Useful TI-Nspire CX CAS Operations for Calculus

Part 1 of 2

If you do not have a TI-Nspire CX CAS I or II calculator, go onto YouTube and type in your calculator model and the
operation you want to learn how to perform. There are lots and lots of informative student videos on these operations.

Start by spending a few moments looking at the keypad layout of your TI-Nspire CX CAS I or II calculator.

The Home Screen

When you switch on your calculator, you should see a screen similar to the figure shown below called the Home Screen.
Navigate to the calculator’s various icons using its large rectangular Touchpad on the keypad. The touchpad behaves as
both a touchpad (like using a laptop) and as a navigational devise as you can press up, down, left, and right arrows to
move the selector around.

1
Scratchpad vs. Documents
To access the Calculate or Graph applications in scratchpad, navigate using the Touchpad. Scratchpad is designed for
those quick calculations or graphs that are not worth keeping in a full document.

Document Settings
1. Press the esc button located at the top left to access the Home screen → select A Calculate in Sketchpad → press
doc button located at the top right under the on button → select 7 Settings & Status → select 2 Document Settings
Display Digits: Float 9
Angle: Radians
Exponential Format: Normal
Real or Complex: Real
Calculation Mode: Auto
CAS Mode: On
Vector Format: Rectangular
Base: Decimal
Unit System: SI
Press Make Default

2. Go to Home screen → select B Graph in Sketchpad → press doc

button located at the top right under the on button → select 7 Settings
& Status → select 2 Document Settings
Select same settings as shown above.

3. Go to Home screen → select B Graph in Sketchpad → press menu

button located at the top right → select 8 Settings
Display Digits: Float 9
Graphing Angle: Radian
Geometry Angle: Radian
Grid: your choice
No check on Automatically hide plot labels
Check on Show axes end values
No check on Show tips for function manipulation
Check on Automatically find points of interest
No check on Force geometric triangle angles to integers
Check on Automatically label points
Press OK

The Calculator Application

Go to calculator application in sketchpad. Enter in the following expressions, looking carefully at how the expressions as
well as the simplified results appear on the screen.
!
1. 3+9= 4. =
"

2. −3 − 9 = 5. √3 =

#
3. 3∙9= 6. sin =
!

Notice that as new expressions are entered in to the calculator, previous ones scroll off the screen. The calculator will
remember a history of up to 99 expressions and their answers. These are accessed by using the up key on the Touchpad.
• Pressing the enter button when an expression or answer is highlighted copies that expression or answer to the
bottom of the screen.
• To clear the history press menu → select 1 Actions → select 5 Clear History .

2
How to Display Numerical Answers
The AP College Board requires students to display numerical answers as EXACT VALUES rather than approximating
them as decimals. However, there will be some calculations where it is not possible or too messy to express the answer
as an exact value. In such cases, Auto Mode will approximate the answer and display it as a decimal.

It is vital to note that when approximating an answer as a decimal, the AP College Board requires students to round the
answer to the THIRD DECIMAL place if it goes beyond thousandth place. If the approximated answer is not correctly
rounded, it will be marked as INCORRECT and no credit is awarded.

To specifically force a decimal answer when in Auto Mode, either

• press ctrl then press enter after typing the expression, or
• use a decimal when typing the expression.

Solving Equations Using A Calculate for Calculators with CAS

It is important to note that without the CAS feature, graphing calculators cannot solve an equation in A Calculate. For
these calculators, equations are solved by graphing using B Graph , the topic of the next lecture.

To solve equations, go to Home screen → select A Calculate in Sketchpad → press menu → select 3 Algebra → select
1 Solve → type in the equation followed by a comma (located to the left on the letter O) and the variable, which is usually
𝒙 → press enter

1. Solve: 𝑥 $ − 9 = 0

2. Solve: 𝑥 % − 2 = 0

3. What number occupies the tenth place in the answer to the equation √𝑥 + 4 + √𝑥 − 2 = 5 ?

Solving Equations with Domain Restrictions for Calculators with CAS

Go to Home screen → select A Calculate in Sketchpad → press menu → select 1 Actions → select 5 Clear History

Answers to trigonometric equations over the interval (−∞, ∞) can be difficult to read on a graphing calculator due to
their messy nature. For example, let’s solve the equation cos 𝑥 = 1 using a calculator (to enter cosine, press trig located
to the left of the number 7, then use the arrows on Touchpad to select cos ).
• When solved by hand, we find the answer is 𝑥 = 0 ± 𝑛 ∙ 2𝜋, which mean that there are an infinite number of answers
equal to multiples of 2𝜋 (𝑥 = ⋯ − 4𝜋, −2𝜋, 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋 … ).
• When solved with CAS, the answer is 𝑥 = 2 ∙ 𝑛1 ∙ 𝜋, where 𝑛1 is a constant. Note that instead of 𝑛1, you might
encounter 𝑛2, 𝑛3, 𝑛4, or such.
The good news is that this messy scenario should not occur in calculus since trigonometry problems have a domain
restriction associated with them, allowing for only a limited number of answers. Therefore, if you get an answer like 𝑥 =
2 ∙ 𝑛1 ∙ 𝜋, you have NOT entered in the equation correctly.

To enter in a domain restriction, first type in the equation as outlined above. Then use the right arrow on the Touchpad
to position the curser OUTSIDE THE PARANTHESE. Press ctrl → press = (both located to the left of the number 7) then
use the arrows on the Touchpad to select the “when” symbol | followed by the restriction in the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏. Most
trig restrictions are either 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋. The 𝜋 symbol is located to the left of the button H .

1. Solve: cos 𝑥 = 1, 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝜋

#
2. Solve: sin$ 3𝑥 − sin 3𝑥 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝑥 <
$

3
Taking a Derivative
It is important to note that without the CAS feature, graphing calculators cannot take a derivative. Neither the AP exam
nor this class will not ask you to take a derivative using your calculator.

