: A shaykh does not possess knowl-
edge of all this. If he draws his knowledge from the aforementioned a special path (tariq khassa) different from the common way of the
books, then there is nothing wrong with this. But if he does not refer Law (al-shay` al-camm). The sincere believers found it and followed
it, hoping to attain the loftiest levels of realization. When they
to such books, he is claiming a new law, and enough it is to hear this
evil claim! tasted its realities and grasped its perceptions through finding, they
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERS: No, indeed! The [shaykh's] knowl-
understood how this wayfaring relates to the five legal principles
edge relies on the Book and the Sunna. His knowledge is the spirit of behaviour (al-ahkam al-khamsa).' s Subsequently, they instructed
therein those who plunged into its waves and traversed its seas, tast-
behind the books and the foundation of all that derives from the
ing of what they had tasted. Truly, these realities are comprehended
sources of the Law. This is why the realized Sufi enlightens the legist
in the five legal principles of behaviour the way the particular is in
in his knowledge of the Law; the [Q,Lu'anic] commentator in his com-
the general. However, it is difficult to phrase the relation between
mentary; the specialist in legal theory in his knowledge of the sources
the five principles of behaviour and this Path—which, anyhow,
of the Law; the physician in his medical science; the leader in his gov-
the majority does not feel a need for. Therefore, the relation was
ernment; the artisan in his art; and all men in their trade and life. The
concealed from all but the enlightened few who were given the
shaykh pinpoints their mistakes and errors and indicates how to cor-
knowledge of its realities and gnosis of God's decree in all this.
rect them. This is a knowledge he alone possesses, to the exclusion of
As to the argument of the shaykh-partisan: 'No, indeed! The
books and of those who have not experienced what he has realized.'?
[shaykh's] knowledge relies on the Book and the Sunna. His knowl-
The knowledge God bestowed upon the shaykh relates to all sciences
edge is the spirit behind the books and the foundation of all that
and the directing of all beings, the way jurisprudence relates to the
derives from the sources of the Law.' I assert this is a rhetorical argu-
Law itself. In fact, it is an even clearer and more accurate science.
ment that cannot convince an opponent who negates the relation
I SAY: The shaykh possesses two kinds of knowledge. Firstly, he can
between the five legal principles of behaviour and the unforeseen
explain the conditions of this wayfaring and its method. He describes
events, claiming it is non-existent in the Book. As aforementioned,
the course to follow beforehand, namely the spiritual efforts towards
the truth is that it is not recorded in books because its masters—the
God-wariness and walking on the straight path, as well as the princi-
saints of God—do know the interrelation between the unforeseen
ples concerning all this. This type of knowledge has been presented
events and the legal principles, having understood their realities by
in the Sufis' books along with their numerous aspects and detailed
rules, and it suffices to follow them. finding them.
As to the shaykh-partisan's words concerning 'the realized Sufi
Secondly, there is the knowledge of the spirit behind this wayfar-
who enlightens the scientists and artisans in their sciences and arts',
ing, its secret truth, and it relates to the unforeseen events mentioned
earlier. It relies on mystical tasting and cannot be expressed in words we say: this is a true statement and we discussed the subject earlier. To
or conveyed through books and codified material. When the way- him whose knowledge is inspired by God, all the realities and hidden
farer experiences some event through mystical tasting, it is the shaykh secrets of existence are disclosed as they are, because he contemplates
who will point out the genuinely real therein and lead him to their them with the eye of his heart. The God-inspired person guides men
understanding thereon. to truth and protects them from error because his knowledge results
The shaykh-denier argues that, 'If he does not refer to books, from his perceptions. Are not the acquired and applied sciences but
a mere shadow of his knowledge? The human perceptions of the
Chapter Six
realized Sufi are enhanced by the light God cast into his heart and the I SAY: It has been determined that the perceptions in this Path are
divine knowledge that replenished his whole self. not acquirable or recordable, but are related to intimate finding and
mystical tasting (wijdaniyya dhawqiyya). It is impossible to talk about
Sixth Argument them except to the one who shares in this finding and tasting; but
THEN, THE SHAYKH-DENIER CONTENDED THAT: If the science the we have already said that.
shaykh alone possesses can be expressed in words, then it is possible As to the shaykh-denier's argument: 'If the science the shaykh
to acquire and transmit it. The recorded is transmittable, as seen in alone possesses can be expressed in words, then it is possible to acquire
the cases of Abu Hamid (may God be pleased with him) and others and transmit it. The recorded is transmittable...If the shaykh's sci-
as well. If the shaykh's science is not recorded, it is virtually part of ence is not recorded, it is virtually part of that which could be
that which could be recorded, since it is actually acquired by him, recorded...'. I answer saying that this kind of knowledge cannot be
apprehended and imagined in his mind In both cases, this science put in words. The sciences that can be explained have a technical,
can be acquired, read and taught and hence recorded. Therefore, it acquirable nomenclature; yet, this is not the case for the sciences that
is right to draw from books what is relevant therein. If this is not so, stem from intimate finding.
then what is this "science"? The shaykh-denier added the following: 'It can be acquired,
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERS: It is a science that cannot be [read] and taught.' If the deniers are referring here to the science
acquired, enclosed, contained in rules, or gathered in one code of related to God-wariness or walking on the straight path, then this is
laws. This is why when we ask the shaykh who has reached reali- true. If they are referring to the knowledge particular to the strug-
zation (al-shaykh al-muhaqqiq) what he knows about the science of gle for unveiling, then this is forbidden (mamnu) because, as we said,
Sufism, he answers he knows nothing. He is in a state of poverty the perceptions of this knowledge are beyond sciences and nomen-
from all points of view. Rather, he is like an empty tablet (lawh) clatures. The shaykh-partisan had alluded to this when he said 'a
ready for what will be imprinted on it. God confers upon the shaykh discerning light wherewith he discriminates between true and false
a discerning light wherewith he discriminates between true and in all things', to the end of his discourse.
false in all things. The shaykh cannot describe this light, nor pass it Furthermore, the shaykh-partisan asserts that book-followers
on to a wayfarer or to any other man. He can only describe it via strayed by claiming that the Sufis were addressed differently to every-
parables (mithal) that are but a manifestation of this light, the reality one else. To this we answer: if the reason for this deviation is indeed
of which is hidden as it was before. He who possesses this light will book-following and the reliance on transmission, then the solution to
understand, while he who does not possess it will not. And this is this discussion lies in the aforesaid: the perceptions in this wayfaring
the reason many book-followers were misled—` But they split up their are related to intimate finding and mystical tasting. He who relies
religion into sects, each party rejoicing in what is with them' (Q.xxx.32). on writings—but without discrimination—does not understand
Each group adapted the Book and the Sunna to what they knew how this particular wayfaring is correlated to the five legal principles
of Sufi realities.'9 They correlated the Sufis' mystical states to some of behaviour and will claim the principles underlying Sufism are at
religious law, other than the one transmitted to the community by variance. And God knows best! We have demonstrated earlier how
the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace), thinking that wrong it is to claim that the Law is liable to different interpretations
the Sufis were addressed differently to everyone else. This is proof in accordance with its application to different people and according
enough for the negative state of the book-followers. to two levels: an outward and an inward.
Seventh Argument almost impossible in actual fact. A certain man might indeed follow
a master and yet you might not know he does, or else you might not
THE SHAYKH-DENIER SAID: Wayfaring without a shaykh is impossi-
know his shaykh; your ignorance of something does not imply its
ble either because of the essence of the Path itself—which is not
non-existence. The shaykh is one of the means through which God
likely or because of external reasons such as customs or the Law.
Customs do not forbid it since many fared forth without a shaykh assists His servant.
But let us assume that a man can proceed along the Path without
and were taught the Path by a book, or a transmitter who had learned
a shaykh; this is a rare case that fits in the category of exception and
its method from a book.2° God guided them and did not entrust
cannot be turned into a general law, just as the grammatical exception
them to anyone else. The biographies testify to this. As to the Law,
wherefrom comes the argument stating that the way (suluk) must be is memorized but not turned into a rule. The same held true for the
sale of the palm trees' fruits, the making of loans and the contracts
fared forth with a shaykh or without one? On the contrary, there are
for irrigation,' all these are specific rules without being a measure
instances when the opposite is stated, as in God Most High's words,
for everything. Our problem here is best illustrated with the story of
`0 ye who believe! If ye keep your duty to God, He will give you discrimina-
Khuzayma's testimony'' and that of Abu Burda's sacrifice of the new-
tion between right and wrong' (Q.vm.29). This asserts that whoever is
born goat." Furthermore, one might come across a wayfarer who
wary of God is given the discriminating light (al-nur al-furgant) that
does not follow a shaykh, but such a wayfarer is seldom of benefit
you claim is a quality reserved to the shaykh. In fact, this light is the
result of God-wariness, which entails conforming to His orders and to others in the Path; instead he is a community (umma) to himself.
avoiding the forbidden. This can safely be drawn from books since it The need for a shaykh is made even more evident in the Law:
merely consists in acting upon the matters of substantive law and the `Question the people of the Remembrance, if it should be that you should not
experiences of the Sufis who lived according to it. So why would a know' (Q.xvi.43); and also in His words, '0 believers! Obey God, and
obey the Messenger and those in authority among you' (Q.Iv.59). In addi-
shaykh be needed? It says in the noble Qur'an, 'But those who struggle
in Our cause, surely We shall guide them in Our Ways' (Q.xxlx.69). This tion, it is also said that 'learned men are the heirs of the prophets'.24
reiterates the meaning of the aforementioned verse as well as many To be in no need of the heirs of the Prophet compares to being in
no need of the Prophet. The Prophet is sent to explain the Book, as
other verses too.
is his heir. Every man who transmits a religious legal science is the
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERED: To travel the way without a mas-
heir of the Prophet therein; there are innumerable proofs for this and
ter is not impossible because of the essence of the Path itself, but for
your arguments do not refute anything. Even at the stage of God-
reasons pertaining to custom and the Law. According to custom, cur-
rent tradition and recorded precedents, we see that those whose lives wariness, the wayfarer needs the guidance of a shaykh who knows the
have been related in books relied on shaykhs and did not fare without method to follow for each individual and in every circumstance, and
them. Most of those who slid off the straight path did so because who shows caution with regards the obstacles that could divert the
they embarked upon it without a shaykh, or because they opposed disciple from his way. Just as God-wariness is gradually achieved, so
him in some matter. We have seen this with our own eyes and -we is its result, namely discrimination, which is attained by degrees, little
have read it in books. By 'reliance on a shaykh', I do not mean that a by little, with the perfection of its later stages being in proportion to
wayfarer should follow one master only. Although this is preferable, the perfection of the earlier ones.
As the God-wary believer (muttaqi) advances through the pro-
it is not a universal condition. As to the case of the wayfarer who fol-
lows the Path without a shaykh at all, it is possible theoretically but gressive stages of development, his discriminating faculty increases.
At the respective levels of submission, faith and excellence, he is given
the discrimination that corresponds to their particular phases. Each the gnosis of these realities (acycin), by way of a charismatic gift, akin
level of discrimination has its sources, principles, ephemeral inrushes, to the prophetic miracle (mu jiza).26 This reverses the normally pos-
mystical findings, and accidental manifestations with their befitting sible or impossible by altering their nature. However, the soundness
results, namely walking on the straight path or not, performing of the particular cases in wayfaring is confirmed to the wayfarer and
sound or corrupt action. Therefore, we reiterate, a shaykh is needed his brethren only after spiritual vision—its fruit—is reaped. When
in the spiritual struggle that guides the wayfarer to the straight path, the wayfarer is absolutely certain that he has reaped the fruit, he
just as God-wariness is needed to lead him towards discrimination. understands that God has taken over his affairs and guidance.
The itinerant will traverse vast expanses of perilous lands familiar If God, in His providence and guidance, disrupts customs—
only to its native inhabitants. When the shaykh sees that the wayfarer that call for the presence of a shaykh in the wayfaring—and lifts its
has gained insight in all these matters, that the voyage led him back to interdiction, this exceptional circumstance should not be taken as an
his starting point and original centre, and when he sees the wayfarer example to imitate. The wayfarer must not disregard this injunction
clad in divine light, endowed with discerning light, he will entrust and undertake this course without a shaykh, assuming God Most
him to God in whom is guidance from the beginning until the end. High has taken over his guidance in a Path wherein perceptions are
Thereafter, when more opportunities towards further training cross filled with ambiguity for the one who is unassisted in this experi-
the path of the itinerant, he will seek them out with full awareness ence. This is a foolish action and idle talk! If he does so, the wayfarer
but without relinquishing the guidance of his shaykh, whether the will be acting like the man who walks alone into the fire saying, 'I
latter is alive or dead.25 Indeed, it is on this Path that the itinerant has shall walk into the fire and God will protect me', claiming God made
been endowed with and clad in this light; and if he departs from it, the fire 'coolness and safety' for Abraham (Q.xxr.69). So it is with the
the light in him will become extinct. The tradition binding shaykh one who drinks deadly poison alleging the charismatic act whereby
and disciple is absolute and epitomizes the uninterrupted initiatic Khalid b al-Walid drank poison and was not harmed.27 The possible
chain (al-silsila al-muttasila) that connects to the Prophet (may God does not become impossible and the impossible possible just because
bless him and grant him peace). He who holds on will reach, and he the custom has been disrupted once (by way of a prophetic miracle or
who severs is stranded. a charismatic act. If the wayfarer fancies he is guided [by God], this
I SAY: The shaykh-denier refuted the impossibility of the Path with- could be but a test for him, and he must be alert at all times until he
out a shaykh either because of the essence of the Path itself or for of reaches the desired object and is certain that God has truly favoured
external reasons, such as customs or the Law. The shaykh-partisan him Yet, this is rare and consequently the wayfarer must not rely on
concurs with the reason linked to the essence but contests the legal this possibility.
and customary impossibility. Thus, both sides agree that wayfaring without a shaykh is not
Know that one cannot restrict impossibility to the abovemen- impossible because of the essence of the path (a/-imand al-dhati).
tioned three factors. It is impossible to journey without a guide The shaykh-partisan rejects the customary impossibility (al-imand
because of the nature of the wayfaring, which is based on intimate al-cadi). He does not reject the essential impossibility For impossibil-
findings and mystical tasting. The oral explanations of a shaykh com- ity by nature], as long as the nature justifying the impossibility is
petent in these matters are therefore needed. Yet, anything impossible valid; and since this essential impossibility is rarely invalidated by
by nature can become possible the day its nature is altered; thence, the an isolated case, the argument rejecting the necessity of the shaykh
discernment of intimate findings (al-madarik al-wijdaniyya) is made in this Path is unfounded.28 On the contrary, his presence is a con-
possible by God, who leads towards and infuses into some individuals dition, as we proved earlier. As to the legal impossibility (al-imam:7'
al-sharci), I do not know why the shaykh-denier refutes it. They claim is like the difference between the lamp and the sun; or rather the lamp
God-wariness will necessarily grant the wayfarer the light of discrim- is closer to the sun [than is their Path to His]. The comparison is only
ination, and its struggle will lead him to guidance. This is absolutely an allegory and an approximation. The first goal for the believers sub-
correct. But then, why not consider shaykh-following a requirement ject to the Law is salvation by following the prophets and imitating
in their claim? Is it not a requirement for many of the absolute state- them. Therein is the true meaning of the 'inheritance of the learned
ments in the Qur'an and the Sunna? This is all the more true if by men'. This inheritance is the capital and wealth of faith. It is impos-
struggle and God-wariness the shaykh-denier is actually referring to sible to proceed without the heir who inherited from the Prophet.
the Path of unveiling and spiritual perception, wherein—as proven As to walking on the straight path and assuming the prophets'
earlier—the presence of a teacher endowed with knowledge about good character traits, it is an individual obligation upon them. But
its perceptions is most necessary. when the believers subject to the Law undertake this course, they
As to the struggles towards walking on the straight path and may reach a more perfect level and ascend to loftier levels [than the
God-wariness, we explained that their perceptions are familiar and level attained with the first struggle, God-wariness]. He who searches
can be understood with the Law transmitters' discourses. Since their for these levels learns from books and learned men, and must abide
perceptions are not grasped through intimate finding, these can be by their teachings. Consequently, it is impossible to dispense with
secured from books and compiled material, without help from a the heir in this. In both cases, [the search for salvation and the effort
shaykh—although, again, his presence does perfect these struggles. towards walking on the straight path], the word heir signifies the one
We have already said this. This was also stated in the two Queinic who understands the legal principles that are part of known realities
verses quoted above and we do not need to reiterate.29 familiar to us.3'
Concerning the argument of the shaykh-partisan that 'learned As to the 'even more restricted way' in this Path, its legality
men are the heirs of the prophets', to be in no need of the heirs of the troubles the heirs—the learned men. Basically, one may just ignore
Prophet compares to being in no need of the Prophet. The Prophet this specific Path; and even more so—according to those who do
is sent to explain the Book, as is his heir. Every man who transmits a not believe in the guidance of a shaykh—one must ignore it because
religious legal science is the heir of the Prophet therein.' Know that during the early Islamic times the Companions and the Predecessors
the Prophet has three statuses: were not aware of it and did not follow it. They either sought sal-
A general one, namely the guidance of the people (hidaya li'l-lehalq) vation or walking on the straight path, striving to assume the good
towards salvation; and this applies to all men subject to the Law. character traits of the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him
A second special status related to his own personal spiritual strug- peace). How could they not dispense with a path wherein the pres-
gle, an individual obligation upon him, which inheres in walking on ence of the teacher or some other tutor is a prerequisite?
the straight path and assuming the traits of the Qur'an. The shaykh-partisan believes that God-wariness and struggle
The third and even more restricted status involves the Prophet's are achieved differently according to the stations at which they take
path towards spiritual perception, through meditation (tahannuth) place, and the reaped results vary with the struggles. We believe that
in the cave of Hira'.3° There, away from people, he was exposed to this is true. In the struggles towards God-wariness and walking on
ephemeral inrushes and mystical findings whereby God guided him the straight path, wariness manifests itself in perceptions that can be
and taught him. This is the way to unveiling, and [the way of the understood. Whether these manifestations are sources, principles,
Sufis] is but a drop of water in the sea, a shadow of the goal [com- ephemeral inrushes, mystical findings, accidental manifestations or
pared with the way of the Prophet]. The difference between the two befitting results, they all belong to the realm of the familiar. As to
the perceptions belonging to the wayfaring towards unveiling, its inquire and inwardly pray with ardour for God to lead him towards
meanings (mdani), sources, principles, accidental manifestations or a master who answers his needs and whom he loves. If he hears about
befitting results, they are not accessible because they are not part of such a realized teacher who fulfils the quality of the shaykh as attested
the conventional, as we said earlier; hence, the need for a shaykh to by all, he will go to him if he can; and if he cannot, he will write him
spell out all these elements. As to the rest of the discourse of the two and tell him about his spiritual state. If the wayfarer does not find a
debaters, it is clear. shaykh, he should persevere in his search and prayers, and that which
God has foreordained for him will no doubt be granted.
Eighth Argument As to the one attracted by God, he is enraptured, bereft of his
self, absorbed in his Lord and withdrawn from the world. He belongs
THE SHAYKH-DENIER THEN SAYS: All you said is feasible, but only if a
to Him only. As he does not—and cannot—take charge of himself,
shaykh is available and accessible. Yet, these days there are no shaykhs
he must not consult books in the event of encountering an obstacle
around! Besides, even if such a shaykh exists we might not know of
on his way. If the obstacle is related to the domain of the legist, he
him. What then is the solution for the wayfarer who wishes to follow
consults with him. If the obstacle is related to some other domain, he
a Path besides reliance on books?
must trust in the service of the One who has attracted him to Him
THE SHAYKH-PARTISAN ANSWERED: If the shaykh for this special Path
and who will guide him the way He chooses to. But he must not
is not available, that does not mean he does not exist. [In fact, he will
rely on books or on the one who relies on books and does not have
exist] until 'We shall inherit the earth and all that are upon it' (Q.xix.4o).
knowledge or realization of what he is transmitting. And only God
On the other hand, the shaykh for the path common to all is avail-
leads to the truth.
able. His follower is either a wayfarer to God (salik) or one attracted
I SAY: The denier's position that such a shaykh is unavailable [is sup-
to Him (majdhub).
posed to] prove that he is not a condition to the Path. Unquestionably,
If the seeker is a wayfarer, he only needs to observe command-
this would be proof enough had the Law or reason declared this spe-
ments and avoid prohibitions, as indicated by the shaykh versed in
cific Path to be an obligation; and only then would this wayfaring
the Law. He must not be negligent or excessive, careless or unduly
without a master substantiate that he is not a condition therein. Yet,
rigorous. If he is an artisan, he will not abandon his trade—provided
how could that be when we have discussed earlier the difficulty fac-
it is licit, of course—and if he is a scholar or a student, [he will
ing the legists in determining its legality? But we do not ratify this.
maintain] his studies. This wayfarer will not impose upon himself too
Rather, we say: if the wayfarer finds a shaykh, let him follow this
many supererogatory or pious acts of devotion (nawafil wa-mandubat)
Path; and if he does not find one, let him renounce this Path lest
if these affect his livelihood or his peace of mind In doing so, he will
he be faced with dangers and exposed to perils—until God brings
not isolate himself or be different from other people, except in the
forth a shaykh for him
illicit matters which he avoids while they do not, or in the obligatory
The shaykh-partisan claims there will always be a shaykh avail-
matters which he performs while they do not.
able until 'We shall inherit the earth and all that are upon it.' This
Perhaps, the wayfarer does need a shaykh for all the above-men-
is a strange postulation on the part of certain Sufis who speculate
tioned, but an expert legist (al-faqih al-mufti) is sufficient because these
about the sciences of unveiling, the Pole (qutb), the Pillars (awtad) and
matters are easy to solve. The wayfarer will act as the student of Law
the Substitutes (abdal). We already exposed their theories, declaring
and its sources, traditions of the Prophet, or any other science related
them to be false and perverse. The truth is that the shaykh who is a
to the legal sciences. At the same time, he will look for a teacher,
wayfarer and a guide (al-shaykh al-salik)—is like all particular beings:
he exists at times and does not at other times. If a shaykh is found, aspire for, besides walking on the straight path wherein the wayfarer
the wayfaring will go straight (istiqam al-sultile). If a shaykh cannot be assumes the character traits of the prophets, the sincere believers and
found, then this Path must be forsaken because it is not an inherent the Qur'an?
condition [for the believer]. Thus, [it will be] until God (may He be The shaykh-partisan added: Ìf he hears about such a realized
exalted) sends forth a shaykh. Then, God will guide the wayfarer teacher who fulfils the quality of the shaykh as attested by all, he will
by way of a charismatic act, and He will inspire, favour and lead go to him if he can; and if he cannot, he will write him and tell him
him to one of His saints. It is [only right for] the shaykh to convey about his spiritual state.' I say the following: how can communicat-
the teaching and education [particular to this Path], generation after ing in writing [with a shaykh] be ever valid or useful, when this same
generation, until the chain of transmission is discontinued after many debater has been declaring since the beginning of the discussion that
ages and successive periods. At that time, one must wait until God, in book learning is useless, written transmission unreliable and book
His mercy, again sends forth a shaykh. And God knows best! followers are in great danger? What is the difference between a writ-
The shaykh-partisan added: Òn the other hand the shaykh for ten work and a letter sent by a shaykh from a distant land? Both rely
the path common to all is available.' These words seem to infer that on recorded transmission and writing. The only difference is that, in
the need for a shaykh is a condition not only in the struggle towards the letter to the shaykh, there is distance in place, whereas in written
unveiling, but also in the struggles towards walking on the straight books, there is distance in time.
path and God-wariness. However, we have previously clarified the The shaykh-partisan then goes on to define the duty of the one
difference between these struggles: unlike the first two, the last strug- attracted by God. I say: know that he has no duty (wazifa) whatso-
gle does require the presence of a shaykh. 'The path common to all' ever! For the Sufis, the ones attracted by God—like Bahlul and other
must designate the way of the Law, whose shaykh is the mostly avail- madmen of the people of wayfaring (majanin ahl al-suliik) —were rav-
able expert legist (mufti). If the latter happens to be unavailable, then ished to themselves by the spiritual vision (ìida al-matla). Hence,
juridical principles can [possibly] be drawn from those books which they completely lost the requisite level of intellect that would bind
are consulted—provided their sources are valid and their chains of them to the Law, so they have no duty to it anymore. Indeed, they
transmitters sound. This may continue in such a way until some have reached the goal (wusuO, and duties are mere means to the goal.
teachers acquire again a deeply-rooted proficiency and can resume The one attracted by God has arrived, seen the light, been ravished
their teaching [of the Law]. Unlike the path of unveiling, there is out of himself and is out of his mind. He does not know the Book,
no harm, danger or peril in faring this way without a shaykh [if per- faith or transmission; rather, he is constantly immersed in the sea of
formed with the aforementioned proviso]. gnosis and divine unity, oblivious to senses and sense objects.
Furthermore, the shaykh-partisan divided seekers into two
groups: the wayfarer and the one attracted by Him. He also claimed
that if the seeker does not have a shaykh, he must limit himself to
obeying the Law, following the directives of the legist, earning his
livelihood, professing his trade, and ardently praying that God guides
him to a shaykh. If I only knew! What would the seeker lose if he
does not follow this specific way? By God, this Path is so danger-
ous and perilous to everyone except he whom God has protected
and guided to the goal! Besides, is there another path anyone could
107
CONCLUSION AND ASCERTAINMENT
There is yet one unresolved question on my mind The one attracted

