BIOP-4 Animals and Human Health - Where Do They Meet

C H A P T E R
13
Animals and Human Health: Where Do
They Meet?*
Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves1, Iamara da Silva Policarpo2
1Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; 2Universidade Federal da Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
INTRODUCTION Rosa, 2007). The recognition that human,

animal, and environmental health are linked
Humans share the planet with a bewilder- generated the “One Health” concept, which
ing variety of other animals and plants, forming is defined by the One Health Commission
an intricate web of interactions. Disturbances (2010) as “the collaborative effort of multiple
that negatively impact the environment or the disciplines to obtain optimal health for peo-
health of biological organisms will affect the ple, animals, and our environment.” Mi et al.
harmonious functioning of their interactions; (2016) emphasized that one health seeks to
thus, human health depends on the health of the understand the interactions between humans,
organisms with which we interact and the envi- animals, and environmental factors, and their
ronment in which we all live. impacts on health.
The interrelationships between society and Extremely close connections have existed
nature and the importance of environmental between humans and animals throughout
health to human health have become widely history (Alves, 2012), and we likewise share
acknowledged (Alves and Rosa, 2007; WHO, hundreds of illnesses. Cross-species transmis-
2005), drawing attention to the fact that bio- sions and the emergence and eventual evolu-
diversity losses will have direct or secondary tion of a plethora of infectious pathogens have
effects on human well-being. Thus, human been observed ever since the establishment of
health must not be considered in isolation, for human–animal interfaces (Reperant et al., 2012),
it depends on the quality of the environment with links between human and animal health
in which we live—for people to be healthy, having profound effects on almost every aspect
the environment must be healthy (Alves and of our lives.
* This chapter is a revised and updated version of the section “The role of fauna in human health,” extracted from an
article by Alves, R.R.N., 2012. “Relationships Between Fauna and People and the Role of Ethnozoology in Animal
Conservation. Ethnobiology and Conservation 1,” 1–69.
Ethnozoology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809913-1.00013-2 233 © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
234 13. ANIMALS AND HUMAN HEALTH
The links between animals and human health known as zoonoses (Bell et al., 1988; Krauss,
have been substantiated throughout the history 2003) and have been known to affect human
of mankind, from causes to cure of human dis- health throughout history (Kruse et al., 2004).
eases. Seven main aspects should be highlighted Such diseases have an important impact on pub-
when considering this connection: (1) animals as lic health and economy, and on the conservation
the cause/disseminator of diseases for humans of wildlife (Cleaveland et al., 2001). Exposure of
and vice versa; (2) animals as sentinels of human humans to zoonoses occurs in different ways,
health; (3) the use of animals in traditional med- from well-known or well-understood direct
icine systems; (4) animal-assisted therapy; (5) transmission routes, such as bites and rabies, to
biotherapy; (6) animals as a source of drugs; and less obvious pathways, the risk factors or poten-
(7) use of animals in medical research. These tial exposure routes of which are difficult to
aspects will be briefly discussed in this chapter. recognize and are interlinked in a relationship
network between human beings, animals, and
the environment (Friend, 2006). The most fre-
Animals as Cause/Disseminator of
quent sources of zoonose transmission comprise
Disease in Humans and Vice Versa food and contaminated water, vector insect bites
Since ancient times, human beings have and scratches, or bites from infected animals
related the appearance of certain diseases and (Chomel, 2002).
epidemics to the presence or influence of animals Zoonotic diseases account for approximately
that are considered to presage bad omens, dis- 75% of emerging infectious diseases (Chomel
eases, and death (Ávila-Pires, 1989). This is not et al., 2007; Taylor et al., 2001). A literature search
surprising, considering that the natural world showed that more than 800 human pathogens
has a strong influence on the transmission of are zoonotic (Taylor et al., 2001; Woolhouse and
disease to humans from animals and vice versa, Gowtage-Sequeria, 2005). According to Weiss
and the perception of more primitive societies (2001), some of these pathogens may cause seri-
therefore certainly reflects daily experiences. As ous diseases in wild animals but, in some cases,
pointed by Wolfe et al. (2007), human hunter/ the animals act as reservoirs, without showing
gatherer populations currently suffer, and pre- any clinical symptoms (Williams et al., 2002). As
sumably have suffered for millions of years, mentioned above, zoonoses can be transmitted
from infectious diseases similar or identical to by direct contact with infected animals, dead
diseases of other wild primate populations. or alive, which are used by humans in several
When an infectious agent responsible for a ways, including consumption as food or as pets.
human disease is also capable of infecting other The consumption of animal products as food or
species, these species may act as reservoirs or in traditional medicine, for example, facilitates
vectors for the disease (European Commission, the transmission of serious and widespread zoo-
2011). Arthropods, for example, transmit hun- noses, such as tuberculosis or rabies (De Smet,
dreds of different known infectious and para- 1991; Schnurrenberger and Hubbert, 1981; Still,
sitic agents to humans and animals around the 2003). Another example deserving mention is
world. These vectors include almost all forms avian inﬂuenza (Influenza A) viruses; these are
of blood-sucking arthropods: mosquitoes, ticks, responsible for highly contagious acute illness
mites, biting midges, sand flies, kissing bugs, in humans, pigs, horses, marine mammals, and
bed bugs, black flies, lice, fleas, and deer and birds, occasionally resulting in devastating epi-
horse flies (Seymour, 1984). demics and pandemics (Bengis et al., 2004).
Diseases and infections that are naturally Wild animals constitute an important but
transmitted between animals and humans are poorly known reservoir of emerging infectious
Introduction 235
diseases, most of which are of zoonotic con- for human disease of changing patterns in
cern (Pérez, 2009). The trade in wildlife for food their relationship with animals and the natural
consumption, medicines, and as pets, among world, scientists have continued to treat human
other uses, involves the capture and sale of bil- and animal health as largely independent dis-
lions of animals of incredibly wide varieties of ciplines, while historians have also neglected
species (Alves et al., 2010a; Alves et al., 2013a; this important aspect of human disease (Hardy,
Pérez, 2009; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2014). Wildlife 2003). In this sense, it is crucial that the interde-
commercialization, both legal and illegal, is pendence between animal and humans be con-
considered a significant driver of zoonotic dis- sidered in the development of new public health
eases—leading to the introduction of zoono- practices.
ses and/or foreign diseases that may impact
domestic animals and/or native wildlife species
Animal as Sentinels of Human Health
(Karesh et al., 2005; Rostal et al., 2012). Hunting
and the consumption of bushmeat are important As discussed previously, animals suffer a
routes for the introduction and transmission of similar spectrum of disease as humans (Bell
zoonotic diseases (Van Vliet et al., 2017). Any et al., 1988; Krauss, 2003) and, therefore, may be
wildlife species harvested for bushmeat could sensitive indicators of environmental hazards
be a potential source of zoonotic diseases that and provide an early warning system for pub-
could be transferred during hunting, butchering, lic health intervention (Reif, 2011). The concept
or preparation (Karesh and Noble, 2009; Wolfe that disease occurrence in nonhuman animal
et al., 2000). Armadillos, for example, are widely populations (wild and domestic) can serve as a
hunted as food resources and for medicinal uses, sentinel warning of an environmental threat to
but are natural reservoirs of etiological agents of human health has a long history (Rabinowitz
several zoonotic diseases that affect humans— et al., 2005).
such as leprosy, trichinosis, coccidioidomycosis Animals have served in numerous cases
(valley fever), Chagas disease, and typhus (Silva as “sentinels” of environmental threats near
et al., 2005). More than 100 occurrences of pul- the living or working environments (Van der
monary mycosis, for example, were recorded in Schalie et al., 1999), and humans can, in return,