To take a derivative of a function press menu → select 4 Calculus → select 1 Derivative

1. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 ! − 5𝑥.

2. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 3 cos 2𝑡.

∎
Another way to take a derivative is to press the |∎| = P button located to the right of the number 9. The derivative
∎
button is in row 2, column 9.

Taking a Derivative at a Point

The AP exam only required students to take a derivative on a calculator at a given 𝑥-value. To take a derivative at a
particular point press menu → select 4 Calculus → select 2 Derivative at a Point and enter in the expression and the 𝑥-
value or 𝑡-value.

1. Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 ! − 5𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.

2. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 3 cos 2𝑡 at 𝑡 = 𝜋.

Another way to take a derivative at a point is by graphing out a function using B Graph , the topic of the next lecture.

4
Useful TI-Nspire CX CAS Operations for Calculus
Part 2 of 2

The graphing application only uses the variable 𝒙. If a function uses any variable other than 𝒙 for the independent
variable, the calculator will not sketch its graph!

The Graphing Application

Go to Home screen → select B Graph in Sketchpad.

To clear any work on your coordinate plane press menu → 1 Actions → 4 Delete all.

To scale the coordinate axes press menu → 4 Window/Zoom → 5 Zoom-Standard.

To graph a function press menu → 3 Graph Entry/Edit → 1 Function. Notice the calculator uses 𝑓1(𝑥) for 𝑦.

Graph the function 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5. Next graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 − 1.

A shortcut to entering a function in Graphing View is by pressing tab .

Locating Maximum, Minimum, and Zeros

Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 ! − 2𝑡 − 4.

Use the trace feature to identify key points on the graph

menu → 5 Trace → 1 Graph Trace
Use the trace to identify all maximum, minimum, and zero values on
the graph.

Another way to find zeros, minimums, and maximum values is

menu → 6: Analyze Graph → 1: Zero
menu → 6: Analyze Graph → 2: Minimum
menu → 6: Analyze Graph → 3: Maximum

Zeros: (2, 0)
Minima: (0.816, −5.089)
Maxima: (−0.816, −2.911)

Trace mode allows determining the 𝑦-value given any 𝑥-value. Note that this does not work in reverse! When in trace
mode, simply type in the given 𝑥-value and press enter.
Find 𝑓(1.234) = _______________

Find 𝑓(−0.546) = _____________

To determine the slope of a graph at a point press menu → 6 Analyze Graph → 6 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 → type in the given 𝑥-value
and press enter.
Find 𝑓 & (1.234) = ________________

Find 𝑓 & (0) = ________________

5
Solving Equations by Graphing
If your graphing calculator does not have CAS, it is unable to solve equations using A Calculate, and therefore equation
solving is accomplished using B Graph .

Take the equation and manipulate it, if necessary, to make it equal to zero. Graph out the equation and use either
menu → 5: Trace → 1: Graph Trace or menu → 6: Analyze Graph → 1: Zero

to determine the 𝑥-intercepts of the function (the solution to the original equation).

Solve: 𝑥 ! − 2𝑥 = 4.

The Problem of Scaling

Graph the function ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 5𝑥 ! − 600𝑥 $ + 500𝑥 − 50,000 onto the coordinate plane.

Use Zoom-Fit to help scale this graph. Press menu → 4 Window/Zoom → 9A Zoom - Fit . Notice that Zoom-Fit only
sketching a part of the graph and its scaling is not clear.

Think about what the graph of a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 % looks like. Now use 4 Window/Zoom → 4 Zoom -
Out to rescale and view the graph.

Check that the sketch of the graph looks like this:

Check that you can determine the following values:

Zeros: (−24.190, 0), (28.035, 0) Note: You may find a very, very small 𝑦-coordinate value. If the calculator says it is
a zero of the function, enter in a zero for the 𝑦-coordinate.

Minima: (−15.773, −125,643.154), (19.108, −161,089.101)

Maxima: (0.415, −49,896.163)

ℎ& (1.234) ≈ −996.125

6
3.2 – The Mean Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem, considered by many mathematicians as one of the most important topics in calculus, is widely
used in proving various theorems within the field. Similar to the Intermediate Value Theorem, the Mean Value Theorem is
classified as an existence theorem. An existence theorem guarantees the existence of at least one object or solution given
certain conditions.

The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then we are
guaranteed that there exists at least one number 𝑐 in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 &(𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

This theorem connects the instantaneous rate of change (IRC) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 to the average rate of change (ARC) over the
interval [𝑎, 𝑏].

There are three preconditions that must be met in order for the Mean Value Theorem to be applicable:
1. The function must be a function, not a relation. This means that each input
value has one and only one corresponding output value.
2. The function must be continuous on the closed interval. This means that
there are no breaks or interruptions in the function's graph within the
interval.
3. The function must be differentiable on the open interval. This means that
the function has a derivative at every point in the interval, indicating that
the function is without any sudden jumps, holes, vertical asymptotes, or
sharp turns.
Note: The value 𝑥 = 𝑐 must be within the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). If the value is on an endpoint of the interval, it must be
eliminated from consideration.

Example 1 Find all values of 𝑐 that satisfy the Mean Value Theorem for each function over the given interval. If the MVT
cannot be applied, state the reason why the theorem fails. Check the reasonableness of the solution by
sketching a graph of the function.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 $ − 4, [−2, 3]

B. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! − 3𝑥 $ + 2𝑥, [0, 3]

7
Example 2 State the reason why the Mean Value Theorem cannot be applied to the following.
'()
A. ℎ(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 1|, [−2, 2] B. 𝑓(𝑥) = '*$ , [−2, 3]

Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem where the average rate of change (ARC) of the function is
+(-)*+(/)
zero, = 0. The figures shown below illustrate some scenarios where the average rate of change is equal to zero.
-*/

The Rolle’s Theorem

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), and 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then
we are guaranteed that there exists at least one number 𝑐 in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓 & (𝑐) = 0

Example 3 For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 $ − 4𝑥 + 3 on [0, 4], determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies. If so, find the value of 𝑥 = 𝑐
guaranteed by the theorem.