to God has lost his mind and is not accountable for legal observance.
He occupies the lowest level in humankind and is considered periph-
eral to the mass of believers inasmuch as he is exempted from religious
duties and especially from worship. How can he then reach the level
of God's saints and be considered one of them, as has been attested
and never denied in both past and present times?
Consequently, God in His grace and guidance inspired me and
my question was answered. The intellect, by virtue of which a
man is liable for the religious duties imposed by the Law, applies
to worldly life and conducts man in his daily domestic life. If a
man has lost this intellect owing to a lack in his self and in his
subtle soul (1(10 ralicaniyya) as is the case with fools and idiots—
then he sinks below the human level and has nothing to do with
faith, not to mention sainthood (walaya).1 On the other hand, if a
man has lost his intellect because he has been drowned in the sea
of divine lights and is little inclined towards the sensorial world
and its burden, then he is not debased and does not sink below the
level of humankind. On the contrary, his faith increases and he
is worthy of sainthood because he has contemplated the lights of
gnosis (anwar al-ma`rifa). As to keeping his lofty rank, in spite of
his exemption from the religious duties and his relinquishing the
means to a goal—which anyway he has already reached the one
who is attracted by God enjoys and is granted a specific legal statute
(bukm shard), agreed upon by the Sufis who are entrusted with the
knowledge therein.
We said earlier that the Sufis' legal principles stem from their inti-
mate finding and mystical tasting. If these legal principles escape us,
it is not because they are obscure or intricate, but because the mysti-
cal perceptions—from which they stem—are concealed. If the Sufis
happen to intuitively perceive one of these spiritual states—through

