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ii. Fragmentation:
When processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free
memory space is broken into little pieces which is known as
fragmentation.
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f) Write syntax of PWD command and explain its use with the help 2M
of suitable example.
Ans. Syntax: $ pwd
PWD command is used to print (display) current working directory. Syntax 1M
Use &
Example: $ pwd example 1M
Above example displays absolute pathname.
Output: /home/poly
g) List any four file operations. 2M
Ans. Creating a file
Writing a file Any four
operations
Reading a file 1/2M each
Repositioning within a file
Deleting a file
Appending new information to the end of the file
Renaming an existing file.
Truncating a file
Creating copy of a file, copy file to another I/O device such as
printer or display
2. Attempt any THREE of the following: 12
a) Explain Resource management of an operating system. 4M
Ans. Resource Management in Operating System is the process to
manage all the resources efficiently like CPU, memory, Any
relevant
input/output devices, and other hardware resources among the explanation
various programs and processes running in the computer. 4M
Computer's resources are limited and several users or programs
may need to utilize the same resources—such as memory and
CPU—at the same time.
Operating system has to manage and ensure that all processes get
the resources they need to execute, without any problems like
deadlocks.
Operating systems use various scheduling algorithms to ensure
that each process gets its fair share of CPU time.
Operating systems use virtual memory techniques to manage
memory efficiently.
Operating systems use file system management techniques to
manage disk space efficiently.
File system management allows the operating system to create,
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1.Process Management:
A program is a set of instructions. When CPU is allocated to a
program, it can start its execution. A program in execution is a
process. A word processing program run by a user on a PC is a
process. A process needs various system resources including CPU
time, memory, files and I/O devices to complete the job execution.
These resources can be given to the process when it is created or
allocated to it while it is running.
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
Creation and deletion of user and system processes.
Suspension and resumption of processes.
A mechanism for process synchronization.
A mechanism for process communication.
A mechanism for deadlock handling.
2. Main-Memory Management
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, ranging in size from
hundreds of thousands to billions. Each word or byte has its own
address. Main memory is a repository of quickly accessible data
shared by the CPU and I/O devices. The central processor reads
instructions from main memory during the instruction fetch cycle and
both reads and writes data from main memory during the data fetch
cycle. The main memory is generally the only large storage device
that the CPU is able to address and access directly.
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with main memory s management:
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3. File Management
A file is a collected of related information defined by its creator.
Computer can store files on the disk (secondary storage), which
provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these media
has its own properties like speed, capacity, and data transfer rate and
access methods. A file system normally organized into directories to
ease their use. These directories may contain files and other
directions.
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with file management:
The creation and deletion of files.
The creation and deletion of directions.
The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
The mapping of files onto secondary storage.
The backup of files on stable storage media.
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5. Secondary-Storage Management
The computer system provides secondary storage to back up main
memory. Secondary storage is required because main memory is too
small to accommodate all data and programs, and the data that it
holds is lost when power is lost. Most of the programs including
compilers, assemblers, word processors, editors, and formatters are
stored on a disk until loaded into memory. Secondary storage consists
of tapes drives, disk drives, and other media.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
Free space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling.
c) Describe message passing system of interprocess communication 4M
(IPC)
Ans. Message Passing: In this model, communication takes place by Relevant
explanation
exchanging messages between cooperating processes. It allows
3M
processes to communicate and synchronize their action without
sharing the same address space. It is particularly useful in a Correct
distributed environment when communication process may reside on diagram 1M
a different computer connected by a network. Communication
requires sending and receiving messages through the kernel.
The processes that want to communicate with each other must have a
communication link between them. Between each pair of processes
exactly one communication link exists.
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Any 4
blocks of
information
in PCB
2M
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Hold and Wait: There must exist a process that is holding at least
one resource and is waiting to acquire additional resources that are
currently being held by another process. Process currently holding
resources granted earlier can request new resources.
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Circular Wait: There exist a set (P0, P1, ----- Pn) of waiting
processes such that P0 is waiting for a resource which is held by P1,
P1 is waiting for a resource which is held by P2. Pn-1 is waiting for
resources which are held by Pn and Pn is waiting for a resource which
is held by P0. Thus there must be a circular chain of two or more
processes, each of which is waiting for a resource held by the next
member of the chain.
ii) Swapping
Swapping is mechanism in which a process can be swapped
temporarily out of main memory (or move) to secondary storage
(disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some
later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary
storage to main memory.
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2.File Management
We can identify several common system calls dealing with files.
We first need to be able to create and delete files such a system
call requires the name of the file and perhaps some of its
attributes.
Once, the file is created, we need to open it and use it. We may
also read, write and reposition. Finally we need to close the file,
indicating that we are no longer using it.
Example of file related system call:
a. Create file, Delete file
b. Open a file, Close a file.
c. Create directory.
d. Read, Write, Reposition.
e. Get file attributes, Set file attributes.
f. Create a link.
g. Change working directory.
3.Device Management
Files can be thought of as abstract or virtual devices. Thus many
of the system calls for files are also needed for devices.
If there are multiple users of the system however we must first
request the device to ensure that we have exclusive use of it. After
we are finished with the device, we must release it. These
functions are similar to the open/close system calls for files.
Once, the device has been requested we can read, write and
reposition the device just as with files.
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4. Information Maintenance
Many system calls exist simply for the purpose of transferring
information between the user program and the operating system.
For example most systems have a system call to return the current
time and date.
Other system calls may return information about the system such
as the number of current users, the version number of the
operating system, the amount of free memory or disk space and so
on.
In addition the operating system keeps information about all of its
jobs and processes and there are system calls to access this
information. Generally, there are also calls to reset it. (get process
attributes and set process attributes).
Information Maintenance related system call:
a. Get Time or Date, Set Time or Date.
b. Get system Data, Set system Data.
c. Get process, File or Device attributes.
d. Set process, File or Device attributes.
5. Communication
There are two models of inter-process communication, the
message-passing model and the shared memory model.
Message-passing uses a common mailbox to pass messages
between processes
Shared memory use certain system calls to create and gain access
to regions of memory owned by other processes
Communication related system calls:
a. Establish a connection.
b. Send, receive messages.
c. Terminate a connection
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Disadvantages:
1. Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the
user threads.
2. Transfer of control from one thread to another within same process
requires a mode switch to the Kernel.
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OR
OR
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P1 P3 P2
0 8 9 13
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P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P1 P1
0 2 4 5 7 9 11 13
P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P1
0 3 6 7 10 11 13
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Any 1
Disadvantag
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 e 1M
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
2) Linked List
In this approach, the free disk blocks are linked together i.e. a free
block contains a pointer to the next free block. The block number of
the very first disk block is stored at a separate location on disk and is
also cache in memory. In this approach, link all the disk blocks
together, keeping a pointer to the first free block. This block contains
a pointer to the next free disk block, and so on.
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Disadvantages
Not suitable for a large number of files and more than one
Any 1
user. disadvantag
Because of single directory files, files require unique file e 1M
names.
Difficult to remember names of all the files as the number of Two level
files increases. MS-DOS OS allows only 11 character file directory
structure
name where as UNIX allows 255 character. explanation
1M
Any 1
Advantage
1M
Any 1
disadvantag
e 1M
When a user refers to a particular file, only his own UFD is searched.
Different users can have files with the same name, as long as all the
file names within each UFD are unique.
When we create a file for a user, operating system searches only that
user’s UFD to find whether same name file already present in the
directory. For deleting a file again operating system checks the file
name in the user’ UFD only.
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Advantages:
It solves isolation. i.e. data of one user is separated from other
user.
Searching is also efficient in this type of structure.
Every user accesses his own directory and files.
There is no problem of files with same names in different
directories.
Disadvantages:
Two users can not share data or communicate with each other.
It is difficult to search the files with same names in different
directories.
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Sample question paper
Q Questions/ Answer Ma
u rk
e. s
a) Differentiate between Batch Operating System and Time shared Operating
System.
(any two points)
Sr. Batch Operating System Time shared Operating
No System
1 There is an operator which takes Each task is given some time to
similar jobs having same execute, so that all the tasks
requirement and group them into work smoothly
batches.
2 It is very difficult to guess or know Each task gets an equal
the time required by any job to opportunity
complete
b) State any four services of Operating System.
Here is a list of common services offered by an almost all operating systems:
User Interface
Program Execution
File system manipulation
Input / Output Operations
Communication
Resource Allocation
Error Detection
Accounting
Security and protection
ii) Segmentation
ps
User Mode:
The system is in user mode when the operating system is running a user
application such as handling a text editor. The transition from user mode to
kernel mode occurs when the application requests the help of operating
system or an interrupt or a system call occurs.
The mode bit is set to 1 in the user mode. It is changed from 1 to 0 when
switching from user mode to kernel mode.
Kernel Mode
The system starts in kernel mode when it boots and after the operating
system is loaded, it executes applications in user mode. There are some
privileged instructions that can only be executed in kernel mode. These are
interrupt instructions, input output management etc. If the privileged
instructions are executed in user mode, it is illegal and a trap is generated.
The mode bit is set to 0 in the kernel mode. It is changed from 0 to 1 when
switching from kernel mode to user mode.
All the processes that use the shared memory model need to make sure
that they are not writing to the same memory location.
Shared memory model may create problems such as synchronization
and memory protection that need to be addressed.
Q. 12
3 M
a) Define PCB. List information contained in PCB and explain any two 4
M
Each process is represented as a process control block (PCB) in the operating
system. It contains
Information associated with specific process.
In general, a PCB may contain information regarding:
1. Process Number: Each process is identified by its process number, called
process identification
number (PID).
2. Priority: Each process is assigned a certain level of priority that
corresponds to the relative importance of the event that it services.
3. Process State: This information is about the current state of the process. I.e.
whether process is in
new, ready, running, waiting or terminated state.
4. Program Counter: This contains the address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.
5. CPU Registers: CPU registers vary in number and type, depending upon the
computer architectures. These include index registers, stack pointers and
general purpose registers etc. When an interrupt occurred, information about
the current status of the old process is saved in registers along with the
program counters. This information is necessary to allow the process to be
continued correctly after the completion of an interrupted process.
6. CPU Scheduling Information: This information includes a process priority,
pointers to scheduling queues and any other scheduling parameters.
7. Memory Management Information: This information may include such
information as the value of base and limit registers, the page table or the
segment table depending upon the memory system used by operating system.
8. Accounting: This includes actual CPU time used in executing a process in
order to charge individual user for processor time.
9. I/O Status: It includes outstanding I/O request, allocated devices
information, pending operation and so on.
10. File Management: It includes information about all open files, access rights
etc.
b) Define deadlock and state the necessary conditions for deadlock..
A Deadlock is a situation where each of the computer process waits for a
resource which is being assigned to some another process. In this situation,
none of the process gets executed since the resource it needs, is held by some
other process which is also waiting for some other resource to be released.
Let us assume that there are three processes P1, P2 and P3. There are three
different resources R1, R2 and R3. R1 is assigned to P1, R2 is assigned to P2
and R3 is assigned to P3.
After some time, P1 demands for R1 which is being used by P2. P1 halts its
execution since it can't complete without R2. P2 also demands for R3 which is
being used by P3. P2 also stops its execution because it can't continue without
R3. P3 also demands for R1 which is being used by P1 therefore P3 also stops
its execution.
In this scenario, a cycle is being formed among the three processes. None of the
process is progressing and they are all waiting. The computer becomes
unresponsive since all the processes got blocked.
Swapping
Swapping is a concept in which we do swapping of a process from main
memory to secondary storage and vice-versa. The swapping of processes from
one memory to another is explained clearly in the diagram given below. It
clearly explains that how this swap in and swap out thing works. This is done
so that the memory which we get free through swapping can be used by other
processes.
Swapping affects the performance of the system, but it is helpful or beneficial
for the system when we want to run multiple processes in parallel. Due to this
reason, memory compaction technique is another name given to swapping.
linked Allocation:
In this method, each file occupies disk blocks scattered anywhere on the disk.
It is a linked list of allocated blocks.
When space has to be allocated to the file, any free block can be used from
the disk and system makes an entry in directory.
