What is Motion?

&
Relative change in position
What is needed?
>
-
Reference point
· ·

A B
Point of origin

C
SS
Two physical quantities
Shortest part between two points (is a straight line)
L -
Distance Displacement

Case 1 Case 2

-----------------
N 50 m
↓
R L
50 m
A
Distance covered Distance = 100 m
Displacement = 0
RM

Distance = 50 m
Displacement = 50 m
-
Displacement: vector quantity
>
- Distance: scalar quantity
4
3
PA

- -

↓
1

Case 1: shortest distance

Displacement
Types of Motion

5 sec 5 sec 5 sec -

> Equal distance covered in equal
intervals: Uniform Motion
-
A l

5m 5m 5m
2 cases

5 sec 6 sec 3 sec >

- Equal distance in unequal intervals:
↑ ↑
Non-uniform motion

C
5m 5m 5m
W

SS
~
Wind speed is decreasing after increasing: Retardation

Rate of change of motion -

> Called as speed

↓
Time involved
- m/km
>
R
Speed = Distance
Time
s/hr
A
When motion is non-
uniform
S.I Unit: m/s >
- Represented
↑
RM

Average speed = Total distance

Km/hr >
- m/sec Total time

x5
18
m/s > Km/hr
PA

x 18
5

>
-
Avg. speed = 16m + 16m
4+2
= 32 = 16 m/s
6 3
Speed + Direction = Velocity

Velocity = Displacement
Time

Unit: m/s

C
Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Only represents numerical value Numerical value + Direction

SS
Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time
R
A
RM

Avg. speed = 180 = 3 m/s

60
Avg. velocity = 0 = 0 m/s
60
PA

Rate of change in velocity Is called Acceleration

5 m/s

5 m/s 5 m/s
Velocity changing with
direction
 Change in velocity = Final speed - Initial speed

Acceleration = m/s = m/s

s
a

C
SS
Case 1
Initial speed = 0 30 s a = 6 - 0 = 1 = 0.2 m/s
Final speed = 6 m/s 30 5

Case 2

Final speed = 4 m/s

R
Initial speed = 6 m/s
5s a = 4 - 6 = -2 = -0.4 m/s
5 5
A
RM

Graph Representation

Slope = speed
Slope = Acceleration
PA

Distance Velocity

Time Time
Area = Motion Area = Displacement
Numerical of Motion in straight line: The ‘UTSAV’ Concept
3 equations of motions
1 v = u + at Horizontal motion u = initial velocity
2 s = ut + 1 at t = time
2 s = distance
3 v - u = 2 as a = acceleration
v = final velocity

C
Straight line motion Rectilinear motion

SS
Vertical
Horizontal

Vertical motion
R (a = -g)
A
Against the gravity
a=g Acceleration due to gravity
RM

Free fall u=0 v = u - gt

Initial speed h = ut - 1 gt
v = u + gt 2
h = ut + 1 gt v - u = -2gh
2
v - u = 2gh
PA

Final point = 0

Final velocity = 0
 5 x 60 = 300 s

C
u=0 5 min
v = 72 km/hr

SS
72 x 5 = 20 m/s
18

a = 20-0 = 20 = 1 m/s
300 300 15

s = ut + 1 at
2
R
A
s = 0 + 1 x 1 x (300)
2 15
= 3000 m
RM

s = 3 km
PA

u = 18 km/h x 5 a = 10-5 = 5 = 1 m/s

18 5 5
= 5 m/s
s = ut + at
v = 36 x 5 = 10 m/s = 5 (5) + 1 x (5)
18 2
= 37.5 m
 Uniform Circular Motion motion of a body moving with speed along the circular path

Uniform = speed a =v
r

Centripetal acceleration

C
Acceleration towards the
centre in circular path

SS
Change in velocity at every point

R Displacement = 0
A
A
RM

100 m

10 s = 100 m

1 min = 60 sec
B
PA

One Liners (MCQs)

Distance in a particular direction is called velocity

Displacement = velocity
Time
 What causes Motion?
↓ Motion is caused due to force
State
↓ L
Rest Motion

C
SS
Force can:
Bring a rested body to Motion

Jo
-

Bring a moving body to rest

I

Speed up a body (acceleration) Force is producing the change

↑

Speed down a body (applying brakes) in velocity

Change the direction of a body
↑

Change the shape/size R

A
Concept of forces
H S.I unit of force: Newton
Case 1 Represented as “N” Case 2
RM