an inrush, a casting onto the heart or the like—they know how these
spiritual states relate to God's rule. Occasionally, a judgement passed
by Sufis on a fellow Sufi might strike us as strange, but it is only so
because of the strangeness of the perception that relies on tasting NOTES
(madarik dhawqiyya). This should not be apprehended as farfetched, as
the Sufis know best their own perceptions. God bestows upon them Translator's Introduction
special divine graces (takh.54), wherein lies their felicity.
Here ends my discourse and the debate between the two pro- I. A Sufi Debate and the Origins of the sho'
tagonists. Ibn Ajiba, Igaz al-himam fi sharh wall-fiat:Mat shark al-Mabahith
May God guide us to Him, grant us felicity through gnosis of al-asliyya (Cairo: Matbdat Ahmad Hanafi, n.d.), p. 147.
Him, lead us to the straight path and infuse sincerity in our deeds so 2 The clash between two epistemologies, the methods of the Law and the Path of
the Sufis or 'the illuminative knowledge acquired by mystics vis-a-vis juridically
that they be performed for His sake only. May He be pleased with
circumscribed teachings of the fimalia' ...seems to be a continuation of the
us and may He protect us from His wrath. Truly, He is all-powerful. Karamat al-awliya" polemic that began in the 4th/loth century, as Yousef Casewit
Here ends our work. Praise be to God for His bountiful help. states in 'The Forgotten Mystic: Ibn Barrajan (d. 536/1141) and the Andalusian
May His prayers and blessings be upon our master Muhammad, His Muctabiran' (PhD thesis: Yale University, 2014), pp. 54-55.
Prophet and His servant, and on his family and Companions! This 3 For Ahmad Zarruq, see C. Brocklemann, Geschishte der Arabishen Litteratur, 2 vols.
was completed on Monday 29 Jumada 1, 890 [Ax].23 May God bestow (Leiden: E. J Brill, 1943), henceforth cited as GAL, vol. n, p. 253, and suppl.
pp. 36o and 362; Ibn Durrat ghurrat asme al-rijal, 2 vols. (Cairo:
upon us His grace and generosity! n.p.,1892), p. 64;
Dar al-Turath, 1974 vol. 1, p. 90, and Jadhwat al-igtibas
Ahmad Baba, Nayl al-ibtihaj bi tatrtz al-dibaj in Ibn Farhun, al-Dibaj al-mudhahhab
fi mdrifat cyan al-madhhab (Cairo: Maktabat Dar al-Turath, 1932-3), pp. 84-6;
Ben Cheneb, 'Etude sur les personages mentionnes dans l'Idjazah du Cheikh Abd
al-Qadir al-Fasy', in Actes du XIVe Congres International des Orientalistes (Algiers:
n.p., 1978), p. 51. In Qa_wdid al-tasawwuf (Cairo: n.p., 1976), p. 40, Zarruq
mentions the debate that took place between `the later-day initiates of Andalusia
who disagreed among themselves as to whether reading books sufficed, to do
without shaykhs. So they wrote various parts of the Islamic world and received
answers, each one answering according to his own enlightenment', as translated
by Z. Istrabadi, The Principles of Sufism (ProQuest/UMI: 2002), p. ror. In Iddat
al-murid (lith. edition: n.p., 1943)—as found in Ibn Tawit al-Tanji, Shift'
li-tandhib al-masa'il (Istanbul: Osman Yalcin Matbaasi, 1957, hereinafter refered to
as "Fanji, Shifii")—Zarthq tells us Ibn Khaldun was among those who answered
this question. Finally, in al-Nasiba al-kafiya (lith. edition: n.p., n.d.), p. 61 m,
Zarruq mentions Ibn Khaldtm in connection with one of the subjects dealt with
in the Shifit For the last two references, see Tanji, p. `d'.
4 For Ahmad al-Wansharisi, see GAL, vol. n, pp. 248 and 356, and suppl. n, p. 348.
The reference is given as Ahmad al-Wansharisi, al-mughrib mal-jamic
al-mdrib, vol. xn, p. 291, as found in Tanji, Shift', P. `d'.
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Notes
5 For Abu Muhammad Abd al-Qadir al-Fasi, see GAL, suppl. n, p. 708. The 15 For Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Hujjat al-Islam or 'Restorer of the Faith', see GAL,
reference is found in 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi, Ò sat makhtfit Ibn Khaldun', vol.', p. 419 and suppl. I, p. 744-75 6; BE: s.v. àl-Ghazzalf ; Ibn al-Qaeli,Jadhwa,
Risalat al-Maghrib, vol. x: 1948, pp. 57o—I. pp. 65-6; A. Dermeersemann, 'Le Maghrib a une Marque Ghazalienne?',
6 For Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. Ahmad al-Masnawi, see GAL, suppl. Revue de ?Institut des Belles-Lettres, vol. morn: 1958, pp. to9-12, and te que
p. 685. The reference is found in Fan, p. 571. Ibn Khaldun pence d'al-Ghazali', Revue de l'Institut des Belles-Lettres, vol. nom:
7 Ibn 'Ajiba, Ivz al-himam, p. 147. 1958, pp. 109-12 and 161-93; Alfred Bel, La Religion Musulmane en Berberie (Paris:
8 For Abu Isl3aq Ibrahim b. Musa al-Shatibi, see GAL, suppl. a, p. 374; Ibn Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1938), pp. 229-3o. Concerning the upheaval
Durrat, vol. p. 182, and Jadhwa, p. 6o; Nayl, pp. 46ff ; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 277. that surrounded Ghazali's books in general and the ihyd"u/iim al-din in particular,
9 For Abu al-Abbas Ahmad b. al-Qasim b. Abd al-Rahman al-Qabbab, see GAL, see the detailed description of Nasiri, Lstiva, vol. tr, pp. 216-2o. Note that the
suppl. t, p. 346; Dlbaj: p. 187; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 328; Nayl: pp. 72-3. extent of Ghazali's influence on Andalusian Sufism is challenged by Casewit in
m For Muhammad b. Ibrahim b. Abbad al-Rundi, see GAL, suppl. n, p. 358; `The Forgotten Mystic', p. 23, and Cornell in Realm of the Saint, pp. 15-29.
Encyclopeadia of Islam, henceforth cited as BE, s.v. 'Ibn Abbad'; Islam 16 Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', p. 15.
Ansiklopedisi, henceforth cited as IA, s.v. 'Ibn Abbad er-Rundi'; see also Ahmad 17 Qadi Abu Bakr b. al-Arabi had studied with Ghazali while in the East and had
b. Muhammad al-Maqqari, Nall al-fib min ghusn al-Andalus al-rafib wa-dhikr introduced the Ihya' to the Maghrib about eight years before the book burning.
waziriha Lisan al-Din b. al-Khatib, ,o vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Arabi, He had two disciples, Abu Ya`zza al-E-Tannin and 'Ali b. Hirzihim, who in turn
1949), vol. vu, p. 261; Ibn al-Khatib, al-lhata fi tarikh Garnata, 3 vols., edited would be the masters of one of the towering figures in Western Sufism, Abb.
by M. A. Ivan (Cairo: al-Tibaca al-Misriyya, 1974)„ vol. in, pp. 252-6; Ibn Madyan. About Abu Bakr b. al-Arabi, see GAL, suppl. 1, p. 663; EP: s.v. Ìbn
Jadhwa, pp. 2,00—I; Nayl, pp. 279 ff ; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 343. See al-Arahi' ; IA: s.v. Ebu Bettie; Ne/fli: vol. Yu, pp. 303-6: Nasiri,
also Paul Nwyia, Ibn ABM() de Ronda (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1961); /saga, vol. III, in Archives Marocaines, vol. xxxii: 1927, pp. 59-6o; Ibn
Ibn Abbad al-Rundi, Lettres de Direction Spirituelle, al-Rasa'il al-Sughra, edited Jadhwa, pp. 147ff ; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 278; Ibn Qunfudh, Uns al:faqir wajizz
by Paul Nwyia (Beirut: Dar al-Mashriq, 1974), pp. 130-140. For the latter, we al-haqir (Rabat: Editions Techiniques Nord Africaines, 1965), pp. 42, 71, 93;
shall be quoting the English translation by John Renard in Ibn Abbad of Ronda: Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', pp. 29-3o. See also Emile Dermenghem, Le
Letters on the Sufi Path (New Jersey: Paulist Press 1986), pp. 184-94. Culte des Saints clans ?Islam Maghrain (Paris: Gallimard, 1954), p. 73.
rr Wansharisi, Misyar, vol. xn, pp. 201ff ; texts as found in Tanji, Shill', pp. 110-34. 18 Abu al-Hasan 'Ali b. Hirzihim, commonly called Sidi Hrazim, the above-
mentioned legist and Sufi who is said to have met Ghazali when travelling in the
A Historical Overview East. Ibn Hirzihim was instrumental in teaching and spreading Ghazali's works
12 Ashc arism is a school of orthodox theology that bears the name of its founder in the Maghrib; Ibn Qunfudh, Uns, pp. 12-3; Nasiri, IstiTsci, vol. II, pp. 216-9
Abu al-Elasan al-Ashcan (d. 324/935); Shorter Encyclopeadia of Islam, edited by H. and vol. m, p. 179, pp. 184-5; Nayl: p. 198; Ibn al-Zayyat, al-Tashawwuf ila real
A. Gibb and J. J. Kramers (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974), henceforth cited as SEI, s.v. al-tasawwuf (Rabat: Mathirat Ifriqya al-Shimaliyya al-Fanniyya, 1958), pp. 71ff
and pp. 147-150. See also Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 23-26.
13 The Maliki madhhab is the school offiqh, or Islamic law, that dominated North Abu al-Hakam Abd al-Salam al-Ishbill b. Barrajan, commonly called Bu al-Rijal,
Africa and bears the name of the Imam Malik b. Anas; see SEI: s.v. 'Malik b. was a Sevillian mystic who was executed in Marrakesh by order of the Sultan
Anas'. For a thorough analysis of these pillar elements and their interrelations Ali b. Yrisuf; see GAL, vol.i, p. 434, and suppl. 1, p. 775; s.v. 'Ibn Berrecan';
in Andalusian and North African medieval history, refer to Vincent J. Cornell, Nasiri, Istiqsa, vol. it , p. 218. See also Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 2o-21 and
Realm of the Saint, Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism (Texas: University of 25-6; and Casewit's 'The Forgotten Mystic'.
Texas Press: 1998) and Yousef Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic'. 20 Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Musa b. 'Aid' Allah al-Sanhaji al-Mari al-Andalusi,
14 'Ali b. Ytisuf b. Tashufin the Almoravid reigned from sooh1o6 to 538/1-143. known as Ibn al-Arif or Ibn al-Irrif, a native of Tangiers, or according to
See AM al-Rahman b. Khaldun, al-Tdrff Khaldun wa-riblatihi shanyan some sources, Almeria. Ibn al-Arif died in Marrakesh in strange circumstances
wa-gharban, edited by Muhammad b. Tawit al-Tanji (Cairo: Matbalat Lajnat for some chroniclers say that he was poisoned by order of the Sultan 'Ali b.
al Ta'hf wa'l-Tarjama wa'l-Nashr, 1951), p. 56; Ahmad b. Khalid, al-Nasiri, Yrisuf. In Mahasin al-majalis, his classification of the mystical stages is that of
Kitab al-istiqsa lt-akhbar duwal al-Maghrib al-aqsa, vol. II, in Archives Marocaines, Ghazali; see Ibn Mahasin al-majfilis, edited and translated by Asin Palacios
vol. xxxi: 1925, pp. 197-209. (Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1933), pp. 6-7; Paul Nwyia, 'Notes
sur Quelques Fragments Inedits de la Correspondance d'Ibn al-Arif avec Ibn Francois Maspero, 1975), vol. I, pp. 159-84; Philip Hitti, History of the Arabs (New
Barrajan', Archives Berberes et Bulletin de L'institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines York: Summit Books, 1981), pp. 546-9. 'The popularity and politicization of
Hesperis, vol. xun: 1956, pp. 217-22. Yet, as Casewit notes, even though 'Ibn Ghazali's Sufism in the mid 6th/12th century is evidenced by the fact that Ibn
al-cArif was exposed to Ghazali's teachings early in his career...his writings Tumart would seek rally to support for his cause by appealing to Ghazali and
are not preponderantly Ghazalian' (Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', p. 65). by masquerading as his direct disciple.' (Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', p. 61)
Concerning Ibn al-Arif, see GAL, vol 1, p. 434, and suppl. 1, p. 776; IA: s.v. 26 Note that Casewit mentions the gap that could occur in the juridical
Ibnii'l-Arif '; Nafh: vol. 1, p. 344; Nasiri, Istiva, vol. ii, p. 218; Nayl, pp. 59-63; methodolody of some state legists and the Maliki madhhab as such and regrets
Tashawwuf, pp. 96ff. See also Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 19-23. the cliche descriptions of the madhhab as 'pharisaical, inflexible, dry, intolerant,
21 Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', p. 36. and monolithic' (Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', pp. 3-4). See also Ibn
22 Abu al-Qsim b. Qusi claimed to have been a disciple of Ibn al-lArif, and Mahasin al-majalis, p. 5.
organized a ribat (a religious centre sometimes used for military purposes) in 27 lAbd al-Mu'min b. Ali, also known as 'Abd al-Mu'min al-Komi, was one of
southern Portugal. His followers rebelled against the Almohad government Ibn Tumart's followers. After the latter's death, he appointed himself successor
and won several victories over their armies until Ibn Qusf was killed ten years and reigned from 524/1130 to 558/1163; see Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah:
after the beginning of the uprising. See IA: s.v. 'Ibn Kasi Ebifl-Kasim'; Bel, 'Le An Introduction to History, 3 vols., translated by Franz Rosenthal (Princeton:
Soufisme en Occident Musulman', p. 148; Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 21-23. Princeton University Press, 1980), vol. it, p. 472; Nasiri, istiq.5d, vol. nr, pp. 31-97;
23 Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic', p. 58. Bourouiba, Ent Tumart, pp. 37-42; Abun-Nasr, A History, pp. 90-95.
24 As Casewit points out, 'The burning of Ghazali's works was a crucial moment 28 Abu Madyan Shdayb b. al- Efusayn al-Ansart, commonly called Sidi Bu Madyan,
for Andalusi Sufism because it further marked out the Andalusi mystical is the patron saint of Tlemcen where he is buried. His mausoleum, al-cUbbad,
movement's distinctive self-awareness. But an understanding of Andalusi Sufism is one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage. Abu Madyan was a master
cannot begin with Ghazali. Ibn al-lArif, Ibn Qasi, and Ibn Barrajan in the early of both sharsca and haqiqa, or legal and mystical matters, and is venerated as one
6th/12th century were not Ghazali's alter egos but highly original thinkers who of the greatest masters in Maghribi Sufism. See GAL, vol. 1, p. 438, and suppl.
drew primarily from their local tradition in al-Andalus.' Casewit, The Forgotten p. 784; ET: s.v. Madyan'; IA: s.v. Medyen'; Nasiri, Istiqea, vol. in,
Mystic', p. 63. PP. 184-7; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 35o; Nayl, pp. 127-9; Nafb, vol. nc, p. 342;
25 Al-Mandi Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad b. Tumart was born in a little village Abd al-Wahhab al-Shacrani, al-Tabaqat al-kubra, z vols. (Cairo: n.p., n.d.), vol.
of the Atlas Mountains that he left in order to perfect his education in the East. pp. 122-4; as well as the many important passages devoted to Abu Madyan throughout
Back in Morocco, he tried in vain to convince the legists that they should return Ibn Qunfudh, Uns. See also Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 131-8 and 283-4.
to the study of the sources, that is the Qur'an and the Sunna, rather than limit 29 Abu Abd Allah al-Daqqaq al-Fasi was one of the teachers of Abu Madyan;
themselves to the study of the treatises of Islamic law which was, most of the see IA: s.v. 'Dekkak Ebu Ali'; Tashawwuf, pp. 135ff ; Ibn Qunfudh, Uns, p. 27;
time, but a means to accede to higher official positions. In 514/1520, Ibn Tillman Abd al-flaqq Al-Maqsad, Vie des Saints du Rif', translated by G. S.
named himself al-Mandi, or The Rightly-Guided, and preconized the doctrine Colin, in Archives Marocaines: 1926, p. 92; Alfred Bel, 'Sidi Bou Medyan et son
of divine unity (tawhid) as a code impregnated with mystical ideas and more maitre el-Deqqaq a Fez', Melanges, edited by Rene Basset (Paris: Leroux, 1923),
particularly with those of Ashcan and Ghazali whom—he claims—he met pp. 31-68; Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 29-30; Casewit, 'The Forgotten Mystic',
while in the East. From tawhid came the name of the dynasty, al-Muwahhiclan, p. 69. The `Malamatf is the Sufi who follows 'the path of blame' deliberately in
or Almohads ('Unitarians'). See ET: s.v. 'Ibn Tumart'; IA: s.v. 'Ibn Tumert'; order to be discredited publicly and reach a state of perfect sincerity; ET: s.v.
Henri Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc, 5 vols. (Casablanca: Editions Atlantide, 1930), 'Malamatiyya'.
vol. Iv, pp. 261-81; Rachid Bourouiba, Ibn Tumart (Algiers: Societe Nationale 30 Abu Yazza Yalannur (Alannin) al-Azrafti, or Middy Bu lAzza, the ascetic
d'Edition et de Diffusion, 1974); Vincent Cornell, 'Understanding Is the Mother shepherd and Berber saint of the Atlas Mountains who is said to have been Abu
of Ability: Responsibility and Action in the Doctrine of Ibn Tumart', Studio Bakr b. al-Arabl's disciple in Fez and who had a deep influence on Abu Madyan.
I Islamica, vol. ucvs: 1988, pp. 7r-103. On The Almohads, see El': s.v. lAlmohades'; See Nasiri, istiva, vol. n, pp. 219-20 and vol. III, 1)1). 184-7; Tashawwuf, pp. 195-
Nasiri, 1st/gad, vol. In; Terrasse, Histoire, vol. Iv; Jamil Abun-Nasr, A History of 205; Dermenghem, pp. 59-68; Victor Loubignac, 'tin Saint Berbere, Moulay
the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), Bou Azza, histoire et legende', Hesperis, vol. xxxt: 1944, pp. 15-34; Shacrani,
pp. 87-102; Abd Allah Laroui, L'Histoire du Maghrib, 2 vols. (Paris: Libraire Tabagat, vol. 1, p. ro9; Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 67-79 and pp. 279-80.
31 Malay Abd al-Salam b. Mashish al-Idrisi was an ascetic saint who lived in Jabal 36 For Abu al-Hasan Àli b. Ùthman, see Ibn Khaldan, Tdrff, pp. 5r-2; Terrasse,
al-Alam where his tomb is still an object of pilgrimage and veneration; GAL, Histoire, vol. v, pp. 51-62; Nasiri, Istivea, vol. Iv, pp. 189-285; and Regis Blachere,
vol. 1, p. 440, and suppl. y p. 787; EF: s.v. "Abd al-Salam'; IA: s.v. Abdasselam 'Quelques Details sur la Vie Privee du Sultan Merinide Abu'l-Hasan', Memorial
b. Mqis el-Haseni' ; Nand, istivd, vol. in, pp. 245-5; A. M. Mohamed Mackeen, d'Henri Basset, 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928), vol. r,
`The rise of al-Shadhili', JAGS: 1971, vol. xct, pp. 479-82; M. Xicluna, 'Quelques PP. 83-8.
Legendes relatives a Moulay Abd al-Salam Ben Mashish', Archives Marocaines, vol. 37F
vFor
oL vA
i bpa'12n95.31_3
1 Faris b. Ali, see Ibn Khaldan, VI, pp. 62-66; Nasiri, Istiqsa,
1905, pp. 119-33. Concerning the actual Sufi investiture (khirqa), Bel states that pp.
Abu Bakr b. al-Arabi received the investiture at the hands of Ghazal", and then 38 Qdi Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. Ahmad al-Fishtali was appointed judge by
passed it on to Abu Ya`zza and Ibn Hirzihim, who in turn initiated Alm Madyan, Abu Chan and sent to Granada as an ambassador. He was one of the masters of
Ibn Mashish and Shadhili. Alfred Bel, le Sufisme en Occident Musulman', Qbbab who, as mentioned above, was involved in the polemic around which Ibn
Annales de FInstitut des Etudes Orientales (Algiers: Editions Maisonneuve 1934-5), Khaldun's Shife is written; see Ibn al-Khatib, Ihata, vol. a, pp. 187-91; GAL,
p. 146, note 2. suppl. II, pp. 346.g.; Ibn Durrat, vol. II, p. 27o; Jadhwa, pp. 146 If; Nayl,
32 Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili, the Qutb al-zaman or 'Pole of the Time', founder of p. 265; Nwyia, Ibn Abbad, p. 51.
the Shadhili order, was born in Morocco, moved to Tunis and finally settled 39 Abu al-Abbas Ahmad b. cUmar b. cAshir al-Anwas was born in Jimena (Spain),
in Alexandria; see GAL, vol. r, p. 449, and suppl. 1, p. 804; IA: s.v. lived in Algeciras before he left to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, and finally
About the Shadhiliyya order, see EF: s.v. 'Shadhiliyya'; IA: s.v. 'azeliyye'. Ben settled in Sale, where he was recognized by all as one of the greatest saints and
Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 338; Nay?, p. 206; Shacrani, Tabaqat, vol. r, pp. 4-10; Mackeen, teachers. Among his disciples was Ibn Abbad al-Rundi. See IA: s.v. 'Ibn Asir';
`The Rise of the Shadhili order', AOS, vol. xci: 1971, pp. 482-6; Cornell, Realm Nafh, vol. Ix, p. 195; Ibn Durrat, vol. 1, pp. 148-9; Jadhwa, pp. 78 ff; Nayl,
of the Saint, pp. 146-49. pp. 7o—a; Ibn Qunfudh, Uns, pp. 7—ro and 79; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 188; Nasiri,
33 Marinid refers to the Band Marin tribe founders of the dynasty that succeeded the Istiqsa, vol. Iv, pp. 323-4; Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 142-44.
Almohads. The Marinids established their capital in Fez and were in power from 4o Let us mention in passing that Sufism in North Africa is often split into two
592/1196 to 956/1549. See EF: s.v. `Merinids' ; Nasiri, Istiqsa, vol. iv, in Archives separate trends, namely an intellectual urban elitist spiritualism on one side, and
Marocaines, vol. xxxin: 1934; Terrasse, Histoire, vol. v; Robert Brunshwig, La a folkloric rural popular maraboutism on the other. Such dichotomies seem
a
Berberie Orientale sous les Hafsides des Origines la fin du XV Siecle, 2 vols. (Paris: artificial, as Cornell cogently demonstrates in Realm of the Saint, pp. xxv—xxviii,
Adrien Maisonneuve, 1940-47), sections 3-4 ; Laroui, L'Histoire du Maghrib, 3-32 and 32-63.
pp. 186-206; Abun-Nasr, A History, pp. 103-118. 41 Ibn Marzuq, al-Musnad al-sahib al-hasan fi ma'athir wa-maluisin mawlana Abi
34 'Those who appear as the great ancestors of Maghribi Sufism had lived and died al-Hasan, translated into Spanish by Maria Viguera (Madrid: Institute Hispano
under the Almohads, but their spiritual descendants were multiplying.' Terrasse, Arabe de Cultura, 1977), pp. 337-40.
Histoire, pp. 5 and So. On Sufism during the Marinid Period, see Cornell, Realm 42 Abu al-Abbas Ahmad b. Àli b. al-Khatib b. Qunfudh al-Qustantini (d. 810/1407)
of the Saint, pp. 125-154. was a Sufi from the school of Abu Maydan. Interestingly, among his teachers
35 Abu Abd Allah Shadhi (d. beginning of the 7th/13th century) was were Ibn al-Khatib (Ibn Khaldun's friend), Qbbab and Ibn Abbad who answered
a gad? in Seville at the onset of the Almohad dynasty. He was named al-Idalwi the question underlying Ibn Khaldun's Shift', and Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman
because he abandoned his functions, books and family in order to sell sweets al-Luja'i, fourth disciple of Ibn al-Banna who was himself the teacher of Abia
to the children in the streets of Tlemcen. He was the teacher of Ibn Dahhaq (Ibn Khaldun's teacher). See IA: s.v. 'Ibn Kunfuz'.
al-Awsi, who is mentioned by Ibn Khaldun in the Shifie, p. 62 (see also p. 116, 43 The most important teifas were the following: the Shucaybiyyun in Azzamur,
note 35 and p. 138, note 16). On him, see also Yabya b. Khaldan (brother of our followers of Abu Shdayb, patron Saint of Azzamur (d. 36o/1165) and one of the
historian), Histoire des Beni 'Abd Rois de Tlemcen, 2 vols., translated by masters of Abu Ya`zza; the Sanhajiyyun, followers of the Bann Amghar, whose
Alfred Bel (Algiers: Imprimerie Orientale Fontana Freres and Cie, 1911), vol. zawiya was located near Tit; the Majiriyyun, followers of Abu Muhammad Salih
pp. 83-7; Ibn Maryam, al-Bustan ji dhikr bi-Tilimsan, in (d. 631/1233); the Aghmatiyyun (or Elazmiriyya), disciples of the venerated saint
the summarized translation by A. Delpech in Revue Africaine: 1883-4, p. 391; see Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman (d. 706/1307); and the Hahiyyan in the
also Brosselard, `Les Inscriptions Arabes de Tlemcen', Revue Africaine: 1860, pp. High Atlas Mountains, followers of Abu Zakariyya Yabya al-Hahi. For some
161-74 and pp. 321-31; Dermenghem, pp. 87-95. more detailed information concerning these reTas, see Ibn Qunfudh, Uns, pp. 63-6;
Notes
in Colin's translation, pp. 207-8; Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi `Mamluks'; Hitti, History, pp. 665-705; Macgazi, Khitat, vol. n, pp. 241-4.
Badisi, Maq5ad,
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 50-I; Nwyia, Ibn 5o For Abu al-Fayd Thawban b. Ibrahim Dh(fl-Nun al-Mist-1, the celebrated Sufi
Orders in Islam
p. xxv; Edouard Michaux-Bellaire tes Contraries Religieuses au Maroc', of Nubian descent who lived in Cairo, see GAL, vol. T, p. 198, vol. ir, p. 82, and
Àbbad,
Archives Marocaines,
Vol. xxvn: 1927, pp. 17-55; Mackeen, `The Early History of suppl. 1, p. 353; SEI: s.v. ; IA: s.v. 7iinntim el-Misrf ; Shdrani,
Sufism in the Maghrib prior to al-Shadhili', TAOS, vol. xci: 1971, pp. 398-408 Tabaqat, vol. I, p. 54; Ali Hujwiri, Kashf al-MalyTtb, translated by R. A. Nicholson
and `The Rise of al-Shadhili', pp. 477-86; Terrasse, Histoire, vol. v, pp. 80-4; (Lahore: Luzac and co., 1976).
Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 44-45, 61-62 and 139-14S. 51 Abu Eityan Ahmad al-Badawi, the venerated Egyptian saint of Maghribi
44 For the Shadhili order, see Mackeen, `The Rise of p. 486; Eric Geoffroy, background, settled down in Egypt and was the founder of the tariga Badawiyya
Le Soufisme en Egypte et en Sync (Damas: Institut Francais d'Etudes Arabes de Damas, or Ahmadiyya. See GAL, vol. L p. 45o, and suppl. I, p. 8o8; SEI: s.v. Ahmad
IFEAD, 1995), pp. 207-8; Cornell, Realm of the Saint, pp. 144-154. al-Badawr ; IA: s.v. `Bedeviyye'; Shdrani, Tabmpit, vol.', pp. 145-9.
45 Taj al-din Ibn Ata'Allah al-Iskandari was the third Shaykh of the Shadhili order. 5z Ibrahim al-DasUcji (or Dusucji or Distqti), native of Dusuq, a village in
He lived in Egypt and his Hikam had an immense influence on the Moroccan lower Egypt, was the founder of the Dastiqi order of dervishes. See SEI:
mystics; on him see Victor Danner in Ibn Sufi Aphorisms (Kitab s.v. `Danakf ; IA: s.v. tesOki, Ibrahim b. Abdiilaziz'; Shacrani, Tabaqat, vol. 1,
al-Hikam), translated by Victor Danner (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984); Paul Nwyia, pp. 131-45-
Ibn 'Abbad, p. LVIII and Ibn Ata'Allah et hi Naissance de la Confririe Shadhilite (Beirut: 53 Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi was the successor of Shadhili as the head of the
Dar al-Mashriq, 1972); GAL, vol. n, p. 117, and suppl. II , p. 145; EP: s.v. Ìbn Shadhiliyya order; see Nally, vol. n, p. 389; Shdrani, Tabagat, vol. n, pp. 10-16.
Vlta'Allah'; IA: s.v. Ìbn Ataullah el-Iskenderi' ; Ibn al-Qada, Durrat, vol.', p. 12; 54 Jamal al-Din Yusuf b. Taghribirdi, al-Nujum al-zdhira f mulak Misr wa'l-Qghira,
Dibaj, vol 1, p 242' Ben Cheneb, Ijaza, p. 341; Shdrani, Tabaqat, vol. n, p. 17. 16 vols. (Cairo: al-Hayà al-Misriyya al-Aroma lil-Kitab, 1972), vol. xvi, p. 146.
46 Ibn Abbad's thirteenth letter is headed as follows: 'A letter explaining a saying 55 Khanaqa is a Persian word, originally a compound: khan (from khandan), meaning
of my master Abu al-Flasan al-Shadhili'; see Letters on the Safi Path, p. 176. Cornell `remembrance of God' (dhikr), and qah, meaning 'place'.
examines the question of Ibn Abbad's connection with the Shadhiliyya in Realm 56 'Since the old days of their masters, the Ayyubid rulers, the members of this
of the Saint, pp. 253-4. Turkish dynasty in Egypt and Syria, have been erecting colleges (maddris) for
47 'The majority of the doctors of the Law at the time, if not themselves affiliated, was the teaching of the sciences and monastic houses (khawaniq) for the purpose
at least favourable to Sufism, and it could be said without exaggeration that a wave of enabling the Sufis (fugard') to follow the rules for acquiring orthodox Sufi
of mysticism washed over the intellectual milieus of the Maghrib. A. Bel correctly ways of behaviour (adab al-sfifiyya al-sunniyya) through remembrance of God
points to the fact that scholars believed their training was insufficient if they had and supererogatory prayers. They took over that custom from the preceding
not followed the teachings of a Sufi Shaykh. This is why we see the rising, in the caliphal dynasties. They set up buildings (those institutions that are mortmain
Maghrib, this new type offuqand', described in the works of Chazali as people who gifts) and endowed them with lands that yielded income sufficient to provide
joined to legal science (ìlm al-zdhir) a theoretical knowledge, or even an internal stipends for students and Sufi ascetics. Their example was imitated by men of
experience, of mysticism Cam al-basin)'; Nwyia, Ibn Abbad, p. nth wealth and high rank under their control. As a result, colleges and monastic
48 The Ayyubid dynasty that ruled Egypt from 564/1169 to 648/1250 was founded houses are numerous in Cairo. They now furnish livings for poor jurists and
by Salab al-Din al-Ayytabi, the first leader who was able to unite the Arabs Sufis. This is one of the good and permanent deeds of this Turkish dynasty.'
against the Crusaders; see C. E. Bosworth, The Islamic Dynasties (Edimburgh: Ibn Khalcffin, Tdrif; p. 279.
Edimburgh University Press, 1981), pp. 61-2; EP: s.v. Àiyubids'; Ahmad Taqi 57 Abu Muhammad b. (Abd Allah b. Battuta, the famed traveller of the Middle
al-Din al-Ma/gin, wdl-ktibar fi dhikr al-khkat wa'l-athar (Baghdad: Ages, was born in Tangiers. He journeyed all over the Muslim world and related
n.p., n.d.), vol. II, pp. 232-6. his travels and adventures in the Rihla. On Ibn Battuta, see Er: s.v. Ìbn Batuttah'.
49 The Mamluks were originally the professional slave guards of the Ayyubid Quote in Ibn Battuta, Rilga (Beirut: Dar Wit hi-Elba:a, 196o), pp. 37
-9.
sultans and were mainly Kurds, Circassians and Turks; their dynasty divides into 58 Shihab al-Din Ahmad al-Qalqashandi was an Egyptian historian whose Subb
two important lines: the Bahri Mamluks, who ruled from 648/1250 to 784/1382 al-dshii is a manual devoted to all the holders of official governmental position.
and the Burp Mamluks, who ruled from 784/1382 to 922/1517. The Mamluks See GAL, vol. u, p. 134, and suppl. n, p. 164. Quote as found in Trimingham,
were able to protect Egypt from the Mongol invasions that had devastated the The Sufi Orders, p. 19.
other Arab kingdoms; see Bosworth, The Islamic Dynasties, pp. 63-67; EP: s.v.
in. Sufism in the Life of Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Khaldun: An Essay in Reinterpretation (London: Frank Cass, x982); Johann
59 Eric Chaumont, 'Notes et Remarques autour d'un texte de la Muqaddima', SI,
Meuleman, 'La Causalite dans la "Muqaddimah" d'Ibn Khaldun', SI, vol.
vol. cvni: 1986, p. 152. ixxiv: 1991, pp. 105-142. See also Michel Chodkiewicz in the following book
6o For extended detailed references on the different interpretations of Ibn reviews: 'Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship', SI, vol. 1985, pp. 199-201;
Khaldtim's works, consult Ahmed Abdesselem, Ibn Khaldun et ses Lecteurs (Paris: Ìbn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology; Ibn Khaldun, an Essay in Reinterpretation',
Presses Universitaires de France: 1983). SI, vol. uar: 1985, pp. 173-5; his review of Rene Perez, 'Ibn Khaldun, La Voie et
61 Ibid., p. 52. la Loi', SI, vol. rxxvii: 1993, p. 194, and Chaumont, 'Notes et Remarques', p. 37.