Directory entry for allocated file contains file name, a pointer to the first
allocated block and last allocated block of the file.
The file pointer is initialized to nil value to indicate empty file.
A write to a file, causes search of free block.
After getting free block data is written to the file and that block is linked to
the end of the file.
To read the file, read blocks by following the pointers from block to block
starting with block address specified in the directory entry.
For example, a file of five blocks starting with block 9 and continue with
block 16,then block 1,then block 10 an finally block 25.each allocated block
contains a pointer to the next block.
Indexed Allocation:
In this method, each file has its own index block.
This index block is an array of disk block addresses.
When a file is created, an index block and other disk blocks according to the
file size are allocated to that file.
Pointer to each allocated block is stored in the index block of that file.
Directory entry contains file name and address of index block.
When any block is allocated to the file, its address is updated in the index
block.
Any free disk block can be allocated to the file. Each ith entry in the index
block points to the ith block of the file. To find and read the ith block, we use
the pointer in the ith index block entry.
Q.
4
a) Compare between Windows and LINUX Operating System.(any four points)
Description LInux Windows
Linux can be freely
distributed,
downloaded freely,
distributed through
$119 - $199.99, $69 for
magazines, Books
Cost students, $99 to upgrade to
etc. There are priced
pro
versions for Linux
also, but they are
normally cheaper
than Windows.
Linux is developed
by Open Source
development i.e.
Development through sharing and
Developed and distributed
and collaboration of
by Microsoft.
Distribution code and features
through forums etc
and it is distributed
by various vendors.
Linux kernel is
developed by the
Manufacturer community. Linus Microsoft
Torvalds oversees
things.
Everyone. From
home users to
User developers and Everyone
computer
enthusiasts alike.
Linux can be
installed on a wide
variety of computer
hardware, ranging
from mobile phones, On PC's desktops, laptops,
Usage
tablet computers servers and some phones.
and video game
consoles, to
mainframes and
supercomputers.
Ext2, Ext3, Ext4, Jfs,
File system
ReiserFS, Xfs, Btrfs, FAT, FAT32, NTFS, exFAT
support
FAT, FAT32, NTFS
Windows uses a command
shell and each version of
BASH (Bourne Again
Windows has a single
SHell) is the Linux
command interpreter with
Text mode default shell. It can
dos-like commands,
interface support multiple
recently there is the
command
addition of the optional
interpreters.
PowerShell that uses more
Unix-like commands.
PowerPC: versions 1.0 - NT
4.0; DEC Alpha: versions 1.0
- NT 4.0; MIPS R4000:
Supported versions 1.0 - NT 4.0; IA-32:
All
platforms versions 1.0 - 8; IA-64:
version XP; x86-64:
versions XP - 8; ARM:
version RT;
b) Write any four system calls related to device management.
A process may need several resources for its execution. So system calls used
for asking permission from the kernel to use those resources are included in
this type.
c) Compare between short term and long term scheduler.(any four points)
BASIS FOR LONG-TERM SHORT-TERM
COMPARISON SCHEDULER SCHEDULER
d) Compare FCFS and SJF Scheduling algorithm with any four points.
FCFS algorithm doesn't include any complex logic, it just puts the
process requests in a queue and executes it one by one.
Hence, FCFS is pretty simple and easy to implement.
Eventually, every process will get a chance to run, so starvation doesn't
occur.
According to the definition, short processes are executed first and then
followed by longer processes.
The throughput is increased because more processes can be executed in
less amount of time.
Task scheduler
Schedulers
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in
various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the
system and to decide which process to run. Schedulers are of three types −
Long-Term Scheduler
Short-Term Scheduler
Medium-Term Scheduler
User Management
To kill, or terminate a process first find out the process identifier number or
PID of the process to be killed, then pass the PID number to the kill command.
b. Ps 07121975
the ps command shows the running processes by the user running it within a
terminal window. To invoke ps simply type the following:
c. Sleep 05
waiting for 5 seconds
1 3 4 5 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 7 8 7 8 9 7 8 9 5 4 4 5 4 2
2
1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 1 1 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4
2 2 2
3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 5 5 5 5
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
LRU
1 3 4 5 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 7 8 7 8 9 7 8 8 5 4 4 5 4 2
2
1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 1 1 1 8 8 8 9 9 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 2
2 2 2
33 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 5 5 5 5
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
No. of page fault:- 18
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 7 11 20 26 34
This technique is used to implement the free space management. When the
free space is implemented as the bitmap or bit vector then each block of the
disk is represented by a bit. When the block is free its bit is set to 1 and when
the block is allocated the bit is set to 0. The main advantage of the bitmap is it
is relatively simple and efficient in finding the first free block and also the
consecutive free block in the disk. Many computers provide the bit
manipulation instruction which is used by the users.
For Example: Apple Macintosh operating system uses the bitmap method to
allocate the disk space.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
For example: Consider a disk where blocks 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18,
25,26, and 27 are free and the rest of the blocks are allocated. The free-space
bitmap would be: 001111001111110001100000011100000
2. Linked list
This is another technique for free space management. In this linked list of all
the free block is maintained. In this, there is a head pointer which points the
first free block of the list which is kept in a special location on the disk. This
block contains the pointer to the next block and the next block contain the
pointer of another next and this process is repeated. By using this disk it is not
easy to search the free list. This technique is not sufficient to traverse the list
because we have to read each disk block that requires I/O time. So traversing
in the free list is not a frequent action.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Searching the free space list will be very time consuming; each block
will have to be read from the disk, which is read very slowly as
compared to the main memory.
Not Efficient for faster access.
In our earlier example, we see that keep block 2 is the first free block which
points to another block which contains the pointer of the 3 blocks and 3 blocks
contain the pointer to the 4 blocks and this contains the pointer to the 5 block
then 5 block contains the pointer to the next block and this process is repeated
at the last.
c) Construct and explain directory structure of a file system in terms of single
level, two level and tree structure
A directory is a container that is used to contain folders and file. It organizes
files and folders into a hierarchical manner.
There are several logical structures of a directory, these are given below.
1. Single-level directory –
Single level directory is simplest directory structure.In it all files are
contained in same directory which make it easy to support and
understand.
A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the
number of files increases or when the system has more than one user.
Since all the files are in the same directory, they must have the unique
name . if two users call their dataset test, then the unique name rule
violated.
Advantages:
Since it is a single directory, so its implementation is very easy.
If files are smaller in size, searching will faster.
The operations like file creation, searching, deletion, updating are
very easy in such a directory structure.
Disadvantages:
There may chance of name collision because two files can not have
the same name.
Searching will become time taking if directory will large.
In this can not group the same type of files together.
2. Two-level directory –
As we have seen, a single level directory often leads to confusion of files
names among different users. the solution to this problem is to create a
separate directory for each user.
In the two-level directory structure, each user has there own user files
directory (UFD). The UFDs has similar structures, but each lists only the
files of a single user. system’s master file directory (MFD) is searches
whenever a new user id=s logged in. The MFD is indexed by username or
account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.
Advantages:
We can give full path like /User-name/directory-name/.
Different users can have same directory as well as file name.
Searching of files become more easy due to path name and user-
grouping.
Disadvantages:
A user is not allowed to share files with other users.
Still it not very scalable, two files of the same type cannot be
grouped together in the same user.
3. Tree-structured directory –
Once we have seen a two-level directory as a tree of height 2, the natural
generalization is to extend the directory structure to a tree of arbitrary
height.
This generalization allows the user to create there own subdirectories
and to organize on their files accordingly.
A tree structure is the most common directory structure. The tree has a
root directory, and every file in the system have a unique path.
Advantages:
Very generalize, since full path name can be given.
Very scalable, the probability of name collision is less.
Searching becomes very easy, we can use both absolute path as well
as relative.
Disadvantages:
Every file does not fit into the hierarchical model, files may be saved
into multiple directories.
We can not share files.
It is inefficient, because accessing a file may go under multiple
directories.
4. Acyclic graph directory –
An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycle and allows to share
subdirectories and files. The same file or subdirectories may be in two
different directories. It is a natural generalization of the tree-structured
directory.
It is used in the situation like when two programmers are working on a
joint project and they need to access files. The associated files are stored
in a subdirectory, separated them from other projects and files of other
programmers since they are working on a joint project so they want to
the subdirectories into there own directories. The common
subdirectories should be shared. So here we use Acyclic directories.
It is the point to note that shared file is not the same as copy file if any
programmer makes some changes in the subdirectory it will reflect in
both subdirectories.
Advantages:
We can share files.
Searching is easy due to different-different paths.
Disadvantages:
We share the files via linking, in case of deleting it may create the
problem,
If the link is soft link then after deleting the file we left with a
dangling pointer.
In case of hard link, to delete a file we have to delete all the
reference associated with it.
Advantages:
It allows cycles.
It is more flexible than other directories structure.
Disadvantages:
It is more costly than others.
It needs garbage collection.
lOMoARcPSD|44436616
Page 1 / 27
Page 2 / 27
Ans.
Correct
diagram
2M
Page 3 / 27
Page 4 / 27
MEMORY PERIPHERALS
OR
Page 5 / 27
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory.
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.
Managing swap spaces, which store inactive pages of memory.
Implementing policies for memory allocation.
File Management:
The creation and deletion of files.
The creation and deletion of directory
The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
The mapping of files onto secondary storage.
The backup of files on stable storage media.
Adding and editing the data in files.
Moving files from one location to another.
Store, arrange, or accessing files on a disk or other storage
locations.
c) Explain shared memory method of IPC using neat labelled 4M
diagram
Ans. Inter-process communication: Cooperating processes require an Explanatio
Inter- process communication (IPC) mechanism that will allow them n
to exchange data and information. 3M,
diagram
1M
Page 6 / 27
Page 7 / 27
Explanatio
ii)Sleep n½M
Syntax: sleep NUMBER[SUFFIX]
The sleep command pauses the execution for specified time in
command.
iii)Wait
Syntax: wait [pid]
Wait command waits for running process to complete and return the
exit status.
iv) Exit
Syntax: exit
used to quit the shell
(OR)
Syntax: exit[n]
The terminal window will close and return a status of n
b) What is deadlock? Discuss any one method of deadlock 4M
prevention
Ans. A deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked
because each process is holding a resource and waiting for another Deadlock
resource acquired by some other process. definition
Methods for deadlock prevention (Any 1) 1M
1. Eliminate Mutual Exclusion:
The mutual-exclusion condition must hold for non-sharable Any 1
method
resources.
3M
Mutual section from the resource point of view is the fact that a
resource can never be used by more than one process simultaneously
which is fair enough but that is the main reason behind the deadlock.
If a resource could have been used by more than one process at the
same time then the process would have never been waiting for any
resource.Read-only files are a good example of a sharable resource. If
several processes attempt to open a read-only file at the same time,
they can be granted simultaneous access to the file.
Page 8 / 27
3. Eliminate No Preemption:
If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource
that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently
being held are preempted. That is this resources are implicitly
released. The preempted resources are added to the list of resources
for which the process is waiting. Process will be restarted only when
all the resources i.e. its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is
requesting will be available.Preemption ensures that resources are
efficiently utilized and prevents deadlocks caused by the hold and
wait condition.
Page 9 / 27
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
The main advantage of this approach is its relative simplicity and its
efficiency in findingthe first free block or n consecutive free blocks
on the disk.
d) Draw the diagram of linked file allocation method and explain it. 4M
Linked Allocation:
Ans. This allocation is on the basis of an individual block. Each block
contains a pointer to the next block in the chain. Correct
Diagram
In this scheme, each file is a linked list of disk blocks which need 2M
not be contiguous. The disk blocks can be scattered anywhere on
the disk. Explanatio
n 2M
The directory contains a pointer to the first and the last blocks of
the file.
Page 10 / 27
Space is required for the pointers, 1.5% of disk is used for the
pointers and not for information. If a pointer is lost or damaged or
bug occurs in operating system or disk hardware failure occur, it
may result in picking up the wrong pointer.
Page 11 / 27
Ans. Any 4
COMMAND LINE GRAPHIC USER points 1M
INTERFACE (CLI) INTERFACE (GUI) each
Page 12 / 27
Page 13 / 27
Page 14 / 27
Gantt Chart
Ans.