40 municipalities in Piauí state in northeastern sometimes serve as sentinels for animal health.
Brazil (Alves et al., 2016). The exotic pet trade The potential for animals to serve as sentinels
deals with an increasing range of wild animal for humans (or vice versa) depends on the
species, from invertebrates to mammals (Pérez, type of linkages and contacts between specific
2009), and it is believed that epidemics such as animal populations and neighboring humans
SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), mon- (Rabinowitz and Conti, 2013). Terrestrial wild-
key pox, and avian influenza H5N1 emerged life, companion animals, food production
from wildlife markets (Brown, 2004; Burgos and animals, and aquatic animal populations can
Burgos, 2007; Check, 2004; Karesh et al., 2007; be monitored as sentinels for environmental
Sleeman, 2006; Warwick et al., 2011). impacts caused by pathogens, contaminants,
There is a rising threat from emerging infec- and/or land-use changes (Rabinowitz and
tious diseases spreading to people and other ani- Conti, 2013).
mals, fueled by human activities ranging from Several historical examples illustrate ani-
the handling of bushmeat and the trade in exotic mals’ usefulness as predictors of human illness
animals to the destruction of wild habitat (Lilley (Rabinowitz and Conti, 2013; Reif, 2011). In the
et al., 1997; Patz et al., 2000; Walsh et al., 1993). 1870s, fattened cattle experienced high mortality
Despite warnings of the potential significance at a stock show in London’s Smithfield Market
associated with a dense industrial fog—a pre- Kahn, 2006) and for reducing the magnitude of
cursor to the air pollution episodes typified subsequent outbreaks (Ferguson et al., 2005).
by the infamous London Fog of 1952, during However, the potential of animal sentinel sur-
which thousands of residents died (Glickman veillance can only be fully realized if informa-
et al., 1991). In the 1950s, recognition of neu- tion sourced from animal populations is acted
robehavioral disturbances in the cat population upon. For example, an Ebola outbreak in central
of Minamata, Japan, preceded a severe episode Africa was the result after insufficient preven-
of neurological disease among local residents tive health measures were taken despite warn-
caused by consumption of seafood contami- ings of an imminent human outbreak being
nated with methylmercury (Tsuchiya, 1992). provided from monitoring of Ebola deaths in
Sediments, shellfish, and fish in Minamata Bay primate sentinels (Rouquet et al., 2005).
became contaminated with mercuric chloride as Studies of the effects of environmental expo-
the result of effluent discharges from a chemi- sure on domestic and wild animals can cor-
cal plant. The ataxic “dancing cats of Minamata” roborate or inform epidemiologic studies in
were a warning sign. Unfortunately, it was not humans (Reif, 2011). Currently, however, phy-
recognized in time to prevent the human epi- sicians assessing environmental health risks to
demic (Reif, 2011). In 1962, it was cases of lead patients do not routinely include animal sentinel
poisoning in cattle and horses living in the vicin- data in their clinical assessments. Public health
ity of a smelter that alerted the Minnesota State practitioners are unlikely to respond to mortal-
Health Department to conduct surveillance ity events in animals that are not clearly due to
for lead exposure in local human populations West Nile virus or other known zoonoses, such
(Hammond and Aronson, 1964). Another clas- as rabies (Rabinowitz et al., 2005). Reasons for
sic example of this is the historic use of canaries the underuse of animal sentinel data by human
by miners to detect the presence of toxic gases health professionals may include limited under-
in coal mines (Burrell and Seibert, 1916). Dying standing of the relationships existing between
crows and other birds signaled the appearance animal, human, and ecosystem health; insuf-
and spread of the West Nile virus infection in ficient knowledge of veterinary medicine; and
the Western hemisphere. As the disease spread, few institutional protocols to incorporate animal
monitoring of dead crows was used as a sentinel data into public health surveillance (Stephen
system for early warning of human disease risk and Ribble, 2001). Both human and animal
(Julian et al., 2002). health professionals have gained an increasing
Animal sentinels may potentially be used awareness that disease events in animal popula-
to address a range of surveillance questions tions may have direct relevance to human health
including: (1) detection of a known pathogen in (Scotch et al., 2009).
a new area; (2) detection of changes in the preva-
lence or incidence of a pathogen or disease over
Traditional Medicine
time; (3) determining the rates and direction of
pathogen spread; (4) testing specific hypotheses It is known that at the dawn of recorded his-
about the ecology of a pathogen; and (5) evalu- tory humans often ate, or wore on their person,
ating the efficacy of potential disease control some portion of an animal that was thought
interventions (McCluskey, 2003). Appropriate to have a healing or protective influence
use of animal sentinels can facilitate the early (MacKinney, 1946); this highlights the intertwin-
detection and identification of outbreaks, which ing of the origin of the medicinal use of faunal
is of critical importance both for the success of elements with their use as food. In the same con-
control and prevention efforts (Chomel, 2003; text, Chemas (2010) remarked that the treatment
Introduction 237
of illnesses using animal-based remedies is an ailments. Although less known and less fre-
extremely old practice, the most remote anteced- quently studied, Latin America and Africa both
ent of which is a carnivore diet, closely followed have a long tradition of using their equally var-
by the ritual ingestion of deceased persons (e.g., ied and rich fauna, including many endangered
close relatives, warriors) as a means of absorb- species, to treat all kinds of ailments (Alves and
ing their virtues (e.g., courage, virility), and sub- Rosa, 2013b). Zootherapeutic practices are also
sequently by a true medicinal use inseparable found in Europe (Ceríaco, 2013; Quave et al.,
from magical-religious elements. These observa- 2010; Voultsiadou, 2010).
tions are in line with the view of nature as pro- Mammals, fish, reptiles, birds, mollusks, and
viding many things for humankind, including insects, including many threatened species, are
tools for the first attempts at therapeutic inter- prominently used in traditional medicine (Figs.
vention (Nakanishi, 1999). 13.1 and 13.2) (Alves et al., 2010b; Alves et al.,
Although plants and plant-derived materials 2008; Alves et al., 2013g; Ferreira et al., 2012,
make up the majority of the ingredients used in 2013; Williams et al., 2013), substantiating the
most traditional medical systems worldwide, importance of taking into account their harvest-
whole animals, animal parts, and animal-derived ing in the context of animal conservation. Many
products also constitute important elements marine (Alves and Dias, 2010; Alves et al., 2013c)
of the materia medica (Alakbarli, 2006; Alves and terrestrial invertebrates (Costa-Neto, 2005;
et al., 2013b; Alves and Rosa, 2005; Moquin- Figueirêdo et al., 2015; Kritsky, 1987; Pemberton,
Tandon, 1861; Scarpa, 1981; Stephenson, 1832; 1999) make up part of the therapeutic arsenal of
Unnikrishnan, 2004). Products derived from popular medicine (Figs. 13.3–13.5).
medicinal animals are directly used in the confec- Articles and review texts have revealed the
tion of popular remedies and magical items such high numbers of animal species used in tra-
as charms, amulets, and talismans that are widely ditional medicinal practices throughout the
sought after in traditional medicinal practices world (Table 13.1). Researchers have reported
(Alves and Rosa, 2013a; Anyinam, 1995). more than 1500 animal species that have some
The antiquity in the use of medicinal ani- medicinal use in traditional Chinese medicine
mals and its persistency through times are a (Yinfeng et al., 1997). In Latin America, at least
testimony to the importance of those therapeu-
tic resources to mankind (Alves et al., 2013b).
In modern societies, zootherapy constitutes an
important alternative to the many other known
therapies practiced worldwide (Alves and Rosa,
2013a). Wild and domestic animals and their by-
products (e.g., hooves, skins, bones, feathers,
tusks) form important ingredients in the prepa-
ration of curative, protective, and preventive
medicine (Adeola, 1992; Alves and Alves, 2011;
Alves et al., 2012; Ashwell and Walston, 2008;
Martinez, 2013; Whiting et al., 2011; Williams
et al., 2013).
Many cultures still employ traditional medi-
FIGURE 13.1 Medicinal animal-derived products (croc-
cine incorporating animal-derived remedies. odile skulls, antelope horns, and a diversity of carnivore and
Probably the most famous of these are the nonhuman primate skulls) for sale in Benin, West Africa.
Chinese, who use animals to treat a variety of Photo credits: Anthony B. Cunningham.
FIGURE 13.4 The centipedes (Scolopendra subspinipes),