62 Sir Hamilton Gibb, 'The Islamic Background of Ibn Khaldun' Political Theory', 67 For Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. al-Husayn al-Qurayshi al-Zubaydi, see
Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, vol. vu: 1933-5, p. 28. Ibn Khaldun, Tacrif, pp. 14-15; NafiL vol. vu, p. 163; Ibn Battuta, Rihla, p. is.
63 The theoretical ambitions of Wardi are already stated in the very title of his Concerning the religious orders in the city of Tunis, see Robert Brunschwig, La
Berberie Orientale sous les Hafsides des Origines a la Fin du XV Siecle (Paris: Adrien
book, The Social Logic of Ibn Khaldun, as critically assessed by Abdesselem in Ibn
Khaldun et ses Lecteurs, p. 96. Maisonneuve, 1940-47), PP- 335-49.
64 Baali and Wardi, Em Khaldun and Islamic Thought-Styles: A Social Perspective 68 Ibn Khaldun, VI, pp. 15-6. For further details on Ibn Khaldiin's early education
(Boston: G.K. Hall & co, 1981), p. 49. and teachers, see Ibn Khaldun, Tacrif, pp. 14-49.
65 Yves Lacoste, Ibn Khaldoun, Naissance de l'Histoire, Passi du Tiers Monde (Paris: 69 See Muhsin Mandi, Ibn Khaldan's Philosophy of History (Chicago: The University
Maspero, 1985). of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 27.
66 Gibb—while recognising the interest in the precision of Ibn Khaldfires 70 For Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. Ibrahim al-Abili, see Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, pp. 33
description, analysis and interpretation of the political, social and economic ff. ; Ibn Durrat, vol. u, p. 265;Jadhwa, pp. 144 and isiiff ; Nayl, pp. 245if;
Ibn liajar al-Asqalani, al-Durar al-kamina f acyan al-thamina, 6 vols. (Cairo:
realities of the Arab Muslim world—says, 'Ibn Khaldun was not only a Muslim,
but as almost every page of the Muqaddimah bears witness, a Muslim jurist and Dar al-Kutub al-Hadith, 1966), vol. m, p. 375; Ibn Maryam, Bustan, pp. 246-53;
theologian, of the strict Maliki school. For him religion was far and away the most Yaliya b. Khaldun, Histoire des Beni Abd al-Wad, vol. u, pp. 71-2; Nassif Nassar,
important thing in life—we have seen that he expressly calls his study a thing of Maitre d'Ibn Khaldoun: Al-Abili', Si, vol. xx: 1965, pp. 103-14.
subsidiary value—and the sharica the only true guide; this means not just that Ibn 71 Ibn Khaldun, Lubab al-muhassal, as cited in Nassar, 'Le Maitre d'Ibn Khaldoun',
Khaldun was careful to safeguard himself in his arguments from the suspicion of p. 107.
unorthodoxy, but that he did not and could not introduce into his system anything 72 Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 37.
that was logically incompatible with the Islamic standpoint...The ethical and 73 Abu al-Uusayn b. Sina was an eminent Persian physician, metaphysician and
Islamic basis of Ibn Khaldun' thought is implicit throughout his exposition, mystic whose philosophy combined Aristotelian and Neo-Platonic influences
quite apart from his constant appeal to texts from Quran and Tradition. His with Muslim theology. On him see GAL, vol. 1, p. 452, and suppl. 1, p. 812;
doctrine of causality and natural law is simply that of the sunnat Allah so often EP: s.v. Ìbn Sina'; Ìbn Sina'. Reference in Ibn Khaldun, Tacrif, pp. 62-3.
appealed to in the Quran.' See Gibb, 'The Islamic Background of Ibn Khaldun's 74 Abu al-Abbas Alunad b. al-Bann was a renowned mathematician, theologian and
Political Theory', p. 28. Far from pretending to give an exhaustive list, since the mystic who had a deep influence on the eighth/fourteenth century Sufis, himself
bibliography on Ibn Khaldun is plethoric, I will mention only some example of the disciple of shaykh Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman al-Hazmiri, founder of the
sources that try to analyse the historian's thought in context: Hayden V. White, Iffazmiriyya Sufi order; see GAL, suppl. u, p. 359; EP: s.v. 'Ibn al-Banna'; IA:
'Ibn Khaldun in World Philosophy of History: Review Article', Comparative s.v. Ibnicl-Benna el-Merralciin'; Ibn Jadhwa, pp. 73ff ; Nayl, pp. 65-8;
Studies in Society and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), vol. Nwyia, Ibn cAbbad, pp. xiiii-niv; and Henri Renaud, Ìbn al-Banna de Marrakesh,
p. r; Briton Cooper Busch, `Divine Intervention in the "Muqaddimah" of Sufi et Mathematicien, Hespeth, vol. xxv: 1938, pp. 13-42.
75 Concerning Abili's Sufism, see Nwyia, Ibn 'Aged, ; Mandi, Ibn
Ibn Khaldun', History of Religions (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1968), vol.
p. 4; Abd al-Madjid Maziyan, al Nagariyya al-iqtisadiyya cinda Ibn Khaldun Khaldun, p. 35.
wa-ususuha min al filer wa'l-waqic al-mujtamdi (Algeria: Manshurat 76 Abu Abd Allah al-Maqqari, theologian and Sufi of the eighth/fourteenth century,
al-Ikhtilaf, 2002); Aziz al-Azmeh, Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship: A Study in was an ancestor of the author of Najh al-rib and a teacher of Ibn al-Khatib,
Orientalism (London: Thirld World Center for Research and Publication, 1981)
Ibn Abbad and Ibn Khaldun. See GAL, vol. u, p. 296, and suppl. n, p. 407;
Ibn al-Khatib, Thata, vol. II, 1)1,1, 191-226; Bel, La Religion, pp. 329-30. See also
121
Notes
Ignacio Saade, El Pensaniiento Religioso de IbnJaldun (Madrid: Imprenta de Aldecoa, Laugier de Beaurecueil (Cairo: Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale, IFAO,
1974), p. 4. If one confronts the dates of Ibn cAbbad's life in Fez with those of his 1962), pp. 15-21. On Harawi, see GAL, suppl. n, p. 753; EP: s.v. Herevi' ; IA:
contemporary Ibn Khaldun's visits to Fez, besides the fact that they had a common s.v. Herevi, Hace Abdullah'; Ben Cheneb, Ijaza , p. 41; Shdrani, Tabaqat, vol. I,
master, it is more than probable that the two men should have met. p. 52. Quote as translated in Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, vol. in, p. 98.
77 Nwyia, Ibn 'Aga, p. nib 85 Ibid., vol. in, p. 99.
78 Al-Flarith b. Asad al-Muhasibi, (d. 243/857) was an Iraqi Sufi author of Kitab 86 On tawhid, see also Muqaddima, vol. in, pp. 39ff
al-ricaya li-buqaq Allah. On him, see GAL, suppl. I, p. 351; EP: s.v. ; 87 Nasiri, Istiq,vi, vol. Iv, pp. 343-69, and especially pp. 369-79.
IA: s.v. Muhasibr. The story of Ibn Àshir and Abu 'Irian is a well known episode 88 Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 135.
related by many biographers, such as Maqqari, NaJh, vol. Ix, p. 195; Nasiri, 89 Ibid., p. 149.
vol. iv, pp. 323-4; Shdrani, Tabaqat, vol. 1, p. 58. 90 Ibid., p. 120.
79 Muhammad b. Ahmad al-Sharif al-Tilimsani, a student of Abili's and a brilliant 91 Ibrahim b. al-Adham al-Balkhi was a prince of Balkh who left his kingdom
legist 'through whom a Sunnite orthodoxy was to be restored and the Almohad and became a wandering ascetic. See SEI: s.v. 'Ibrahim b. Adham'; IA: s.v.
heresy erased' ; Bel, La Religion, p. 303; see also Nwyia, Ibn Abbad, p. xxii. Note Ìbrahim b. Edhem' ; Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulaini, Tabaqat al-safiyya (Cairo:
that Ibn Abbad was not only a student of Abili but also of al-Sharif al-Tilimsani Dar al-Kitab 1953), pp. 27-38.
and al-Maqqari. As to Maqqari, he was one of the teachers of Ibn al-Khapb and 92 Ibn Khaldun, p. 125; Mandi's translation in Ibn Khaldun, p. 46.
Ibn Khaldun. 93 Ibn Khaldun, Tdry; pp. 102-3, 134-5 and 226-7.
8o As cited in Bel, La Religion, pp. 322-9; see also Nwyia, Em Abbad, pp. xxvi—xxvii. 94 Even Lacoste, one of the most adamant Marxist interpreters, acknowledges Ibn
81 'The great pedagogical experience of al-Abili showed him some of the flaws in Khaldim's inward spiritual search: Ìbn Khalcan's decision to abandon political
some methods that were particularly harmful to the transmission of knowledge. life cannot only be explained by a personal situation that has become delicate.
His disciples present to us four very interesting ideas: the proliferation of books Ibn Khaldun seems to have deeper reasons. He seems to have been thinking about
is harmful to the presentation of sciences; the recourse to books only does not this withdrawal for a long time. He has already retired twice to the convent of
suffice for the acquisition of science, and one must travel, meet teachers and al-Hbbad, but was forced to give up its quietude in the face of the imperative
study under their direction; abstracts can only constitute a veil to real knowledge solicitations of the king of Tlemcen. For many years, the moments Ibn Khaldun
and therefore students must abandon these abstracts and look for knowledge at devotes to studying and meditating are more and more frequent; he becomes more
its source. Ibn Khaldun obviously benefited from these pieces of advice in his and more impatient towards the interruptions political life imposed on his research.
studies, teaching, and writing. In the sixth part of the Muqaddima, he develops Therefore, it is more a fully thought-out decision rather than a compulsion that
ideas that are exactly similar, and stresses the necessity of looking for a master provides the explanation for his retreat.' Lacoste, Ibn Khaldoun, p. 77.
of progress methodically in the studies, and on going beyond the difficulties 95 Ibn Khaldun, Tacrif; pp. 311-3.
that come along when numerous manuals and obscure abstracts are used.' Nassif 96 Said al-Suàda' was the name of a house confiscated from Qanbar, an enfranchised
Nassar, `Le Maitre d'Ibn Khaldoun', 5/, vol. xvm 1965, p.113. eunuch in one of the Fatimid palaces. qanbar was put to death in 544/1173.
82 Ibid., p. 112. Maqrizi, Khitat, vol. II, pp. 415-6.
83 `...[Al-Maqqari] whom all his contemporaries including the vizier of Granada 97 Ibn Khaldun, p. 279; see also Muqaddima, vol. II, p. 435.
Ibn al-Khatib, or the historian Ibn Khaldun..., present to us as one of the 98 Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 121.
"luminaries" of Malikitefiqh, Qufanic exegesis, I3adith and dogmatics. Yet, his 99 Trimingham, The Sufi Orders, p. 18.
knowledge of mysticism was far from being inferior to his knowledge of other 100 Ibn al-Furat, al-Sulak, as cited in Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 313.
sciences, and we saw he was explicitly affiliated to Sufism through an isnad going 101 Al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Barquq reigned from 783/1382 to 791/1389 and again from
back to Junayd. Ibn al-Khatib, who was his disciple, says he liked to talk about 792/1390 to 801/1399; see Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 249; Magrizi, Khitat, vol. ii,
tasawwuf and write books on this subject.' Bel, La Religion, p. 329; see also Nwyia, p. 241, and Kitab al-suluk li-mdrifat duwal al-mulak (Cairo: Matbacat Dar al-Kutub,
Ibn Abbad, p. >ay. 1970), vol. III.
84 Abd Allah al-Ansari al-Harawi (of Herat) was a contemporary of Ghazali. Many 102 Ibn al-Furat, Thrikh, as cited in Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, p. 313, note b
commentaries and translations of his Manazil al-sa'irin are available. I consulted 103 Um Khaldun, Tacrif p. 314.
Abdaliah al-Ansari al-Harawi, Les Etapes des Itinerants vets Dieu, translated by 104 Shams al-Din al-Sakhawi, al-Paw' al-lamicli-ahl al-qarn al-tasr, 12 vols. (Beirut:
Dar Maktabat al-Hayat, 1966), vol. iv, p. 146; Ibn Shadharat al-dhahab Ibn Sabin; see GAL, vol. 1, p. 274, and suppl. 1, p. 483; EP: s.v. 'al-Shushtarr ;
akhbar man dhahab, 8 vols. (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Tijari wa'l-Nashr Maqqari, Na/h, vol. ii , p. 483; Nayl, pp. 202-3.
wal-Tawzr, n.d.), vol. vu, p. 77; Nayl, p. 170. 114 ZarrGq, Qqinacid, pp. 39-4o; reference to Iddat al-murid and to al-Nasina al-kafiya
as found in Tagil, p. `y, h'.
iv. The Shift', a Manuscript on Sufism 115 Zarrilq, Nasiba, p. 61.
105 According to Muhsiu Mandi, this discretion concerning his early writings and n6 Reference in Tanji, Shifa, p. `y, w'. The commentator of Zarriaq's Nasiba is Abu
training is deliberate, but 'must not prevent us from seeking to explore this subject; Abd Allah b. Abd al-Rahman b. Zikri (d. 1114/1704); on him, see Nagri,
for he gives us enough hints to make us suspect that this reticence is intentional and Istiqsa, vol. Iv, p. 380.
that the problem is of major significance'. Mandi, The Khaldun, p. 29. 117 As found in Fasi, `gissat makhtut', pp. 370-1.
106 Ibn Khaldun, Tdrif, pp. 62-3. Mandi explains: 'In his peculiar style, Ibn n8 As found in Fasi, `0..issat makhtfit', p. 571. See Shifa', p. 68.
Khaldun tells us the reason why he could not mention what he was studying 119 As found in Fan., `Qi_ssat p. 571. See Shifai, p. 6z.
with al-Abili directly: even the powerful and highly respected judge of Tunis 120 For Abu Abbas Ahmad b. Yusuf al-Fasi, see GAL, suppl. n, p. 701.
had to go to his home and be alone with his teacher when reading such works.' 121 In his poem entitled al-Reiyya fi al-suluk, Muhammad b. Ahmad
Mandi, An Khaldun, p. 35, note 2. describes the relation between shaykh and disciple. On him, see GAL, suppl.
107 'The times in which the author lived were not such that a man of the world, a p. 802.
man who loved life for its glamour and adventure, could propound his theories if 122 As found in Tanji, p. `y, z'ff
these savored of heresy. Did not Ghazal', an equally comprehensive thinker but a 123 Ibn lqatz al-himam, p. 147-
more courageous thinker, had to observe a certain caution in this regard?... Ghazal' 124 Tanji, p. `y, z'ff
had the courage to withdraw from an honorable position, but Ibn Khaldun had 125 Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Mu'allafat Ibn Khaldun (Cairo: Mu'allafat Ibn
no such intention. He was not of the stuff martyrs are made of!' Miya Syrier, 'Ibn Khaldun, 1962), p. 24, and Tanji, p. 'd'. Let me mention in passing here
Khaldun and Islamic Mysticism', Islamic Culture, vol. Jour: 1947, p. 267. that, according to Khalif& Ibn Khaldun must have written his treatise between
to8 Tanji's postulated date for authorship of the Shift' is 774-776/1373-1375. the years 787/1385 and 800/1398, because he shows more tolerance and sympathy
109 Tanji, Shifac p. 'k'. For Abderrahmane Lakhsassi, Ibn Khaldun 'did not breathe a towards Sufism in the Muqaddima than in the Shift', which according to Khalife
word about this text [the Shirai (which is a real contribution to Islamic mysticism) is a sign of old age. Many commentators based themselves on Khalife's edition
in his autobiography. Both those who are surprised about his silence about these and adopted the dates suggested by him. However, this date is cancelled by the
works as well as those who deny his authorship for the same reason often forget above argument, namely the date 779/1377 marking the death of Qaabab, who
that an autobiography is necessarily subjective, and is not a biography. Whether could not have taken part in the debate posthumously. Abd al-Rahman Badawl
the latter tries to be objective, the former looks mainly to the self as the author also compares the Shifa' to the sixth chapter of the Muqaddima, 'On Sufism', and
would like others to perceive him. Ibn Khaldun probably wanted to be known marks—like Khalife—a definite change in Ibn Khaldun's stance towards Sufism.
only for his work on history, and, for him, nothing more is worth mentioning in Badawl believes the author shows a more positive and mature understanding of
his autobiography, which, as a matter of fact, is deliberately linked, in the form Sufism in the Muqaddima, which was completed in 779/1377, and so concludes
of an appendix, to the Kitab Abderrahmane Lakhsassi, 'Ibn Khaldun', that the Shifa' must have been written before that time. Badawf s conclusion is
in History of Islamic Philosophy, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman definitely accurate as far as the date is concerned. Yet, it seems to me that, although
(London and New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 353. possible, it is not too likely that this change could have taken place so swiftly, over
no For Abu al-Al" al-Hasan b. Mastd see GAL, vol. 11, p. 455, and suppl. the couple of years that separate the second visit to Fez in 774-776/1372-1374 (the
p. 675. According to Mutf Ylisi died in 1102/1691; see Ibn Khaldun, most logical postulate for the writing of the Shifa') and the completion of the
Shp/alli-tandhibal-masa'il, edited by Muhammad Mutic al-Haft (Damascus: Muqaddima. Furthermore, the accretions to the Muqaddima concerned precisely
Dar al-Fikr al-Wash, 1997), p. 207. Yini wrote a letter on the question of the this very sixth chapter, the chapter 'On Sufism', and were added towards the end
need for a Shaykh. Ibid., pp. 209-14. of the historian's life, when Ibn Khaldun was living in Cairo, indeed an older
Tanji, p. `y, h'. man and perhaps a more indulgent author. Besides, if it is true that Ibn Khaldun
112 Ibid. shows more tolerance in the Muqaddima, he does indeed show more partiality
113 Abu al-Hasan al-Shushtari al-Nuntayri (d. 668/1269) was a student of and less 'historic objectivity' in the Shifa' Wherein he gives away his sympathy
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS !Votes
towards Sufism, or at least some of its endeavours. The Muqaddima is a historical complete but restrictive theory of knowledge. And where positivism is not
work, whereas the Slag , although it betokens Ibn Khaldun's historical mind, theoretically explicit, the rise of empirical science in the West has provided
is nevertheless a treatise on mysticism that betrays the man's acceptance as well such a winning model of inquiry that scientific searchers became at least
as his reservation with regards to the science of Sufism. See Ibn Khaldun, Shiite psychologically disinclined to have any commerce with, or even take seriously,
us-se il litehzib-il-maseil, Apaisement a Qui Cherche Comment Clarifier les ProblOmes, claims based on other than scientific evidence. But this could hardly have been
edited by Ignace Khalife (Beirut: al-Matbaca al-Katinikiyya, 1939), p. 9, note 2, the cultural climate for Ibn Khaldun. In Ibn Khaldun's thought, the logical
and Badawi, Mu'allafat, pp. 21-4. See also Fadlou Shehadi, `Theism, Mysticism compatibility between scientific inquiry in one area and intuitive inquiry in
and Scientific History in Ibn Khaldun', Islamic Theology and Philosophy, edited by another is reinforced by the cultural expectation that a place be found for the
Michael A. Marmura (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), p. 326, evidential-rational as well as for the supra-rational intuitive and revelatory.'
and the article on Ibn Khaldun in EP: s.v. Ìbn Khaldun'. Ibid. See also Chodkiewicz, Ìbn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology; Ibn Khaldun
126 Tanji, p. 'd, b'. an Essay in Reinterpretation', pp. 61-62.
127 Ibid., p. n'. 139 He says '...those who claim that the essences, properties and distant causes of
128 Tanji, who was able to study Ms.C, tells us it is 61 pages long. It is filled with all beings, sensible as well as those that are beyond the senses, can be perceived
mistakes, and many words and sentences are missing; its main interest lies in the by theoretical investigation (al-anzar al-fikriyya) and rational syllogisms (al-aqyisa
fact that the order of the pages is not disturbed; Tanji, p. n'. al-caqliyya). They claim that the dogmas of faith are to be established by rational
129 Ibid., p. n'. investigation and not through hearing (transmission), since they are among
13o Badawi, Mu'allafat, p. is. There is at least one other edition which was not the things to be perceived by reason...They claim that happiness lies in the
consulted in this study: Shife al-se li-tandhib al-maseil by Muhammad Mu[it comprehension of all beings, sensible and those that are beyond the senses,
al-Elafiz (Dar al-Fikr al-Mucasir, 1967). through his investigation and those logical demonstrations...together with the
131 See Mandi, 'The Book and the Master as Poles of Cultural Change in Islam', in expurgation of the soul and its embellishment with virtues. This they claim
Islamic and Cultural Change in the Middle Ages, edited by Speros Bryonis (Wiesbaden: is possible for man in accordance with his reason, speculation and disposition
University of California Los Angeles, 1975), p. 3. toward praiseworthy acts, and abstention from the reproachable, even if no
132 Muqaddima, vol. n1, p. 342. Law is revealed to distinguish between virtuous and vicious acts. They claim
133 Muqaddima, vol. in, p. 281. that when the soul acquires this happiness, it acquires joy and pleasure, and
that ignorance of that happiness is eternal misery. This, according to them, is
v. Ibn Khaldun's Understanding of Sufism the meaning of felicity and torment in the world to come.' As translated by
134 p. II. Rosenthal in The Muqaddimah, vol. In, pp. 246-7. (I quoted Mandi's translation,
135 For 'Ali b. Ahmad Abu al-Hasan al-Bushanji, (d. 348/959), see IA: s.v `Bidsencc. Em Khaldun, pp. no—I.)
136 Lacoste, Ibn Khaldoun, p. 241. 140 Ibid., vol. n, p. 436 (Mandi's translation, p. 74).
137 `There would be a problem for Ibn Khaldun if his commitment to the scientific 141 `The intellect, indeed, is a correct scale. Its indications are completely certain
study of the history of culture were part of a commitment to approach all and in no way wrong. However, the intellect should not be used to weigh such
problems of knowledge in the same way. Another way of putting this: If what is matters as the oneness of God, the other world, the truth of prophecy, the real
sometimes called his positivism in history were part of a general positivist theory character of the divine attributes, or anything else that lies beyond the level of
of knowledge, then it would be difficult to understand how he can also subscribe the intellect. That would mean to desire the impossible... [The fact that this is
to a Sufi theory of knowledge. The two would clearly be incompatible. But impossible] does not prove that the indications of the scale are not true [when it
there is no evidence for this general positivism. On the contrary, the evidence is used for its proper purpose].' Ibid., vol. in, p. 38.
is for a hierarchical theory of knowledge in which different ways of knowing 142 Èven in the circles in which a truce had been signed between the two parties,
are fitted in, the scientific-rational, the mystical and the prophetic.' Shehadi, as was the case during the Marinid era, the Sufis were convinced that he who
`Theism, Mysticism and Scientific History', p. 27o. dedicated himself to 'dm al-zahir would become irremediably impermeable to
138 As Shehadi comments, `The concern for Ibn Khaldun's case is imported `dm al-batin, and incapable of opening his heart to the lights of tasaunvul' Nwyia,
from the experience with Western positivism and other endorsements of Ibn Abbad, p. 248. Besides, the legists were criticized for being extremely corrupt
the scientific way. In the Western tradition, positivism has been offered as a and greedy, often immersed in canonical disputes and uninterested in providing
Notes
people with normative legal guidance. They were held responsible for provoking better than all the books in the world.' Abd al-Karim al-Jili, Maratib al-wujud
this breach between the Law and the Path. wa-haqiqat kull mawIncl, in al-Kahf wa'l-raqim, edited by Um Ibrahim al-Kayyali
143 Shehadi, 'Theism, Mysticism and Scientific Theory', 266. In an unpublished (Lebanon: n.p., 2008), pp. 37-40.
conference, 'Religion and Philosophy in Ibn Khaldian's critique of Sufism' at the 153 Ibn Abbad, Letters on the Sufi Path, pp. 184-94.
International Conference on Islamic Intellectual History (Harvard University, 15 54 TIbbfi p.. 185.
186..
May 1988), James W. Morris reads criticism and irony into Ibn Khaldan's analysis 155
of Sufism. Personally, I did fail to see sarcasm behind each of Ibn Khaldun's 156 In an interesting article, Laury Silvers-Alario demonstrates that in early Sufism
words. I saw but a selective apprehension of Sufism, a disapproval of the later- no distinction was made between the shaykh al-tdlim and the shaykh al-tarbiya
trend Sufis' and of their ultimate endeavour labelled 'struggle for unveiling' (translated by her as 'lecturer' vs. `director' or `teaching shaykh' vs. `shaykh of
(rather than Sufism as a whole). For political reasons perhaps or because of the spiritual direction'). Laury Silvers-Alario, 'The Teaching Relationship in Early
author's juridical background as mentioned above? One could, of course, argue Sufism: A Reassessment of Fritz Meier's Definition of the shaykh al-tarbiya and
that this last struggle for unveiling represents the core and goal of mystical the shaykh al-tdlim% The Muslim World, vol. xon: 2003, p. 93.
realization. However, this seems to have been the limit set by Ibn Khaldun in 157 p. 71.
his approval of and insight into Sufism. 158 'Omar b. Muhammad Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi was the official `Shaykh
144 Muqaddima, vol. in, p. 101. of the Shaykhs' (shaykh al-shuyakh) in Baghdad and left us the Awarif al-merarif,
145 'The legist's viewpoint is not limited to this world as such because it is a worldly one of the most popular books on Sufism. See GAL, vol. L p. 44o, and suppl.
point of view but for other reasons related to his position.' Shift', p. 13. p. 778; EF: s.v. `Suhrawardil.
146 Shift', ibid. Chaumont, 'Notes et Remarques', p. 156. 159 See also Ihya', vol. n1, pp. 61 and 64; ZarrUct Qawacid al-tatsawwuf, p. 4o; Ibn
147 Shft ), p. 15. al-Khatib, Rawdat al-tdr(f brl-hubb al-sharne (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi, 1968),
148 Ibn Ajiba, lqadh al-himam, p. 5. The statement of Malik is widely quoted, but pp. 448-53.
numerous authorities have done so without providing a chain of transmission 160 p. 76.
for it from Malik; see Gibril Foudd Haddad, The Four Imams and their Schools (n.l.: 161 Najm al-Din Razi, The Path of God's Bondsmen, from Origin to Return, translated by
Muslim Academic Trust, n.d.), pp. 179-180. Hamid Algar (New Jersey: Islamic Publications International, 1982), pp. 235-42.
149 Nwyia, Ibn Abbad, p. 229. See also Emir Abd el-Kader Ecrits Spirituels, translated by Michel Chodkiewicz
15o Wansharisi, MO/Jr, as found in Tanji, p. 127. (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1982), pp. 6o—r.
151 Tanji, Shifac p. 128. 162, See SEI: s.v. twaysiyya'; L4: s.v. tveys el-Karani' and Theysilik'; Shifa 3, p. 109.
152 Ibid., p. 132. Abd al-Karim al-Jill tells us that his master, Shaykh Sharaf 163 love' is a notion that is quasi absent in the Shift'. Note also that Ibn Khaldun
al-Din Ismail al-Jabarti (d. 805/1403), had forbidden his disciples to read Ibn refers to the `love of God' (as in Shifir, p. 43), rather than the feeling of love
Arabils works because a disciple will comprehend the content of a book only towards the wasila or the means to God, namely the Prophet or one of his heirs, i.e.
if he has reached the level of knowledge of the writer. Otherwise, the disciple the spiritual master. Ibn Khaldun only mentions once in passing that the wayfarer
will misunderstand the author's words, waste his time and even try to put into should love his master; see Shift', p. 92. See also Perez, p. 275, note. 99.
practice what he reads at the peril of his life. 'I have tried to make you understand 164 Jalal al-Din al-Rurni, Mathnawl of jalahadin Rumi, 3 vols. edited and translated
how lofty and valuable this knowledge [of God] is, so that you aspire to acquire by Reynold A. Nicholson (London: Luzac and co., 1977), vol. I, p. to.
it through reading, practising and learning its books with masters, wherever 165 Chodkiewicz, Khaldun, La Voie et la Loi', p. 196.
they are. The accomplished master will be more beneficial to you than all the 166 Personal communication of Victor Danner, May 1989.
books you could read throughout your lifetime. Indeed, you will grasp from
the books that which you can comprehend, whereas the accomplished gnostic, Prologue
if he wishes you to understand a matter as it is in its reality, will impart to you Abu klamid al-Ghazali, Ihya' culam al-din, 5 vols. (Beirut: n.p., n.d.) and al-Harith
his own knowledge of it, and what a gap there is between his understanding b. Asad Muhasibi, al-Rlaya li-huqaq Allah (Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-Hadith, 197o).
and yours! Reading books with the realised sages (muhaviggin) is better than 2 Note that marld is sometimes read as muttald.
the deeds of the wayfarers (acmal al-salikin). Being in the presence of the people 3 I chose to translate abdal as `saints' rather than `Substitutes' in this context.
of Allah (mujalasat ahl Allah) after whom you model your conduct (ta'addub) is
Notes
Chapter One 17 Sunnis or Followers of the Sunna has 'become the characteristic term for the
Bukhari, al-Sahib (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962-8), "Ilm% p. 39. Note that Ibn Khaldun theory and practice of the catholic Muhammadan community...and those who
did not quote the beginning of the hadith, 'The lawful is clear and the unlawful is refrain from deviating from dogma and practice. The expression is particularly
clear' bayyin waq-baram bayyin). See also Abu Zakariyya Yalwa al-Nawawi, used in this sense in opposition to Silic a'. A. J. Wensinck, SEI: s.v. 'Surma'.
Riyad al-galibin (Beirut: Dar Ihya' al-Turath al-Arabi, 1399/1979), p. 204. 18 Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, al-Risala (Cairo: n.p., 1900), pp. 4-5.
2 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. iv, p. 308; Murtada al-Zabidi, Kitab ithaf al-sada al-muttaqin 19 Note a probable mistake in Ms.A, p. 4, and Ms.B, p. 9, which read 'af cal
bi-shark asrar Ihya' ularn Irl-Ghazali, m vols. (Cairo: Matbacat al- al-jawaril; rather than 'af al-qulub'. See Tanji, p. II, note I.
Muyammaniyya, 1984), vol. ix, p. 572. zo See Ghazali's discussion on commendable versus reprehensible knowledge.
3 Ghazal', Ihya', vol. In, p. 46. Tanji references this tradition to Tirmidhi and Ghazal", Ihya', vol. 1, pp. 13-6; Zabidi, vol. 1, pp. 148-54.
Ahmad; Tanji, p. 6. 21 For Abu al-Abbas b. Ata' (d. 311/923), see Sulam', Tabaqdt, pp. 225ff
4 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. III, p. 46; Abu Nuc aym al-Isfahan, Hilyat al-awliya' wa,tabaqat 22 Ghazal', Ihya', vol. r, pp. 79-80; Zabidi, vol. 1, pp. 148-54.
al-asfiya', 65 vols. (Cairo: Matbdat al-Sdada, 1971), vol. ix, p. 38. Tanji references 23 'Al-tawajjuh bil-galb% in Ms.A, p. 5, and Ms.B, p. io; and 'al-tawhid bill-galls',
this tradition to Bukhari; Tanji, Shifa', p. 7. in Tanji, Shife, p. 12.