Gantt
chart
2M,
FCFS
Waiting time Average
P0=0 waiting
P1= (10-1) = 9 time
P2= (39-2) = 37 calculation
P3= (42-3) = 39 1M,
P4= (49-4) = 45
Average Waiting time = Waiting time of all processes / Number of
processes Average
= (0+9+37+39+45)/5 = 26 ms turnaroun
Turnaround Time d time
calculation
P0=10
1M
P1=39-1=38
P2=42-2=40
P3=49-3=46
P4=61-4=57
Average Turnaround time = Turnaround time of all processes /
Number of processes
= (10+38+40+46+57)/5
= 191/5
= 38.2 ms
Page 15 / 27
First Fit: Allocate the Best Fit: Allocate the Worst fit: Allocate
Ans. first free block to the smallest free block the largest free block Any
new process that is big enough to to the new process Correct
accommodate new representat
OS process OS ion 4M
4 KB OS 4 KB
<FREE> 1 4 KB 9 KB
KB 9 KB <FREE>
8 KB 20 KB 12 KB
16 KB 8 KB
20 KB
16 KB <FREE> 0 16 KB
8 KB KB 8 KB
2 KB 8 KB 2 KB
6 KB 2 KB 6 KB
6 KB
OR
First Fit: Allocate the Best Fit: Allocate the Worst fit: Allocate
first free block to the smallest free block the largest free block
new process that is big enough to to the new process
accommodate new
process
OS OS OS
4 KB 4 KB 4 KB
9 KB 9 KB 9 KB
20 KB 20 KB 20 KB
16 KB 16 KB 16 KB
8 KB 8 KB 8 KB
2 KB 2 KB 2 KB
6 KB 6 KB 6 KB
Page 16 / 27
- Use Secure SSH: Telnet and rlogin protocols uses plain text, not
encrypted format which is the security breaches. SSH is a secure
protocol that use encryption technology during communication with
server. Never login directly as root unless necessary. Use “sudo” to
execute commands.
$ vi /etc/ssh/sshd_config
$ PermitRootLogin no #disable root login
$AllowUsers username # Allow only specific users
$ Protocol 2 #use SSH protocol 2 version
Turn Off IPv6: If you are not using a IPv6 protocol, then you should
disable it because most of the applications or policies not required
IPv6 protocol and currently it doesn’t required on the server. Go to
network configuration file and add followings lines to disable it.
# vi /etc/sysconfig/network
NETWORKING_IPV6=no
IPV6INIT=no
Page 17 / 27
Page 18 / 27
Page 19 / 27
Resource sharing:
Processes may only share resources through techniques such as
shared memory or message passing. Such techniques must be
explicitly arranged by the programmer. However, threads share the
memory and the resources of the process to which they belong by
default. The benefit of sharing code and data is that it allows an
application to have several different threads of activity within the
same address space.
Economy:
Allocating memory and resources for process creation is costly.
Because threads share the resources of the process to which they
belong, it is more economical to create and context-switch threads.
Empirically gauging the difference in overhead can be difficult, but in
general it is much more time consuming to create and manage
processes than threads. In Solaris, for example, creating a process is
about thirty times slower than is creating a thread, and context
switching is about five times slower.
Scalability:
The benefits of multithreading can be greatly increased in a
multiprocessor architecture, where threads may be running in parallel
on different processors. A single-threaded process can only run on
one processor, regardless how many are available. Multithreading on
a multi-CPU machine increases parallelism.
Page 20 / 27
Ans Any other frame size shall be considered. Calculation of page faults
depends on frame size. LRU
i) LRU: 3M
Considering frame size is 3:
ii) Optimal:
Considering Frame size is 3:
Optimal
3M
Reason
2M
Pre-
Following are the reason, why pre-emptive scheduling is better emptive
Ans. than non pre-emptive scheduling: SJF
Preemptive scheduling is quite flexible because critical processes 2M
are allowed to access the CPU because they come in the ready
queue and no matter which process is currently running. Non- NonPre-
preemptive scheduling is tough because if an essential process is emptive
assigned to the ready queue, the CPU process is not be SJF
2M
interrupted.
Page 21 / 27
Page 22 / 27
We can find the free block number from the bit vector using the
following method-
Block number = (Number of bits per word )* (number of 0-value
words) + (offset of first bit)
We will now find the first free block number in the above example.
The first group of 8 bits (00111100) constitutes a non-zero word since
all bits are not 0. After finding the non-zero word, we will look for
the first 1 bit. This is the third character of the non-zero word. Hence,
offset = 3.
Therefore, the first free block number = 8 * 0 + 3 = 3.
Linked List:
Another method of doing free space management in operating
systems is a linked list. In this method, all the free blocks existing in
the disk are linked together in a linked list. The address of the first
Page 23 / 27
Page 24 / 27
Page 25 / 27
Two-level directory:
As we have seen, a single level directory often leads to confusion of
files names among different users. The solution to this problem is to
create a separate directory for each user.
In the two-level directory structure, each user has their own user
files directory (UFD). The UFDs have similar structures, but each
lists only the files of a single user. System’s master file directory
(MFD) is searched whenever a new user id is created.
Searching is very easy.
There can be two files with the same name in two different user
directories. Since they are not in the same directory, the same
name can be used.
Grouping is easier.
A user cannot enter another user’s directory without permission.
Implementation is easy.
It does not allow users to create subdirectories.
Page 26 / 27
A user do not have access to the root directory data and cannot
modify it. And, even in this directory the user do not have access to
other user’s directories. The structure of tree directory is given
below which shows how there are files and subdirectories in each
user’s directory.
•The root directory is highly secured, and only the system
administrator can access it. We can see how there can be
subdirectories inside the user directories. A user cannot modify the
root directory data. Also, a user cannot access another user's
directory.
•Allows subdirectories inside a directory.
•Searching is easy.
•Allows grouping.
•Segregation of important and unimportant files is easy.
•As one user cannot enter another user’s directory, this restricts
sharing of files.
•Too many subdirectories may make the search complicated.
•Users cannot modify the root directory’s data.
Page 27 / 27
Ans comparison of
Verification Validation verification and
Are we building the system, right? Are we building the right system? validation: 2
points: 2 M,
Verification is the process of evaluating Validation is the process of evaluating 1 M each
products of a development phase to find software at the end of the development
out whether they meet the specified process to determine whether software
requirements. meets the customer expectations and
requirements.
Ans Failure: It is the inability of a system or component to perform the required function Definition of
according to its specification. OR External behavior is incorrect. failure, error,
Error: Refers to difference between Actual Output and Expected output. OR An error fault, bug: ½ M
each,
is a human action that produces the incorrect result.
total 2 M
Fault: It is a condition that causes the software to fail to perform its required function.
OR Discrepancy in code that causes a failure.
Bug: The presence of error at the time of execution of the software. OR A bug can be
defined as the initiation of error or a problem due to which fault, failure, incident or an
anomaly occurs.
c) List the objectives of software testing (any four). 2M
Ans Driver: Drivers are dummy modules that are always used to simulate the high-level Definition of
modules. Drivers are only used when main programs are under construction. driver: 1 M;
Drivers are used in bottom-up integration. definition of
stub: 1 M
Stub: Stubs are dummy modules that always used to simulate the low-level modules.
Stubs are used when sub programs are under construction.
Stubs are used in top-down approach.
Page No: 3 | 21
Exit criteria.
Exit Criteria is often viewed as a single document concluding the end of a life cycle
phase.
Some of the conditions or situations which may be seen as an exit criterion for testing
activities.
• Testing Deadline
• Completion of test case execution.
• Completion of Functional and code coverage to a certain point.
• Bug rates fall below a certain level and no high priority bugs are identified.
• Management decision.
b) Illustrate process of bi-directional integration testing. State it’s two 4M
advantages and disadvantages.
Ans • Bidirectional integration testing strategy is a combination of Top Down and Process of Bi-
Bottom-up approaches. directional
• Here, top modules are tested with lower modules at the same time lower integration
modules are integrated with top modules and tested. testing: 2 M;
• This strategy makes use of stubs as well as drivers. 2 advantages:
• bidirectional integration testing is a culmination of both incremental as well as 1 M;
non-incremental integration testing, wherein Bottom-Up approach is focused on 2
middle to top layer, Top-Down approach is concerned about layers from middle disadvantages:
to downwards and the Big Bang approach is followed for the middle layer. 1 M;
• This type of testing combines the advantages of all the three approaches and is total 4 M
mainly used to test large projects.
Advantages:
1. Bidirectional integration testing is very useful for large enterprises and huge
projects that further have several subprojects.
2. When development follows a spiral model and the module itself is as large as a
system, then one can use Bidirectional integration testing.
3. Top-Down and Bottom-Up approach both start as per development schedule.
4. Units are tested and brought together to make a system.
5. Integration is done downwards.
6. The resources that are required are immense and big teams perform both top-
down and bottom-up method of testing at a time or one after the other.
Disadvantages:
Page No: 4 | 21
• There are plenty of tools available in the market but rarely do they meet all the
requirements of a given product or a given organization.
• Evaluating different tools for different requirements involve significant effort, money,
and time. • The tool must match its intended use.
• Wrong selection of a tool can lead to problems like lower efficiency and effectiveness
of testing may be lost.
1. Technology expectations:
• Test tools in general may not allow test developers to extends/modify the
functionality of the framework So, extending the functionality requires going back to
the tool vendor and involves additional cost and effort.
2. Training/skills:
• While test tools require plenty of training, very few vendors provide the training to the
required level. • Organization level training is needed to deploy the test tools.
• As the user of the test suite are not only the test team but also the development team
and other areas like configuration management.
• If the testers do not have proper training and skill, then they may not be able to work
effectively.
3. Management aspects:
• A test tool increases the system requirement and requires the hardware and software
Page No: 6 | 21
a) Differentiate between Alpha Testing and Beta Testing. (any four points) 4M
Page No: 7 | 21
Resumption
Criteria: Closing the blocking bug in the bug tracking system
Page No: 8 | 21
12 Staffing and
To perform the tasks, you need to have the following
Training Needs
knowledge and skills:
• practical knowledge application of the notepad is needed.
• knowledge and ability to apply in practice the basic
techniques of test design.
• Knowledge of various types of testing including
functional and non-functional.
13 The deadline for completion of all works and delivery of
Schedule the project is 31/12/2023 by 5.00pm
Ans 2 M for
Diagram
Page No: 9 | 21
iii. Defect Discovery-- Identification and reporting of defects for development team
acknowledgment. A defect is only termed discovered when it has been documented and
acknowledged as a valid defect by the development team member(s) responsible for the
component(s) in error.
iv. Defect Resolution-- Work by the development team to prioritize, schedule and fix a
defect, and document the resolution. This also includes notification back to the tester to
ensure that the resolution is verified.
v. Process Improvement -- All problems are due to failure in the process involved in
creating software. Defects give an opportunity to identify the problem with process
used and update them. Better processes mean better product with less defect.
Page No: 10 | 21
Ans Explanation –
• Most of the defects in software products hover around conditions and boundaries.
• Boundary value analysis is another black box test design technique, and it is used 2 M,
to find the errors at boundaries of input domain rather than finding those errors in Example - 2 M
the center of input.
• Each boundary has a valid boundary value and an invalid boundary value.
• Test cases are designed based on both valid and invalid boundary values.
Typically, we choose one test case from each boundary.
The basic idea in boundary value testing is to select input variable values at their:
1. Minimum
2. Just below the minimum
3. Just above the minimum
4. Just below the maximum
5. Maximum
6. Just above the maximum
Page No: 11 | 21
Ans Regression testing a black box testing technique that consists of re-executing those tests 2M
that are impacted by the code changes.
ii. These tests should be executed as often as possible throughout the software (for
development life cycle. explanation
Types of Regression Tests: related with
i. Final Regression Tests: - A "final regression testing" is performed to validate the regression
build that hasn't changed for a period of time. This build is deployed or shipped to testing)
customers.
ii. Regression Tests: - A normal regression testing is performed to verify if the build
has NOT broken any other parts of the application by the recent code changes for defect
fixing or for enhancement.