known as wugong in Chinese, widely sold in tradi-
tional Chinese medicine markets. Photo credits: Anthony B.
Cunningham.
primates (Alves et al., 2013e), 108 mammalian

carnivores (Alves et al., 2013d), and 266 marine
invertebrates (Alves et al., 2013c) are used in
popular medicines. Research in 25 African coun-
FIGURE 13.2 The tegu lizard (Salvator merianae) and boa tries has shown that at least 354 bird species
snake (Boa constrictor), reptiles species often used in Brazilian are used there in traditional curing practices
traditional medicine. Photo credits: John Philip Medcraft. (Williams et al., 2013) (Table 13.1). Some groups,
such as seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) are widely
employed for medicinal purposes (Fig. 13.6).
Rosa et al. (2013) reported that of 48 species
recognized as valid by Project Seahorse (2016),
20 species were cited in the literature as having
medicinal uses. It is important to point out that
the number of animal species used in popular
medicinal practices must certainly be larger
than what has so far been recorded, as in spite
of studies focusing on this theme, many regions
have not been closely examined—indicating that
further studies will be indispensable to increas-
ing our understanding of the links between the
FIGURE 13.3 Dried starfish for sale in the traditional traditional uses of animals and conservation
Chinese medicine market in Chengdu, Sichuan. Photo credits: biology, the sustainable management of natural
Anthony B. Cunningham. resources, public health policies, and biological
prospection (Alves and Rosa, 2006).
584 animal species have been reported as being The world’s animals and plants—including
used in traditional medicinal practices (Alves a number of species used in traditional medi-
and Alves, 2011). Worldwide, at least 284 rep- cine—face threats ranging from habitat loss
tiles and 47 amphibians (Alves et al., 2013g), 110 to the global wildlife trade (Alves and Rosa,
Introduction 239
FIGURE 13.5 Examples of raw materials derived from medicinal animals sold in Brazilian cities. Photo credits: Rômulo
R.N. Alves.
2013a). There has been an increasing demand vertebrates threatened by trade for traditional
for traditional medicines (Alves and Rosa, 2007; medicine, including rhinos, tigers, bears, pango-
Robinson and Zhang, 2011), and the link between lins, turtles, seahorses, monkeys, tigers, rhinoc-
traditional medicine and the loss of certain spe- eros, and bears is well-known (Fig. 13.7).
cies has become apparent (Alves et al., 2007; Medicinal use of fauna represents an addi-
Call, 2006). This trend bears important implica- tional pressure for many species, and has been
tions for the conservation of the many species of indicated as an important cause of population
flora and fauna, on which traditional remedies decline. Thus, not only should the use of these
are based (Alves and Rosa, 2013a; Lee, 1999). animals in popular medicine be considered,
Unfortunately, whereas the use of traditional but also their exploitation by the pharmaceuti-
remedies used to be a localized practice, the glo- cal industry (Marques, 1997). As Shaw (2009)
balization of commerce in combination with the points out, any pharmaceutical scientist who
increased popularity of natural approaches to is involved in contemporary natural product
health worldwide has created a level of demand research has to get involved in, or at the very
that threatens the survival of many vulnerable least become familiar with, global issues of spe-
species of wildlife (IFAW, 2011). The case of cies conservation and/or biodiversity.
TABLE 13.1 Richness of Animal Species Used in Traditional Folk Medicine According to Literature
Animal Group Number of Medicinal Species Geographic Coverage References
Herpetofauna 331 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013g)
Primates 110 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013e)
Carnivorous mammals 108 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013d)
Aquatic mammals 24 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013f)
Seahorses 20 Worldwide Rosa et al. (2013)
Marine invertebrates 266 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013c)
Birds 354 Africa (25 countries) Williams et al. (2013)
All taxons combined 584 Latin America Alves and Alves (2011)
All taxons combined 54 Portugal Ceríaco (2013)
All taxons combined 109 India Mahawar and Jaroli (2008)
All taxons combined 137 Nigeria Soewu (2013)
All vertebrate groups 147 South Africa Whiting et al. (2013)
Mammals 87 Benin (West Africa) Djagoun et al. (2013)
BIOTHERAPY than 650 species of leeches have been described,