5 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. nI, p. 46. Tanji references a similar tradition to Ahmad; Tanji, 24 Ghazali, Ihya), vol. 1, p. 161; Zabidi, vol. in, p. 116. Tanji references this tradition
p. 7. to Abu Daw0d; p. 12.
6 Suwarikum' or 'your external aspect' in Ms.A, p. 3; 'ajsdmikum' or 'your bodies' in 25 Tirmidhi, Sunan, 'qiyaina% p. 6o; Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. n, p. 152; Abu
Abu Nidaym, Hilya, vol. vu, p. 46, and Nawawi, Riyad, p. 9; 'dmiilikum' or 'your Ndaym, Hilya, vol. v1, p. 352, and vol. vin, p. 264; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 205.
deeds' in Ms.B, 8; amwalikum' or 'your riches' in Ibn Maja, al-Sunan (Cairo: 26 Zabidi, vol. 1, p. 159; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 206; Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. 11, p. 287.
al-Matbda al-Ilmiyya, 1313 Aii), vol. ii, p. 278. 27 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. I, p. 16o.
7 Reference to the Queanic verse, ' Is he whose breast God has expanded unto Islam, so 28 Ibn Maja, Sunan, 'than' p. 1; Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. iv, p. 207; Zabidi, vol.
he walks in a light from his Lord (like one who disbelieves)?' (Q.xxxix.2.2). p. 155; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 142.
8 tmar b. al-Khartab (d. 35/656); on him, see Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. 1, 29 Bukhari, Sahib, 'shahadat', p. 27; Abu al-Husayn Muslim, al-Sahib (Cairo: n.p.,
pp. 38-55; Ahmad al-Khazraji, Khulasat tadhhib al-kamal fi asma' al-rijal, 3 vols. 1374/1955), “agida% p. 4.
(Cairo: al-Matbda al-Khayriyya, 1904), vol.11, p. 268; Ibn al-Jawzi, Tarikh Ùmar 3o Wa-Iiikman 'alayhim min haythu zahiri dinalihim% Ms.A, p. 6. This sentence
b. al-Khattab (Damascus: Dar Ihya' 'Ultim al-Din, n.d.). is missing in Tanji, p. 14.
9 Eludhayfa b. al-Yaman (d. 36/656); on him, see AM) Nucaym, Hilya, vol. 1, 31 This group derives its name from basin or 'inward'. 'The term means those who
pp. 270-83; Khazraji, Khulasa, vol. 1, p. 201; Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, al-Igabafi tamyiz seek the inward or spiritual meaning of the Qur'an'; see SEI: s.v. 'Batiniya'; and
al-sahaba, 4 vols. (Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Tijariyya al-Kubra, 1939), vol.1, p. 306. IA: s.v.
io Ghazal', Ihya', vol.,, p. 78; Zabidi: vol. T, p. 43o. 32 On the importance of religious education, see Muqaddima, vol. 11, pp. 257-61.
Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. n, p. 289. 33 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. II, pp. 48o and 935; Ibn Àrabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya,
12 Bukhara, Sahib, p. Nawawi, Riyad, p. 7. 4 vols. (Beirut: Dar Sadir, n.d.), vol. 1, p. 284.
13 Muhammad al-Tirmidhi, at-Jdmicai-mukktasar min al-sunan, 4 vols. (Cairo: 34 Bukhari, 'sawm% p. 6; 'buya", p. 49; Muslim, Sahib, p. 8, Tirmidhi,
n.p., 1875), fitaM, p. 724 Ibn Hanbal, al-Musnad (Cairo: Muhammad al-Zuhri Sunan, p. 10.
al-Gharnawi, 1896), pp. 29o-1. 35 When translating the Qur'an, the translation of A. J. Arberry has been adhered
14 The Muc tazila was a school of speculative theology that was most active between to in the vast majority of occasions, with only occasional deviation from it.
the years 105-131/723-48; SEI: s.v. 'al-Muc tazila' • Muqaddima, vol. in, pp. 35-75. 36 For Abu al-Qasim b. Muhammad al-Junayd (d. 297/909), see Qushayri, p. 31;
15 The Rafielis 'was a general abusive name for people considered as Shicites'; J. H. Sulam, Fabaqat, pp. 155-6; Er: s.v. 'al-Junayd'. Quote in Qushayri, p. 217.
Kramers in SEI: s.v. Rafidites' ; SEI: s.v. SM.' a' ; Muqaddima, vol. II, pp. 156—zoo. 37 Qushayri, p. 217.
16 The Kharijis were partisans of Àl b. Abi Talib, who dissented when the latter 38 Ibid.
accepted the arbitrage that gave Mtfawiya the caliphate. They relied mainly on 39 Tirmidhi, Sunan, 'ducat, p. 79.
the use of violence and insurrections; see SEI: s.v. tharidjites'. 40 Bukhari, Sahib, `rigag', p. 3; AIM Ndaym, Hilya, vol. n1, p. 301 ; Nawawi,
Riyad, p. 168.
Ibn Talbis lbIts (Cairo: Matbdat al-Manar, 1928), p. 187. of the Glorious Koran (New York/Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992). Pickthall
42 Àll al-Suffa' was a name given to a group of Emigrants (muhajirun) who settled translated the verb yacbuclun as 'worship' rather than the verb 'serve', as in
in Medina with the Prophet; see SEI: s.v. Ahl al-Suffa'. Arberry. The reference to his explanation of the Or'anic verse is found in
43 Abd al-Rahman b. Sakhr is known as Abu Hurayra or 'the father of the little Qshayri, p. 6.
cat' (d. 57-8/676-8). See SEI: s.v. Abe Hureyra'; Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. 4 6 In popular Sufi cosmology, there are three worlds: al-Jabarat (the world of
pp. 376-385; Khazraji, Khulasa, p. 397; Ibn Sifat al-safwa, 4 vols. (India: absolute Immensity or Sovereignty, or Domination, which is that of the Spirit,
Matbac at Da'irat al-Mdarif, 1968), vol. 1, p. 38. and the `highest'), al-Malakitt (the World of the Realm or the Dominion; the
44 For Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (d. 32/652), see Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. 1, pp. 156-170; psychic world', and the 'intermediate' of the three worlds) and al-Mulk (the
S fat al-safwa, vol. 1, p. 38. World of the Kingdom; the physical world of existence', and the `lowest'). See
45 For Bill b. Ribali al-Habashi (d. 30/640), see SEI: s.v. 'Bilal'; Abu Nulaym, the notes of Victor Danner in Ibn Atahllah, Sufi Aphorisms, p. 71.
Hilya, vol. r, pp. 147-51; Ibn Sald, al-Tabaqat al-kubra, 8 vols. (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 7 Bukhari, Sahib, 'calif', p. 4.
1958), vol. u, pp. 358-387; Khazraji, Khulasa, p. 148. 8 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. II, pp. 219 and 232-3.
46 For Suhayb b. Sinan b. Malik al-Rum' (d 38/658), see Abe NMaym, Hilya, vol. I, 9 Bukhari, Sahib, p. 3; Muslim, Sahib, 'iman', p. zoz.
pp. 151-6; Khazraji, Khulasa, p. 148. in Ghazal', Ihyd', vol. m, p. 22.
47 For Salman al-Faris! (d. 36/651), see SEI: s.v. 'Salman al-Faris!' ; Abe Nidaym, ii Aftatiln wa-huwa kabir al-hukama' wa-kabir al-mutassawwifa', in Ms.A,
Hilya, vol. ', pp. 185-208; Sifat al-safwa, vol. I, p. no; Khazraji, Khulasa, p. 125. p. so, and Ms.B, p. 83; and `wa-huwa kabir al-mutasawwifa al-aqdamin', in Tanji,
48 Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. I, pp. 337-386. p. 24.
49 On the Emigrants, see SEI: s.v. 'Muhadjirerf. 12 This verse is translated by Arberry as, '0 believers, i f you fear God, He will assign
5o Muhammad b. Ismail al-Bukhari (d. 256/870), author of the Sahib, one of the you a salvation.' I chose to quote Pickthall's translation here.
most authoritative compilations of hadiths, or traditions of the Prophet; on him, 13 Tirmidhi, Sunan, du' awat' , p. 82; see also Ghazal', Ihya', vol. In, p. 24.
see SEI: s.v. 'al-Bukharf. 14 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. 1, p. 71; Zabidi, vol. ,, p. 403; Abe Ndaym, Hilya, vol. x,
51 Bukhari, Saha), 'al-Riqaq', p. 96; Tirmidhi, Sunan, 'qiyamat', p. 36; Abe Nuàym, p. 15. Tanji notes that Abe Nulaym declared the tradition to be 'weak' (rditryl, and
ILllya, vol. 1, p. 377. Ìraqi did likewise; Tanji, p. 25.
52 Qushayri, pp. 216-7. See also Sbihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi, Awarif, al-mahrif, vol. v, 15 Zabidi, vol. x, p. 45; Abu Nulaym, Hilya, vol. x, p. 15. Tani" notes that Ibn al-Jawzi
in Ghazal', Ihya', pp. 64ff included this tradition in his Mawria'at [Hadith Forgeries]; Tat", p. 25.
53 Qushayri, pp. 216-7. 16 Abe Nucaym, Hilya, vol. x, pp. 281-2; Sifat al-safwa, vol. n, p. 239. Tanji notes
54 Ibid. that Tirmidhi narrated this tradition and declared it to be `fair' (hasan); Tanji,
Shifd', p. 25.
Chapter Two 17 Ghazal", Ihya', vol. m, p. 24; Ibn al-Jawzi, Tarikh Ùmar, p. 34. Lane notes that
I See Ghazali, Ihya', vol. m, pp. 2-48: chapter 'On the meaning of the spirit (rddi), Bukhari narrated this tradition; Tanji, p. 26.
the soul (nafs), the intellect (àql) and the heart (qa1b)'. 18 For Abu Yazid Tayfur al-Bistami (d. 260/874), see SEI: s.v. 'al-Bistarnf ; Louis
2 Tirmidhi, Sunan, Igadar', p. 5; Muslim, .5a/tin, 'ciadae, pp. 23 and 46. Massignon, Essai sur les Origines du Lexique Technique de la Mystique Musulmane
3 'salad" b. Muhammad al- Ajlete, Kashf al-khafal wa-maza al-abas Comma ishtahara (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1954), pp. 273-90. Quote in Ghazal',
min al-ahadith alsinat al-nas, 2 vols (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub 1988), Ihya', vol. In, p. 24.
vol. 4 p. 216. Tanji references a similar tradition to Muslim, in which it is said, 19 For Abe Bakr al-Siddiq (d. 13/634), see SEI: s.v. 'Abe Bakr'; Abe Nucaym, Hilya,
`0 My slaves, it is only your actions that I count for you, and then reward for vol. 1, pp. 28-38. When Abe Bakr told his daughter Wisha that her heirs will
you.' Tanji, p. 21. be her two brothers, they were not born yet and Wisha had only one sister at
4 Abd Allah b. 'Abbas (d. 68/687) was one of the Companions of the Prophet; see the time. Ms.A, p. II, and Ms.B, p. 84, only quote part of the tradition. Ghazal',
Isaba, vol. n, pp. 322-6; IA: s.v. Abdullah b. Abbas'. Ihyd', vol. In, p. 24-5
5 Here I did not use the translation by Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted 20 Sariya b. Abd Allah al-Kannani (d. 30/650-51) was leading the Muslim army
(London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1964): 'I have not created jinn and in Persia and was warned by Ùmar b. al-Khattab, who was in Medina, that the
mankind except to serve Me'; I have used Marmaduke Pickthall's, The Meaning enemy was coming down towards the army from behind the mountains. IA: s.v.
`Sariye it Zuneym'; quote in Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, p. 25; Zabidi, vol. vii, p. 26o. 43 Ibn Arabi, Risalat al-anwar', in Rased (Beirut: Ihya' al-Turath al-Àrabi,
21 Ghazali, /bpi', vol. iv, pp. 296-7. 1968), p. 4.
22 Ibid., pp. 207ff 44 Ibid.
23 Zabidi: vol. ix, pp. 572-3. 45 'Intaha kalamuhu.' Ms.A, p. 4 and Ms.B, p. 16; this sentence is missing in Tanji,
24 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. iv, p. 309; Zabidi, vol. ix, p. 574. Tanji notes that Bukhari ShYa', p. 33
and Muslim, amongst others, narrate this tradition; Tanji, Skid, p. 27.
25 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. Iv, pp. 312ff Chapter Three
26 Ibid. Qushayri, quoting Ibn AtaAllah al-Iskandari, p. 88.
27 Ibid., vol. iv, p. 314. Tanji notes a similar tradition narrated by Muslim: Èvery 2 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. iv, p. 287, p. 217; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 204. A famous
slave will be raised in the state he died upon' ; Tanji, p. 29. tradition with very similar wording is found narrated by Bukhari and Muslim,
28 Ghazali, 'bye, vol. Iv, p. 313; gat al-safwa, vol. 1, p. 88. Tanji notes that 'Ali and is hadith number 6 in Nawawi's famous Arbdan [Forty Hadith].
Qin cited this tradition in his MawrEVat; Tanji, Shifa', p. 29. 3 Bukhari, Sahib, `buyE" , p. 3; Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. n, p. 152; Nawawi, Riyad,
29 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. 1v, p. 313; Zabidi, vol. ix, p. 582; $ifat al-safwa, vol. iv, p. zo5.
p. 16. Tanji notes that 'Iraqi mentioned that this is not established as a hadith, but 4 For Abd Allah b. Ùmar b. al-Khartab (d. 72/691) see Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol.
is known as a statement of Bakr b. Abd Allah al-Muzani; Tanji, p. 29. p. 7; Isaba, vol. ill, p. 135, and vol. n, pp. 338-341; Sifat al-safwa, vol. 1, p. 228;
3o For Abet Abd Allah al-Thawri (d. 161/777), see Abu Nu caym, Hilya, vol. Ghazali, Ihya', vol. r, p. 19. First quote in Hilyii, vol. yin, p. 264; second quote in
PP. 387-93. Zarrilq, Qgwacid al-tasawwul p. 23.
3r For Rabica bint Ismdil al-Adawiyya (d. 185/801), see SEI: s.v. `Rabica 5 QiIshayri, p. 9o.
al-Adawiyya'; S'ifat al-safwa, vol. iv, p. 17; Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Rah(a 6 Ms.A, p. 15, and Ms.B, p. 7, read t)...igat umm al-Qur'an'; the mistake is
al-Adawiyya (Kuwait: Wakalat 1978); Massignon, Lexique, pp. 215- corrected in Tanji, p. 35: `Qiza'at fatihat al-Qur'an.'
9; Margaret Smith, Rabica the Mystic and her Fellow-Saints in Islam (Cambridge: 7 QL.Ishayri, p. 16o. Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. 1, p.
Cambridge University Press, 1928); Jean Annestay, Une femme Soufie en Elam- 8 Qgshayri, p. 161.
Rabica al-Adawiyya (Paris: Entrelacs, 2009) . 9 Ibid.; Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. iv, p. 350; Ghazali, Ihya', vol. ill, p. 64.
32 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, p. 310. ro For ckisha bint Abi Bakr (d. 58/678), see SEI: s.v. Aisha'; Ibn Tabaqat,
33 Ibid., p. 313. v01. n, p. 374; Taj al-Din al-Subki, Tabaqat al-Shaficiyya al-kubra, ro vols (Cairo:
34 Wal-liikayat canhum fa hadha'l-bab kathira', in Ms.A, p. 12; sentence missing Matbdat al-Baba al-Halabi, 1964-76), vol. 1, pp. r66-7. The reference for the
in Ms.B, p. 13, and in Tanji, p. 29. tradition is in Muslim, Sahih, (musafirin', p. 139; Zabidi, vol. vn, p. 92.
35 ggshayri, p. 67. Jr Ghazali, Ihya', vol. ni, p. 55; Zabidi, vol. vu, p. 92. A similar tradition is narrated
36 Ibid. by Malik, except the word husn is used instead of makarim, with no substantial
37 Zabidi, vol. ix, p. 674. change to the meaning; see http://www.sunnah.com/malik/47 (last accessed 25
38 For Bahlal, see gat al-safwa, vol. n, p. 29o; IA: s.v. October 2016).
39 Qgshayri, p. 67; Zabidi, vol. n, pp. 72-3. There is a similar tradition narrated by ggshayri, p. 157. In the translation, I have used the words `will' and `wilier'
Muslim in which the Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said, 'His (instead of `wayfarer') to try to reflect the etymological links between the Arabic
veil is light'-òr fire--Ìf He was to remove it, the sublimity of His Face would words irada and murid.
burn whatever He would glance at from His creation.' For the Arabic text, and 13 Ibid.
an alternative translation, see Abu al-Husayn Muslim, English Translation of Sahib 14 Muslim, Sahih, `nikah', p. 271; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 62.
Muslim, translated by Nasiruddin, al-Khattab (Riyadh: Darussalam Publications, 15 Zabidi, vol. ix, p. 41; Silat al-safwa, vol. 1, p. 79.
2007), vol. 4 p. 286. AjlUni, Kashf al-khafa', vol. n, p. 52; Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. 14 p. 290. See a
40 Qgshayri, p. 69. similarly worded tradition in Bukhari; http://sunnah.com/bukhari/8:/53 (last
41 Ibid., p. 68. accessed 29 October 2m6).
42 For Abu Ali Hasan al-Juzajani or al-Jawzajani (4th/roth century), see Ain 78Im
: B,ajpa., Sunan,
bns.M
Ndaym,1:-/i/ya, vol. x, p. 35o. Quote in Qgshayri, p. 161. ikhmad al-sifat al-bashariyya wa-khalc al-sifat
al-badaniyya bi-manzilat ma yaqacu li'l-badan Ms.A, p. r6, reads 45 For Abu Muhammad b. 'Atiyya 'Abd al-klaqq b. Ghalib al-Gharnati (d. 542/1147
`wa-huwa mahu al-sifat al-bashariyya wa-tac attul al-badaniyya or 546/1151), see IA: s.v. 'Ibn Atiye el-Endelusi' ; Khalaf Ibn Bashkuwal, al-Sila
riyacla wa'l-mujahada hatta ma yaqaù baccIal-mawt.' I opted for tarikh a'immat al-Andalus (Cairo: Al-Dar al-Miriyya, 1966), vol. II, pp. 386-7.
the latter. Quote in Ibn cAtiyya's al-Muharrar al-wajiz, as seen in Tanji, Shifa', p. 5o, note 6.
19 For Abu Muhammad b. FIusayn (d. 311/923), see Qushayri, p.39; Sulami, 46 Muslim, &Ph, `nikatf, p. 271; Nawawi, Riyad, p. 62.
Tabaqat, pp. 259-64; •Sifiat al-safwa, vol. II , p. 252. Quote in Qushayri, p. 4o. 47 For Abd Allah b. Àmr b. al As (d. 42/663 or 43/664), see EP: s.v. 'Arrid; IA:
zo For Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Musa al-Wasiti (d. 120/932), see Qushayri, p. 4o; s.v. 'Amr b. As' ; Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. I, p. 283; Ibn Saccl, Tabaqat, vol. 1,
Sulami, Tabaqat, pp. 3zoff Quote in Qushayri, p. 161. p. 270, and vol. vn, p. 493, note 4. Quote in Bukhari, Sahih, `sawm', p. 56;
21 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, p. 76; Zabidi, vol. vtt, p. 371. Muslim, &M.; `siyam', p. 181; Nawawi, Riyad, pp. 341-2.
22 Statement by Sahl al-Tustari found in Qushayri, p. 129. 48 For tthman b. Maztin (d. 41/662), see Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. 1, p. 1o2;
23 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, p. 176; Zabidi, vol. vu, p. 371. Ghazali, Ihya', vol. n1, p. 42; SP al-safwa, vol. 1, p. 178. Quote in Abu Nucaym,
24 Ibid. Hilya, vol. 1, p. io6.
25 'A]lfini, Kashf al-khafif , vol. n, p. 291. Tanji notes that 'Ali al-Q-Uri cited this 49 Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. v, p. 168; Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. II, p. 285; Nawawi,
tradition in his Mawdu Cat; Tanji, Shi p. 42. Riyad, p. 62.
26 For Abu Bakr al-Shibli (d. 334/945), see Qushayri, p. 43; Sijat al-safwa, vol. 11, 5o Bukhari, Sahib, `sawm', p. 52; Muslim, Sahib, `siyam', pp. 175 and 179.
p. 258; Sulami, Tabaqat, pp. 337-48. 51 Bukhari, `tamanni', p. 9, and 'sawm', p. 20. This was the Prophet's answer to
27 For Abu al-Hasan All b. Ibrahim (d. 371/982), see Qushayri, p. 51. the Companion's who objected saying that he himself practised the wi5d/ or
Quote in Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, p. 77; Zabidi, vol. vu, p. 374. uninterrupted fasting.
28 Qushayri, p. 51.
29 Qushayri, p. Sr. Chapter Four
3o Ghazali, Ihya', vol. in, pp. 77-9; Zabidi, vol. vll, pp. 375ff I See Ghazali, Ihya', vol. I, pp. r9ff
31 Qushayri, pp. 79-80. 2 For Abu Yazid al-Bistatril, see SEI: S.v. tistamil ; IA: s.v. tayezid-i Bistarnr.
32 Zabidi, vol. vim p. 508; Abu Nucaym, Hilya, vol. I, p. 149. Tanji refers this On Abu Yazid's shatahat, see Massignon, Lexique, pp. 273-386. Quote in 'Aura&
tradition to Muslim; Tanji, Shifa', p. 46. al-mdary; p. 72; Zabidi, vol. 1, pp. 251-2.
33 Qushayri, p. 91. 3 There is no other reference to this saying besides in Ibn Khaldun's Shila'; see
34 Ghazali, Ihya', vol. fir, p. 311. Badawi's reference to the Shift' in Rabica al-4dawiyya, p. 192.
35 Ibid. 4 The
in nse_A
xt, tpo
w24pa
ges in Tanji, Shfa', pp. 56-58, and Ms.B, pp. 26-28, are missing
36 Qushayri, p. 217.
37 Muhammad b. Ali al-Qussab Abu Jac far al-Baghdadi (d. 275/888) was al-Junayd's 5 Ghazali, Ihyd', vol. iv, pp. 416ff Zabidi, vol. x, p. 157; Qushayri, p. 9o. Nawawi,
shaykh; see Sulami, Tabaqat, p. 155. Quote in Qushayri, p. 217. Riyad, p. 37; Ibn Maja, Sunan, vol. I, p. 247.
38 Qushayri, p. 217. 6 Ajluni, Kashf al-khalai, vol. n, p. 285.
39 For Ruwaym b. Abmad b. Yazid al-Baghdadi (d. 303/915), see Qushayri, p. 34; 7 Ibn Tafsir al-Qur'an al-karim, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Yaqza al-Arabiyya,
SP al- safwa, vol. n, p. 249. Quote in Qushayri, p. 217. 1968), vol. 1, pp. 39, 59 and 779.
40 For Abu al-kiasan Samnfin b. Flamza (d. 'after Junayd al-Baghdadi', according to 8 Ibn Khalchan's discussion of the two Sufi groups, ayhab al-tajalli and ashab al-wanda,
Sulami, Tabaqat, pp. 195ff), see Qushayri, pp. 36-7. Quote in Qushayri, p. 217. is very similar to that of Ibn al-Khatib in Rawda, pp. 582-612. For Chodkiewicz,
In ltiwarif p. 62, this statement is attributed to Junayd. the concise listing of Ibn Khaldun is more subtle than that of other polemists. At
41 For Abu klainza Muhammad b. Ibrahim al-Bag____T bdad GI /
(d. 289/951), see Qushayri, least—he says—Ibn Khaldun divides the Sufis he disapproves of in two groups:
p. 41. Quote in Qushayri, p. 217. the people of the theophany and the people who upheld unicity; or, in other
42 Ibid., pp. 217-8; Alva& al-macarif, p. 62. words, the Akbari school and the school of Ibn Sabin; see Michel Chodkiewicz,
43 For Muhammad b. Àli b. Jalar al-Kattani (d. 322/933 or 328/939), see Qushayri Un Ocean sans Rivage. Ibn Arabi, le Line et la Lai (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1992),
p. 218. Quote in Qushayri, p. 218. pp. 293-4 and Awhad Baylani, Epitre sur l'Unicite Absolue (Paris: Les Deux
44 Ibid., pp. 26 and 57. Oceans, 1982), pp. 37-38.
16
9 For Ibn Abu Hafs Sharaf al-Din tmar (d. 632/1235), see IA: s.v. Chapter Five
I Missing sentence in Tanji, Shift', p. 71, that reads as follows in Ms.A, p. 28, and
ro See above.
Ms.B, pp. 46-47: `fa-hiya mujahadat al-istiqama, wa-inn al-balith kin al-macrifat
u See above.
bi-ral` al-bijab wa'l-mushahada ft hayat al-dunya...'
52 For Ahmad b. 'Ali (d. 622/1225), see EI: s.v. 'Buni'; IA: s.v. 'Boni,
2 Qushayri, pp. 314-5.
Ahmed b. Ali.
3 Bukhari, Sahib, `rnawaqit al-salit', p. 1.
13 For Muhyi al-Din b. 'Arabi al-klatimi al-Ta'i (d. 638/1240), see IA: s.v.
4 Muslim, Sahih, 'imin', p. 23; Bukhiri, Sahih, `mawaqit p. 2.
Arabi': and William C. Chittick, Ibn Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination: The Sufi
5 Ibid.
Path of Knowledge (New York: State University of New York Press, 1989) and 6 Ta-mukitija...baccl al-shay' ...ili al-shaykh al-mucallim' or 'the seeker may need...
The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn aljArabi's Cosmology (New York: State
to a certain extant...a spiritual guide...'; missing in Tanji, Shure, p. 73; see Ms.A,
University of New York Press, 1998).
p. 29, and Ms.B, p. 48.
Ibn Sawdakin (d. 646/1248) was a close disciple of Ibn 'Arabi. See Veysel Akkaya,
7 Ghazali, /bye, vol. u1, p. 67.
`Bir Ibn Arabi Takipcisi Ismail b. Sevdekin', in Tasavvuf Ilmi ve Akademik Dergisi
8 Ms.A, p. 3o, reads 'al-ahwal al-ghayr al-maqclura Cala al-maqdfira'; Ms.B,
(Istanbul: Turk Arastirma Merkezi, 2010), pp. 255-9.
p. 51, and Tanji, Shife, p. 76 reads 'al-ahwal al-maqchira C alm al-acmal al-magdira'.
15 Kashf al-khafac vol. Is, p. 132. Tanji notes that 'Ali al-Qiyi cited this
I chose to follow Ms.A.
tradition in his MawthiCat, but supported the truthfulness of its meaning with
9 A Sufi saying considered by some compilers to be a non-established tradition; see
recourse to the verse of the Qur'an, 'I created the jinn and humankind only that they
Ali al-Asrar al-marftta ft al-akhbar al-mawrida (Beirut: Muhammad Lutfi
might worship Me' (Q.LI.56); Tanji, p. 6o.
al-Sabbagh, 1986), p. 348; Muhammad Abd al-Rahman al-Sakhawi, al-Maqasid
16 Ibn Dahhaq al-Awsi (d. 611/1214-15) was the disciple of Abu 58.bd Allah SOdhi.
al-hasana fi bayan kathir min al-ahadith al-mushtahira Cala al-alsina, edited by Abc1
17 That is, Abd al-klaqq b. Sabin. For the quote, see Ibn al-Khatib, Rawcia, p. 6o6.
Allah Muhammad al-$iddiq (Egypt: Dar al-Adab 1956), p. 436; Ajlimi,
18 `Rather through spiritual exercise, fasting, retreats...'. See BUM, Shams al-mdarif
Kashf al-khafe, vol. n, p. 291.
al-kubra (Beirut: n.p., n.d.), p. 395.
Qushayri, p. 52.
19 Note that the sentence 'huwa li'l-nafsi'l-insiniyya [wal-himamil-bashariyya
li-anna al-nafs al-insaniyya]...muhitatun bil-tabica....' is missing in Ms.B, p. 43,
Chapter Six
but not in Ms.A, p. 26.
20 felind is 'a thin cloud surrounded by air', as defined by Ibn 'Arabi; see Chittick, Ibn Khaldun refers to one `shaykh-denier' and uses the plural when quoting the
i shaykh-partisans'. For the sake of clarity, I have decided to refer to both parties
The Sufi Path of Knowledge, pp. 125-9.
in the singular.
21 Abu al-gasim Maslama al-Majriti al-Andalusi (d. 395/1004) was the author of
Ghayat al-ltakim; see Ibn Abi Usaybica, 'Cyan al-anba' fi tabaqat al-attiba', 2 vols. 2 For Uways (d. 35/656), see Isaba, vol. Iu, pp. 122-5; Sip al-safwa, vol.
(Cairo: n.p., 1882), vol. n, p. 39. p. 228. The story to which Ibn Khaldun is referring is told in Sbrat al-safiva, vol. ut,
22 Reference to the tradition, '0 God, I take refuge in Thee against weakness and pp. 22-30. 'Omar b. al-Khattab came to tways for advice.
laziness...' Ghazik, /bye, vol. 1, p. 186. This traditon is narrated by Bukhiri; see 3 For Shiban al-An (death date unknown), see Abo Ndaym, /31(ya, vol. vm,
p. 317; Zabidi, vol. 1, p. 170.
http://www.sunnah.com/bukhari/80/64 (last accessed 31 October 2016).
23 Abu al-Mugith al-Husayn b. Mansur (d. 308/921 or 309/922) was 4 For Abu Àbd Allah Muhammad b. Idris al-Shifici (d. 204/820), see SEI: s.v.
àl-Shifi"; Subki, Tabaqat al-Shaficiyya, vol. I, pp. mo-3; Muqaddima, vol. m,
executed on an order of the Baghdad qaclis; SEI: s.v. 'al-Hallaj'; IA: s.v.
Mansur'; Sularril, Tabaqat, pp. 35o ff See also Louis Massignon, La Passion d'al- pp. 3-12. The story Ibn Khaldun is referring to is related in Qushayri, p. 3,4;
Hallaj, Martyre Mystique de ?Islam, 4 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1975). Zabidi, vol. 1, p. 17o. Although Shiban the shepherd was illiterate, he showed
24 About conformism or taqlid, see Ibn Abbad, Letters on the Sufi Path, pp. 146ff ; more knowledge in spiritual questions than the great Imam and legist, founder
of one of the major schools of Islamic law, Shafici.
see also Nwyia, Ibn Abbad, pp. 182ff
5 For Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Hanbal (d. 241/855), see SEI: s.v. lAhmad'; IA: s.v.
25 That is, Abu Yazid al-Bistami.
'Ahmed b. Hanbel'.
26 Qushayri, p. 23.
6 For 'sicknesses', see i zalal' in Ms.A, p. 33, and 'Mal' in Ms.B, p. 09.
R
7 Àw kad' is missing in Tanji, p. 85, line n; see Ms.A, p. 34, and Ms.B, p. 58. of Two Testimonies'), testified having seen the Prophet pay for a horse he
8 "Anal' in Ms.A, p. 34, as opposed to 'amal' in Ms.B, p. 59, and Tanji, p. 87. had bought, although he was not present, for he knew his Prophet could only
9 The name of this group is derived from hulal, translated as 'in-dwelling' or speak the truth; his testimony was declared by the Prophet to be as valid as the
'substantial union'; see SEI: s.v. 'hula ; IA: s.v. 'Hula. testimonies of two Muslim men; see Inaba, vol. 1, p. 425.
Io Zindiq/Zanadiqa means 'heretic(s)'; see SEI: s.v. 23 Abr.; Burda b. Niyar (d. 45/665) sacrificed his lamb before the Prophet had
Ìbabis' means 'freethinkers', see SEI: s.v. `Tasawwuf '; IA: s.v. 'Ibahiyye'. sacrificed his, and so was asked to repeat the sacrifice. Abu Burda could, then,
12 The name of this group is derived from tanasukh or 'metempsychosis or only find a lamb he liked very much and asked the Prophet if he could be excused
transmigration'; see SEI: s.v. `tanasukh'. from the task. The Prophet agreed and made this an exception too; see Inaba,
13 The name of this group is derived from jabr or 'the compulsion' of God; see vol. Iv, pp. 25-6.
SEI: s.v. 'djabriya'. 24 Kashf al-khafa', vol. i, p. 64. The wording of this tradition in Tanji,
14 The last sentence is missing in Tanji, p. 90, and in Ms.B, p. 62; but reads Shift ), p. 99, is the same as that found in Tirrnidhi; and a similar tradition
as following in Ms.A, p. 36: Wa-kalamuka yukhrijuhum Can dhalika, is narrated by Ibn Maja, with the addition of the pronoun 'them' (hum); see
batil bi'l-inna", and is added in Perez, p. 224. http ://www.sunnah.com/search/?cribn+maja%2C+scholars+heirs+of+prophets
15 Here Ibn Khaldtm is referring to Qit mdamalat al-mahbub by Abu Talib (last accessed 3 November 2016).
al-Makki (d. 386/998); see El: s.v. 'al-Makki'. 25 As in the case of the celebrated Shaykh Abu al-Hasan al-Kharaciani (d. 425/1034),
16 Ms.A, p. 37, and Ms.B, p. 65, show the word 'sal' or 'arduous', but Tanji, who was guided by the ruhaniyya or spirit of Abu Yazid al-Bistaml, a way followed
Shifa', p. 93, chose to correct it as 'salb' or 'pillar', which we decided to choose by the Uwaysis who are educated by a master remote in time, space or both.
too. Perez, p. 228, in his translation preferred to keep the word as it appeared in 26 Wa ilham' is missing in Tanji, p. sot; see Ms.A, p. 40, and Ms.B, p. 72.
manuscripts A and B. 27 For Khalid b. al-Walid al-Mughira al-MakhzUrni (d. 21/641-2), see Er: s.v.
17 Ms.B, p. 66 reads as follows: 'al-shaykh dun al-shaykh', as does Tanji, Shift ), 'Khalid'; IA: s.v. Halid b. YAW': Ibn Sard, Tabaqat, vol. u, pp. 393-8; Inaba: vol. 1,
p. 94. However, Ms.A, p. 37, reads 'al-shaykh dun al-kutub'. Perez chose to PP. 412-s.
follow the latter in his translation, p. 229; see also comment in Perez, p. 284, 28 'Fi nafi' is missing in Tanji, p. ioz; see Ms.A, p. 41, and Ms.B, p. 73.
note 193. We decided to follow Ms.A since the meaning corresponded to the 29 13i-ictibarih5: is missing in Tanji, Shift?, p. 102, and Ms.B, p. 72; see Ms.A, p. 41.
idea of the debater. 3o Bukhari, Sahib, p. 7.
18 The five rules of behaviour are: Karam (ùnlawful'), makruh ('reprehensible'), 31 In Tally, Sh9ca', p. 103, is misread as 'hal' ; see Ms.A, p. 41, and Ms.B, p. 74.
mubab (ìndifferent'), wajib or fard ('incumbent or obligatory duty') and mandub
(`recommended'). Conclusion and Ascertainment
19 'Ma la yac rifun' in Ms.A, p. 39, and 'ma yacrifun' in Tanji, Shifac p. 97. `Lam yakun min alArnan min shay". The words 'min alriman' are missing in Ms.B,
zo Ms.A, p. 39, and Ms.B, p. 69, show the word `naqil' rather than `naq1'; see Tanji, p. 88, and Tally, p. 108, but not in Ms.A, p. 43.
p. 98. 2 That is, 13 June 1485.
21 The three terms used here are common in Maliki legal works. The àriyya (pl.
careiya) is 'a palm tree which its owner assigns to another, who is in need for
him to eat its fruit during a year' ; see E. W. Lane, An Arabic English Lexicon,
2 vols. (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), s.v. "ariyya'. The qinid or
`making a loan' is the giving of capital to a third party who will administer it
for an undetermined gain; Lane, s.v. . The musaqat is a 'man's employing
a man to take upon himself, or manage, the culture (or watering) or palm trees
or grapevines (or the like) on the condition of his having a certain share of their
produce'; Lane, s.v. `musaqat'. The three examples given by Ibn Khaldun refer to
contingent aleatory contracts and therefore exceptional in view of the general
legal rules.
22 Khuzayma b. Thabit (d. 36/656), also called dhii al-shahadatayn (The Possessor
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Wolfson, H. A. 'Ibn Khaldun on Attributes and Predestination', Speculum, xviii, xxi xix, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii, xxx,
vol. xxxiv : 1959. Abu Muhammad b. 'Atiyya, Qadi, 52 xxxv, xxxvii-xl, 2-3; inherited
Xiciuna, M. 'Quelques Legendes Relatives a Moulay 'Abd al-Salam Ibn Abu Yazid Tayfur al-Bistami, 27, 33, tradition/mang, 2; Law, 8o, 98,
Mashish', Archives Marocaines, vol. in: 1905. 57, 69 99, mo, 101-102, ro6; method of
Zabidi, Murtada, al-. Kitcib it haf al-sadah al-muttaqin bi-sharh asrar Ihya"ulam adab, see conduct/proper conduct spiritual travelling varies with
