Dams.

A dam is a structure built across a stream or river to hold water back. Dams can be used to store
water, control flooding, and generate electricity.

People have used different materials to build dams over the centuries. Ancient dam builders used
natural materials such as rocks or clay. Modern-day dam builders often used concrete.

Purposes of Dams

Dams and reservoirs are built to raise water level for storage and safe retention of large quantity of
water. Water is subsequently raised to achieve various purposes. Dams may be constructed to meet
one or more purposes as:

1. Irrigation
2. Hydropower development (Tarbela Dam, Mangla Dam)
3. Domestic, municipal, industrial water supply (Hub dam, Simly dam in Islamabad)
4. Storage of Water
5. Flood control
6. Recreation (picnic, camping, fishing, swimming, kayaking, white water rafting).
7. Fish and wildlife protection and development, and improvement of river ecology.
8. River water quality / pollution control and management.
9. Stream flow regulation for various purposes.
10. Navigation

Most dams are multi-purpose, serving more than one purpose. Mostly these additional purposes are
achieved as byproduct outcome, e.g., hydropower, recreation, etc. For multipurpose dams, the
storage is allocated and prioritized for different purposes and cost allocation.

A
Layout of a Multipurpose dam
Dams for the purpose of Irrigation

According to a study of World Commission on Dams, half of the world's large dams were built
exclusively or primarily for irrigation and an estimated 30-40% of the 271 million hectares of
irrigated lands worldwide rely on dams. Dams are estimated to contribute 12-16% of world food
production. About 1 billion people depend on food produced by reservoir related irrigation. There is
no alternative of how this food could have been produced by other means. (WCD Study, November
2000)

A majority of dams built in the world are multipurpose in nature, but irrigation is the largest user of
the waters withdrawn. Dams enable harnessing of large water resources, to meet needs of fast-
growing societies round the world: food, fodder, fish production (aquaculture), drinking water,
clothing, sanitation, energy, industry, wildlife and others. A major portion of water stored behind
dams in the world is withdrawn for irrigation which mostly comprises consumptive use, that
is, evapotranspiration (ET) needs of irrigated crops and plantations.

Dams for the purpose of Hydropower

When a dam is built, it stops the flow of the river and causes the water level to rise. The higher
water level then allows for the harvesting the energy of the through the falling of that water. The
reservoir the dam creates literally acts as stored energy. Water then flows from high to low
through turbines within the dam. The water spins the turbines which are connected to a generator to
turn the rotar which then creates the electric power.

Dams provide clean, pollution free energy, but they can also harm the environment. Species that use
rivers to spawn are often hurt by dams.

Hydropower plants has several advantages. Once a dam has been built and the equipment installed,
the energy source i.e. flowing water, is free. It's a clean fuel source renewed by snow and rainfall.
Hydropower plants can supply large amounts of electricity, and they are relatively easy to adjust for
demand by controlling the flow of water through the turbines.

Dams for the purpose of Water Supply

Purposes of dams for domestic water supply includes everyday activities such as water for drinking,
cooking, bathing, washing, and lawn and garden watering.

Dams for Storage of Water

Not all the water stored behind dams is withdrawn for use. A top depth varying from 1 to 2 meters
depending on local climate, is annually lost to atmosphere due to evaporation. At the bottom, some
depth serves as a dead storage for accommodating sediment brought in by inflow. Dead storage size
depends upon the catchment area characteristics but similar to evaporation losses, tends to be
proportionately more in case of a smaller dam. Storages provide insurance against uncertainty due to
climatic variability, can help reduce variability in season’ slow flows in rivers and basically save
societies from economic upheavals and losses due to flood and drought.
Dams for Flood Control

It is an internationally accepted practice that the water level of a reservoir should be kept below a
certain level before the onset of the monsoon season. This is so that when the monsoon rains come,
there is space to store the excess rainwater and also so that water can be released in a regulated
manner, thus preventing floods downstream when there is heavy inflow to the dams. It is important
that at least 30% of the storage capacity of dams be kept free before the monsoon.

In addition to helping farmers, dams help prevent the loss of life and property caused by flooding.
Purposes of dams for flood control impound floodwaters and then either release them under control
to the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses. For centuries, people have built
dams to help control devastating floods.

Dams, reservoirs, flood levees, embankments, and river training works constitute structural
measures for better flood management. In the field of Integrated Flood Management (IFM), dams
and reservoirs can be considered a viable and effective alternative, especially when there are
extensive settlements on the floodplains which make it impossible to restrict land uses or implement
other non-structural measures. Dams and reservoirs, in general, constitute an effective structural
measure, since they are able to store large flow volumes, modify flood routing and significantly
reduce peak flows.

Dams for Recreation

Dams provide prime recreational facilities throughout the world. Boating, skiing, camping, picnic
areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams.

Navigation purposes of dams

Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation throughout the heartland
of the Nation.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A DAM SITE.

Whenever it is decided to construct a dam, the first question that one face is which type of dam will
be most suitable and most economical? Following are the factors affecting selection of dam site by
dam type.

1. Topography
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions
3. Availability of materials
4. Spillway size and location
5. Earthquake zone
6. Height of the Dam
7. Other factors such as cost of construction and maintenance, life of dam, aesthetics etc.

Factors Affecting Selection of Dam

These factors are discussed one by one.
Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.

1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam

Geological and Foundation Conditions

Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the foundations have
to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations generally encountered are

1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost every kind of dam
can be built on such foundations.
2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.
3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity dams.
4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of gravity
dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after special
treatments can be built.

Availability of Materials
Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In order to achieve
economy in dam construction, the materials required must be available locally or at short distances
from the construction site.