only a few are used for medicinal (therapeutic)
The use of live organisms for treating purposes. The European medicinal leech, Hirudo
human and animal illnesses is known as bio- medicinalis, is one of the most extensively studied
therapy (Grassberger et al., 2013). As pointed annelids and the most frequently used in mod-
out by those authors, this is an ancient prac- ern medical practices (Gileva and Mumcuoglu,
tice, although it has now attracted the interest 2013). Similar results have also been obtained
of many clinicians, biologists, biochemists, and in some cases with Hirudo verbana and Hirudo
patient advocates and has emerged as a rapidly michaelseni (Van Wingerden and Oosthuizen,
advancing multidisciplinary field of medicine. 1997; Whitaker et al., 2012). Medicinal leeches
Some of the principal animals used in biother- apparently reduce blood coagulation and relieve
apy are maggots, leeches, bees, parasitic worms, venous pressure resulting from blood pooling
and fish (Table 13.2), giving rise to the fields of (especially after plastic surgery) and stimulate
maggot therapy, hirudotherapy, apitherapy, hel- blood circulation (Godfrey, 1997). Leeches are
minth therapy, and ichthyotherapy, which will now applied to treat a wide array of diseases
all be briefly discussed below. or conditions, including reconstructive plastic
surgery; venous, cardiovascular, neurological,
gynecological, osteomuscular, and ophthalmo-
Hirudotherapy logic disorders; periodontal and oral mucosal
The use of medicinal leeches for curative pur- diseases; and cancer (Gileva and Mumcuoglu,
poses is one of the oldest known practices in medi- 2013; Gilyova, 2005; Scott, 2002). Specific appli-
cine (Gileva and Mumcuoglu, 2013) and is called cations of hirudotherapy can vary in different
hirudotherapy or leech therapy. Although more countries or regions. Hirudotherapy is officially
Biotherapy 241
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
FIGURE 13.6 The longsnout seahorse, Hippocampus reidi (A), species commonly used for medicinal purposes in Brazil,
traded in the dried form. Dried seahorse specimens for sale (B–D) in Brazilian cities. Photo credits: (A) Thelma L.P. Dias, (B and D)
Rômulo R.N. Alves, (C) Ierecê L. Rosa.
recognized as an alternative therapy for numer- deep wounds with the help of blowfly larvae
ous internal diseases including osteoarthritis, (Costa-Neto, 2005). This method was acci-
phlebitis, hypertension, and glaucoma in some dentally discovered during the World War I
Eastern Europe, Russian, and Asian countries, and was widely used during the 1930s and
while American and European practitioners 1940s, being indicated for infected wounds
emphasize the value of leeches in microvascu- that are difficult to heal, such as osteomyelitis,
lar and reconstructive surgery for both pediatric abscesses, burns, wounds on diabetic patients,
and adult populations (Gilyova, 2005). pressure ulcers, traumatic lesions, tumors, and
untreatable gangrene (Martini and Sherman,
2003). The advantages of maggot therapy, also
Maggot Therapy called larval therapy, maggot debridement
One of the most interesting applications of therapy, and biosurgery, include its profound
insects as therapeutic agents is maggot therapy, efficacy in debriding necrotic tissue and its
which involves the treatment of superficial or relative safety and simplicity; it is frequently
feed on dead tissue where gangrene-causing

bacteria thrive. As they eat, they also secrete
allantoin, a chemical that inhibits bacterial
growth (Costa-Neto, 2005). Medicinal mag-
gots have three actions: they clean wounds by
dissolving the dead (necrotic) infected tissue,
disinfect the wound by killing bacteria, and
stimulate wound healing (Sherman et al., 2000).
The larva debride the necrotic tissue using their
oral suction apparatus, which liberates diges-
tive enzymes and dissolves the infected tissue;
the wound is disinfected through the secretion
of antibacterial substances liberated by the
larva that activate macrophages, induce wound
healing, and stimulate healthy tissue growth
(Dallavecchia et al., 2011).
Use of maggot therapy declined with the
introduction of modern antibiotics and improve-
ments in surgical debridement, although the
use of maggot therapy has been returning due
to growing antibiotic resistance and potential
adverse effects associated with antibiotic use
(Gunjegaonkar et al., 2016). Initially, maggot
therapy was used for treating chronic wounds
in humans, but was later used with animals as
FIGURE 13.7 Tigers and rhinos, examples of endan- a likewise safe and effective method of curing
gered animals impacted due to use and traffic of their parts serious wounds (Munir et al., 2016). Numerous
for traditional medicines. Photo credits: Rômulo R.N. Alves. researchers have shown that larval therapy is
much more effective at debriding wounds than
utilized when conventional medical treat- conventional treatments (Dallavecchia et al.,
ments and surgeries are not capable of deter- 2011; Sherman et al., 1986). Maggot therapy is
ring progressive tissue destruction (Sherman commonly used in the United States, Israel,
et al., 2013). The therapy treatment consists of and Europe to treat various types of infected
applying live, sterile, laboratory raised, blow- wounds, such as those on the feet of diabetics,
fly larvae (Diptera: Calliphoridae) to lesions or postoperative infections, ulcer scabs, and leg
chronic and/or infected wounds to remove ulcers (Ratcliffe et al., 2011; Sherman et al., 2000).
necrotic/infected tissues and promote healing
(Martini and Sherman, 2003). The larvae can
be applied to a wound in a direct (free-range)
Apitherapy—Bee Venom Therapy
or indirect (contained) manner (Gunjegaonkar Bee venom therapy is a biotherapeutic medi-
et al., 2016). Blowfly larvae, Lucilia sericata, are cal treatment that uses bee venom to treat
frequently used, although other species have numerous illnesses (Kim, 2013). Bee venom has
also been employed, such as Lucilia cuprina, a long history of use as a folk remedy for treat-
Phormia regina, and Calliphora vicina (Sherman ing diseases such as arthritis, angiocardiopa-
et al., 2000). Maggots like those of L. sericata thy, back pain, musculoskeletal pain, cancerous
Biotherapy 243
TABLE 13.2 Animals Species Used in Biotherapy
Species References
HIRUDOTHERAPY
Hirudo medicinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) Gileva and Mumcuoglu (2013)
Hirudo verbana (Carena, 1820) Van Wingerden and Oosthuizen (1997) and Whitaker et al. (2012)
Hirudo michaelseni (Augener, 1936) Van Wingerden and Oosthuizen (1997) and Whitaker et al. (2012)
Poecilobdella granulosa (Savigny, 1822) Lone et al. (2011)

MAGGOT THERAPY
Calliphora vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) Teich and Myers (1986)
Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart, 1842) Teich and Myers (1986)
Lucilia caesar (Linnaeus, 1758) Baer (1931) and McLellan (1932)
Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann, 1830) Fine and Alexander (1934)
Lucilia illustris (Meigen, 1826) Lerclercq (1990)
Lucilia sericata (Meigen, 1826) Baer (1931)
Phormia regina (Meigen, 1826) Baer (1931), Horn et al. (1976), Reames et al. (1988), and
Robinson (1933)
Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) Lerclercq (1990)
Wohlfahrtia nuba (Wiedemann, 1830) Grantham-Hill (1933)
Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) Grantham-Hill (1933)