al-din li'l-Ghazalt, io vols. Cairo: Matbdat al-Muyammaniyya, 1894. Adam, 39, 61 each wayfarer, 87, 89, 91; mysti-
Zarrfiq, Ahmad. Al-Nastha al-kafiya. Lith. edition, n.p., n.d. cariat, see customs cal tasting, 90, 92, 94, 97, TOO;
ahadiyya, see Unity al-Qabbab, Alimad,fatwei by,
Ildat al-murid. Lith. edition, 1943, as consulted by Ibn Tawit
althorn, see principles of behaviour xxviii, xxxv-xxxvi; Qur'an,
al-sa'il li-tandhib al-masa'il. Istanbul: Osman Yalcin Matbaasi, 1957. 79-80, 99, ma; rational reasoning/
Wisha, wife of the Prophet, 16, 24, 27,
Qauracid al-tasawwuf Cairo: n.p., 1976. mdmil, 2; science of Sufism, 96;
38, 52
The Principles of Sufism [Qawiiid al-tasawwuf], translated by Zaineb 'diem al-amr, see World of Divine seeker attracted by God/majdhub,
Istrabadi. ProQuest/UMI: 2002. Command 104, 1o5, io6, 107, mrio; spiritual
Tam al-ghayb, see Unseen World realities go beyond limits of con-
calarn al-ruhaniyyat, see World of Spir- ventional language, 81, 90, 92, 93,
itual Entities xrvi
9x4, a9ri7n,e9s9s:
igIgle90for9IG-o2d-9:
97i;ist8rot
alchemy, 65; philosophical stone, 65
Algeria, x, xiv 103; struggle for unveiling and
Ali b. Yusuf b. Tashufin, x witnessing, xxxviii-xl, 8o, 81,
REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Index
90, 92, 93, 94-5, 97, 10 2, 103-104, 66; spiritual struggle (third), 40, 70; misleading the disciple, xxxvi, reality, 20, 25; the Tablet, 25
106; struggle for walking on the 54, 55, 76, 77; use of the Divine 85-6, 90, 96, 97; mystical tasting Customs (Mat), 5, II, 17, 98, too,
rot
straight Path, xxxviii, 80-1, 90, Names and, 66 and, 92; science of unveiling, 56, al-Daqqaq, Abu Abd Allah, xi
91-2, 94, 97, 103; Sunna, 79-80; asceticism (rulull, 17, 42-3, 47, 48 57, 67-8, 70; struggle for God- al-Dasficii, Ibrahim, xiv
wayfarer to Godl salik, 104-105, Ashcari theology, x wariness, guidance from books in, the Dasfigiyya (Burhaniyya), xiv
To6; see also Andalusian debate, on al-Ashqar, Sharaf al-Din, xxiii 71, 90, 91-2, 94, 102; struggle for David, Prophet, 52
books; Andalusian debate, on the associationism (shirk), 9 unveiling and witnessing, useless- death, xxxviii; body, xxxviii, 29,
need of a shaykh; book; knowl- alba' abtabicin, see the Followers of the ness of books, 78, 93; struggle 40; 'Die before you die', 43, 76;
edge, transmission of; shaykh; Followers for walking on the straight Path, `Man dies in keeping with how
spiritual struggle; spiritual strug- atheist, 42 guidance from books in, 90, 91-2, he lived...', 30; perception and
gle and the need of a shaykh austerity (tamillul), 17 94, 102; Sufi books, ix, 48, 51, 56, knowledge after death, 29-30;
Andalusian debate, on books, 79-80, Ayyad, Karnil, xvi 73, 83-6, 90-3 (are useless unless perfection after death, 29; pleasure
83-6, 90-2, 96-7, 98, 1o6, 107; Ayyubids, xiv imparted by the masters, 91, 92; after death, 30; third spiritual
books alone are sufficient, 82, purpose and usefulness of, 92-3); struggle, premeditated death, 43,
83-4, 88, 90-1, 94, 102; books can Baali, Fuad, xvi uselessness of, 78, 90, 91, 93; see 76; unveiling after death, 29-30,
mislead, 85-6, 90, 96, 97; need of al-Badawi, 'Abd al-Rahman, xxv, also Andalusian debate; Andalu- 74; vision after death, 29-3o, 76;
explanation from a master, 92, 93; xxviii, xxix sian debate, on books witnessing after death, 34; wit-
occasion when books must not be al-Badawi, Ahmad, xiv Bouthoul, Gaston, xvi nessing and Self-disclosure, 33, 34
consulted, 1o5; uselessness of, 91, the Badawiyya (Ahmadiyya), xiv al-Bukhari, Abu 'Abd Allah deed (dmal), 8, 74-5; effect on the
93, 107; see also book; Andalusian al-Baghdadi, Abu Hamza Muhammad Muhammad: AbSahih, 18, 72 subtle reality, 20-1; evil deed, 21;
debate b. Ibrahim, so al-13fini, Ahmad b. Ali, 60, 63, 65; Al- good deed, 2r ; see also inward
Andalusian debate, on the need of a Bahlfil, 33, 107 Anima!, 66, 67 deed; outward deed
shaykh, 8o, 81-2, 84-5, 86-8, 91, baqa), see abiding in God al-Bushanji, Ali b. Ahmad, xxxii dervish, xv, xxii
93, 98-106; shaykh's discernment, basira, see insight devils/D
ataevni18,423, 39, 43, 46, 83, 85, 86;
82-3, 86-7, 88, 89, 94, 96, 97; al-basin, see the inward celibacy, 52
shaykh's experience from travel- Batinis, 15, 59, 87-8 certainty (yaqin), 26, 45, 48, 55; science dhawq, see mystical tasting
ling the Path, 79-80, 81-2, 90, 91, Baybars II, Sultan, xxiii of certaintyPilm al-yaqin, xl, 45, dhikr, see remembrance
92, 93, 94; shaykh's presence does beauty, 28-9,34 47; truth of certainty/a/-baqq al- discernment: discernment of intimate
perfect the struggles, 102; shaykh's Mira (pl. bidd), see innovation yaqin, xl, 45, 47; vision of certain- findings, roo-icll ; God-wariness,
sources of knowledge, 94-6; see Bilal 17 tyrayn xl, 45, 47; will, a 98, 99-100, 102; shaykh, 44, 75, 78,
also Andalusian debate; spiritual the blameworthy (madhmam), 6, 7, 9, state of absolute certainty, 38 82-3, 86-7, 88, 89, 94, 96, 97
struggle and the need of a shaykh 12, 37, 39, 52, 67, 74; annihilation charismatic acts (karama), 34, 44, 55, 86, disciple (murid), z; being a corpse in the
and obliteration, 46 um son; charismatic gifts, 83, 101 hands of the mortician (shaykh),
angel, 23, 46, 55
annihilation (rand)), 33, 34, 45, 46 body, xxxiv, 19, 20-1, 25, 61; corporeal Companions of the Prophet, xxx, 42 , 74; each wayfarer deserves
al-Ansari, 'Abd Allah, xxi; Mandell forces, 40, 49, 54, 76; death, xxx- xxxv, 8, ro, 17-18, 72, 103 an education that corresponds
absa'irin, xx viii, 29, 40; perception, 29; subtle conduct/proper conduct (adab), 32, 33, to his nature, 87; lack of sincere
caql, see intellect reality and, 19, 20, 22, 55 56, 68 disciples, xxxvii; seeker attracted
àril see gnostic book (kitab), xix, xxxvii, xxxviii, created universe (kawn), 25, 6r , 62 by God/rnajdhab, 104, 105, 106,
carsh, see the Throne xxxix, xl, 2, 77, 83; Ibn Àbbad, creation (process of), 24-5; first crea- 107 (exemption from religious
ascetic discipline (riyada), 36, 38, 87; al-Rundi, xxxvii; knowledge tion, 63; God created instincts and duties, m9); wayfarer to God/
ascetic training, 39; the great from unveiling should not be forces within the heart, 6-9; man- salik, 104-105, rob; see also novice;
ascetic discipline/al-riyada al-kubra, registered in books,5_, 6 57, 8,
667- kind, 19, 22; Qur'an, 25; subtle Sufi-aspirant
discursive thinking (fikr), 6-7, 22, 24, Most Sanctified Essence to Itself, al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid, x, xi, xii, is, goodness, 7, 21, so, 8o
2 5, 43, 6z; see also reason 6o; subtle reality, 25 (reaching the 19, 84, 90, 96; auto-da-fe, x-xi; Granada, xx, xxii, xl; Granada de-
dissemblance (riya'), 9, 85 subtle reality's essence through different sources of knowledge for bate, ix, xxxvi-xxxvii, xli; Ibn
Divine Attributes, 20, 25, 28, 545 58, 61, itself, 25-6, 55); the Unique Es- the soul, 24; 'Islam x, Khaldrin, x, xxi, xxxiii, xxxi; see
70; unveiling and, 31; witnessing sence/al-dhat al-alladiyya, 61 xi, xiii, xxxvi, 2, 12, 56, 83-4, 88, also Andalusia; Andalusian debate
and, 32; see also God excellence (ihsan), 15, 99-10o; harmony 92; Law/Sufi Path reconciliation, gratitude (shukr), 45, 48
divine graces, descent of (munazala), between the inward and the out- xiii, xviii, xxxiv; legist/Sufi-aspir- guidance: directly from God, roi, 105;
45, 47 ward, 15 ant comparison, 12-13 Qur'an, 98; right guidance, 16;
Divine Names, 6o, 61, 65; Allah, 43; extinction, 31; dehmad, xxxviii Gibraltar, xxxv wayfarer as guide, 44; see also
the Creator/a/-Ban, 6-7, 20, 25, Eve, 59 gnosis (indrifa), 2, 6, 23, 45, 68, 83, 107; shaykh
28, 29, 6z; loci of manifestation, felicity, 76; gnosis of Oneness, 63;
63; Most Beautiful Names of faith (iman), 5, 8, 58; station of faith, heart, 46; it leads to direct vision 14, see state/spiritual state
God/al-asmir al-husna, 63, 66; 15, 99-too; subtle reality, 21 and witnessing, 3o; union with al-Hallaj, al-Husayn b. Mansur, xxvi,
the One/al-Wahid, 62; perfection final, see annihilation God, 47; unveiling, 46 68
related to, 6o, 61, 63, 67; power of, faqih, see legist gnostic Pry), xx, 30, 34, 47, 48, 57, 68; Halwi, Abu Abd Allah Shudhi, xii
65, 66-7; the Unseen/al-Ghayb, faqr, see poverty realization, 63 baqiqa, see Truth
31; witnessing, 67; see also God al-Fasi, Abd al-Qadir, ix, xxvi God: Divine Essence/dhat Allah, 54; al-haqiqa al-Muhammadiyya, see
divine unity (tawhal), xxi, 45, 77, 87, al-Fasi, Abu al-Abbas Ahmad, xxvii divine gifts, 46, 53; forgiveness, Muhammadan Reality
89, to7; heart's focus on divine al-Fasi, Ahmad ID. xxix 16; God created instincts and al-Elazirdri, Abu Ydzza, xi
unity/al-tawhid bi'l-qalb, 13; fasting, 30, 40, 42, 52-3 forces within the heart, 6-9; 'God heart, xxxi; colourations of, 12, 73,
self-realization of divine unity, felicity, 7, 9, 14, 16, 20, 8o; corporeal has seventy veils of light', 33; 76; corrupted spiritual state and,
87; tasting of, z; tatvlad-wanda felicity, 3o; eternal felicity, ; knowledge of, 6-7, n, 28, 32; love 75-6; deeds of the heart, xxxiv,
doctrine, xxi; see also Oneness; faith, 8; felicity of the heart: for God, 30-1, 43; mercy, 14, 16; xxxvii, 12, 17, 18, 35; expansion of
Unicity; Unity the vision of God's Face, 3o, 32; nearness to, 55; vision of God's the chest, 26; eye of the heart, 95;
Dominion (malakat), 22, 24, 28, 59, 68, gnosis, 76; Hereafter, 3o, 32; Face, 30, 32, 49; see also Divine felicity of the heart: the vision of
73; disclosure of knowledge of the knowledge, 27-31, 32; Law, 74; Attributes; Divine Names God's Face, 3o, 32; focus on divine
Dominion, 57-8; secrets of the levels of, 28-9, 32, 51; meaning of God-wariness (taawa), 13; Andalusian de- unity/ al-tawhirl bi'l-qalb, 13; God
Dominion, 59, 68; understand- 27; Sufi, no; ultimate felicity, 32, bate, xxxviii, 8o-1, 90, 91-2, 94, 97, created instincts and forces within
ing the Dominion, 68; witnessing 45, 56, 74, 8o 99, to3; books, guidance from, 71, the heart, 6-9; going straight,
and, 32 fikr, see discursive thinking 90, 91-2, 94, 102; discernment, 98, 41-2,; the innermost secret, 46;
doubt, 31, 54, 85 filth, see law 99-100, io2; an individual obliga- inspired knowledge, 23-4; Islam,
the doubtful/uncertain, 35-6, 48 al-Fishtali, Qadi xii, xxxvi tion, 51, 71, 91; Law, 80-1, 102, 103; 13; knowledge of the heart/flak
fitra, see primordial nature meaning, 35-6; outward and inward al-qulub, ii; knowledge of the
Egypt, x, xiii-xiv, xxii, xxiii; Alex- Followers (tabran), to, 27 God-wariness, 35, 49; Prophets, inward/filth II; pleasure
andria, xiv; Cairo, xiv-xv, xvii, Followers of the Followers (atba' al- following and imitating them, 103; of, 28; Prophet Muhammad,
xxiii, xxviii; Sufism, xiv-xv tab lin), 10, 27 Qur'an, 26, 71, 8o-T; salvation, 40, 5-6, 7, 8, 9, 14; purification, 55;
Emigrants, 18; People of the Veranda/ Footstool (kurn), 54, 59, 62 49, 55-6, 70, 8o, 93, 103; shaykh, qualities of, s; soul, 46; spheri-
ahl al-,suffa, 17-18 free choice, 9-10, 50, 73, 74-5, 80, 81, need of, 71-3, 81; struggle for, cal shape and perfection of, 41;
essence/Essence: essence/dhat, 25, 3o, 82, 90 xxxviii, 35-6, 40, 45, 47, 49, 55-6, spirit, 46; spiritual state, xl-xli,
6z; Divine Essence/dhat Allah, 54; 70, 77, 91; Sunna, 26, 71; unveiling 75; subtle reality, 19; Sufism and,
Essence/huwiyya, 62; Essence of Gabriel, 72 and, 26, 40-I, 54, 56; worship, 4o; xxxiv, To-n, 18; three facets of
His Essencerayn caynihi, 63; the Gabrieli, Francesco, xvi see also moral care; spiritual struggle 46; unveiling, 41-2, 54-5; walking
Index
on the straight Path, 41-2; will is Ibn Hirzihim, x, xi Ibn al-Khatib, Lisan al-Din, xvii, 59, 69, 77, 90 , 97, 102; purification,
the awakening of the heart to the Ibn Khaldun, Abu Bakr Muhammad xx, xxi-xxii, xxiii; imprison- 40 ; saints and Sufis, xxxii, 23, 24,
quest for the Truth, 39; witness- b. Khaldun al-Hadrami (Ibn ment, torture and death, xxii, 32, 95-6; spiritual perception, 31;
ing, 46; wounds of, 13 Khaldun's father), xxv, xxvii, I xxv; Sufism, xx; Rawdat al-tdrif subtle reality, 23, 31, 40; unveiling,
Hellfire, 14, 15, 3o Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd 'Abd al- bi'l-hubb al-shard., xx, xxiii, xxv, 31; walking on the straight path,
Hereafter, 7, 13, 54; felicity, 3o, 32; Rahman, ix-x, xvii, xl-xli, xxvii-xxviii 42; see also knowledge/learning
knowledge of the Hereafter/fiqh Andalusia, xvii, xix-xxii; death, Ibn Marzim: Musnad, xii intellect ( caq1), 77, 109; instinct of, 6,
al-alehira, II; Sufism and, xxxiv, xxiv; early training, xvii-xix; Ibn Qasi, xi, 6o 7; love of perfection, 6; subtle
12, 13; witnessing, 44 Egypt, xxii-xxiv; epistemology, Ibn Qunfudh, al-Qustantini, xii; Uns reality, 19
heresy (zandaqa), x, xii, xiii, xxii, xxv, xxxii-xxxiii; Fez, xxviii; head of al faqir wa- cizz xii interaction, Jo, 12; interaction with
xxxi, 2, 59, 75, 83; he who studies Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya, Cairo, Ibn Sabin, 'AM al-Haqq, xxvii, 62, 63 GocUrnitdmala, 45, 47, 55; science
Sufism and does not study the xv, xvii, xxiii-xxiv; historian, Ibn Sawdakin, 6o of interaction/ cam a/-mdama/a, 45,
Law is a heretic, xxxv xvi-xvii, xxv, xxxii, xli; judge Ibn Sind, xviii; Kitab al-ishardt, xviii; 54, 55-6
bludhayfa b. al-Yaman, 8 and legist, xv, xvii, xxiii, xxxiii, Kitab al-shifiV , xviii intention (niyya), to, 16, 35; as the prin-
Hululis, 87-8 xxxvii, xl, xli; the Maghrib, Ibn Taghribirdijaml al-Din YUsuf b., xiv ciple of all actions, 9-10; sincerity
huraf, see letters xvii-xix; the Mashriq, xiii, xvii, Ibn Tumart, al-Mandi, xi, xii of intention, 43; worship, to
al-Susan, Abu al-blasan Ali b. xxiii-xxiv; pilgrimage, xxiii; Ibn Ùmar, cAbd Allah, 36 the inward (al-basin), is, 33; ascetic
Ibrahim, 43 political life, x, xxi, xxii; religion, Ibn al-Zayyat, Abu Mandi xx- training, 39; disregard of, to;
blusayn, Taha, xvi xvi, xvii, xxiv; spiritual life, x, xxi; Kitab al-maqamat, xx God-wariness, 35, 49; harmony
hypocrisy (nifaq), 8-9 xxii, xxxii, xxxvii; withdrawal Ibrahim b. al-Adham, prince of Balkh, between the inward and the
from the world, xxi, xxii; see xxi-xxii outward, xxxiv, 14, 15; hypoc-
cibada, see worship also the entries below for Ibn idleness, 16, 68 risy as contradiction between the
Ibahis, 87-8 Khaldun, Abu Zayd ihsan, see excellence outward and the inward, 9; im-
Ibn Abbad al-Rundi, ix, xii, xiii, xviii, Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd: Sufism, xiii, ikh/a3, see sincerity portance of, 9; the inward always
xix, xxvi, xxviii, xxxiv, xxxviii; xv-xxiv, xxxiii, xli; absolute ilham, see inspiration rules the outward, 5; knowl-
letter by, xxxv, xxxvi-xxxvii complementarity between the Sim, see knowledge/learning edge of the inward/fiqh al-basin,
Ibn 'Abbas, 22 inward and the outward, xxxiv; cum al-tasawwuf, see science of Sufism xxxiv, 11-12, 14, 34; science of
Ibn Ahmad, ix, xxvii criticism and rejection of Sufism, imagination, 22, 25, 29, 30 , 43 the inward, 56; wisdom of legists
Ibn Arabi, Muhyi al-Din Muhammad, xv-xvii, xxxiii-xxxiv; `Sufism' itndn, see faith and Sufis should be all-inclusive,
6o, 63 and the `Science of Sufism', xxxi- imitation (taqhri), xl, 68, 71 xxxv; see also Sufism
Ibn al-Arif, xi xxxii initiatic chain (silsila), xiv, xl, 87, too, ro6 inward deed, 5, 8, 12, 14, 15; deeds of
Ibn Ashir of Sale, xii, xiii, xix, xxi, Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd: works, xxiv, innovation (bicra, pl. bida), 2, II, 69, 3h5eart, xxxiv, xxxvii, 12, 17,
xxxv xli; Kitab al-lbar, xxv; Lubab al- 74, 83 18, 35
Ibn Àra' Allah, xiii, xiv, 12, 35, 90, 92 muhassal, xxv; minor works, xxv; insight (bastra), xxxv irada, see will
Ibn al-Banna, xviii; Al-Mabahith al- Al-Mugadditna, x, xvi, xx, xxv, inspiration (ilham), 23; see also inspired Islam, xvii, 13; Sufism, xxxv; see also
asliyya, xxvii xxix (sixth chapter 'On Sufism', knowledge religion
Ibn Barrajan, xi, 6o xvii); Al-Tdrf bi-Ibn Khaldan wa- inspired knowledge Cilm al-ilhOw0, islam, see submission
Ibn Battiam, xiv-xv rililatihi sharqan wa-gharban, xvii, xxxii, 26, 28, 95; acquired knowl- Oki% see spiritual perception
Ibn Dahhaq al-Awsi, 62 xxiv, xxix; see also Shifii' al-sa'il edge/inspired knowledge distinc-
Ibn al-Farid, 6o li-tandhib al-masa'il tion, 26, 28; God-given knowl- Jabaris, 88
Ibn al-Furat, xxiii Ibn Khaldun, Muhammad (Ibn edge, 26-7, 28, 49; heart, 23-4; al-Jarlri, Abu Muhammad b. blusayn,
Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad, 81 Khaldun's brother), xxvii intimate finding/wt./darn, xxxii, 2, 40-I, 50
jinn, 22 unveiling, 31-4; Prophets, xxxii; Law can be kept, 14-15; unveiling, madrasa, xiv, xvii; opposition to the
Judgement Day, 21, 30 realization and, 94, 95-6; scholars, 95; at variance with the Law, 69; building of xix; state-controlled
al-Junayd, Abu al-Qasim, 17, 31, 37, 50 xxxii; subtle reality, 20-1, 25, 30, wayfarer to God/sillik, 104 madrasa, xii
al-JUzajani, Abu Ali, 34 32; revelation, xxxii; to wor- law (substantive law/filth), xv, xvii, the Maghrib (the West), ix-xiii, xiv,
ship means to know', 22; see also xxxv, II, 12, 98; knowledge of the xviii, xxx, xli; legist/Sufi close
karama, see charismatic acts inspired knowledge outward/filth al-zahir, Jr relationship, xiii, xviii; religious
kasal, see laziness knowledge, transmission of xix, II, 63, the lawful, 13, 36, 48; it is evident, 35; and doctrinal unity of x; saints in,
kashf see unveiling 72; by a conveyed report, xl, 72, third spiritual struggle, lawfulness xii; spiritual life, xi-xii; Sufism
al-Kattani, Muhammad b. 'Ali b. Jacfar, 81; by example and direct observa- of, xxxix, 51-2, 92, 93, 103, 105 in, xii, xv, xviii-xix, xxv
50 tion, 72-3, 76; by masters, ix, xix, lawb, see Tablet/Preserved Tablet magic, 65-7, 68; magical squares, 64,
kawn, see created universe xxxv; disclosure of knowledge of laylat al-qadr, see Night of Destiny 66; magical sciences, 42
Khalid b. al-Walid, nu the Dominion, 57-8; excessive sys- laziness (kasal), r6, 44, 68, 75 mababba, see love
Khalife, Ignace-Abdo, xxix, xxx tematization of learning, xix; legist, legist (lapis), x, xiii, xxxi, 12, 81; expert mahmad, see the praiseworthy
khanaqa (Sufi lodge), xiv-xv, xvii, xxiv 72-3; oral transmission, xl, TO, 72, legist/a/-faqih al-mufti, 15, 104, 1o6; make, see obliteration
Khanaqa al-Baybarsiyya, Cairo, xxiii; Joe; written transmission, xl, 2, 72, Ibn Khaldun on, xxxiv; knowl- al-Makki, Abu Talib: Qat al-qulab fi
Sacid al-Sucada:, xxiii 79, 81-2, 90, 107; secret between the edge of the outward/filth al-zahir, mu amalat al-makbab, 92
Kharijis, II servant and his Lord, xxvi, see also II; legist/Sufi-aspirant compari- malakut, see the Dominion
Khuzayma b. Thabit, 99 Andalusian debate; book son, xxxiv, xl, 12-13; legist/Sufi Malik b. Anas, xxxv; Muwatta , xvii
kitab, see book kufr, see misbelief close relationship, xiii, xviii; Maliki school, x, xi, xiii, xxxii, xxxv, xli
knowledge/learning (ìlm), 6; acquired kursi, see Footstool legist/Sufi dichotomy, x, xxxiii, Mamluks, xiv, xv, xxiii
knowledgefihn al-kasbi, xxxii, 22, xxxiv, xxxvii; state legist, x, xi; manifestation (zuhar): degrees of, 6o
23, z6, 82; acquired knowledge/ Lacoste, Yves, xvi-xvii substantive law, II, 12; transmis- mankind, 22, z6, 38, 51, 6o, tog; crea-
inspired knowledge distinction, z6, !atria rabbaniyya, see subtle reality sion of knowledge, 72-3; wisdom tion of, 19; trust, 19-2o; see also
28; degrees of, 30, 31, 32, 47; felic- Law (sharra), xviii, 7; Andalusian of legists and Sufis should be all- body; subtle reality
ity and, 27-31, 32; the forbidden, debate, 8o, 98, 99, too, 101-102, inclusive, xxxv; worship, ro; see maqdm, see station/spiritual station
58; al-Ghazali, different sources of 106; division into two branches, also the outward al-Maqqari, Abu Abd Allah, xviii, xix,
knowledge for the soul, 24; hierar- ir-r7; felicity, 74; he who studies letters ((Jinni), 63-5 xx
chical view of xxxii-xxxiii, 22-4; Sufism and does not study the light, 26, 70, 96, 107, 109; bewildered al-Maqrizi, Ahmad Taqi al-Din, xxiii
the highest, most perfect, clearest Law is a heretic, xxxv; knowledge by the light of Self-disclosure mdrifa, see gnosis
and pleasurable knowledge, 28; of the inward, 11-12, 14; knowl- and witnessing, 33; discerning Marinids, xii-xiii, xiv, xix
knowledge is a seed to the vision edge of the outward, 11-12, 14, light/a/-nur al-furonr, 98, too, martyr, 40, 49, 51
that will turn into unveiling 30 15; Law/Sufi Path reconciliation, toz; disclosure of the lights, 46, the Mashriq (the East), x, xiii-xiv,
32; knowledge of God, 6-7, xiii, xviii, xxxiv; proper conduct, 8o; lifting of the veil, 46; light of xvii, xviii, xli; Law/Sufi Path
z8, 32; knowledge of the heart, 33, 69; salvation, xxxiv, 14, 74; God, 26; light of witnessing/nCir reconciliation, xiii, xviii; saints in,
II; knowledge of the inward, seeker attracted by God, 109; al-mushahada, 48 xiv; Sufism, xiv
xxxiv, 11-12, 34; knowledge of shaykh, 94, 95; struggle for God- litany (wird), xxi, 43, 48 Maslama Abu al-Qasim:
the ultimate Truth as object of wariness, 80-1, 102, 103; struggle love, xl; cishq, xl; love for God, 30-1, 43; Ghayat al-hakim, 67
Sufism, xxxii; mystical tasting, for walking on the straight path, love of perfection, 6; mahabba, 45 al-Masnawi, Abu Abd Allah, ix, xxvi-
xxxv; perception and knowledge 8o, 102; studying the Law is safer l-muqill xxvi
after death, 29-30; perfection, 6-7, than unveiling divine secrets, 58, madhmum, see the blameworthy master, ile; juhaydkah
astexr see sh
41; the permissible, 58; pleasure 59-6o; Sufism and, xiii, xviii-xix, madness, 33, 68, 85; seeker attracted by misbelief (kufr), 8, 69
from knowledge obtained through xxxi, 69; three levels at which the God, 107, Ion Dhu al-Nun, xiv, 47
moderation, 36, 37, 39, 42 Night of Destiny (laylat al-qadr), 54-5 death, 29; Divine Names, 6o, 52; heart, 5-6, 7, 8, 9, 14; initiatic
monasticism (rahbaniyya), 40, 51-2, 74 niyya, see intention 61, 63, 67; heart, spherical shape chain, 87, mo; perfection of noble
moral care (wara), II, 12, 35, 45, 47, 49, North Africa, xi, xii, xiii, xix-xx and perfection of, 41; the high- character traits, 38; prayer, 13, 26,
71, 9I; see also God-wariness novice, xxxvi, xxxviii, 3, 6o; see also est perfection/al-kamd/ 52, 72; Qur'an, 38, 99, 102 (`His
Moroccan Royal Library, Rabat, xxviii disciple; Sufi-aspirant 6-7; intellect, love of perfection, nature was the Qur'an', 38); rev-
Morocco, x, xii, xiii, xiv, xxi, xxix; Fez, 6; knowledge, 6-7, 41; Prophet elation to, 24, 55; three statuses,
X, Xi, xii, xviii, xxviii, xxxv, 1-2 obliteration (mahu), 23, 31, 33, 40, 43, Muhammad, 38; Self-disclosure 102-103 (guidance of the people,
Moses, 38 45, 46 contains perfection, 61; spiritual ioz; personal spiritual struggle,
mosque, 17, 18, 69 Oneness (wanda), xx, xxvii, xxxiv, 6o, perfection, xxxv; subtle reality, m2; spiritual perception through
Mother of the Book, zo 61, 62-3, 68; gnosis of Oneness/ 20-1, 22-3, 25; virtue, 21, 41 meditation, 102-103); unveiling,
mdallim, see teacher tnacrilat al-wanda, 63; tawbid-wabda Perez, Rene: La Vote et la Lot ou le Mai- 102-103
muhadara, see presence with God doctrine, xxi; see also divine tre et le Juriste, xxx prophethood, 23, 54, 58, 8o; vision, 24
Muhammadan Reality (al-baqiqa al- unity; Unicity; Unity philosophy, xxxiii, 6o, 62, 68, 90 Prophets, 14, 36, 38, 49, 55, 61, 63, 99;
Muhammadiyya), 61 opinion: ra'y, 6o; ?atm, 26 pilgrimage, xv, xxiii, 58-9, 72 God-wariness, 103; knowledge,
al-Muhasibi, al-Harith b. Asad, Si, 90; the outward (al-zahir), 5, 33; ascetic Plato, xxvi, 26 xxxii; knowledge of the Domin-
Kitab al-rlaya, xix, 2, 12, 56, 92 training, 39; God-wariness, 35, 49; pleasure: after death, 3o; the highest ion, 57-8; primordial nature of,
mujahada, see spiritual struggle harmony between the inward and pleasure, 28-9; the most pleasur- 53, 57; revelation, 23; unveiling
muleashafa, see unveiling the outward, xxxiv, 14, 15; hy- able knowledge, 28; related to and witnessing, masters of, 57;
multiplicity, 6o, 6r, 62 pocrisy as contradiction between corporeal instincts, 28; related to walking on the straight Path, 49,
munazala, see divine graces, descent of the outward and the inward, 9; the heart, 28 73, 91, 93, 103, 107
murid, see disciple knowledge of the outward/figh Portugal, xi purification (tasfiya): ascetic train-
al-Mursi, Abu al-Abbas, xiv al-zahir, xxxiv, 11-12, 14, 15; wis- positivism, xvi, xxxii ing, 39; degrees of, 31; heart, 55;
mushahada, see witnessing dom of legists and Sufis should be poverty (faqr), 17, 40, 50, 96 inspired knowledge, 4o; self-
mutasawwil see Sufi-aspirant all-inclusive, xxxv; see also legist the praiseworthy (malmad), 6, 7, 12 purification, xiii; soul, 24, 31, 37;
Muctazila, II outward deed, 5, 8, 34; free choice and, prayer, 9, 3o; Gabriel, 72; Prophet subtle reality, 21, 22, 23, 31; Sufi,
al-Llafiz, Muhammad, xxx 9-10; station of faith, 15; station Muhammad, 13, 26, 52, 72; ritual/ 32; unveiling, 25, 31, 42, 74
muwasala, see union with God of submission, 15 obligatory prayer, 13, 36, 43, 48, purity (raft'), 18; purity of deeds and
mystical/ecstatic experience, xxxvi, 47, 77; supplication, 7; teaching of, states, 75
56-7, 86, 87, 88; only those who Paradise, 30-1, 34 72; see also worship
have attained mystical experiences path/straight path, 7, 16, 34; see also Predecessors (sala]), 18, 8o, 103 al-Qabbab, Abu al-Abbas, ix, xxviii,
can understand them, 91 walking on the straight Path presence with God (muhadara), 31, 45, 47 xxxv;fatwa, xxviii, xxxv-xxxvi
mystical tasting (dhawq), xxxv, xxx- patience (sabr), 5, 45, 46, 48 Presences, 61; Nebulous Presence/a/- qalam, see Pen
viii, 28, 45, 65, 77; Andalusian Pen (qalam), 25, 54, 61 barfra al-camaityya, 61, 62; Presence al-Qalqashancli, Ahmad, xv
debate, 90, 92, 94, 97, mo; books perception, 82; faculties of, 27; levels of Fine Dust/al-bac/1u al-haba'iyya, al-Qassab, Muhammad b. Ali, so
and, 92; legal principles and, 95, of, 2,9; perception after death, 29; 62 Qur'an, xi, xvii, xviii, xxxviii, 36, 40,
97, 109-1o; of divine unity, 2; perception of Beauty in the pres- primordial nature (fitra), 2o, 53, 57 7o, 74; Andalusian debate, 79-80,
of the spiritual states, xl; Self- ence of the Lord, 28-9; perfec- principles of behaviour (ableam), 5, ro, 99, to2; creation, 25; as foundation
disclosure, 47 tion of, 41; rational perception, 96, 103; mystical tasting and, 95, of the wayfaring, 79, 8o; guid-
mysticism, see Sufism 77; sensorial perception, 73, 77; 97, 109-io ance, 98; memorization, xvii, 27;
nafs, see soul subtle reality, 22-6, 27-8; see also Prophet Muhammad, xxxi, 53, 96, 99; Prophet Muhammad, 38; Qur'anic
najat, see salvation spiritual perception ascension of/mi`naj, 55; fasting, 4o, recitation, 43, 48; shaykh, xxxix,
niftq, see hypocrisy perfection, 14, 27, 52, 73, 99; after 52-3; following the Sunna, 4o, 94, 95, 99; struggle for God-
Index
wariness, 26, 71, 8o-i ; struggle sabr, see patience alive or dead, too; dangers of ex- xxx-xxxi; one of Ibn Khaldun's
for walking on the straight path, sofa' , see purity cessive systematization of learning, early works, xxiv; origins of ix;
36, 38, 40, 49, 73, 80-1, 91, 93, 107; saint, xi, xx, xxi, 55, 57, 63, 95; abdal, xix; difficulty in finding a shaykh, printed editions and translations,
Surat al-Fatiha, 36; Surat Hud, 37; 2; awliya', 23; the Maghrib, xii; xxxvii, 104, 105-106; discernment xxix-xxx; see also Ibn Khaldun,
worship, 22 the Mashriq, xiv; Muhammadan and understanding of higher reali- Abu Zayd Abd al -Rahman
al-Qushayri, Abu 31, saints, 61; wall, 55 ties, 44, 75, 78, 82-3, 86-7, 88, 89, shirk, see associationism
33, 38-9, 71, 74, 78, 92; Al-Rise/a, sainthood (walaya), 109 94, 96, 97; easing the way of the shukr, see gratitude
xxxvi, xxxviii, 56, 71 salaf, see Predecessors wayfarer to his Lord, 39; emula- al-Shushtari, Abu al-Hasan, xxvi-xx-
Sale, xii, xiii, xix, xxi, xxxv, 99 tion of, 42, 56, 85-6; excessive vii, 62; Al-Qasida al-nuniyya, xxvi
Rabic a al-Adawiyya, 30-1, 57 Salman al-Farisi, 17 need for, xxxvii; experience from fiddion, see sincere believers
Rafidis, ii salvation (nap), 12, 13, 14, 15, 51, 58; travelling the Path, 42, 43-4, 74, si/si/a, see initiatic chain
rakbaniyya, see monasticism God-wariness, 40, 49, 55-6, 70, 75, 78, 79-80, 81-2, 90, 91, 92, 93, sincere believers (siddiqun), 23, 36, 45,
ra j)), see opinion 80, 93, RH; Law, xxxiv, 14, 74; 94; following one master only,
al-Razi, Najm al-Din, xxxix Sufism, 18, 34 98; Law, 94, 95; need for a living since5ri;y9/3;k9
h/5ealr,07
35, 37, 45, 58, no;
realities (haqll'iq), 25, 41, 42, 54, 61; Samnun, Abu al-Hasan, 5o master, xxxvi; Qur'an, xxxix, 94, lack of sincere disciples, xxxvii;
Muhammadan Reality, 61 science of Sufism (Wm al-ta,sawwuj), 95, 99; shaykh a/-murabbi/educat- sincerity of intention, 43
realization (tahqfq), xl, 63, 71, 95; knowl- xxxi, xxxii, xxxvi, 49, 96 ing shaykh, 76, 8o; shaykh sleep, 40, 42, 5 2, 53
edge and, 94, 95-6; levels of, xl, 63; secret, 46, 54, 63, 69, 77; Divine teaching shaykh, xxxvi-xxxvii, soul (nqfs), 7; curing and healing the
self-realization, 2, 84, 87, 90 Names, 66; keeping divine mys- xxxvifi; shaykh al-tagimishaykit character traits of, 36-7, 39-40, 49,
reason, xviii; limited role of, xxxiii; teries hidden, 56, 57-8, 59, 68, al-tarbiya comparison, xl; shaykh 73, 91; guide on the straight path,
rational reasoning/ma`pd, 2; see 70; letters, 63, 64-5; secrets of the al-tarbiya/educating shaykh, xxxvi, 8; heart, 46; power of, 65, 66;
also discursive thinking Dominion, 59, 68; Sufism, xxiv, xxxvii, xxxix; spiritual essence of, purification, 24, 31, 37; spiritual
rectitude, 9, 3 6, 37, 39-40 xxvi, 18, 56, 59, 68, 70, 77, 78, 91, xxxix; spiritual guide, xxiv-xxv, struggle, 24, 31, 36-40; subtle real-
religion, xvi-xvii; revelation, 23 ; see 95 xxxvi-xxxvii, xxxix, xl; spiritual ity, 19; subtle soul/tat ifa ruhaniyya,
also Islam Self-disclosure (tajalli), xxxiv, xxxix, state, 85-6; Sunna, 94, 95; Sunni 109; walking on the straight path,
remembrance (dhikr), xxi, 31, 43-4, 48, 29-30, 32, 46, 60; bewildered by shaykh, 85; types of, xxxvi; see 36-7, 39-40, 49, 73, 91
8o; formula of, 43 the light of, 33; dangers, 33, 44; also Andalusian debate; Andalusian Spain, x, xx; see also Andalusia;
renunciation (zuhd), 45 death, 33; degrees of, 3o; mysti- debate, on the need of a shaykh; Granada
repentance (tawba), 35, 45, 47-8 cal tasting, 47; Self-disclosure spiritual struggle and the need of sphere: celestial spheres/aflale, 62, 63,
Resurrection, 55, 58 contains perfection, 61; see also a shaykh 65,6e6c;hoen