8
3.1 – Identifying Extrema of a Function & Locating Absolute Extrema

Calculus offers a powerful tool for determining important characteristics of a function’s graph without the necessity of
graphing out the function. Sections 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 explain how to determine specific characteristics of a graph from a
function’s equation and use those results to sketch the graph of the function showing it important features.

Important Feature of Graphs #1 – Extrema (plural) or Extremum (singular)

An extremum is a point on the sketch of a function which has a maximum or minimum 𝑦-value. These extreme points
represent the highest or lowest 𝑦-values that the function attains over its entire domain or within a given interval.

Absolute extrema (absolute maximum and absolute minimum) are points where the function attains its highest and
lowest 𝑦-values over its entire domain.

• An absolute maximum is the point having the greatest 𝑦-value in the entire domain of a function.
• An absolute maximum value is the 𝒚-value of the absolute maximum.
• An absolute minimum is the point having the least 𝑦-value in the entire domain of a function.
• An absolute minimum value is the 𝒚-value of the absolute minimum.

Relative extrema (relative maximum and relative minimum) are points where the function attains its highest and lowest
𝑦-values over a limited portion of its domain, called a neighborhood.
• A relative minimum is the point having the least 𝑦-value in a neighborhood of a function.
• A relative minimum value is the 𝒚-value of the relative minimum.

• A relative maximum is the point having the greatest 𝑦-value in a neighborhood of a function.
• A relative maximum value is the 𝒚-value of the relative maximum.

It is important to note that relative extrema need to have points of a function’s graph to its left and right. They exist only
within the limited portion of its domain. Therefore, relative extrema do not exist at any endpoint of a function.

The graph shown below left illustrates the difference between absolute and relative extrema on the graph of a function,
while the flow chart shown below right clarifies the extrema vocabulary.

Absolute
Abs Min Value
Minimum
(y coordinate)
(point)
Absolute
Extrema
Absolute
Abs Max Value
Maximum
(y coordinate)
(point)
Extrema
Relative
Rel Min Value
Minimum
(y coordinate)
Relative (point)
Extrema
Relative
Rel Max Value
Maximum
(y coordinate)
(point)

Displaying the Answer

• If the instructions ask for an absolute or relative extrema, determine its 𝑥-coordinate and the 𝑦-coordinate, then
display the result as a point, (𝑥, 𝑦). If any extra information is displayed, no credit is awarded.
• If the instructions ask for an absolute or relative extrema value, determine its 𝑦-coordinate. If any extra information
is displayed, no credit is awarded.
• If the instructions ask for the 𝑥-value of an absolute or relative extrema, determine its 𝑥-coordinate. If any extra
information is displayed, no credit is awarded.

9
Example 1 Determine the absolute minimum, absolute minimum value, absolute maximum, absolute maximum value
of the following graphs.

A. B.

abs max: ______________________ abs max: ______________________

abs max value: _______________ abs max value: _______________

abs min: ______________________ abs min: ______________________

abs min value: _______________ abs min value: _______________

rel max: ______________________ rel max: ______________________

rel max value: ________________ rel max value: _______________

rel min: _______________________ rel min: _______________________

rel min value: _________________ rel min value: ________________

Locating Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval

Locating absolute extremum of a function is straightforward when we have a sketch of its graph. By following the following
guidelines, we can locate the absolute extreme points of a function on a closed interval without needing a sketch of its graph.

Guidelines for Finding Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval

Given a function 𝑓 that is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]:
1. Determine the critical numbers of the function on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). These critical numbers represent potential
locations of relative extrema.
• Set the derivative of the function equal to zero, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 0 and solve for 𝑥. Only consider those 𝑥-values that are in
the interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
• Also consider 𝑥-values where the derivative does not exist, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸 and solve for 𝑥. Again only consider those
𝑥-values that are in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
2. Determine the endpoints of a function on the closed interval: 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
3. Evaluate the function at the critical numbers and endpoints by substituting each 𝑥-value into the function 𝑓(𝑥) to obtain
their corresponding 𝑦-value.
4. Compare the resulting 𝑦-values:
• The highest 𝑦-value corresponds to the absolute maximum.
• The lowest 𝑦-value corresponds to the absolute minimum.
5. Reread the instructions to find how to display the answer– 𝑥-coordinate, 𝑦-coordinate, or point (𝑥, 𝑦).

10
Example 3 Locate the absolute maximum and minimum for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! − 12𝑥 + 23 on the interval
[−5, 3]. Check your answers by examine its graph shown in example 1A.

Example 4 Determine the absolute minimum and maximum values of ℎ(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 $ over its domain.

It might be tempting to graph out this function (a semicircle) to determine the absolute extrema values. Be warned that
the AP exam DO NOT AWARD ANY CREDIT if solved in this fashion. Taking the derivative and showing the function
value calculations is required.

11
12
3.3 –The First Derivative Test

The First Derivative Test provide a clear explanation of the justification for locating the relative extrema of a function using
differentiation, critical numbers, and the intervals where its graph is increasing/decreasing.

In both the AP Calculus AB and BC exams, students are asked to justify the location of found relative extrema using a short,
preset sentence.

Important Feature of Graphs #2 − Increasing and Decreasing Intervals of a Function

When analyzing the graph of a function, examine it looking rightward.
• An increasing interval of a function is where its graph “goes up” from left to right. Here the function’s 𝑦-values keep
increasing as it goes rightward.
• A decreasing interval of a function is where its graph “goes down” from left to right. Here the function’s 𝑦-values keep
decreasing as it goes rightward
• A constant interval of a function is where its graph “stays the same” from left to right. Here the function’s 𝑦-values keep
the same value as it goes rightward.

Note: Although increasing and decreasing intervals of a function are determined by observing how its 𝑦-values changes,
the interval answer is displayed in terms of it corresponding 𝒙-values.