APITHERAPY
Apis melifera (Linnaeus, 1758) Kim (2013)

ICHTHYOTHERAPY
Garra rufa (Heckel, 1843) Grassberguer and Sherman (2013)

HELMINTH THERAPY
Ascaris lumbricoides (Linnaeus, 1758) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)
Enterobius vermicularis (Linnaeus, 1758) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)
Hymenolepis diminuta (Rudolphi, 1819) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)
Hymenolepis nana (Siebold, 1852) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)
Strongyloides stercoralis (Bavay, 1876) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)
Trichuris suis (Schrank, 1788) Fleming et al. (2011)
Necator americanus (Stiles, 1902) Wolff and Broadhurst (2012)
Trichuris trichiura (Linnaeus, 1771) Wolff and Broadhurst (2012)

tumors, multiple sclerosis, and skin diseases, series of chemical compounds acting together
and it is known to promote wound healing in the body have been identified (Lucache
(Alqutub et al., 2011; Beck, 1935; Cherniack, et al., 2015).
2010; Roy et al., 2015). The use of bee venom is
quite ancient, but has attracted growing inter-
est now due to its positive therapeutic results Ichthyotherapy
(Moreira, 2012). Bee venom is a colloidal sub- The term “ichthyotherapy” was proposed
stance that can be dialyzed through membranes in 2006 (Grassberguer and Sherman, 2013) and
and absorbed through the skin (Shimpi et al., readily adopted, being defined as an alterna-
2016); it is composed of approximately 18 active tive therapy for treating skin diseases with
compounds including enzymes, bioamines, the so-called “doctor fish of Kangal,” Garra
and peptides with important biological effects rufa (Fig. 13.8) (Heckel, 1843) (Grassberguer
(Yasui, 2012). Bee venom has been reported and Sherman, 2013), a small, freshwater cypri-
to have both a central analgesic mechanism nid fish native to the Middle East (Froese and
and peripheral analgesic action due to its anti- Pauly, 2016). The use of this species is directed
inflammatory action (Shin et al., 2012). toward treating skin problems such as pso-
Bee venom can be applied by direct stings riasis, eczema, dermatitis, acne, calluses, and
from bees (apipuncture or bee sting therapy) hardness (Ozcelik and Akyol, 2011). Several
or through injections of a venom extract (bee underlying mechanisms have been suggested
venom therapy)—both requiring the experi- for the observed efficacy of ichthyotherapy.
ence of a qualified health professional (Lucache One obvious mechanism is physical contact
et al., 2015). Bee venom therapy involves the with the fish, which feeds on desquamating
use of the venom produced by Apis melifera, skin, leading to a rapid reduction of superficial
marketed under the names of Apitoxina and skin scales (Grassberguer and Sherman, 2013).
Apitox. The venom is applied intradermally, G. rufa are toothless fish that consume the dead
never intravenously, and used for treating skin cells of people that they come into direct
various autoimmune diseases, neurological contact with in the water, without affecting
disturbances, and chronic and inflammatory healthy skin (Cabral and Carneiro, 2014). The
illnesses (Kim, 2013). Apipuncture is a method
used by health professionals or licensed practi-
tioners of acupuncture, with the venom being
injected by holding a live bee (with forceps) on
the affected area of the patient and allowing it
to sting that person. Before initiating this type
of treatment, however, the patient must be
examined for allergic reactions to the venom
(Kim, 2013; Yasui, 2012). Bee venom therapy
stimulates the immunological system through
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and supra-
renal glands, inducing the body to produce
its own curative substances. The efficiency
of bee venom therapy has been evaluated in
both laboratory and clinical experiments with FIGURE 13.8 “Doctor fish of Kangal,” Garra rufa, fish
humans (Yasui, 2012); however, this curative species used in ichthyotherapy. Photo credits: Tacyana P.R.
mechanism is not yet well understood, but a Oliveira.
Biotherapy 245
underlying mechanisms of ichthyotherapy are autoimmune diseases can be tested by compar-
not yet totally understood, but the most visible ing the prevalence of those diseases in highly
effect of exposure to this fish is the removal helminth-exposed and less- or nonexposed
of excess skin layers, although the dramatic human populations. There is strong evidence
observed reductions in the inflammatory com- that helminth exposure results in changes to
ponent, especially among patients with psoria- the immune system that decrease the risk of
sis, suggest additional mechanisms (possibly developing immune disorders, thereby pre-
molecular). More complete biochemical studies venting the onset of immune-mediated dis-
will need to be undertaken to identify and char- eases that have become common in developed
acterize the properties of G. rufa in that context countries (Elliot et al., 2013).
(Grassberguer and Sherman, 2013).
Animal-Assisted Therapy
Helminth Therapy Another way in which animals can be used to
The therapeutic uses of helminths (parasitic ameliorate human health conditions is through
worms) have been tested in laboratory trials as human involvement with living creatures as a
new approaches to treating a variety of allergic form of therapy (Alves et al., 2009). For centu-
and autoimmune illnesses (Khan and Fallon, ries people have noted that animals can have
2013). This type of therapy is called helminth positive influences on human health and func-
therapy and consists of the inoculation of the tioning (Nimer and Lundahl, 2007). Florence
patient with specific parasitic intestinal nema- Nightingale suggested in the 19th century
todes (helminths). Diseases such as ulcerative that a bird might be a primary source of plea-
colitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, sure for people confined to their rooms due
Crohn disease, celiac disease, and autism are to medical problems (McConnell, 2002). The
among the health problems potentially treat- use of animals as therapy has intensified now
able with helminths. A number of such organ- and has received many names, such as animal-
isms are currently being investigated for their assisted therapy, pet therapy, animal-assisted
use in therapeutic treatments (see Table 13.2), activities, pet-facilitated therapy, pet-assisted
including Trichuris suis (Fleming et al., 2011), therapy, animal-facilitated therapy, animal-
Necator americanus (Elliot et al., 2013), Trichuris assisted interventions, and animal visitation
trichiura (Correale and Farez, 2011); Hymenolepis (Connor and Miller, 2000; Fine, 2010; Hooker
diminuta, Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides ster- et al., 2002; Kruger et al., 2006). All of these
coralis, Enterobius vermicularis, and Hymenolepis practices have the common focus of utilizing
nana (Correale and Farez, 2011; Leonardi-Bee animals as facilitators for patient recovery and
et al., 2006). for establishing positive therapies, especially
It is appropriate to note that helminth for patients with special needs, children with
therapies will probably be increasingly used cognitive or emotional disturbances, and older
in developed societies where epidemics of people (Oliva, 2010).
inflammatory disorders are most prevalent, Both domestic and domesticated animals have
and thus in people never previously exposed found medicinal uses as co-therapists (Silveira,
to helminths, while the desirable protective 1998). Among the animals most commonly used
effects of helminth infections of humans in for therapeutic purposes are dogs, cats, horses,
field studies have been reported for people dolphins, small tame animals such as rabbits
in endemic areas (Scrivener et al., 2001). The and gerbils, and aquarium fish. Typically, rep-
theory that helminth infection protects against tiles are frowned upon in therapeutic settings
because of their high risk of carrying disease Fauna as Source of Drugs