perfii 4 Iherical shape and
of, sp
retreat/spiritual retreat, xxi, 42, 43-4, witnessing Shiban al-Raci, Si
48 , 77, 80; aim of, 48 senses, 22, 23, 24, 25, 77, 107; external al-Shibli, Abu Bakr, 43 spirit (run), xxxviii, 10; heart, 46;
revelation (wally), xxxii, 23, 24, 55; senses, 23, 24; reliance on, 72, 73 Shifa' al-sa'il li-tandhib al-masd'il, x, Spirit, 57-8; subtle reality, 19
religion, 23 al-Shadhili, Abu al-Hasan, xi, xiv xxiv-xxxi; Andalusian debate, ix, spiritual guide, see shaykh
the righteous, 40, 49, 51 the Shadhiliyya, xi, xiii; origins, xiv xix, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii, xxx, xxxv, spiritual perception (illihr), 24, 28, 31;
Ritter, Hellmut, xvi al-Shafil, Muhammad b. Idris, 81 xxxvii-xl, 2-3; appendix, xxxix; third spiritual struggle, 40, 42,
riya' , see dissemblance sharra, see Law authorship, xxv-xxvii; date of 4

u9n,v7
e3 92
il,in g ; see also perception;
riyada, see ascetic discipline al-Sharishi, Abu Bakr Muhammad b. composition, xxvii-xxviii; devot-
rah, see spirit Atimad: Al-Rd 'iyya ft' al-sulnk, ed to Sufism, xvii; Fez, xxviii; Ibn spiritual struggle (mujdhada), xxxviii,
Jalal al-Din, xl xxvii Khaldun's silence on, xxiv-xxv; 24, 31, 42, 45-9, 56; divine gifts,
Ruwaym al-Baghdadi, so al-Shatibi, Abu !shag, ix, xxviii love, xl; manuscripts, xxvi, xxviii- 46 ; first spiritual struggle/God-
ru 'ya, see vision shaykh (Sufi master), xiii, xxxvi, xl, 81; xxix, xxx; nature and purpose of, Wariness, XXXViii, 35-6, 40, 45,
66
47, 49, 55-6, 70, 77, 91; science of shaykh is strongly recommended, tion, 22-6, 27-8; perfection, 20, M a gm
h arisbh, rxi xiv; xnvo
Sufism, 49; second spiritual strug- 73; struggle for God-wariness, 21, 22-3, 25; purification of, 21, 22, the iiim-enxicx1;txuxrev;
gle/walking on the straight path, 71-3, 8i; struggle for unveil- 23, 31; reaching the subtle reality's and specific terms, 45-6, 49, 56,
xxxviii, 36-40, 45, 47, 49, 5r, 56, ing and witnessing, xxxviii-xl, essence through itself, 25-6, 55; 68, 73, 92; rural area, xii, xiii, xiv;
70, 77, 9r; soul, 24, 31, 36-40; Sufi, 42, 43-4, 73-8, 8o; struggle for revelation, 23; World of Divine salvation, 18, 34; science of unveil-
3, r8, 32, 44-5, 48; Sufism, 45, 49, walking on the straight Path, 73, Command, 2o, 22; see also heart; ing, 59; secret, xxiv, xxvi, i8, 56,
50-I, 56, 70-1; stations, 47-8; see 8i; see also Andalusian debate, intellect; soul; spirit 59, 68, 7o, 77, 78, 91, 95; spiritual
also God-wariness; spiritual strug- on the need of a shaykh; shaykh; Sufi: etymology of the name 'Sufi', struggle, 45, 49, 50-1, 56, 7o-r;
gle (third); spiritual struggle and spiritual struggle 17-18 (People of the Veranda/alit urban area, xii, xiii; virtue, 5o;
the need of a shaykh; walking on Spiritual World (al-Warn al-rnhani), al-suffa, 17-18; saft7 purity , 18; Jai/ Western Sufism, xi, xiv; see also
the straight Path xxxii, xxxviii, 2, 20, 26, 73 wool, 17; suffa, 17, 18); felicity, the inward; science of Sufism; Sufi
spiritual struggle (third), 40-4, 49, 70; stars, 63, 67 no; first/earlier Sufis, xxxi, xxxv, Suhayb al-Rami, 17
Andalusian debate, xxxviii-xl, state/spiritual state (hal), xxxvi, xxxvi- 3, 18, 32, 49; legist/Sufi-aspirant al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din: 'Aura&
8o, 81, 90, 92, 93, 94-5, 97, 102, ii, xl, 2, 45; acquired virtues and, comparison, xxxiv, xl, 12-13; al-mddrif, xxxviii, 56
103-104, ro6; ascetic discipline, 74-5; colourations, 47; corrupted legist/Sufi close relationship, xiii, mak, see wayfaring
40, 54, 55, 76, 77; asceticism and spiritual state, 75, 89; heart and, xviii; legist/Sufi dichotomy, x, Sunna, xi, xxxviii, 44, 70, 74, 90; An-
spiritual retreat, 42-4; books, xl-xli, 75; shaykh, 85-6; state- xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxvii; purifica- dalusian debate, 79-8o; following
uselessness of, 78, 93; conditions enslaved mystic, 85, 86; state of tion, 3z; spiritual struggle, 3, 18, the Sunna, 40, 52; as foundation
to, 40-4, 54; corporeal forces, absolute certainty/ha/ al-yaqin, 38; 32, 44-5, 48; the term, ii, 17; of wayfaring, 79, 8o; shaykh, 94,
40, 49, 54, 76; death (premedi- station of dreams/ha/ al-ru'yd, 23; those who value actions stemming 95; struggle for God-wariness, 26,
tated), 43, 76; difference between third spiritual struggle, 74; virtues from the heart are called 'Sufis', 71; struggle for walking on the
`walking on the straight path' and that cannot be acquired are called io-ri ; unveiling, 32, 8o; witness- straight path, 40, 73
'unveiling', 71; God-wariness, 'state', 46 ing, 32-3; see also Sufism Sunnism, xii, xxxi, II; Sunni shaykh,
40-I, 54, 56; lawfulness of, xxxix, station/spiritual station (maqam), Sufi-aspirant (mut4awuttn, xxxix, 85
51-2, 92, 93, 103, 105; purification, xxxvi, 23-4, 45, 56; control over, 12-13, 18; see also disciple; novice supererogatory act of devotion, 43, 52,
74; shaykh, xxxviii-xl, 42, 43-4, 33; spiritual struggle, 47-8; station Sufi lodge, see khanaqa; zawiya 77, 104
73-8, 8o; sincerity of intention, of ultimate unification/maqam jam` Sufi master, see shaykh
43; spiritual perception, 40, 42, 49, al-jam% 47; station of unification/ Sufi order, see tariqa tabiTin, see the Followers
73, 92; spiritual states, 74; unveil- magdm jam`, 47; virtues that de- Sufism (tasawwuj), x, 3, 18; crackdown Tablet/Preserved Tablet (lawh), 25,
ing, xxxviii-xl, 40, 41, 45, 49, 54, pend on choice or acquisition are on, x-xi; criticism, xv-xvii, xxx- 54, 61
56, 70, 92; walking on the straight called 'station', 46 iii-xxxiv; definition, 18, 50-T, 70; tahqrg, see realization
path, 41, 44, 54, 56; witnessing, submission (isiarn), 15, gg-roo discretion, xxv; Eastern/Western tajalli, see Self-disclosure
xxxviii-xl, 40, 49, 54, 70; see subtle reality (tat fa rabbaniyya), 19; Sufism connections, xiv; frontier takisim, see talismans
also spiritual struggle; unveiling; acquired knowledge, 22, 23; body, outposts/ribat, xii, xiv, I; heart, talismans (tala$im), 65-6, 67
witnessing 16, 22, 55 (effects of the body's xxxiv, io-Tr, 18; Hereafter, xxxiv, Tanasukhis, 88
spiritual struggle and the need of a actions on, 20); created by God, 12, 13; hostels/buyut al-fugare , al-Tanji, Muhammad b. Tawit, xxv-
shaykh, 71, 73; the need for a mas- 20, 25; deed, so-i; faith, 21; heart, xii; Islam and, xxxv; Law, xiii, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, xxx
ter varies according to the strug- 19; inspired knowledge, 23, 31, 40; xviii-xix, xxxi, 69; Law/Sufi Path tagallul, see austerity
gle, 71, to6; no need of a shaykh, knowledge/learning, 20-I, 30, 32 reconciliation, xiii, xviii, xxxiv; taglid, see imitation
71, 73, 81, 102; occasions when (learning and gnosis as the pleasure knowledge of the inward, II; tagwa, see God-wariness
a shaykh is imperative, xxxviii- of the subtle reality, 27; perfection knowledge of the ultimate Truth tariqa (Sufi order), xii, xiv
xl, 73-8, io6; occasions when a through knowledge, 25); percep- as object of Sufism, xxxii; the huowuntf, see Sufism
Index
tasjiya, see purification 41-2, 54-5; inspired knowledge, certaintyPayn al-yaqin, xl, 45, 47; Sunna, 79, 8o
al-Tatwani, Abu Bakr, xxviii 31; knowledge, 54; knowledge is vision of God's Face, 30, 32, 49 weakness, 68, 87
tawakkul, see trust a seed to the vision that will turn Von Kremer, Alfred, xvi will (irada), 38-9, 45, 46; it is the awak-
tawba, see repentance into unveiling, 3o, 32; knowledge
ening of the heart to the quest for
tawhid, see divine unity resulting from unveiling should wanda, see Oneness the Truth, 39; a state of absolute
teacher (mucallim), xxxviii, 71; educat- not be registered in books, 56, 57, wabidiyya, see Unicity certainty, 38
ing teacher! al-murraht, 67-8, 7o; Law, 95; levels of, 31-2; wahy, see revelation wird, see litany
73; First Teacher/a/-mdallim al- lifting of the veil/raf al-hijab, 18, walaya, see sainthood witnessing (mushahada),xxxiii, xxxviii,
awwal, 87 25, 29, 33, 42, 44, 46, 54, 70, 73, walking on the straight Path: Anda- 3o, 45, 46, 48; after death, 34; be-
temporal world, 16, 17; `Be in this 8o, 92; pleasure from knowledge lusian debate, xxxviii, 80-1, 9o, wildered by the light of, 33; death,
world like a stranger or like a obtained through, 31-4; pres- 91-2, 94, 97, 103; books, guidance 33, 34; definition, 31; Divine
passer-by', 17; body and, 2o; ence with God, 31; Prophet from, 90, 91-2, 94, 102; curing Names, 67; 'Do not seek witness-
degrees of knowledge gathered in, Muhammad, 102-103; Prophets, and healing the character traits of, ing...', 34, 44; extinction, 31; first
3o; legist, 57; purification and, 25, 31, 42, 74; 36-7, 39-40, 49, 73, 91; easing the step towards, 33; heart, 46; Here-
al-Thawri, Abu Abd Allah, 3o removal of the veil/ inkishaf, 23, 29, way of the wayfarer to his Lord, after, 44; light of witnessing/Wir
al-Sharif, xix 31, 32; science of unveiling, 54, 39, 53; felicity, 7o; going straight al-mushahada, 48; the most perfect
Throne (Lads), 54, 59, 62 55, 56-9, 63, 67-8, 69, 7o; spiritual is arduous, 36, 37; heart, 41-2; knowledge of God, 32; Prophets,
trust, 69, 86, ms ; amana, 19-2o; trust in perception, 40, 49, 73; Sufi, 32, 8o; an individual obligation, 38, 92; 57; Sufi, 32-3; truth of certainty,
Godltawakkul, 45, 46, 47, 48 ultimate felicity, 45,5_,6 -0; V.-
vi- inspired knowledge, 42; Law, 8o, 47; union with God, 47; see also
Truth (liaqiqa), xxxv, 55; the One is sion of certaintyrayn al-yaqin, 47; 102; Prophets, 49, 93 (character Self-disclosure; spiritual struggle
the Truth, 62; truth of certainty/ walking on the straight path, 41-2, traits of, 73, 91, 103, 107); Qur'an, (third); unveiling
al-haqg xl, 45, 47; will is 44, 54; witnessing as the highest 36, 38, 40, 49, 86-1 (character traits women, 39, 40, 52
the awakening of the heart to the level of, 31-2; see also spiritual of 40, 73, 91, 93, I07); shaykh, need word, 57, 77; cibra/spoken word, xxx;
quest for the Truth, 39 struggle (third); veil; witnessing for, 73, 81; soul as guide on the qa//spoken word, xl; recorded
Tunisia, x, xiv; Tunis, ix, xvii, xviii Ùthman b. MazÙn, 52 straight path, 8, 36-7, 39-40, 49, 73, word, xxx-xxxi; spiritual realities
Uways al-Qarani, 91; struggle for, xxxviii, 36-40, 45, go beyond limits of conventional
Uludag, Suleyman, xxx Uwaysis, xxxix 47, 49, 51, 56, 70, 77, 91; Sunna, 4o, language, xxx, 28, 68, 78, Sr, 90,
CUmar b. al-Khattab, 8-9, 17, 26-7, 8r 73; third spiritual struggle, 41, 44, 9 94, 97; technical word,
347
Unicity (wahidiyya), 6o, 61; see also veil, 2,5; tod has seventy veils of 54, 56; unveiling, 41-2, 44, 54; see xxx, 97
divine unity; Oneness light', 33; see also unveiling also path/straight path World of Divine Command (alam al-
union with God (runnwisa/a), 45, 47 vice, 21, 46, 39 al-Wansharisi, Ahmed, ix; .A./-Mryar, ix arm), zo, 22
Unity (ahadiyya), Oo, 6r; see also divine Virtue, 21, 34, 36, 41, 45-6, 90; acquired ward, see moral care World of Spiritual Entities (à/am al-
unity; Oneness virtues, 74-5; ascetic training, Wardi, Ali, xvi ruhaniyyat), 22
the unlawful, 13, 36, 48; it is evident, 35 39; heart, 46; perfection of, 21, al-Wasiti, Abu Bakr Muhammad, 41 worship (ìrada), 3, 5, II; God-wariness,
Unseen World Calm al-ghayb), 57 41 ; praiseworthy virtues, 37, 39, wayfaring (sulak), xxxix, 7o; dangers 4o; intention, Jo; Qur'an, 22;
unveiling (kashf/mukashafa), xxxiii, 45, 46, 74; 'state', 46; 'station', 46; of, 84, 87, 88, io6, ro7; gradual seeker attracted by God, io9;
xxxviii, 23, 28, 30, 31, 45, 49; after Sufism, so wayfaring/sulak wa-tadarruj, 71; standardization of outward wor-
death, 29-30, 74; conveyed report vision (ru'ya), 24, 47; after death, meanings dealing with the core of, ship, to; station of faith, 15; three
on, 81; dangers of, 44, 53, 75, 8o; 29-3o, 76; direct vision/nazar, xl; 77-8; method of spiritual travel- levels of, 15; wisdom and, 26; `to
Divine Attributes, 31; first level of, prophethood, 24; spiritual vision, ling varies with each wayfarer, 87, worship to know', 22; see
31; fullness of, 31, 46; God-war- 33, 76, 8o, ror, m7; true vision/ 89, 91; mystical wayfaring, xxx, also prayer
iness and, 26, 40-I, 54, 56; heart, al-ru'ya al-saliha, 24; vision of xxxiii, xl, 88-9; Qur'an, 79, 86; wretchedness, 7, 10, 20, 21
yaqin, see certainty zandaqa, see heresy