When to Perform:
Regression testing should be performed whenever there is a change in the software 1M
code, configuration, or environment. For example, regression testing should be done
after adding new features, fixing bugs, refactoring code, integrating components,
updating libraries, or migrating to a different platform. Regression testing should also
be done before releasing the software to the end-users or deploying it to the production
environment.
c) What is Test Plan? What is its need? List test planning activities. 4M
Need:
1M
i. Test Plan Ensures all Functional and Design Requirements are implemented as
specified in the documentation.
ii. To provide a procedure for Unit and System Testing.
iii. To identify the documentation process for Unit and System Testing.
iv. To identify the test methods for Unit and System Testing.
Activities:
1. Scope Management: Deciding what features to be tested and not to be tested. 2M
2. Deciding Test approach /strategy: Which type of testing shall be done like
configuration, integration, localization etc.
3. Setting up criteria for testing: There must be clear entry and exit criteria for different
phases of testing. The test strategies for the various features and combinations
Page No: 12 | 21
Ans A defect report is a document that describes a defect, including its severity, priority, and 2M
steps to replicate the problem.
A defect report's primary purpose is to help the developers quickly reproduce and fix
the fault.
• Defect id :
• Project Name :
• Module Name :
• Sub Module Name :
• Type of Defect : (wrong, missing or extra)
• Status : (New, open, assign, fix)
• Severity : (high, medium, low)
• Priority : (high, medium, low)
• Summary :
• Description : (Steps To Reproduce)
• Expected Result :
• Actual Results :
• Reported By :
• Assign To :
• Date & Time:
Ans • The V-model is a type of SDLC model where process executes in a sequential Diagram-2M,
manner in V-shape. Explanation of
• It is also known as Verification and Validation model. Verification
• It is based on the association of a testing phase for each corresponding Phase- 2 M,
development stage. Explanation of
• Development of each step is directly associated with the testing phase. Validation
• The next phase starts only after completion of the previous phase i.e. for each Phase-2 M
development activity, there is a testing activity corresponding to it. OR
• V-Model contains Verification phases on one side of the Validation phases on
the other side. Answer with
• Verification and Validation phases are joined by coding phase in V-shape. Relevant
Contents
Page No: 14 | 21
Page No: 16 | 21
Ans In Client-server testing there are several clients communicating with the server. Description -
3 M,
Any suitable
example -
1M
1. Multiple users can access the system at a time, and they can communicate with
the server.
2. Configuration of client is known to the server with certainty.
3. Client and server are connected by real connection.
4. Testing approaches of client server system:
• Component Testing: One need to define the approach and test plan for testing
client and server individually. When server is tested there is need of a client
simulator, whereas testing client a server simulator, and to test network both
simulators are used at a time.
• Integration testing: After successful testing of server, client and network, they
are brought together to form system testing.
• Performance testing: System performance is tested when number of clients is
communicating with server at a time. Volume testing and stress testing may be
used for testing, to test under maximum load as well as normal load expected.
Various interactions may be used for stress testing.
• Concurrency Testing: It is very important testing for client-server architecture.
It may be possible that multiple users may be accessing same record at a time,
and concurrency testing is required to understand the behavior of a system in
this situation.
• Disaster Recovery Business continuity testing: When the client server are
communicating with each other, there exit a possibility of breaking of the
communication due to various reasons or failure of either client or server or link
Page No: 18 | 21
For example, the average number of users working simultaneously on a system must
be quantified, since performance testing most commonly tests performance under
workload stress. Testers should also determine maximum or peak user performance or
how the system operates under maximum workloads. Bandwidth is another necessary
bit of information, as is most users most frequent actions. Performance testing also
validates and verifies other performance parameters such as reliability and scalability.
Performance testing can establish that a product lives up to performance standards
necessary for commercial release. It can compare two systems to determine which one
performs better. Or they can use profilers to determine the programs behavior as it runs.
This determines which parts of the program might cause the most trouble and it
establishes thresholds of acceptable response times.
b) Write important six test cases for the “Login Form” of the Facebook 6M
website.
Page No: 19 | 21
Ans Diagram: 2 M
Description:
4M
OR
1. New: When a defect is logged and posted for the first time. It’s state is given as
new.
Page No: 20 | 21
Page No: 21 | 21
Page No: 1 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ans 1 M for
each valid
point
Ans A Test Plan is a detailed document that describes the test strategy, objectives, schedule, 2 M for
estimation, deliverables, and resources required to perform testing for a software product. correct
Test Plan helps us determine the effort needed to validate the quality of the application definition
under test. The test plan serves as a blueprint to conduct software testing activities as a
defined process, which is minutely monitored and controlled by the test manager.
4) Negotiation skills
These defects may be due to the customer gap, where the customer is unable to define his
requirements.
Producer gap, where the developing team is not able to make a product as per requirements.
2. Design Defects:
Design defects occur when system components, interactions between system components,
interactions between the outside software/hardware, or users are incorrectly designed.
Design defects generally refer to the way of design creation or its usage while creating a
product.
Page No: 2 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Coding Defects:
This defect arises when variables are not initialized properly, or variables are not declared
correctly, or database is not created properly.
Coding also needs adequate commenting to make it readable and maintainable in future.
4. Testing Defects:
These would encompass incorrect, incomplete, missing inappropriate test cases and test
procedures.
Ans Error: An error is a human action that produces the incorrect result. 1 M for
each
Defect: A defect is an error or a bug in the application which is created. A programmer definition
while designing and building the software can make mistakes or errors. These mistakes or
errors mean that there are flaws in thesoftware. These are called defects.
a) Write any four differences between quality assurance and quality control. 4M
Page No: 3 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ans 1 M for
each valid
point
2.GUI stands for Graphical User Interface where you interact with the computer using
images rather than text.
• GUI testing is the process of testing the system's Graphical User Interface of the
Application Under Test.
• GUI testing involves checking the screens with the controls like menus, buttons,
icons, and all types of bars - toolbar, menu bar, dialog boxes and windows, etc.
• GUI is what the user sees. A user does not see the source code. The interface is
visible to the user.
• Especially the focus is on the design structure, images that they are working properly
or not.
Page No: 4 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Verify All Navigations
Page No: 5 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
button in in form on
form on proper
proper position
position
Ans Test summary Report: The final step in a test cycle is to recommend the suitability of a Correct
product for release. explanatio
n4M
A report that summarizes the result of a test cycle is the test summary report.
1. Phase wise test summary, which is produced at the end of every phase.
2. Final test summary report, which has all the details of testing done by all phases and
teams.
d) Differentiate between static and dynamic testing tools. (any four points) 4M
Page No: 6 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Helps in establishing conformance to Dynamic testing is a validation
requirements view technique which includes dummy or
actual execution of work products to
evaluate it with expected behavior.
The work product is reviewed by the The testing methods evaluate the
reviewer with the help of a checklist, product with respect to requirements
standards, any other artifact, knowledge, defined; designs created and mark it as
and experience, to locate the defect with ‘pass’ or ‘fail’.
respect to the established criteria.
a) Distinguish between white box testing and black box testing. (any four points) 4M
Ans Need of
The need of test deliverables for test planning include: Test
Page No: 7 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
deliverabl
es 2 M
Need of
Test plan
2M
Test Plan A test plan is a systematic approach to testing a system, i.e. software. The plan
typically contains a detailed understanding of what the eventual testing workflow will be.
Need of test plan:
• Test Plan Ensures all Functional and Design Requirements are implemented as
specified in the documentation.
• To provide a procedure for Unit and System Testing.
• To identify the documentation process for Unit and System Testing.
Ans Diagram-
Defect Management Process 1 M,
• Defects found during Verification and validation process in SDLC must be recorded Explanati
so that it helps in further analysis and root causes of the defect. on- 3 M
• The defects found during these phases are used to find weak areas of project /process so
that action can be initiated to strengthen it.
• Defect prevention is intended to remove the possibility of any defects before it occurs.
• Once the defect is fixed, retested and found to be closed, the product is created again.
• If the newly created product satisfies the acceptance criteria, it is base lined.
• A defect is said to be discovered when it is brought to the attention of the developers and
acknowledged (i.e., “Accepted”) to be valid one.
• Team should find defects before they become major problems. As soon as a team finds
the defects, they should report them so that those can be resolved.
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• Team should also make sure that defects should be acknowledged by developers and
should be valid one.
Defect Management Process: Defect Resolution
• Work by the development team to prioritize, schedule and fix a defect, and
document the resolution.
• This also includes notification back to the tester to ensure that the resolution is verified.
• All problems are due to failures in the process involved in creating software.
• Defects give an opportunity to identify the problem with process used and update them.
Test cases are executed manually Test cases are executed with the help of
tools
Time required to execute test cases is high Time required to execute test cases is low
Initial investment required for manual Initial investment for automation testing
testing is lower is higher
It is suitable for almost any software It is suitable only for stable systems and
product used mainly for regression.
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Attempt any THREE of the following: 12 M
Ans 1 M for
diagram
3 M for
explanatio
n
Identifying the hardware, software, network configurations and tools available allows the
testing team to design the test and identify performance testing challenges early on.
In addition to identifying metrics such as response time, throughput and constraints, identify
what are the success criteria for performance testing.
Identify performance test scenarios that take into account user variability, test data, and
target metrics. This will create one or two models.
Prepare the elements of the test environment and instruments needed to monitor resources.
6.Execute Tests:
In addition to running the performance tests, monitor and capture the data generated.
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Analyze the data and share the findings. Run the performance tests again using the same
parameters and different parameters.
b) Explain people management in test planning. 4M
Ans People management in test planning involves coordinating and leading a team of testers to 1 M for
ensure that the testing process is efficient, thorough, and effective. each
aspect or
Below listed are some key aspects of people management in test planning: point
1. Team Composition: Assemble a diverse team with complementary skills and
experiences. Consider factors like technical expertise, domain knowledge, and
testing methodologies.
2. Clear Objectives: Communicate the objectives of the testing phase clearly to your
team. Ensure everyone understands the goals, scope, and expected outcomes of the
testing effort.
3. Assigning Roles and Responsibilities: Clearly define roles and responsibilities
within the testing team. Assign tasks based on individual strengths and expertise,
while also providing opportunities for skill development.
4. Setting Expectations: Establish clear expectations regarding timelines, quality
standards, and reporting mechanisms. Ensure everyone understands their individual
and collective responsibilities.
5. Effective Communication: Foster open and transparent communication within the
team. Encourage regular updates, discussions, and feedback sessions to address any
issues or challenges promptly.
6. Risk Management: Identify potential risks and challenges early in the planning
phase. Work with your team to develop mitigation strategies and contingency plans
to address any unforeseen issues during testing.
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Test Infrastructure is made up of three essential elements:
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Not reusable- The test cases created for manual testing apply to a specific version
of software, but when the updates are made these test cases will become unusable
and need to be rewritten. Which does not seem to be an effective use of resources
and can lead increase the time. thus, slowing the development process
4. Difficult to Measure: It is challenging to quantify the manual testing process since
there are no objective metrics provided by manual testing to assess the software's
quality. It is difficult to assess the efficiency of the testing process since it is difficult
to keep track of the quantity of test cases executed, errors discovered, and test
coverage attained.
Ans Acceptance testing is software testing that evaluates whether a system meets its business Descriptio
and user requirements. Acceptance Testing is a method of software testing where a system n of
is tested for acceptability. The major aim of this test is to evaluate the compliance of the Acceptan
system with the requirements and assess whether it is acceptable for delivery or not. ce testing
It is formal testing according to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted -2M
to determine whether a system satisfies the acceptance criteria or not and to enable the users,
customers, or other authorized entities to determine whether to accept the system or not. Advantag
Acceptance Testing is the last phase of software testing performed after System Testing and es - 2 M
before making the system available for actual use.
Advantages of Acceptance Testing
1.This testing helps the project team to know the further requirements from the users
directly as it involves the users for testing.
2.Automated test execution.
3.It brings confidence and satisfaction to the clients as they are directly involved in the
testing process.
4.It is easier for the user to describe their requirement.