Example 1 The graph of a function 𝑓(𝑥) having a domain of (−∞, ∞) is shown below right.

A. Over what open intervals is the function increasing? Decreasing? Constant?

B. What is the sign of the derivative where the function is increasing?

Decreasing? Constant?

Relating the Concepts of Increasing and Decreasing Intervals to the Derivative of a Function
If we know the value (or just the sign) of 𝑓′(𝑥) on a given interval, we can determine where the graph is increasing, decreasing,
or constant. If a function only increases or decreases over its entire domain, it is called monotonic.

Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

• If 𝑓 & (𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is increasing on (𝑎, 𝑏).
• If 𝑓 & (𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is decreasing on (𝑎, 𝑏).
• If 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is constant on (𝑎, 𝑏).

13
Determining Increasing/Decreasing Intervals of a Function Guidelines
1. Find the critical numbers of the function. These are the 𝑥-values where the derivative of the function is equal to zero
or does not exist.
2. Create a sign chart or table using the critical numbers.
3. Determine the intervals of increase and decrease: Use the first derivative to analyze the sign of the derivative in the
intervals between the critical numbers. If the derivative is positive, the function is increasing, and if it is negative, the
function is decreasing.
4. Justify the results: When instructed to justify the result of an increasing/decreasing interval, the College Board does not
accept a sign chart or table, by itself, as justification. Students are required to display the result as:
College Board Approved – NO ABBREVIATIONS Classroom Approved
“The function is increasing on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 & > 0.” or 𝑓 is inc. on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 & > 0.
“The function is decreasing on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 & < 0.” or 𝑓 is dec. on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 & < 0.
&
“The function is constant on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 = 0.” or 𝑓 is const. on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 & = 0.
If this short sentence is missing or other words/symbols are used, no credit is awarded.

Example 1 Find the open interval on which each function is increasing or decreasing using a (a) sign chart and a (b) table.
Justify your answer.
!
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! − $ 𝑥 $

0
B. 𝑔(𝑥) = '*0

14
Important Feature of Graphs #3 − Relative Extrema
The first derivative test locates any relative extrema of a function by finding the critical number of a function, where the
derivative equals zero or does not exist (potential relative extrema), and evaluating the sign of the derivative in intervals
around these points. If the derivative changes sign from positive (increasing interval) to negative (decreasing interval) at a
critical number, the function has a relative maximum at that point. Conversely, if the derivative changes sign from negative
(decreasing interval) to positive (increasing interval) at a critical number, the function has a relative minimum.

Graphs of functions where the derivative is equal to zero, 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0, or do not exist, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸, do not automatically imply
a relative extremum. Checking the changing sign of the derivative at critical numbers is how they are located.

Graphs of Function Where the Derivative is Equal to Zero, 𝒇& (𝒙) = 𝟎

Relative Minimum Relative Maximum No Relative Minimum or Maximum

Graphs of Function Where the Derivative is Equal to Zero, 𝒇& (𝒙) = 𝑫𝑵𝑬

Relative Extremum No Relative Extremum

(Cusp/Corner) (Removable Disc.) (Infinite Discontinuity) (Jump Discontinuity) (Vertical Tangent)

The First Derivative Test

1. Find the critical numbers of the function. Check to make sure they are in the domain of the function.
2. Create a sign chart or table using the critical numbers.
3. Determine the intervals where the function is increasing and decreasing: If the first derivative is positive, the
function is increasing, while if the first derivative is negative, the function is decreasing.
4. Determine any relative extrema: Where the first derivative changes sign from negative to positive a relative
minimum occurs, while where the first derivative changes sign from positive to negative a relative maximum occurs.
5. Justify the results: When instructed to justify the result of a relative extremum the College Board does not accept
a sign chart or table, by itself, as justification. Students are required to display the result as:
College Board Approved – NO ABBREVIATIONS
“The function has a relative maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 & changes sign from positive to negative.”
“The function has a relative minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 & changes sign from negative to positive.”
Classroom Approved
“𝑓 has a rel. max. at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 & changes sign from − to + ”
“𝑓 has a rel. min. at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 & changes sign from + to − ”

If this short sentence is missing or other words/symbols are used, no credit is awarded.

15
Example 2 Locate the 𝑥-values of the relative extrema for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 ! using a (a) sign chart and a (b)
table. Justify your answer.

0 $
Example 3 Locate any relative minimum and maximum for ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 𝑥 ! . Justify your result.
% !

16
3.4 –The Second Derivative Test

In calculus, the concavity of a function refers to the shape of its graph. An interval of a function is considered concave up
if the graph curves upward, resembling a U-shape, while an interval is considered concave down if the graph curves
downward, resembling an inverted U-shape.

The second derivative of 𝑓, writing it as 𝑓′′(𝑥) or 𝑑$ 𝑓/𝑑𝑥 $ is a powerful tool used in calculus to locate points of inflection
by analyzing concavity of a function over an interval (this lecture) and determining whether a critical number is a relative
maximum, local minimum, or an inflection point (the next lecture).

The first derivative test is used to determine the relative extrema of a function by examining the sign changes of the first
derivative around critical numbers where the function changes from an increasing interval to a decreasing interval or vice
versa. It does not tell us how fast the function itself is increasing or decreasing.

Important Features of Graphs #4 - Concavity

Now, the second derivative of a function represents the rate at which the first derivative changes. It tells us how the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function is changing at different points.

If the second derivative of a function is positive on an interval, it means the first derivative is increasing in value as seen
from left to right and is called concave up.

The characteristics of an interval of a function that is concave up are:

1. The function’s second derivative is positive, 𝑓 && (𝑥) > 0.
2. The graph of the function curves upwards, resembling a U-shape.
3. The function’s first derivative is increasing in value from left to right.
4. The tangent lines lie below the function.

If the second derivative of a function is negative on an interval, it means the first derivative is decreasing in value as seen
from left to right and is called concave down.