Spillway Size and Location

spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on the
magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important on rivers
and streams with large flood potential.

Earthquake Zone
If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake forces. The type of
structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and concrete
gravity dams.

Height of Dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For greater heights, gravity
dams are generally preferred.
Hint: The availability of spillway site is very important in selection of a particular type of dam
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR DAM SITE SELECTION

-Stream narrowing

-Permeability of site formations

-Rock types of the site

-Geological structures

-Sedimentation of reservoir

-Stability of reservoir slopes and floor.

Associated geological problems with dams.

-Leakage from reservoirs

-Reservoir siltation Siltation is a process by which water becomes dirty as a result of fine mineral
particles in the water

-Earth tremors

Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing a
roadway or walkway over the dam.
Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for the
passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end of
dam are fixed to.
Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are
generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may
also be used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in
the reservoir.
 Illustration of dam-parts in a typical cross section
Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of
the structure.
Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be withdrawn.
Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to bypass
the dam construction site. The hydraulic structures are built while the river flows
through the diversion tunnel.
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS
Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification i.e. types of
dams are mentioned below:
Based on the functions of dams, it can be classified as follows:
1. Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a
large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry
summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and
wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a
flood control project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the
dam means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
1. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing
water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for
irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. It is usually of low
height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of
storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and
diversion dams are used synonymously.
2. Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the
effect of
 sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released
gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of
the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against flood.
3. Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift
wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively
clear.
4. Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so
that the construction can be done in dry. A coffer dam is thus a temporary dam constructed
for facilitating construction. These structure are usually constructed on the upstream of the
main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the
dam. When the flow in the river during construction of hydraulic structures is not much,
the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on
the downstream of the dam is also required.
Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:
1. Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone
masonry.
They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the weight of the
dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it. This is why it
is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground, stopping
water from toppling

it over.
Gravity dams are well suited forblocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since
gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is necessary that they are
built on a solid foundation ofbedrock.
Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), Nagarjuna Sagar (India) and Itaipu
Dam (It lies Between Brazil and Paraguay and is the largest in the world).
Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive
layersof earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more
permeable substances
on the upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by
wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic
washout should the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly
due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of the this structure also helps in
resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different from that of a
gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks
(abutments).The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and
hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong. They can be built on
all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will depend upon the
strength of the foundation material. Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam
(Russia) and New Cornelia Dam (USA).
Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through
the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete.

In early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are
obsolete. A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the
distribution of water load and for providing a support to the membrane. Sometimes, the
rockfill dams have an impervious earth core in the middle to check the seepage instead of an
impervious upstream membrane. The earth core is placed against a dumped rockfill. It is
necessary to provide adequate filters between the earth core and the rockfill on the upstream
and downstream sides of the core so that the soil particles are not carried by water and
piping does not occur. The side slopes of rockfill are usually kept equal to the angle of
repose of rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or
1.3:1). Rockfill dams require foundation stronger than those for earth dams.
Examples of rockfill dam: Mica Dam (Canada) and Chicoasen Dam (Mexico).
 Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.
They
transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch
action.

An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow

canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust produced by the
arch action.The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the
section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have a single curvature or double
curvature in the vertical plane. Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more
economical and are used in practice.
Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki Dam (India).

Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type, and
(iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by
buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from
the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically
spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and design of the
dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a
solid wall stretching across a river valley.The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab
supported between the buttresses,

which are usually equally spaced.

In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches
supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete. In a
massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges
of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance between the
buttresses. The buttress dams
require less concrete than gravity dams. But they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity
dams because of extra cost of form work, reinforcement and more skilled labor. The
foundation requirements of a buttress are usually less stringent than those in a
gravity dam. Examples of Buttress type: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson Dam
(Canada).
Steel Dams: Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate
on its upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted, and (ii)
Cantilever type . In direct strutted steel dams, the water pressure is transmitted directly to the
foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting
the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement
introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of by anchoring it into
the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that tension at the upstream toe may be
reduced by flattening the slopes of the lower struts in the bent. However, it
would require heavier sections for struts.

Another alternative to reduce tension is to

frame together the entire bent rigidly so that the moment due to the weight of the water on the
lower part of the deck is utilised to offset the moment induced in the cantilever. This
arrangement would, however, require bracing and this will increase the cost. These are quite
costly and are subjected to corrosion. These dams are almost obsolete. Steel dams are
sometimes used as temporary coffer dams during the construction of the permanent one. Steel
coffer dams are supplemented with timber or earthfill on the inner side to make them water
tight. The area between the coffer dams is dewatered so that the construction may be
done in dry for the permanent dam. Examples of Steel type: Redridge Steel Dam
(USA) and Ashfork-Bainbridge Steel Dam (USA).
Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are made of
wood, primarily coniferous varieties such as pine and fir. Timber dams are made for small
heads (2-4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and usually have sluices; according to the design of the
apron they are divided
into pile, crib, pile-crib, and buttressed dams.
The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the sluice is very
long it is divided into several openings by intermediate supports: piers, buttresses, and
posts. The openings are covered by wooden shields, usually several in a row one
above the other. Simple hoists— permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise
and lower the shields.
Rubber Dams: A symbol of sophistication and simple and efficient design, this most
recent type of dam uses huge cylindrical shells made of special synthetic rubber
and inflated by either compressed air or pressurized water. Rubber dams offer ease of
construction, operation and decommissioning in tight schedules.

These can be deflated when pressure is released and hence, even the crest level can be
controlled to some extent. Surplus waters would simply overflow the inflated shell.
They need extreme care in design and erection and are
limited to small projects. Example of Rubber type: Janjhavathi Rubber
Dam (India).