5.It covers only the Black-Box testing process and hence the entire functionality of the
product will be tested.
a) Prepare and write six test cases for Library Management System of college. 6M
Ans Test Test Case Actual Input Expected Actual Status 1 M for
Case Name output Output each valid
No test cases
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.Enter
Password=”sa
ndip@1234”
Ans The Client-Server application consists of two systems, one is the Client, and the other is the 2 M for
Server. Here, the client and server interact with each other over the computer network. any
relevant
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MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
In Client-Server application testing, the client sends requests to the server for specific diagram,
information and the server sends the response back to the client with the requested and 4 M
information. Hence, this testing is also known as two-tier application testing. for
relevant
explanatio
n
Component Testing
➢For testing Client and server individually approach and test plan need to be defined.
➢ One may have to devise simulators to replace corresponding components while testing
the component targeted by the test.
➢ When server is tested, we may need a client simulator, while testing of client may need
server simulator.
Integration Testing
➢After successful testing of servers, clients, and network, they are brought together to form
the system and system test cases are executed.
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Performance Testing
➢ System performance is tested when number of clients are communicating with server at
a time.
➢ we can test the system under maximum load as well as normal load expected.
Concurrency Testing
➢ It may be possible that multiple users may be accessing same record at a time.
➢ When the client and server are communicating with each other, there exists a possibility
of breaking of the communication due to various reasons or failure of either client or server
or link connecting them.
➢ It may involve testing the scenario of such failure at different points in the system and
action taken by the system in each case.
➢ In client server application it may be expected that server is running 24*7 for extended
period.
➢ one need to conduct testing over an extended period to understand if service level of
network and server deteriorates over time due to some reasons.
Compatibility Testing
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➢ Testing must ensure that performance must be maintained on the range of hardware and
software configurations.
Ans 6 M for
correct
explanatio
n
1. Meeting requirements
• There are plenty of tools available in the market, but rarely do they meet all the
requirements of a given product or a given organization.
• Evaluating different tools for different requirements involve significant effort, money, and
time.
• Wrong selection of a tool can lead to problems like lower efficiency and effectiveness of
testing may be lost. Selection criteria for testing tool
2. Technology expectations:
• Test tools in general may not allow test developers to extends/modify the functionality of
the framework
• So, extending the functionality requires going back to the tool vendor and involves
additional cost and effort.
• Different phases of a life cycle have different quality-factor requirements. Tools required
at each stage may differ significantly. Selection criteria for testing tool
3. Training/skills:
• While test tools require plenty of training, very few vendors provide the training to the
required level.
• As the user of the test suite are not only the test team but also the development team and
other areas like configuration management.
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MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
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• If the testers do not have proper training and skill, then they may not be able to work
effectively. Selection criteria for testing tool
4. Management aspects:
• A test tool increases the system requirement and requires the hardware and software to be
upgraded.
• Select affordable tools. Cost and benefits of various tools must be compared before making
final decision.
a) Explain the need of stubs and drivers with diagram and its importance in 6M
software testing.
Ans 2 M for
diagram,
2 M for
explanatio
n of stub
and
Driver
and 2 M
for
importanc
e of stub
and driver
Drivers: The module where the required inputs for the module under test are simulated for
the purpose of module or unit testing is known as a Driver module. The driver module may
print or interpret the result produced by the module under test.
Stubs: The module under testing may also call some other module which is not ready at the
time of testing. There is need of dummy modules required to simulate for testing, instead
of actual modules. These are called stubs.
Importance: Stubs and Drivers works as a substitute for the missing or unavailable
module. They are specifically developed, for each module, having different functionalities.
Generally, developers and unit testers are involved in the development of stubs and drivers.
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Their most common use may be seen in the integration incremental testing, where stubs are
used in top bottom approach and drivers in a bottom-up approach.
4 Features to be tested
• SCAN
ID CARD
DOCS
BOOK
QR CODE
• PROCESS FILES
• PDF TOOLS
• TOOLS
• SHARE
• MOVE/COPY
• RENAME
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MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
• DELETE
6 Item Pass/Fail All test cases with high priority are closed with the
Criteria result - pass.
The test coverage is checked and sufficient, where
the criterion of sufficiency is not less than 99%
of the coverage of requirements by tests.
The test report was compiled and approved by the
team lead and customer.
8 Test Deliverables Test plan, test case specification, test case, test
summary report
Page No: 21 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Engineer 1
SCAN
Test Engineer 2
PROCES
S FILES
14 Risks and
Contingencies • Insufficient human resources for testing the
Possible risks during application in deadlines.
testing
• Changing the requirements for the product
Test Manager
Quality Manager
c) Draw a diagram for defect life cycle and write example for defect template. 6M
Page No: 22 | 24
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(Autonomous)
(ISO/IEC - 27001 - 2013 Certified)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Defect
Template
Example -
4M
ID Def_01
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MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
6) Select the account type
Attachments
Reported By abc
Assigned To xyz
Status Assigned
Page No: 24 | 24
lOMoARcPSD|44436616
Ans i) Error: : An error is a human action that produces the incorrect result ½ M for each
definition
ii) Fault: State of software caused by an error
iii) Defect: A defect is an error or a bug, in the application which is created. A programmer
while designing and building the software can make mistakes or error. These mistakes or
errors mean that there are flaws in the software. These are called defects.
iv) Bug: The presence of error at the time of execution of the software.
b) Integration test
Page No: 1 | 22
d) Acceptance test
Design Defects:
Design defects occur when system components, interactions between system components,
interactions between the outside software/hardware, or users are incorrectly designed.
Design defects generally refer to the way of design creation or its usage while creating a
product.
Coding Defects:
This defect arises when variables are not initialized properly or variables are not declared
correctly or database is not created properly.
Coding also needs adequate commenting to make it readable and maintainable in future.
Testing Defects:
These would encompass incorrect, incomplete, missing inappropriate test cases and test
procedures.
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Ans ● An automated testing tool can playback pre-recorded and predefined actions, 1/2 M for
compare the results to the expected behavior and report the success or failure of each need
these to a test engineer.
(any 4 should
● Once automated tests are created, they can easily be repeated, and they can be write)
extended to perform tasks impossible with manual testing.
● Automated Software Testing Saves Time and Money.
● Software tests must be repeated often during development cycles to ensure quality.
● Every time source code is modified software tests should be repeated.
● For each release of the software, it may be tested on all supported operating systems
and hardware configurations. Manually repeating these tests is costly and time
consuming
● Once created, automated tests can be run repeatedly at no additional cost, and they
are much faster than manual tests.
● Testing Improves Accuracy, Even the most conscientious tester will make mistakes
during monotonous manual testing.
● Automated tests perform the same steps precisely every time they are executed and
never forget to record detailed results.
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Ans ● To find any defects or bugs that may have been created when the software was 1 point for
being developed each objective
(any 2 points
● To increase confidence in the quality of the software are required)
● To prevent defects in the final product
● To ensure that end product meets customer requirements as well as specifications
● To provide customers with a quality product and increase their confidence in the
team.
a) State the Entry and Exit criteria’s for the software testing. 4M
Fig-Top-down integration
Page No: 5 | 22
1. A test case database (TCDB): A test case database captures all the relevant
information about the test cases in an organization. Some of the entities and the
attributes are given in the following table.
Page No: 6 | 22
a) Differentiate between white box testing and black box testing (any four points). 4M
Page No: 7 | 22
Ans Test reporting is a means of achieving communication through the testing cycle. Types – 1 M
There are 3 types of test reporting. Contents-3 M
1. Test incident report:
2. Test cycle report:
3. Test summary report:
Test summary Report: The final step in a test cycle is to recommend the suitability of a
product for release. A report that summarizes the result of a test cycle is the test summary
report.
c) Prepare defect report after executing test cases for any login form. 4M
Ans Defect Report in Software Testing is a detailed document about bugs found in the software Format of
application defect report-
2M
Following is Defect report after executing test cases for Email-log in form.
ID number #123
Name loginform - Unable to login Email
Reporter Person’s name (xyz)
Submit Date 03/01/2023
Summary When I put my mail id and password, I am unable to
Page No: 8 | 22
Description
When I put mail id and password, I am unable to login while login credentials are right.
Description-2
Steps to reproduce
M
> go to the www.gmail.com
> Click on login button
> Put Right mail id and password and click next.
> and take Screenshot.
Expected result
The mail account should logged in after putting the right mail id and password.
Actual result
The mail account is not logging in after putting the right details.
d) Enlist the factors considered for selecting a testing tool for test automation. 4M
Ans The following factors are important during tool selection: Any 4
factors- 1 M
i. Assessment of the organization’s maturity (e.g., readiness for change).
each
ii. Identification of the areas within the organization where tool support will help to
improve testing processes.
iii. Evaluation of tools against clear requirements and objective criteria.
iv. Proof-of-concept to see whether the product works as desired and meets the
requirements and objectives defined for it.
v. Evaluation of the vendor (training, support and other commercial aspects) or open-
source network of support.
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a) Describe graphical user interface (GUI) testing and its important traits. 4M
● GUI stands for Graphical User Interface where you interact with the computer using Importance -2
M
images rather than text.
● GUI testing is the process of testing the system's Graphical User Interface of the
Application Under Test. GUI testing involves checking the screens with the controls
like menus, buttons, icons, and all types of bars - toolbar, menu bar, dialog boxes and
windows, etc.
● GUI is what the user sees. A user does not see the source code. The interface is visible
to the user. Especially the focus is on the design structure, images that they are
working properly or not.
Page No: 10 | 22
Ans 1) Test Deliverables are the artifacts which are given to the stakeholders of a software Definition-
project during the software development lifecycle. There are different test 1M
deliverables at every phase of the software development lifecycle. Some test
deliverables are provided before the testing phase, some are provided during the
testing phase and some after the testing cycle is over.
Types-1 M
The different types of Test deliverables are:
● Test cases Documents
● Test Plan any other 4
● Testing Strategy points - 2 M
● Test Scripts
● Test Data
● Test Traceability Matrix
● Test Results/reports
● Test summary report
● Install/config guides
● Defect Reports
● Release notes
2) The test plan describes the overall method to be used to verify that the software
meets the product specification and the customer's needs. It includes the quality
objectives, resource needs, schedules, assignments, methods, and so forth.
3) Test cases list the specific items that will be tested and describe the detailed steps
that will be followed to verify the software.
4) Bug reports describe the problems found as the test cases are followed. These could
be done on paper but are often tracked in a database
5) Test tools and automation are listed and described which are used to test the
software. If the team is using automated methods to test software, the tools used,
either purchased or written in-house, must be documented.
6) Metrics, statistics, and summaries convey the progress being made as the test work
progresses. They take the form of graphs, charts, and written reports
Stress Testing
● Stress Testing is performance testing type to check the stability of software when
hardware resources are not sufficient like CPU, memory, disk space etc.
● It is performed to find the upper limit capacity of the system and also to determine
how the system performs if the current load goes well above the expected
maximum.
● Main parameters to focus during Stress testing are “Response Time” and
“Throughput”.
● Stress testing is Negative testing where we load the software with large number of
concurrent users/processes which cannot be handled by the systems hardware
resources. This testing is also known as Fatigue testing.
Stress testing is testing the software under less-than-ideal conditions. So, subject your
software with low memory, low disk space, slow CPU, slow modems and so on. Look at
your software and determine what external resources and dependencies it has.
Stress testing is simply limiting them to a bare minimum. With stress testing you starve the
software.
For e.g. Word processor software running on your computer with all available memory and
disk space, it works fine. But if the system runs low on resources, you have a greater
potential to expect a bug. Setting the values to zero or near zero will make the software
execute a different path as it attempts to handle the tight constraint. Ideally the software
would run without crashing or losing data
Page No: 12 | 22
e) Write the test cases for Notepad application. (any eight test case) 4M
Ans
PROJECT: NOTEPAD
MODULE: FIND AND REPLACE
FUNCTIONAL
SPECIFICATION: FIND AND REPLACE
TEST CASE NO: - TC-FR-1
Page No: 13 | 22
Page No: 14 | 22
a) Design test cases for simple calculator application. (Black box testing.) (Any six 6M
points.)