or causing injuries to clients, and because of
the difficulty of providing those animals with Throughout human history, people have used
proper care and safe environments. Farm ani- various natural materials to cure their illnesses
mals are often useful therapy animals, with the and improve their health (Alves and Rosa, 2007).
most common being llamas and pot-bellied pigs Wildlife not only contributes to traditional medi-
(Chandler, 2012). cine but also modern medicine, with natural
Animal-assisted activities can occur in a vari- extracts being used by pharmaceutical compa-
ety of settings in which people interact with nies as raw material for the manufacture of drugs
(talk to, pet, groom) companion animals while (Rose et al., 2012; Sifuna, 2012). The drugs we use
the animal’s handler is present. Intense attach- to maintain human health are still predominantly
ments can rapidly develop between people and derived from plant and animal species (Fitter,
pets during these encounters (Reperant et al., 1986). Historically, while the use of plants as
2012), and researchers have shown that animal- medicines has been extensively recognized, stud-
assisted therapies provide numerous positive ied, and reviewed, studies on the use of fauna as
effects to patient health and can stimulate the a source of drugs have only been produced now,
development of diverse abilities such as learning, and have demonstrated the enormous poten-
language acquisition, motricity, among others tial of fauna as a source of natural products and
(Oliva, 2010). Contact with animals has proven to drugs (Alves and Albuquerque, 2013).
be an efficient method for stimulating and help- Several studies have shown that natural ani-
ing individuals with mobility problems, mental mal resources are highly promising in the search
disabilities, or behavioral problems (Alves and for new products of medicinal or pharmaceu-
Rosa, 2013b). Animal-assisted therapy can be tical interest (Alves and Albuquerque, 2013;
used, for example, as part of a patient’s physi- Chivian, 2002; Dossey, 2010; Fusetani, 2000).
cal therapy treatment plan, to decrease anxiety This potential is perhaps even greater for ani-
in psychiatric patients and agitation in older mals than for plants, considering that the num-
adults with dementia (Barker and Dawson, ber of animal species is several times greater
1998; Batson, 1998). Examples include gradually (Alves and Albuquerque, 2012). For example,
increasing the number of brush strokes on a dog Trowell (2003) points out that there are at least
in order to exercise an impaired hand, and elic- 16 times as many insect species as there are plant
iting a relaxation response through horseback species, yet plant chemistry has been studied
riding activities with children with spastic cere- 7000 times more than insect chemistry, based on
bral palsy (McGibbon et al., 1998). Children with a comparison of the amount of research under-
autism spectrum disorders were more likely taken per species.
to respond appropriately in therapy sessions Marine animals also represent an exceptional
involving live dogs than with a stuffed toy dog source of bioactive natural products, many of
or a ball (Martin and Farnum, 2002). Some nurs- which exhibit structural features not found in
ing home residents were found to show lower terrestrial natural products (Faulkner, 1998;
cortisol levels during dog visits than human Ireland et al., 1993; Seedhouse, 2010). Drugs
visits. During and after animal visits, hospital- have been derived from sharks, sting rays, cor-
ized patients used fewer analgesics, reporting als, sea anemones, mollusks, annelids, sponges,
less pain and less depression, and heart failure sea squirts, sea cucumbers, and horseshoe
patients showed decreased anxiety and epi- crabs (Alves and Albuquerque, 2013; Fitter,
nephrine levels (Beck, 2000; Cole et al., 2007). 1986). Shark liver contains lipids that enhance
Biotherapy 247
human resistance to cancer, and the horseshoe in Central and South America. This work has led
crab Limulus not only has a serum that isolates to the identification of a number of alkaloid toxins
tumor cells and white blood cells from the whole that bind to multiple receptors in the membranes
blood of cancer patients, but is also the source of nerve and muscle cells (Chivian, 2002). The
of substances used to detect bacterial toxins in anticarcinogenic activities of Indian monocellate
human body fluids (Fitter, 1986). Invertebrates cobra and Russell’s viper venom were studied
are proving to yield increasing numbers of anti- in carcinoma, sarcoma, and leukemia models.
biotic agents, blood coagulants and anticoagu- Under in vivo experiments, it was found that the
lants, and neuromuscular, as well as anticancer sublethal doses of the Indian Elapidae (monocel-
compounds (Alves and Albuquerque, 2013; late cobra) and Viperidae (Russell’s viper) venom
Fitter, 1986; Myers, 1979; Seedhouse, 2010). caused cytotoxicity in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma
Approximately 2500 new metabolites were (EAC) cells; it increased the life span of EAC-
reported from a variety of marine organisms bearing mice and reinforced its antioxidant
during the decade of 1977–87 (Ireland et al., system (Debnath et al., 2007). Similarly, anti-
1993). Already, more than 15,000 natural prod- tumor activity of Hydrophidae (Lapemis curtus)
ucts have been discovered, and this number venom was also established against EAC in
continues to grow. While bioprospecting and Swiss albino mice in vivo and HeLa and Hep2
deep-ocean exploration are in their infancy, tumor cell cultures in vitro (Karthikeyan et al.,
the novel biology of the organisms discovered 2008). Ferreira et al. (2010) evaluated the anti-
to date and their potential for revolutionizing inflammatory activity of topically administered
the medical realm means that scientific inter- Tupinambis merianae fat in animal models (male
est will be increasingly focused on realizing and female Swiss mice––Mus musculus). In this
the potential that exists in the deep ocean. And, first experimental test of the antiinflammatory
inevitably, as a growing body of science reaf- activity of T. merianae fat in in vivo models, the
firms that deep-sea biodiversity holds major authors found that it had significant topical anti-
promise for the treatment of human diseases, inflammatory activity and reduced inflamma-
exploration will surely venture ever deeper in tion edema in mouse ears caused by croton oil
search of untapped resources (Fusetani, 2000; (single and multiple applications), phenol, and
Seedhouse, 2010). arachidonic acid. Similarly, numerous animals
Various terrestrial vertebrates, particularly produce substances with antimicrobial activi-
amphibians and reptiles, have been of great ties that are effective as defense mechanisms
interest in pharmacological studies (Alves and against infections by microorganisms and have
Albuquerque, 2013). One excellent example of synergetic effects when associated with antibi-
successful drug development from a component otics (Coutinho et al., 2004)—and researchers
of snake venom (Bothrops jararaca, Wied, 1824) is have demonstrated positive results in relation
that of the inhibitors of angiotensin-converting to these activities in diverse species (Table 13.3).
enzyme. This enzyme is responsible for convert- There has been increasing attention paid to
ing an inactive precursor into the locally active animals, both vertebrates and invertebrates,
hormone angiotensin, which causes blood ves- as a source for new medicines (Chivian, 2002).
sels to constrict and hence raises blood pressure Animals have been methodically tested by phar-
(Bisset, 1991). Another good example is the work maceutical companies as sources of drugs for
initially conducted by Daly during the 1960s on modern medical science (Kunin and Lawton,
the skin secretions of dendrobatid frogs from 1996), and the current percentage of animal
Ecuador, and of other “poison dart” frog species sources for producing essential medicines is
TABLE 13.3 Examples of Animal Species With Pharmacological Activities