al-Yusi, 'Abd xxviii zann, see opinion
al-Yusi, al-tiasan b. Masc rid, xxvi, Zarruq, Ahmad, ix, xxvi
xxviii zdwiya (Sufi lodge), xii, xiv, xviii, 43
Zaydan, 'Abd al-Rahman, xxviii
al-zahir, see the outward al-Zubaycla Abu 'Abd Allah, xvii
al-Zahir Sayf al-Din Barquq, Sultan, zuhd, see asceticism; renunciation
xxiii, xxiv zuhar, see manifestation
Zanadiqa, 87-8
T7?

Yumna Ozer Ibn Khaldun On Sufism

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Yumna Ozer Ibn Khaldun On Sufism

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IBN KHALDUN ON SUFISM:

REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN

Translated by Yumna Ozer

THE ISLAMIC TEXTS SOCIETY

One of the issues handled by Ibn Khaldim in Skiff li-tandhib

In the Name of God, Most Compassionate and Merciful

On the Way of the Sufis, Its General Examination and

The Individual's Legal Obligations Prescribed by the

He who does actually return from this journey victorious, having

REMEDY FOR THE QUESTIONER IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS Chapter Three

The wayfarer in his endeavour is similar to the dyer who tries

Any mentally conceived teaching will parallel some natural phe-

from one another or differentiate between that which tends towards

Fifth Argument he is claiming a new law, and this is an ignominious accusation!'

There is yet one unresolved question on my mind The one attracted

happen to intuitively perceive one of these spiritual states—through

Abd el-Kader, Emir. Ecrits Spirituels, translated and presented by Michel

Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. 'The Relativity of Ibn Khaldan's Historical

Resurrection, 55, 58 contains perfection, 61; see also a shaykh 65,6e6c;hoen

riya' , see dissemblance sharra, see Law authorship, xxv-xxvii; date of 4

yaqin, see certainty zandaqa, see heresy

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