Page No: 15 | 22
b) Design test cases for Web pages testing of any Web site (take a suitable 6M
example).
Page No: 16 | 22
Check Click on
cursor position email or Cursor should Placed the
TC1 at email mobile be placed on cursor on the
or mobile number the field field Pass
number field field
Cursor should
Click on Placed the
Check cursor be placed on
password cursor on the
TC2 position at the password
password Pass
password field field field
field
It should
change the
Cursor
Hover the cursor and
Testing of changed and
TC6 mouse on should redirect Pass
hyperlink redirects to
hyperlink to respective
other page.
page
on click
Page No: 17 | 22
Above test cases will be executed on any automation tool like autoIT, QTP etc.
Page No: 18 | 22
a) Write program for calculating even numbers from 1 to 20 And design test cases for 6M
the same.
Ans Program : Correct
program: 2M;
#include <stdio.h> valid test
int main() cases shall be
{ considered:4
for(int i=0;i<=20;i=i+2) M
{
printf("%d\n",i);
}
return 0;
}
Page No: 19 | 22
Page No: 20 | 22
c) Prepare defect report after executing test cases for withdrawn of amount from ATM 6M
machine.
Ans any valid
defect report
ID R1 related with
Project Cash Simulator Cash (ATM) withdrawal
Product http://www.motc.gov.qa/en/ditoolkit/migrantworkers/cash functionality
-machine-simulator-atm shall be
Release v1.0 considered
Version
Module Home Page> Our Programs > Digital Inclusion tools
Detected V1.1
Build
Version
Summary Limited denomination options in cash withdrawal
function, restricting cash withdrawal only till 3000
Description No option of withdrawing of amount excess of 3000.
Steps to 1. Open the website
Replicate 2. Select our programs
3. Proceed to Digital Inclusion tools and select cash
machine simulator (ATM)
Page No: 21 | 22
Page No: 22 | 22
The port number of SMTP is 25. The port number of POP3 is 110.
1|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
It has two MTAs one is client MTA It has also two MAAs one is client
(Message Transfer Agent) and MAA (Message Access Agent) and
second one is server MTA (Message another is server is server (Message
Transfer Agent). Access Agent). MAA
2|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
3|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is an error-reporting protocol network device like
routers use to generate error messages to the source IP address when network problems
prevent delivery of IP packets.
An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data section. Although the general
format of the header is different for each message type, the first 4 bytes are common to all. As
Figure shows, the first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the message. The code field
specifies the reason for the particular message type. The last common field is the checksum
field. The rest of the header is specific for each message type.
In error messages, the data section carries information for finding the original packet that had
the error. In query messages, the data section carries extra information based on the type of the
query.
4|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
i. 10.0.199.237/22
ii. 192.168.14.87/26
Ans:
i. 10.0.199.237/22
Subnet Mask
255.255.252.0
Network Address
10.0.199.237= 00001010.00000000. 11000111.11101101
AND
255.255.252.0=11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
10.0.196.0 =00001010.00000000. 11000100.00000000
No of host
210 -2=1022
Broadcast Address
10.0.199.255
Range IP Address
10.0.196.1 - 10.0.199.254
ii. 192.168.14.87/26
Subnet Mask
255.255.255.192
Network Address
192.168.14.87= 11000000. 10101000. 00001110. 01010111
AND
255.255.255.192=11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
192.168.14.64 =11000000. 10101000. 00001110.01000000
No of host
26 -2=62
Broadcast Address
192.168.14.127
Range Of IP
192.168.14.65 - 192.168.14.126
Q.3) Attempt any THREE of the following. 12 Marks
a) Describe the path vector routing algorithm.
Ans.
The Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP4) is the only interdomain routing protocol used
in the Internet. BGP4 is based on the path-vector algorithm. BGP4 is a complex protocol.
Figure shows an example of an internet with four autonomous systems. AS2, AS3, and AS4
are stub autonomous systems; AS1 is a transient one. In example, data exchange between AS2,
AS3, and AS4 should pass through AS1.
Each autonomous system in this figure uses one of the two common intradomain protocols,
RIP or OSPF. Each router in each AS knows how to reach a network in its own AS, but it does
not know how to reach a network in another AS.
5|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
To enable each router to route a packet to any network in the internet, first install a variation
of BGP4, called external BGP (eBGP), on each border router. Then install the second variation
of BGP, called internal BGP (iBGP), on all routers. This means that the border routers will be
running three routing protocols (intradomain, eBGP, and iBGP), but other routers are running
two protocols (intradomain and iBGP).
Administrative
120 110
distance
6|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
7|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
Ans:
8|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
of its ports based on the source address of packet. Multicast packet forwarding creates a source-
based multicast tree in three steps:
1. The router uses an algorithm called Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) to simulate creating
part of the optimal source-based tree between the source and itself.
2. The router uses an algorithm called Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB) to create a broadcast
(spanning) tree whose root is the router itself and whose leaves are all networks in the internet.
3. The router uses an algorithm called Reverse Path Multicasting (RPM) to create a multicast
tree by cutting some branches of the tree that end in networks with no member in the group.
c) Describe the HTTP Response Message format.
Ans
The format of the response message is also shown in Figure. A response message consists of
a status line, header lines, a blank line, and sometimes a body. The first line in a response
message is called the status line. There are three fields in this line separated by spaces and
terminated by a carriage return and line feed. The first field defines the version of HTTP
protocol, currently 1.1. The status code field defines the status of the request. It consists of
three digits. Whereas the codes in the 100 range are only informational, the codes in the 200
range indicate a successful request. The codes in the 300 range redirect the client to another
URL, and the codes in the 400 range indicate an error at the client site. Finally, the codes in
the 500 range indicate an error at the server site. The status phrase explains the status code in
text form.
9|Page
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
The speed for TCP is slower than UDP. The speed for UDP is faster than TCP.
Applications and protocols of TCP are Applications and protocols of UDP are
HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP, Telnet. DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, VOIP.
e) Explain the working of TELNET
Ans:
TELNET is abbreviation for Terminal Network. It is standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual
terminal services proposed by ISO. TELNET enables establishment of connection to a remote
system in such a way that a local terminal appears to be terminal at remote system. TELNET
is general purpose client server application program
Remote login When user wants to access the application or utility located at the remote
machine, he or she performs remote login. Here the telnet client and server program come into
use. The user sends the keystrokes to local operating system. local operating system accepts it,
but do not interpret them. The characters are sent to TELNET client. TELNET client
transforms the character to a universal character set called Network Virtual Terminal Character
and deliver them to the local TCP/IP stack.
As shown in above figure the command/text in NVT form travel through internet, and arrive
at TCP/IP stack of remote Machine. Here the characters are delivered to the operating system
and Passed to the TELNET server. Which changes the characters to the understandable
characters by the remote computer. But characters could not directly pass to the operating
system because remote operating system is not designed to receive characters from TELNET
server. The solution is to add piece of software called Pseudo- terminal driver, which pretends
that characters are coming from terminal. The operating system passes the characters to
appropriate application program.
Q.5) Attempt any TWO of the following. 10 Marks
a) Explain association establishment process in SCTP.
Ans:
10 | P a g e
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
12 | P a g e
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
MODEL ANSWER
Course Title: Advanced Computer Network Course Code: -22520
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Diagram
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When the site receives a data chunk, it stores it at the end of the
buffer (queue) and subtracts the size of the chunk from winSize.
The TSN number of the chunk is stored in the cumTSN variable. 2.
When the process reads a chunk, it removes it from the queue and
adds the size of the removed chunk to winSize (recycling). 3. When
the receiver decides to send a SACK, it checks the value of lastAck;
if it is less than cumTSN, it sends a SACK with a cumulative TSN
number equal to the cumTSN. It also includes the value of winSize
as the advertised window size. Sender Site: The sender has one
buffer (queue) and three variables: curTSN, rwnd, and inTransit, as
shown in the following figure. We assume each chunk is 100 bytes
long. The buffer holds the chunks produced by the process that
either have been sent or are ready to be sent.
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The first variable, curTSN, refers to the next chunk to be sent. All
chunks in the queue with a TSN less than this value have been sent,
but not acknowledged; they are outstanding. The second variable,
rwnd, holds the last value advertised by the receiver (in bytes). The
third variable, inTransit, holds the number of bytes in transit, bytes
sent but not yet acknowledged. The following is the procedure used
by the sender.
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(c) Describe SMTP with suitable diagram 4M
❑ SMTP Commands:
1. HELO: Used by client to identify itself.
2. MAIL FROM: Identify sender.
3. RCPT TO: Identify intended recipient.
4. DATA: Send actual message.
5. QUIT: Terminate the message.
6. RSET: Reset the connection
7. VRFY: Verify the add of recipient
8. HELP: Mail
(d) a) For the block of IPv4 address given below build subnet mask, 4M
broadcast Address and Number of Hosts possible.
I. 10.0.199.237/22
II. 192.168.1487/26 2M for each
correct
Ans answer
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Step 2: Let all edges are processed in the following order: (B, E),
(D, B), (B, D), (A, B), (A, C), (D, C), (B, C), (E, D). We get the
following distances when all edges are processed the first time.
The first row shows initial distances. The second row shows
distances when edges (B, E), (D, B), (B, D) and (A, B) are processed.
The third row shows distances when (A, C) is processed. The
fourth row shows when (D, C), (B, C) and (E, D) are processed.
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Step 3: The first iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at
most 1 edge long. We get the following distances when all edges are
processed second time (The last row shows final values.
Step 4: The second iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at
most 2 edges long. The algorithm processes all edges 2 more times. The
distances are minimized after the second iteration, so third and fourth
iterations don’t update the distances.
WORKING
It makes available users by an interactive and bidirectional text-
oriented message system exploit an effective terminal connection
which is much more than 8 byte.
User data is sprinkled in the band long with telnet control information
above the TCP. It helps to achieve some functions in a remote manner.
The user joins the server beside using the TCP protocol, so that means
like the other side connection is also established using the
telnet hostname. These commands are used on the server by the
corresponding user to achieve the need task. These commands are used
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to end a telnet session or logoff a session or a user. Currently, both
virtual terminal and terminal emulators can be used for telnet, which is
fundamentally a modern computer that converses by means of the
identical Telnet protocol. This command helps telnet protocol to
achieve communication with a remote device and mainly various other
OS also provides a large amount of support for these systems
SYNTAX
telnet hostname port
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SMTP POP3
Ans. SMTP stands for SIMPLE POP3 stands for POST
MAIL TRANSFER OFFICE PROTOCOL
PROTOCOL & is also called VERSION 3 & is also called a
Push Protocol. Pop Protocol.
SMTP is used for Sending POP3 is used to retrieve the
emails. emails.
SMTP transfers Email from POP3 retrieves Emails from Any 4
Sender’s Device to the the mailbox on the receipting’s points
mailbox on the recipient’s server to their device. 1M
server. each
It is a message transfer Agent. It is a message access Agent.
SMTP has two MTAS. POP3 has two MAAS.
SMTP uses Ports 25, 465 & POP3 uses Ports 110 or 995.
587.
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(e) Explain the process of resolving the given host name into IP 4M
address using DNS.
Ans. You can find the hostname of any computer with a public IP
address by passing the address to any Domain Name System (DNS)
server. However, since the computers on a small business network
have private IP addresses, you can only discover their hostnames if
the network has a local DNS server. To discover the hostname of a
computer with a private IP address and no local DNS server, you 4M for
need to use a Windows utility to query the host itself. Explanat
ion
Querying DNS
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➢ Tunnelling:
1. When two computers using IPV6 want to communicate with each other
& the packet
must pass through a region that uses IPV4.
2. The IPV6 packet is encapsulated in a IPV4 packet when it enter the
region & leaves its capsule when it exits the region.
➢ Header Translation:
1. It is used when some of the system uses IPV4. the sender wants to use
IPV6, but the receiver don’t understand IPV6
2. The header format must be totally changed through header translation.
The header of IPV6 packet is converted to IPV4 header.
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(b) Explain TCP with respect to flow control and error control. 6M
Ans.