Species Activity References
Macoma birmanica (Philipi, 1949) Antibacterial Adhya et al. (2009)
Trionyx sinensis (Wiegmann, 1935) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)
Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)
Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)
Nasutitermes corniger (Motschulsky, 1855) Modulation of the antibiotic activity Coutinho et al. (2009, 2010) and
Chaves et al. (2014)
Atta sexdens rubropilosa (Forel, 1908) Antifungal Masaro et al. (2001)
Squalus acanthias (Linnaeus, 1758) Antibacterial Donia and Hamann (2003)
Leptodactylus macrosternum (Miranda- Antibacterial Cabral et al. (2013)

Ribeiro, 1926)
Leptodactylus vastus (Adolf Lutz, 1930) Antibacterial Cabral et al. (2013)
Pseudocanthotermes spiniger Antibacterial and antifungal Lamberty et al. (2001)
Gallus gallus domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Modulation of the antibiotic activity Coutinho et al. (2014)
Rhinella jimi (Stevaux, 2002) Modulation of the antibiotic activity Sales et al. (2015)
Rhynocoris marginatus (Fabricius, 1794) Antibacterial Sahayaraj et al. (2006)
Catamirus brevipennis (Servile) Antibacterial Sahayaraj et al. (2006)
Tropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825) Modulation of the antibiotic activity; Santos et al. (2012, 2015)
antiinflammatory
Tropidurus semitaeniatus (Spix, 1825) Modulation of the antibiotic activity Santos et al. (2012)
Spilotes pullatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Modulation of the antibiotic activity Oliveira et al. (2014)
Dinoponera australis (Roger, 1861) Antibacterial Cologna et al. (2005)
Dinoponera quadriceps (Santschi, 1921) Antibacterial Cardoso et al. (2010)
Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758) Modulatory of the antibiotic activity; Ferreira et al. (2011, 2014)
antiinflammatory
Crotalus durissus (Lineu, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)
Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)
Euphractus sexcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)
Tupinambis merianae (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2010)
Naja atra (Cantor, 1842) Antiinflammatory Zhu et al. (2016)
fairly significant. Of the 252 chemicals selected drugs currently in use in the United States
as essential by the World Health Organization, of America, 27 have animal origin (World
11.1% are derived from plants and 8.7% from Resources Institute, 2000). Although the poten-
animals (Marques, 1997). Of the 150 prescription tial of faunal biodiversity is well known, a
Biotherapy 249
careful strategy is required if species are to be (Alves, 2012), and animal research has formed
exploited sustainably. One of the main conserva- the basis for much of the progress in under-
tion concerns about the exploitation of fauna in standing and treating human (and animal)
the search for bioactive compounds is the pos- diseases (Schacter, 2006). There are records of
sible overharvesting of target organisms (Alves experimentation with animals reaching back
and Albuquerque, 2013). Some taxa with known to ancient Rome, but not until the Renaissance
pharmacological potential are especially suscep- did scholars begin to seriously study how the
tible to overexploitation; for example, marine body works. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
species such as cone shells and mollusks have and other artists and anatomists made early
been overharvested as sources of clinical neuro- anatomical investigations of muscle and bone
pharmaceuticals (Sukarmi and Sabdono, 2011). structure, and William Harvey (1578–1657) dis-
Harvesting of reef organisms for the discovery covered the circulation of blood through his
and development of pharmaceuticals is causing experiments with live deer. Much of the live
increased concern, since it has been perceived animal experimentation during this period,
by many as unsustainable and a threat to con- both in England and France, was based on the
servation (Hunt and Vincent, 2006; Sukarmi and view of the French philosopher René Descartes
Sabdono, 2011). (1596–1650) that animals were incapable of
Bioprospecting continues to generate consid- feeling pain. The 19th century French physiolo-
erable debate (Alves and Albuquerque, 2013), gist, Claude Bernard (1813–78) and his teacher,
as critics dispute the idea that the commodifi- François Magendie (1783–1855), conducted
cation of nature will contribute to conservation wide-ranging animal experiments, including
(Simpson, 1997), or that natural products have surgery, the use of drugs, and the removal of
a future in the discovery of new drugs (Firn, body parts from many species (Bishop and
2003). Regardless of the perspective adopted, as Nolen, 2001).
highlighted by Barrett and Lybbert (2000), the From ancient to modern times, the use of
need to conserve precious biodiversity is clear, animals in research has become one of the most
especially as we begin to appreciate the magni- important ways to better understand aspects
tude of the spiritual, social, and economic ser- of the anatomy, biochemistry, genetics, nutri-
vices it provides. tion and physiology of humans. Additionally,
knowledge of the transmission mechanisms and
treatment of human diseases are associated with
Animals in Biomedical Research such research. According to Bishop and Nolen
In addition to their use in traditional medi- (2001), many, if not most, of the spectacular inno-
cine, in biotherapies, and as sources of medicinal vations in medical understanding and treatment
drugs, animals are essential to research proj- of today’s human maladies have been based on
ects—with both direct and indirect implications research using animals.
for human health. Animal experimentation in Animals are used, for example, to develop
the context of scientific research has contributed new surgical techniques; test the efficacy and
greatly to the development of medical science possible side effects of new drugs; determine
and technology, including the development of the preventative and curative virtues of new
prophylactic measures and treatments for dis- medicines against diseases; test the safety of
eases that affect humans (Chorilli et al., 2009). new chemicals used in the food industry; and
Although research using animals intensified check the quality of new batches of drugs and
during the last century, this technique is known medicines (Bowman, 1977; Fitter, 1986). The
to have been employed since ancient times discovery of antibiotics, analgesics, anesthetics,
and antidepressants; the success of organ trans- the mid-1800s (Sharma et al., 2013). Studies
plant development; catheterization; cardiac involving these mammals have contributed to
pacemaker and several other surgical tech- our knowledge of various infectious diseases,
niques; practically all research protocols about including syphilis and Chagas disease (Sharma
safety, toxicity, effectiveness, and quality con- et al., 2013; Wicher et al., 1983). However, the
trol of new drugs—all these pass through the nine-banded armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus
use of laboratory animals. Other examples of Linnaeus, 1758 has been most exploited as a
scientific contributions arising from studies of model for leprosy (Peña et al., 2008; Scollard,
animals are the discovery of insulin, the devel- 2008; Sharma et al., 2013) The armadillo is the
opment of vaccines against several diseases, only animal model in which protection against
and serum production (Fagundes and Taha, dissemination of leprosy bacilli or progress of
2004). Many drugs used by humans are directly nerve damage can be evaluated. Bacterins of
produced from animals, for example, hor- heat-killed Mycobacterium leprae or viable BCG
mones used to overcome problems of fertility have been shown to protect armadillos against
in humans are derived from cattle; insulin used M. leprae challenge or enhance their immunity
to keep diabetics alive comes mainly from the to the organism (Kirchheimer et al., 1978).
pancreases of cattle and pigs. In addition, many Armadillos can also be used for testing new
vaccines are produced on animal tissue and on diagnostic candidates because they are the
chicken eggs. Measles vaccine, for example, is only host in which the true status of infection
produced on canine kidney tissue, as well as on can be determined, and the long incubation
eggs (Bowman, 1977). period of leprosy in humans can cause con-
Approximately 35 million animals are used founding results (Sharma et al., 2013). Another
worldwide in research each year, including animal group used in medical research experi-
dogs, monkeys, and cats, although 90% are ments are marsupials (Jurgelski, 1984). The
laboratory rats, mice, and birds (Bishop and opossum, Didelphis virginiana, for example, is
Nolen, 2001). Nonhuman primate species, used in endocrinological, embryological, ana-
because of their similarity to humans, are tomical, psychiatric, and neurological research
among the principal groups of animals used (Wiedorn, 1954).
in biomedical research (Carlsson et al., 2004; A dynamic tension exists between support
Fitter, 1986), which are associated with signifi- for scientific enquiry, mostly to alleviate human
cant contribution to advances in human health disease and public concern about animal suffer-
and disease control (Fitter, 1986). A wide vari- ing (Bishop and Nolen, 2001). This discussion is
ety of nonhuman primate species are used in not new, however, and as early as the 16th cen-
these studies, involving at least 56 different tury philosophers were debating the morality of
extant species or subspecies (Carlsson et al., animal experimentation, with their arguments
2004), notably the Asian rhesus monkey Macaca centering on whether animals felt pain and the
mulatta and the African green or vervet mon- moral status of animals as living, sentient crea-
key Cercopithecus aethiops (Carlsson et al., 2004; tures (Schacter, 2006). Although the discovery of
Fitter, 1986). These mammals are important anesthetics and their use in animal experiments
and often essential for research in HIV/AIDS, might have been expected to somewhat quiet
malaria, cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and this issue, revulsion at the use and potential mis-
hepatitis, and also for the production and test- use of animals for human betterment sustains a
ing of drugs and vaccines. Similarly, armadil- significant activism opposed to any use of ani-
los have been used in medical research since mals in research (Schacter, 2006).
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C H A P T E R