17
The characteristics of an interval of a function that is concave down are:
1. The function’s second derivative is negative, 𝑓 && (𝑥) < 0.
2. The graph of the function curves downwards, resembling an inverted U-shape.
3. The function’s first derivative is decreasing in value from left to right.
4. The tangent lines lie above the function.

Connecting the Signs of 𝒇′ and 𝒇′′ with the Graph of 𝒇

Knowing the signs of 𝑓′ and 𝑓′′ allows us to determine the general shape of a graph since the signs indicate the direction of
their slope and their concavity.

Example 1 Determine the signs of 𝑓′ and 𝑓′′ for each of the four curved segments shown below and then fill in the correct
inequality symbol.

Important Feature of Graphs #5 – Inflection Point

Concavity can change at different points along the function's domain. Inflection points occur where concavity changes from
concave up to concave down or vice versa. They represent a change in the graph's curvature.

The following graphs illustrate various ways in which a function might change concavity (the two graphs on the left) and what
to look out for in a function that does not have points of inflection (two graphs on the right).

The inflection value of 𝑓(𝑥) is an 𝑥-value, 𝑥 = 𝑝, where the graph of 𝑓 changes concavity. The inflection point is the point,
(𝑝, 𝑓(𝑝)), where the graph of 𝑓 changes concavity

18
The Second Derivative Test
The Second Derivative Test provide a clear explanation of the justification for locating points of inflection of a function using
differentiation and concavity

In both the AP Calculus AB and BC exams, students are asked to justify the location of found points of inflection using a
short, preset sentence.

Guidelines for Locating Points of Inflection

1. Find the specific 𝒙-values where 𝒇&& (𝒙) = 𝟎 or 𝒇&& (𝒙) = 𝑫𝑵𝑬. Check to make sure they are in the domain of the
function.
2. Create a sign chart or a table using these specific 𝑥-values.
3. Determine the intervals of concavity: If the second derivative is positive, the interval is concave up, while if the
second derivative is negative, the interval is concave down.
4. Determine any points of inflection: Where the second derivative changes sign (either from negative to positive or
vice versa) a point of inflection occurs.
5. Justify the results: When instructed to justify the result of a relative extremum the College Board does not accept a
sign chart or table, by itself, as justification. Students are required to display the result as:
College Board Approved – NO ABBREVIATIONS
“The function has a point of inflection at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 && changes sign.”
Classroom Approved
“𝑓 has a POI at 𝑥 = 𝑐 since 𝑓 & ′ changes sign.
6. Justify Concavity (if the question asked only for concavity):
College Board Approved – NO ABBREVIATIONS
“The function is concave up on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 && > 0.”
“The function is concave down on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 && < 0.”
Classroom Approved
“𝑓 is ccu on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 && > 0.”
“𝑓 is ccd on (𝑎, 𝑏) since 𝑓 && < 0.”

If this short sentence is missing or other words/symbols are used, no credit is awarded.

The 𝑥-values where the second derivative is equal to zero, 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0, or do not exist, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸, do not automatically
imply a point of inflection. Checking the changing sign of the second derivative these 𝒙-values is how they are located.

Example 3 Determine the intervals over which the function in concave up or concave down using a (a) sign chart and a (b)
table. Justify your answer. Explain why this function does not have any points of inflection.
0
𝑓(𝑥) =
'(0

19
Example 4 Determine the inflection point for 𝑦 = 1 − 3𝑥 ! . Justify your answer.

Example 5 Determine the inflection value for 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 % + 3𝑥 ! − 2. Justify your answer.

20
3.4 – Relative Extrema and the Second Derivative Test

The second derivative of 𝑓, writing it as 𝑓′′(𝑥) or 𝑑$ 𝑓/𝑑𝑥 $ is a powerful tool used in calculus to locate points of inflection
by analyzing the concavity of a function over an interval and determining whether a critical number is a relative maximum
or minimum. The previous lectured covered points of inflection. This lecture covers using the second derivative to
determine relative extrema at critical numbers.

Guidelines for Determining Relative Extrema Using the Second Derivative Test
1. Find the critical number of a function: 𝑓 & (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓 &(𝑐) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸.
2. Determine the second derivative of the function.
3. Substitute all critical numbers into the second derivative: If the resulting second derivative yields is positive
value (concave up), a relative minimum occurs there, while if the resulting second derivative yields is negative value
(concave down), a relative maximum occurs there. If the resulting second derivative yields a zero or a does not exists,
other methods, such as the First Derivative Test need to be used.
4. Justifying the result on these problems does not involve writing down a short sentence. Rather it is clearly showing
the work leading to the result.

Example 1 Determine the 𝑥-values of any relative extrema for 𝑔(𝑥) = −3𝑥 ) + 5𝑥 ! .

A. Use the First Derivative Test. No justification.

𝑔& (𝑥) = −15𝑥 % + 15𝑥 $

0 = −15𝑥 $ (𝑥 $ − 1)
0 = −15𝑥 $ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
cn: 𝑥 = −1, 0, 0, 1

𝑔 has a rel. min. at 𝑥 =

𝑔 has a rel. max. at 𝑥 =

B. Use the Second Derivative Test. Justify your result.

21
In general, the First Derivative Test is an easier way to locate relative extrema. To force students to use the Second Derivative
Test to locate relative extrema, the College Board will not give the equation of a function but rather provide a table of a twice-
differentiable function at selected 𝑥-values.

Example 2 Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a twice-differentiable function satisfying the following table of values. Based upon the table,
determine any relative extrema.

𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝒇(𝒙) −1 6 −2 2 −8
𝒇′(𝒙) 0 −2 7 0 3
𝒇′′(𝒙) 4 1 −1 −3 2

It might be tempting to graph out the points of the function using their slope and concavity to determine relative extrema. The
College Board awards no credit for this approach.

The Second Derivative Test for locating relative extrema is usually seen in the free response section as one part of a multi-
topic question.

Example 3 Selected values for a twice-differentiable function 𝑓(𝑥),

continuous on [−3, 5], is given at right along with selected
values for 𝑓′ and 𝑓′′.