TCP Flow Control is a protocol designed to manage the data flow
between the user and the server. It ensures that there is a specific
bandwidth for sending and receiving data so the data can be processed
without facing any major issues. In order to achieve this, the TCP
protocol uses a mechanism called the sliding window protocol.
Each
explan
ation
of flow
control
3M
and
error
control
3M
.
Error control in TCP is mainly done through the use of three simple
techniques :
1. Checksum – Every segment contains a checksum field which is
used to find corrupted segments. If the segment is corrupted,
then that segment is discarded by the destination TCP and is
considered lost.
2. Acknowledgement – TCP has another mechanism called
acknowledgement to affirm that the data segments have been
delivered. Control segments that contain no data but have
sequence numbers will be acknowledged as well but ACK
segments are not acknowledged.
3. Retransmission – When a segment is missing, delayed to
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deliver to a receiver, corrupted when it is checked by the
receiver then that segment is retransmitted again. Segments
are retransmitted only during two events: when the sender
receives three duplicate acknowledgements (ACK) or when a
retransmission timer expires.
• Retransmission after RTO: TCP always preserves one
retransmission time-out (RTO) timer for all sent but not
acknowledged segments. When the timer runs out of
time, the earliest segment is retransmitted. Here no timer
is set for acknowledgement. In TCP, the RTO value is
dynamic in nature and it is updated using the round trip
time (RTT) of segments. RTT is the time duration needed
for a segment to reach the receiver and an
acknowledgement to be received by the sender.
• Retransmission after Three duplicate ACK
segments: RTO method works well when the value of
RTO is small. If it is large, more time is needed to get
confirmation about whether a segment has been delivered
or not. Sometimes one segment is lost and the receiver
receives so many out-of-order segments that they cannot
be saved. In order to solve this situation, three duplicate
acknowledgement method is used and missing segment is
retransmitted immediately instead of retransmitting
already delivered segment. This is a fast retransmission
because it makes it possible to quickly retransmit lost
segments instead of waiting for timer to end.
• First Scenario
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When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on the same mail server, we
need only two user agents.
• Second Scenario
When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on different mail servers,
we need two UAs and a pair of MTAs (client and server).
• Third Scenario
When the sender is connected to the mail server via a LAN or a WAN, we
need two UAs and two pairs of MTAs (client and server).
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• Fourth Scenario
When both sender and receiver are connected to the mail server via a LAN or
a WAN, we need two UAs, two pairs of MTAs (client and server), and a pair
of MAAs (client and server). This is the most common situation today.
Ans
i. Bellman ford algorithm is a single-source shortest path algorithm.
ii. This algorithm is used to find the shortest distance from the single 3M for
vertex to all the other vertices of a weighted graph. explainati
on and 3M
iii. Various other algorithms are used to find the shortest path, like the for
Dijkstra algorithm. example
iv. If the weighted graph contains the negative weight values, then the
Dijkstra algorithm does not confirm whether it produces the correct
answer or not.
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vii. Consider the following example:-
Step 2: Let all edges are processed in the following order: (B, E),
(D, B),(B, D), (A, B), (A, C), (D, C), (B, C), (E, D). We get the
following distances when all edges are processed the first time. The
first row shows initial distances. The second row shows distances
when edges (B, E), (D, B), (B, D) and (A, B) are processed. The
third row shows distances when (A, C) is processed. The fourth row
shows when (D, C), (B, C) and (E, D) are processed.
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Step 3: The first iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which
are at most 1 edge long. We get the following distances when all
edges are processed second time (The last row shows final values).
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(b) a. For the IP address given below, find the range of addresses in the 6M
following blocks:
a. 123.56.77.32/29
b. 200.17.21.128/27
c. 17.34.16.0/23
d. 180.34.64.64/30
a. 123.56.77.32/29
Ans. • The subnet mask “/29” means the first 29 bits are network bits, 𝟏
1𝟐M
and the remaining 3 bits are host bits. for
• The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to each
zero: 123.56.77.32 sub-
• The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to questio
n
one: 123.56.77.39
• The range of addresses in this block is from 123.56.77.32 to
123.56.77.39
• Range of addresses: 123.56.77.32 to 123.56.77.39
b. 200.17.21.128/27
• The subnet mask "/27" means the first 27 bits are network
bits, and the remaining 5 bits are host bits.
• The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to
zero: 200.17.21.128.
• The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits
to one: 200.17.21.159.
• Range of addresses: 200.17.21.128 to 200.17.21.159
c. 17.34.16.0/23:
• The subnet mask "/23" means the first 23 bits are network bits,
and the remaining 9 bits are host bits.
• The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to
zero: 17.34.16.0.
• The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits
to one: 17.34.17.255.
• Range of addresses: 17.34.16.0 to 17.34.17.255
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d. 180.34.64.64/30
• The subnet mask "/30" means the first 30 bits are network bits,
and the remaining 2 bits are host bits.
• The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to
zero: 180.34.64.64.
• The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits
to one: 180.34.64.67.
• Range of addresses: 180.34.64.64 to 180.34.64.67
Ans SCTP transmits data in the form of messages and each message 3M for
contains one or more packets. The control come before data chunks. describi
ng
fields &
3M for
associat
ion
establis
hment
process
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Sender Site:
The sender has one buffer (queue) and three variables: curTSN, rwnd,
and inTransit, as shown in the following figure. We assume each chunk
is 100 bytes long.
The buffer holds the chunks produced by the process that either have
been sent or are ready to be sent. The first variable, curTSN, refers to
the next chunk to be sent. All chunks in the queue with a TSN less than
this value have been sent, but not acknowledged; they are outstanding.
The second variable, rwnd, holds the last value advertised by the
receiver (in bytes). The third variable, inTransit, holds the number of
bytes in transit, bytes sent but not yet acknowledged. The following is
the procedure used by the sender.
2. When a SACK is received, the chunks with a TSN less than or equal
to the cumulative TSN in the SACK are removed from the queue and
discarded. The sender does not have to worry about them anymore.
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Dynamic allocation
When the DHCP server is configured to use dynamic allocation, this
means that it uses a lease policy. This way, when an assigned IP
address from the available pool is no longer used, it will be transferred
back to the pool, making it available for someone else to use. The
advantage of this method is that the IP addresses are used to their
maximum - as soon as they are no longer used by the client, they are
instantly made available to others. The disadvantage of this method is
that a client will always have a random IP address.
Static allocation
The static allocation method is very popular in modern ISP networks,
which do not use dial-up methods. With the static allocation, the
DHCP sever keeps a database with all clients' LAN MAC addresses
and gives them an IP address only if their MAC address is in the
database. This way, the clients can be sure that they will be getting the
same IP address every time.
A DHCP server can be set to work using a combination of the
allocation methods. For example, in a public Wi-Fi network, all of the
known hosts and permanent clients can use the static allocation,
whereas for guests, the dynamic allocation is used. This way, known
hosts can always use the same IP address and the IP address pool is
equally available to everyone.
d) Give use of OSPF with its reason. 4M
Ans. Following are the uses of OSPF with its reason Any four
3 Link state routing protocol like OSPF is that the complete uses with
reasons 1M
knowledge of topology allows routers to calculate routes that each
satisfy particular criteria. This can be useful for traffic engineering
purposes, where routes can be constrained to meet particular
quality of service requirements.
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2. Renumbering:
To allow sites to change the service provider, renumbering of the
address prefix (n) was built into IPv6 addressing. Each site is given a
prefix by the service provider to which it is connected. If the site
changes the provider, the address prefix needs to be changed.
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A router to which the site is connected can advertise a new prefix and
let the site use the old prefix for a short time before disabling it. In
other words, during the transition period, a site has two prefixes.
The main problem in using the renumbering mechanism is the support
of the DNS, which needs to propagate the new addressing associated
with a domain name.
b) Draw and explain TCP segment structure. 4M
Ans. TCP is a reliable connection- oriented protocol i.e., connection is
4 established between the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted. Diagram 1M
A Packet in TCP is called a segment. TCP segment consists of data
bytes to be sent and a header that is added to the data by TCP as shown
in following figure. Explanation
3M
Any other
relevant
explanation
shall be
considered
The header of TCP segment can range from 20-60 bytes.40 bytes are
for option. if there are no options, header is of 20 bytes else it can be of
upmost 60 bytes.
Header Fields in TCP Segment Structure:
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3) Sequence Number: -
This 32-bit field defines the number assigned to the first byte of data
contained in this segment. As we said before, TCP is a stream transport
protocol. To ensure connectivity, each byte to be transmitted is
numbered. The sequence number tells the destination which byte in
this sequence comprises the first byte in the segment. During
connection establishment, each party uses a random number generator
to create an initial sequence number (ISN), which is usually different
in each direction.
4) Acknowledgment Number: -
This 32-bit field defines the byte number that the receiver of the
segment is expecting to receive from the other party. If the receiver of
the segment has successfully received byte number x from the other
party, it defines x + 1 as the acknowledgment number.
Acknowledgment and data can be piggybacked together.
5) Header length: -
This 4-bit field indicates the number of 4-byte words in the TCP
header. The length of the header can be between 20 and 60 bytes.
Therefore, the value of this field can be between 5 (5 x 4 = 20) and 15
(15 x 4 = 60).
6) Reserved:-
This is a 6-bit field reserved for future use.
7) Control Field:-
This field defines 6 different control bits or flags. These are 6, 1 bit
control bits that controls connection establishment, connection
termination, connection abortion, flow control, mode of transfer etc.
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8) Window Size: This field tells the window size of the sending TCP
in bytes.
10) Urgent Pointer: This field (valid only if the URG control flag is
set) used to point to data that is urgently required that needs to reach
the receiving process at the earliest. The value of this field is added to
the sequence number to get the byte number of the last urgent byte.
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Client sends a request through its browser to the server using HTTP
protocol which specifies the way the browser and web server
communicates.
Then server receives request using HTTP protocol and checks its
search for the requested web page. If found it returns it back to the web
browser and close the HTTP connection.
Now the browser receives the web page, it interprets it and display the
contents of web page in web browser's window.
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For each
Ans. correct step
1M
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Any
Relevant
When cookies were invented, they were basically little documents
answer shall
containing information about you and your preferences. For
be
instance, when you select your language in which you want to view
considered
your website, the website would save the information in a document
called a cookie on your computer, and the next time when you visit
the website, it would be able to read a cookie saved earlier.
That way the website could remember your language and let you
view the website in your preferred language without having to
select the language again.
A cookie can contain any type of information such as the time when
you visited the website, the items that you added into your shopping
basket, all the links you clicked in website, etc. Cookies themselves
contain no personally identifiable information. Depending on the
publisher’s and the user’s settings, information associated with
cookies used in advertising may be added to the user’s Google
Account.
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List 1M
Any one
explanation
2M
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Fig. RPF
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also inform the client that an error occurred in processing its request.
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1) Status Line :
In the response message, the status line is the first line. The status
line contains three items:
a) HTTP Version Number: It is used to show the HTTP
specification to which the server has tried to make the message
comply.
b) Status Code: It is a three-digit number that indicates the
result of the request. The first digit defines the class of the response.
The last two digits do not have any categorization role. There are five
values for the first digit, which are as follows:
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2xx: Success
It shows that the action was received successfully, understood, and
accepted.
3xx: Redirection
It shows that further action must be taken to complete the request.
4xx: Client Error
It shows that the request contains incorrect syntax, or it cannot be
fulfilled.
5xx: Server Error
It shows that the server failed to fulfil a valid request.
c) Reason Phrase: It is also known as the status text. It is a human-
readable text that summarizes the meaning of the status code.
2) Header Lines :
The HTTP Headers for the response of the server contain the
information that a client can use to find out more about the response,
and about the server that sent it. This information is used to assist the
client with displaying the response to a user, with storing the
response for the use of future, and with making further requests to the
server now or in the future. The name of the Response-header field
can be extended reliably only in combination with a change in the
version of the protocol.
3) Blank Line :
It contains cr (Carriage Return) & if (Line Feed)
4) Entire Body:
The body of the message is used for most responses. The exceptions
are where a server is using certain status codes and where the server
is responding to a client request, which asks for the headers but not
the response body.