INTRODUCTION Rosa, 2007). The recognition that human,

FIGURE 13.4 The centipedes (Scolopendra subspinipes),

primates (Alves et al., 2013e), 108 mammalian

Herpetofauna 331 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013g)

Primates 110 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013e)

Carnivorous mammals 108 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013d)

Aquatic mammals 24 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013f)

Seahorses 20 Worldwide Rosa et al. (2013)

Marine invertebrates 266 Worldwide Alves et al. (2013c)

Birds 354 Africa (25 countries) Williams et al. (2013)

All taxons combined 54 Portugal Ceríaco (2013)

All taxons combined 109 India Mahawar and Jaroli (2008)

All taxons combined 137 Nigeria Soewu (2013)

All vertebrate groups 147 South Africa Whiting et al. (2013)

Mammals 87 Benin (West Africa) Djagoun et al. (2013)

BIOTHERAPY than 650 species of leeches have been described,

feed on dead tissue where gangrene-causing

Hirudo medicinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) Gileva and Mumcuoglu (2013)

Poecilobdella granulosa (Savigny, 1822) Lone et al. (2011)

Calliphora vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) Teich and Myers (1986)

Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart, 1842) Teich and Myers (1986)

Lucilia caesar (Linnaeus, 1758) Baer (1931) and McLellan (1932)

Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann, 1830) Fine and Alexander (1934)

Lucilia illustris (Meigen, 1826) Lerclercq (1990)

Lucilia sericata (Meigen, 1826) Baer (1931)

Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) Lerclercq (1990)

Wohlfahrtia nuba (Wiedemann, 1830) Grantham-Hill (1933)

Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) Grantham-Hill (1933)

Apis melifera (Linnaeus, 1758) Kim (2013)

Garra rufa (Heckel, 1843) Grassberguer and Sherman (2013)

Ascaris lumbricoides (Linnaeus, 1758) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)

Enterobius vermicularis (Linnaeus, 1758) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)

Hymenolepis diminuta (Rudolphi, 1819) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)

Hymenolepis nana (Siebold, 1852) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)

Strongyloides stercoralis (Bavay, 1876) Correale and Farez (2007, 2011)

Trichuris suis (Schrank, 1788) Fleming et al. (2011)

Necator americanus (Stiles, 1902) Wolff and Broadhurst (2012)

Trichuris trichiura (Linnaeus, 1771) Wolff and Broadhurst (2012)

because of their high risk of carrying disease Fauna as Source of Drugs

TABLE 13.3 Examples of Animal Species With Pharmacological Activities

Macoma birmanica (Philipi, 1949) Antibacterial Adhya et al. (2009)

Trionyx sinensis (Wiegmann, 1935) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)

Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)

Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) Antibacterial Thammasirirak et al. (2006)

Atta sexdens rubropilosa (Forel, 1908) Antifungal Masaro et al. (2001)

Squalus acanthias (Linnaeus, 1758) Antibacterial Donia and Hamann (2003)

Leptodactylus macrosternum (Miranda- Antibacterial Cabral et al. (2013)

Leptodactylus vastus (Adolf Lutz, 1930) Antibacterial Cabral et al. (2013)

Pseudocanthotermes spiniger Antibacterial and antifungal Lamberty et al. (2001)

Rhynocoris marginatus (Fabricius, 1794) Antibacterial Sahayaraj et al. (2006)

Catamirus brevipennis (Servile) Antibacterial Sahayaraj et al. (2006)

Dinoponera australis (Roger, 1861) Antibacterial Cologna et al. (2005)

Dinoponera quadriceps (Santschi, 1921) Antibacterial Cardoso et al. (2010)

Crotalus durissus (Lineu, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)

Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)

Euphractus sexcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2014)

Tupinambis merianae (Linnaeus, 1758) Antiinflammatory Ferreira et al. (2010)

Naja atra (Cantor, 1842) Antiinflammatory Zhu et al. (2016)

TABLE 13.3 Examples of Animal Species With Pharmacological Activities