A. Does the function have a relative maximum, relative minimum, or

neither at 𝑥 = 2? Justify your answer.

B. Explain why there must be an 𝑥-value in [−3, 5] such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 6. (Review of the IVT.)

1
C. Explain why there must be an 𝑥-value on [−3, 5] such that 𝑓′(𝑥) = . (Review of the MVT.)
2

22
3.6 – Sketching Graphs of Functions That Reveal Their Important
Features (Part 1 of 2)

We now have the necessary components to sketch the graph of a function to reveal its important features.

Guidelines for Curve Sketching

Before you sketch a function, determine the following items.
1. Parent function / end behavior
2. Domain restrictions
3. Locate 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts
4. Symmetry: 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis, origin (optional)
5. Locate asymptotes: horizontal, vertical, slant
6. First Derivative Test: determine increasing/decreasing intervals, locate relative extrema
7. Second Derivative Test: determine concave up/concave down intervals, locate inflection points

Example 1 Sketch the graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 4𝑥 ! . Label all intercepts, relative extrema, asymptotes, and
inflection points.

Interval 𝒇 𝒇′ 𝒇′′ Conclusion

+
𝑥=0 0
−
𝑥=2 0
+
𝑥=3 +
+

23
In order to save time, the AP exam will sometimes provide the first and/or second derivative of a function in a question.

' $' " *3'

Example 2 Graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ' !(0 given 𝑓 && (𝑥) = (' !(0)". Label all intercepts, relative extrema, asymptotes, and
inflection points.

Interval 𝒇 𝒇′ 𝒇′′ Conclusion

(−∞, −√3) − −
𝑥 = −√3 −√3/4 − 0
(−√3, −1) − +
𝑥 = −1 −1/2 0 +
(−1, 0) + +
𝑥=0 + 0
(0, 1) + −
𝑥=1 1/2 0 −
(1, √3) − −
𝑥 = √3 √3/4 − 0
(√3, ∞) − +

24
3.6– Sketching Graphs of Functions That Reveal Their Important
Features (Part 2 of 2)

Guidelines for Curve Sketching

Before you sketch a function, determine the following items.
1. Parent function / end behavior
2. Domain restrictions
3. Locate 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts
4. Symmetry: 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis, origin (optional)
5. Locate asymptotes: horizontal, vertical, slant
6. First Derivative Test: determine increasing/decreasing intervals, locate relative extrema
7. Second Derivative Test: determine concave up/concave down intervals, locate inflection points

$' ! *)'()
Example 1 Graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = . (Use a calculator only to evaluate the critical values.)
'*$

25
 !('*0$)
Example 2 Graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√9 − 𝑥 given 𝑓 && (𝑥) = %("*')"/! .

Example 3 Graph a possible sketch of the function on the interval

[0, 6] given the following conditions.
𝑓(0) = 3
𝑓(3) = 0
𝑓(6) = 4
𝑓 & (𝑥) < 0 on (0, 3)
𝑓 & (𝑥) > 0 on (3, 6)
𝑓 && (𝑥) > 0 on (0, 5)
𝑓 & ′(𝑥) < 0 on (5, 6)

26
3.3 – Connecting the Graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑓′ - Quick Draws

An important skill to develop in calculus this year is the ability to sketch a possible graph of 𝑓′ given the graph of 𝑓
without knowing or determining its function equation, as well as vice versa.

In these two cases, a detailed, perfect graph is not wanted; instead, a “quick draw” that shows its important features is
sufficient. The key to understanding a “quick draw” lies in learning how to interpret the original graph and/or label it
correctly.

Sketching a “Quick Draw” of 𝒇′ Given the Graph of 𝒇

Below are three pairs of graphs with no given function equations. The top graphs are the original function, 𝑓(𝑥), and the
bottom graphs are their respective derivative functions.

The − and + symbols refer

to the slope of the function,
𝑓(𝑥).

The B and A symbols refer

to whether the position of
the derivative function,
𝑓′(𝑥), is below or above the
𝑥-axis

B A A B B A B A B B A

Notice the following patterns:

• If the slope of 𝑓 is negative within an interval, it indicates that the corresponding interval of the graph of 𝑓′ will
be below the 𝑥-axis, since 𝑓 & < 0.
• If the slope of 𝑓 is positive within an interval, it indicates that the corresponding interval of the graph of 𝑓′ will
be above the 𝑥-axis, since 𝑓 & > 0.
• All relative extrema of 𝑓 become the 𝑥-intercepts of 𝑓′, since 𝑓 & = 0 at those points
• All points of inflection of 𝑓 become relative extrema 𝑓′, since 𝑓′ changes sign at those points.

Guidelines for Sketching a “Quick Draw” of 𝒇′ Given the Graph of 𝒇

1. Identify the parent function of the function, 𝑓, if possible. Take the derivative of the parent function to determine the
general shape of the derivative function 𝑓′.
2. The 𝑥-values of all relative extrema of the function, 𝑓, will become the 𝒙-intercepts of the derivative function 𝑓′ at
those same 𝑥-values.
3. The 𝑥-values of all points of inflection of the function, 𝑓, will become the relative extrema of the derivative function
𝑓′ at those same 𝑥-values. Use the general shape of the derivative function found in step 1 to determine whether they
correspond to a relative maximum or minimum.
4. Sketch a “quick draw” of a possible graph of 𝑓′.
The key features of a “quick draw” that are awarded credit are the following:
• The general shape of the derivative function.
• Whether an interval of the derivative function lies above or below the 𝑥-axis.
• The 𝑥-values at which the derivative function has 𝑥-intercepts and relative extrema.

27
Example 1 Given the graph of a function, sketch a “quick draw” of its derivative function.

A. B. C.

Quick Draw Check:

• The general shape of the derivative function.
• Whether the derivative function lies above or below the x-axis.
• The x-values at which the derivative function has x-intercepts and relative extrema

This part of the page is intentionally left blank.