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Fig.TCP Timers
1) Retransmission Timer:
To retransmit lost segments, TCP uses Retransmission Time Out
(RTO). When TCP sends a segment the timer starts and stops when
the acknowledgment is received.
If the timer expires timeout occurs and the segment is retransmitted.
RTO (retransmission timeout is for 1 RTT) to calculate
retransmission timeout we first need to calculate the RTT.
Three Types of RTT:
1. Measured RTT (RTTm): The measured Round Trip Time (RTT)
for a segment is the time required for the segment to reach the
destination and be acknowledged, although the acknowledgment may
include other segments.
2. Smoothed RTT (RTTS): It is the weighted average of RTTm.
RTTM is likely to change and its fluctuation is so high that a single
measurement cannot be used to calculate RTO.
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Retransmission Timeout:
RTO Calculation: The value of RTO is based on the smoothed
round-trip time and its deviation. Most implementations use the
following formula to calculate the RTO:
Initial value → Original (given in question).
After any measurement→RTO=RTTs +4*RTTd
2) Persistent Timer:
To deal with a zero-window-size deadlock situation, TCP uses a
persistence timer. When the sending TCP receives an
acknowledgment with a window size of zero, it starts a persistence
timer.
When the persistence timer goes off, the sending TCP sends a special
segment called a probe. This segment contains only 1 byte of new
data. It has a sequence number, but its sequence number is never
acknowledged; it is even ignored inCalculating the sequence number
for the rest of the data. The probe causes the receiving TCP to resend
the acknowledgment which was lost.
3) Keepalive Timer:
A keepalive timer is used to prevent a long idle connection between
two TCPs. If a client opens a TCP connection to a server transfers
some data and becomes silent the client will crash.
In this case, the connection remains open forever. So a keepalive
timer is used. Each time the server hears from a client, it resets this
timer. The time-out is usually 2 hours. . If the server does not hear
from the client after 2 hours, it sends a probe segment. If there is no
response after 10 probes, each of which is 75 s apart, it assumes that
the client is down and terminates the connection.
4) Time Wait Timer:
This timer is used during TCP connection termination. The timer
starts after sending the last Ack for 2nd FIN and closing the
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Marker
If the Type of the message is OPEN, or if the Authentication Code
used in the OPEN message of the connection is zero, then the Marker
must be all ones. The Marker can be used to detect loss of
synchronization between a pair of BGP peers, and to authenticate
incoming BGP messages.
Length
This 2-bytes unsigned integer indicates the total length of the message,
including the header, in bytes.
Type
This 1-byte unsigned integer indicates the type code of the message.
The following type codes are defined:
1 - OPEN
2 - UPDATE
3 - NOTIFICATION
4 – KEEPALIVE
OPEN Message
After a transport protocol connection is established, the first message
sent by each side is an OPEN message. If the OPEN message is
acceptable, a KEEPALIVE message confirming the OPEN is sent
back. Once the OPEN is confirmed, UPDATE, KEEPALIVE, and
NOTIFICATION messages may be exchanged.
UPDATE Message
UPDATE messages are used to transfer routing information between
BGP peers. The information in the UPDATE packet can be used to
construct a graph describing the relationships of the various
Autonomous Systems.
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NOTIFICATION Message
A NOTIFICATION message is sent when an error condition is
detected. The BGP connection is closed immediately after sending it.
KEEPALIVE Message
BGP does not use any transport protocol-based keep-alive mechanism
to determine if peers are reachable. Instead, KEEPALIVE messages
are exchanged between peers often enough.
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Flow Control
Flow control make it possible for sender to send the amount of data
bytes that can be sent without worrying an acknowledgment and is one
of the most important duties of the data link layer. In most protocols,
flow control is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data
it can transmit before it must wait for an acknowledgment from the
receiver.
The flow Control procedures not allowed to overwhelm the receiver.
Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it can process
incoming data and a limited amount of memory in which to store
incoming data, if sender sends data in a much speed data loss may
occur to overcome this problem flow control procedures are needful.
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2. Tunnelling
Tunnelling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to
communicate with each other and the packet must pass through a
region that uses IPv4.
To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.
So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters
the region.
To make it clear that the IPv4 packet is carrying an IPv6 packet as
data.
Fig. Tunnelling
3. Header Translation
In this case, the header format must be totally changed through header
translation. The header of the IPv6 packet is converted to an IPv4
header see figure.
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For example, a sample portion of the LSP (shown only for router A
about its neighbors) could take the form as shown below
For example, the first row says that between router A (the first column)
and router B (the fourth column), there is network 1 (the second
column), and that the cost of going from router A to router B is 1 (the
fourth column).
Every router receives every LSP packet, and uses it to create a local
database called link state database. Thus, a link state database is a
collection of all LSPs. Every router stores such a database on its disk,
and uses it for routing packets. A sample link state database for our
example Internet is shown below
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Drawbacks
Memory Requirements − the link-state routing algorithm creates
and maintains a database and SPF tree. The database and SPF tree
required more memory than a distance vector algorithm.
Processing Requirements − to build a complete map of the
topology Link-state routing protocols also require more CPU
processing.
Bandwidth Requirements − The link-state routing protocol floods
link-state packet during initial start-up and also at the event like
network breakdown, and network topology changes, which affect
the available bandwidth on a network. If the network is not stable it
also creates issues on the bandwidth of the network.
b) For the IP addresses given below 6M
1. Identify the classes to which the following IP address belongs to
2. Identify network address sections
3. Identify host address section
4. Calculate number of hosts that can be assigned with each
network
i. 22.34.45.133
ii. 12.12.12.12
iii. 192.0.233.26
iv. 126.123.16.87
Ans. Each IP
22.34.45.133= 00010110.00100010.00101101.10000101
1 address
IP address class = Class A description
Network Section = 00010110 = 22 𝟏
1 𝟐M
Host Section = 00100010.00101101.10000101= 34.45.133
Number of Host/Network = 2²⁴-2 = 16,777,214
12.12.12.12= 00001100.00001100.00001100.00001100
IP address class = Class A
Network Section = 00001100 = 12
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192.0.233.26= 11000000.00000000.11101001.00011010
IP address class = Class C
Network Section = 11000000.00000000.11101001 = 192.0.233
Host Section = 00011010= 26
Number of Host = 28-2 = 154
126.123.16.87= 01111110.01111011.00010000.01010111
IP address class = Class A
Network Section = 01111110 = 126
Host Section = 01111011.00010000.01010111= 123.16.87
Number of Host = 2²⁴-2 = 16,777,214
c) Describe e-mail security over non-secure channel. 6M
(Note: Any other description of the concept shall be considered.)
Ans. Email security describes different techniques for keeping sensitive Any six
5 information in email communication and accounts secure against points 1M
each
unauthorized access, loss or compromise.
Email is often used to spread malware, spam and phishing attacks.
Attackers use deceptive messages to entice recipients to part with
sensitive information, open attachments or click on hyperlinks that
install malware on the victim’s device.
Email encryption involves encrypting, or disguising, the content of
email messages to protect potentially sensitive information from
being read by anyone other than intended recipients. Email
encryption often includes authentication.
Email allows attackers to use it as a way to cause problems in
attempt to profit. Whether through spam campaigns, malware and
phishing attacks, sophisticated targeted attacks, or business email
compromise (BEC), attackers try to take advantage of the lack of
security of email to carry out their actions.
Since most organizations rely on email to do business, attackers
exploit email in an attempt to steal sensitive information.
Because email is an open format, it can be viewed by anyone who
can intercept it. It can be easily read and the contents of an email by
intercepting it.
Email Security Policies can be established by viewing the contents
of emails flowing through their email servers. It’s important to
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lOMoARcPSD|44436616
Page 1 / 28
SUMMER – 2022
EXAMINATION MODEL
ANSWER
22520
Subject: Advanced Computer Network (Elect) Subject Code :
It is reliable It is unreliable
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SMTP Commands:
1. HELO: Used by client to identify itself.
2. MAIL FROM: Identify sender.
3. RCPT TO: Identify intended recipient.
4. DATA: Send actual message.
5. QUIT: Terminate the message.
6. RSET: Reset the connection.
7. VRFY: Verify the add of recipient
8. HELP: Mail
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Ans. Diagram
2M
Explanation
2M
Any other
relevant
Explanation
Shall be
considere
d
1. Version: This 4 bits field defines the version number of IP. The
value is 6 for IPV6.
2. Priority: This 4 bits priority field defines the priority of packet
with respect to traffic congestion.
3. Flow Label: It is 24 bits field that is designed to provide special
handling for a particular flow of data.
4. Payload Length: The 16 bits payload length field defines the
length of the IP datagram excluding the base header.
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EXTENSION HEADERS
• The length of the base header is fixed at 40 bytes.
• Types of extension headers are:
1. Hop by Hop option
2. Source routing
3. Fragmentation
4. Authentication
5. Encrypted security payload
6. Destination option
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Full-Duplex Service
TCP offers a full-duplex service where the data can flow in both
directions simultaneously. Each TCP will then have a sending buffer
and receiving buffer. The TCP segments are sent in both directions.
Connection-Oriented Service
Reliable Servic
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i)10.0.199.237/22
ii)192.168.14.87/26
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4M
.
Ans
2M for
each
Calculation
Page 12 / 28
IM each
d) Use Bellman – Fort algorithm to find the shortest distance for all 4M
nodes in the graphs
Ans
1M each
for each
iteration
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Working of Browsers-
• WWW works on client-server interaction.
• The browser program acts as a client that uses the internet
to contact a remote server for a copy of the requested page.
• The server on the remote system returns a copy of page
along with the additional information.
Web Documents-
1. STATIC DOCUMENTS-
• The contents of static documents are fixed. These contents are created
and stored in a server.
• If required the client can get a copy of static documents.
• The contents of static documents are determined when it is
created.
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Explainati
on 2M
Page 17 / 28
Ans Cookies are small files which are stored on a user’s computer. They are 2M for
used to hold a modest amount of data specific to a particular client and Explan
website and can be accessed either by the web server or by the client ation
computer. & 2M
for
Diagra
m
That way the website could remember your language and let you
view the website in your preferred language without having to
select the language again.
A cookie can contain any type of information such as the time when
you visited the website, the items that you added into your shopping
basket, all the links you clicked in website, etc. Cookies themselves
contain no personally identifiable information. Depending on the
publisher’s and the user’s settings, information associated with
cookies used in advertising may be added to the user’s Google
Account.
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STATIC ALLOCATION
The static allocation method is very popular in modern ISP networks, which do
not use dial-up methods. With the static allocation, the DHCP sever keeps a
database with all clients' LAN MAC addresses and gives them an IP address
only if their MAC address is in the database. This way, the clients can be sure
that they will be getting the same IP address every time.
DYNAMIC ALLOCATION
When the DHCP server is configured to use dynamic allocation, this
means that it uses a lease policy. This way, when an assigned IP address
from the available pool is no longer used, it will be transferred back to the
pool, making it available for someone else to use. The advantage of this
method is that the IP addresses are used to their maximum - as soon as
they are no longer used by the client, they are instantly made available to
others. The disadvantage of this method is that a client will always have a
random IP address.
1. Dual Stack
In this kind of strategy, a station has a dual stack of protocols
run IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously.
To determine which version to use when sending a packet to a
destination, the source host queries the DNS.
If the DNS returns an IPv4 address, the source host sends an
IPv4 packet.
If the DNS returns an IPv6 address, the source host
sends an IPv6 packet.
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3.Header Translation
In this case, the header format must be totally changed
through header translation. The header of the IPv6 packet is
converted to an IPv4 header see figure.
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• The dotted black lines in the figure represent the transition that a server
normally goes through.
• The solid black lines show the transitions that a client normally goes
through.
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2. Consider the following memory map and assume a new process P4 comes with
memory requirements of 6 KB.
Locate (Draw) this process in memory using.
i) First fit
ii) Best Fit
iii) Worst Fit
3. Construct and explain directory structure of a file system in terms of two level and
tree structure.
Summer 24
2. Explain bit map vector and linked list free space management techniques with its advantages
and disadvantages 1 )Bitmap
3. Explain with diagram single level directory structure and two level directory structure with its
advantages and disadvantages.
Summer 24