28
Sketching a “Quick Draw” of 𝒇 Given the Graph of 𝒇′
The top graph, shown below, is the derivative function, 𝑓′(𝑥), while the bottom graph is its original function, 𝑓(𝑥). It is
essential to correctly label the derivative function, 𝑓′(𝑥), as it provides valuable insights into the features of the original
function.

Guidelines for a “Quick Draw” of 𝒇 Given the Graph of 𝒇′

1. Identify the parent function of the derivative function, 𝑓′, if possible. Take the anti-derivative of the parent function
to determine the general shape of the original function 𝑓.
2. The 𝑥-values of all 𝒙-intercepts of the derivative function, 𝑓′, will become the relative extrema of the original function
𝑓 & at those same 𝑥-values. Label the portion of the graph of the derivative function above the 𝑥-axis as “increasing” and
the portion below the 𝑥-axis as “decreasing.” Use this information to determine which of them are relative maxima and
which are relative minima.
3. The 𝑥-values of all relative extrema of the derivative function, 𝑓 & , will become the points of inflection of the original
function, 𝑓, at those same 𝑥-values. Utilize the general shape of the original function obtained in step 1 to determine
concavity.
4. Sketch a “quick draw” of a possible graph of 𝑓.
The key features of a “quick draw” that are awarded credit are the following:
• The general shape of the original function.
• Whether an interval of the original function lies is concave up or down.
• The 𝑥-values at which the original function has relative extrema and points of inflection.
Note: There are no known 𝑦-values for the original function’s relative extrema and points of inflection, so in this quick
draw, the sketch of a possible original function’s graph can be translated upwards or downwards.

29
Example 2 Given each graph of a derivative function, sketch a “quick draw” of its original function.

A. B.

Quick Draw Check:

• The general shape of the original function.
• Whether an interval of the original function is concave up or down.
• The 𝑥-values at which the original function has relative extrema and points of inflection.
Note: There are no known 𝑦-values for the original function’s relative extrema and points of inflection, so in this quick
draw, the sketch of a possible original function’s graph can be translated upwards or downwards

30
3.7 – Optimization (Part 1 of 2)

Optimization is a fundamental concept in calculus that involves finding the absolute maximum or absolute minimum
value of a function. It is widely used in real-world applications to solve various problems, such as maximizing profit or
minimizing cost. The main idea behind optimization is to use calculus techniques, such as differentiation and critical numbers,
to determine the most optimal value for a given situation. This process entails establishing a mathematical model and
employing calculus methods to locate the absolute extreme of the function.

The study of optimization aids students in honing their problem-solving skills by teaching them how to analyze a situation,
construct a mathematical model, and ascertain the optimal solution. It fosters critical thinking and logical reasoning as
students assess which variables to optimize and how to formulate the problem. Overall, optimization in calculus serves as a
vital link between theoretical concepts and their practical applications.

When it comes to optimization problems, students are required to develop an objective function that accurately models the
given situation. This function has associated constraints that dictate the feasible interval for optimization. These constraints
may result in either a closed feasible region or an open feasible region.

Guidelines for Solving Optimization Problems

1. Draw a picture of the physical situation (if possible) and label the various quantities.
2. Note any physical restrictions determined by the situation. These restrictions will determine the justification
method (open interval vs closed interval – see step 7).
3. Formulate the optimization function: Express the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of the variables
defined in step 1. The result is a mathematical expression.
4. Formulate the constraint equation: The constraint equation represents a restriction on the variables involved in
the problem. It serves as a constraint to be satisfied while optimizing the optimization function.
5. Rewrite the optimization function in terms of only one variable (if necessary): Isolate a convenient variable in
the constraint equation and substitute it into the optimization function.
6. Find the critical numbers of the optimization function: Take the derivative of the optimization function and set
it equal to zero, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 0. Check that any value is within the feasible interval. Disregard the critical numbers at non-
differentiable values, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸, for they do not contribute to the smooth and continuous behavior necessary for
optimization analysis.
7. Determine the absolute minimum or maximum: Use either the First Derivative Test or Second Derivative Test to
determine the absolute extrema of the feasible interval.
For an open feasible interval: In cases where endpoints are not present, solely focus on the critical numbers within
the feasible region to determine the absolute extrema (as shown in section 3.3).
For a closed feasible interval: In cases where endpoints are present, consider not only the critical numbers within
the interior of the feasible region but also the values at the endpoints to determine the absolute maximum or
minimum (as shown in section 3.1).
8. Justify: Answer the question in a complete sentence with justification and appropriate units.
For justification on an open feasible region, use something like:
“The maximum [quantity] is [value with units] since 𝑓 & changes sign from positive to negative.”
“The minimum [quantity] is [value with units] since 𝑓 & changes sign from negative to positive.”
For justification on a closed feasible region, show the table of function values work. No need for any short sentence.

Note 1: Most optimization problems in AP Calculus AB have an open feasible interval.

Note 2: No credit is awarded for solving optimization problems absent differentiation.

31
Example 1 Find two positive numbers that satisfy the following requirements: the sum is 60 and the product of one
number times the square of the second number is a maximum. Justify your answer. (Use a calculator to
evaluate large numbers.)

Example 2 You have 40 feet of fencing to enclose a rectangular garden along the side of a lake. What is the maximum
area that you can enclose? Justify your answer.

32
Example 3 Find the point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 $ closest to the point (3, 0). Justify your answer.

Most cubic and other higher order polynomial equations you encounter on the AP test can be solved using factoring. If
not, always guess and check for an “easy” solution before starting the long procedure of the Rational Theorem Test,
synthetic division, and such.

33
Example 4 An open-top box is to be made by cutting congruent squares of side length h from the corners of a 30- by
30-inch sheet of tin and bending up the sides. How large should the squares be to make the box hold as
much as possible. What is the resulting maximum volume? Justify your answer.

34
3.7 – Optimization (Part 2 of 2)

Guidelines for Solving Optimization Problems

1. Draw a picture of the physical situation (if possible) and label the various quantities.
2. Note any physical restrictions determined by the situation. These restrictions will determine the justification
method (open interval vs closed interval – see step 7).
3. Formulate the optimization function: Express the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of the variables
defined in step 1. The result is a mathematical expression.
4. Formulate the constraint equation: The constraint equation represents a restriction on the variables involved in
the problem. It serves as a constraint to be satisfied while optimizing the optimization function.
5. Rewrite the optimization function in terms of only one variable (if necessary): Isolate a convenient variable in
the constraint equation and substitute it into the optimization function.
6. Find the critical numbers of the optimization function: Take the derivative of the optimization function and set
it equal to zero, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 0. Check that any value is within the feasible interval. Disregard the critical numbers at non-
differentiable values, 𝑓 & (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸, for they do not contribute to the smooth and continuous behavior necessary for
optimization analysis.
7. Determine the absolute minimum or maximum: Use either the First Derivative Test or Second Derivative Test to
determine the absolute extrema of the feasible interval.
For an open feasible interval: In cases where endpoints are not present, solely focus on the critical numbers within
the feasible region to determine the absolute extrema (as shown in section 3.3).
For a closed feasible interval: In cases where endpoints are present, consider not only the critical numbers within
the interior of the feasible region but also the values at the endpoints to determine the absolute maximum or
minimum (as shown in section 3.1).
8. Justify: Answer the question in a complete sentence with justification and appropriate units.
For justification on an open feasible region, use something like:
“The maximum [quantity] is [value with units] since 𝑓 & changes sign from positive to negative.”
“The minimum [quantity] is [value with units] since 𝑓 & changes sign from negative to positive.”
For justification on a closed feasible region, show the table of function values work. No need for any short sentence.

Note 1: Most optimization problems in AP Calculus AB have an open feasible interval.

Note 2: No credit is awarded for solving optimization problems absent differentiation.

35
Example 1 A rectangle is bounded by the 𝑥-axis and the semicircle 𝑦 = √25 − 𝑥 $ . Find the dimensions of the rectangle
that would maximize the area of the rectangle. Justify your answer.

36
Example 2 Mr. Henderson is at a point on a bank of a straight 3 km wide river at position A and wants to reach point B, 8
km downstream on the opposite bank as quickly as possible. He could row his boat directly across the river to
point C and then run to B, or he could row directly to B, or he could row to some point D between C and B and
then run to B. If Mr. Henderson can row at 6 km/h and run at 8 km/h, where should he land to reach B as soon
as possible? Justify your answer. Use calculator to evaluate function values.

37
38
3.9 – Local Linear Approximation

Local linear approximations (also called tangent line approximations or simply

linearizations) are a valuable concept in calculus that allows us to estimate the
behavior of a function at a specific point using a straight line.

If we zoom in on a graph of a curved function, 𝑓(𝑥), at a point of tangency, shown in

the figure at 𝑥 = 𝑎, the graph around that point looks very similar to the tangent line,
𝐿(𝑥). This means that we can approximate a function's value within a small interval
around the point of tangency since the tangent line is a useful representation of the
curve itself.

If a function 𝑓 is differentiable at a point of tangency (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and at a point near that
point of tangency (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)), then the equation of the tangent line defining the
linearization of the function at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is given by
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) − 𝑓′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐)

Review Taylor Form of a Line

Students are required to display the local linear approximation equation in Taylor form. No credit is awarded for lines
displayed any other way.

Example 1 Determine the tangent line for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 $ − 2𝑥 − 1 at 𝑥 = 3, displaying the line in Taylor Form.
Afterwards, try to evaluate 𝑓(3.01) and 𝐿(3.01) without the use of a calculator.

Guidelines for Determining a Tangent Line Approximation

The curve function is labeled 𝑓(𝑥), while the local linear approximation function is 𝐿(𝑥).
1. Determine the curve function, 𝑓(𝑥), in terms of 𝑥 if necessary.
2. Determine the 𝑥-value, 𝑥 = 𝑐, at which the curve function is to be evaluated, 𝑓(𝑐).
3. Select the nearest integer value to 𝑥 = 𝑐 for the point of tangency, 𝑥 = 𝑎.
4. Determine the equation of the local linear approximation, 𝐿(𝑥), at the point of tangency, j𝑎, 𝐿(𝑎)k, displaying it in
Taylor form. No credit is awarded if the tangent line is not labeled as 𝑳(𝒙) and/or if it is not in Taylor form.
5. Evaluate 𝑓(𝑐) using 𝑓(𝑐) ≈ 𝐿(𝑐) notation. No credit is awarded if the 𝒇(𝒄) ≈ 𝑳(𝒄) notation is missing.
6. Justification: The approximation, 𝐿(𝑐), is an over or underestimate of the true value, 𝑓(𝑐), by examining the concavity
of 𝑓(𝑥) at the point of tangency, 𝑥 = 𝑎.

"𝐿(𝑐) is an over-approximation of 𝑓(𝑐) since 𝑓 && (𝑎) < 0.” (ccd)

“𝐿(𝑐) is an under-approximation of 𝑓(𝑐) since 𝑓 && (𝑎) > 0.” (ccu)

39
Example 1 Approximate √9.1 by linearization.
A. Find the local linear approximation function for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥 = 9, displaying it in Taylor Form and using the 𝐿(𝑥)
labeling notation.

B. Use the linearization to find an approximation for 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 9.1 taking care to include the correct format.

C. Is the linearization approximation of 𝐿(9.1) higher or lower than the actual value of 𝑓(9.1). Justify your answer.

!
Example 2 Estimate the value of 𝑓(𝑥) = (0*')! at 𝑥 = 0.05 by linearization.

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Example 3 Approximate (9.99) . Is the linearization an under or overestimate of the true value?

Example 4 Use the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) to approximate f (1.9).

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