10 N 10 N 10 N 30 N
> E > E

Net force = 0 Fnet = 30-20

↓ = 10 N
-
Balanced force ↓
Acceleration = 0
PA

Unbalanced force

>
-
>
- a-
= 0 No change in velocity

F
Frictional force
Contact and Non-contact forces Types of forces

C
SS
R
A
RM

Force

Conservative force Non-conservative force

PA

Work done is independent of the Work done is dependent on path

path taken
Work done is 0 in case of closed Eg: frictional force
path
Eg: gravitational force, non-contact
force, spring force
Exception
Laws of motion
By Newton and Galileo
However three laws of motion given by Newton

1st Law of Motion

An object if at rest remains at rest Current state

C
or if in motion remains in motion at
a constant velocity unless an Change
Rest Inertia
Inertia Motion external force is applied on it

SS
Resist
Direction

Depends on mass Inertia Mass

of the object

Examples:
R
The dry leaves and fruits falls when we shake a tree
A person sitting in a moving car may be pushed forward when the car
A
stops abruptly as our legs are in contact with the surface

2nd Law of Motion

RM

Momentum Quantifies motion

S.I unit of p = Kg m/s
p=mxV

M Truck (where mass of the body is more than the velocity)

PA

V Bullet bike (where the velocity is more than the mass of the truck)
Derivation
Force = rate of change in momentum change in momentum = mV - mu
Rate of change in momentum = mV - mu
F = vector quantity t
F=mxa
F = Kg m/s m = scalar quantity = m (V - u)
a = vector quantity t
Force (f) = ma
p = vector quantity
a
m = scalar quantity
V = vector quantity
 F=mxa

C
10 = 5 x v - 3
F=mx v-u 5
t 10 = v - 3

SS
F=5x 7-3 V = 13 m/s
2
5 x 4 = 10 N
2

3rd Law of Motion

R
A
It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
RM
PA
 X

Works on conservation
of momentum and

C
Newton’s 3rd law

↓d -
·

SS
Gas expelled out

R
A
Conservation of Momentum
RM
PA

Change in velocity not mass

↓
Momentum is conserved >
- Conservation principle
 C
m u + m u = (M + M ) x V

SS
40 x 5 0
40 x 5 = (40 + 3) x V
200 = 43 V
V = 4. 65

One liners (MCQs) R

A
The range of weak nuclear force is of the order of 10 m

Friction depends on the smoothness of the surfaces. The force of friction always
RM

opposes the applied forces

The force of the Earth’s gravity on every kilogram is about 10 N

g = 9.8 m/s 10 m/s

Every kg = 1 x 10
= 10 N
PA

‘Action at a distance force’: Gravitational force

Once a satellite has been launched into orbit, the only force governing its motion is the
force of: Force of gravity
S.I unit of Electrostatic force
In 1785, Charles Augustine Coulomb used the calibrate tortion balance to measure the
force between electric charges Where q = charge
F= q q
Constant 4 E
The measure of force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis is called: Torque

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 Universal Law of Gravitation

Electrostatic Force

mI r mI

qI

C
Both are non-contact r q2
- and conservative ↓
F L M I M2 L
forces

SS
(

rI q 12
q
W
FL
-
Work done is r I

F = G M MI I independent of path
If r2 -
Work done in a close F= 1 q q
Gravitational Constant
path is zero 4 ↑E 2r o

R S.I unit
I

-
q = charge
S.I unit of charge: Coulomb
A
G = Gravitational constant
I T

Value: 6.67 x 10 Nm/Kg

I 2
GM M
F= I I
I

>
- -

Discovered by: Henry Cavendish r 2

RM

G = Nm
I
(1798) N = G Kg
I
>
-

Kg
-
2

m 2

Kepler’s Planetary Laws

PA

if / A
T r

Ellipse K
E
First Law: Law of Orbit
Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun as a focus
Second law: Law of Area
The line joining the planet and the Sun sweep out equal areas in equal interval of time
Third law: Law of Time Period
Cube of mean distance of a planet from the Sun is proportional to the square of the time
period/orbital speed T r

C
Mercury nearest to Sun: 88 days revolution
Neptune farthest to Sun: 165 yrs revolution

SS
Difference between Mass and Weight

Inertia

Constant R
A
Weight: force by which Earth attracts a mass
Force = m x a
Weight = m x g
RM

Constant Gravity differs

Variation in gravity
1. Gravity is more in poles than the equator
PA

2. Gravity decreases with altitude

3. Gravity in moon is 1/6th of Earth’s gravity

Vary g = 9.8 m/s ~ 10 m/s

Different from “G”

which is constant
Thrust: when force is applied perpendicularly

Vector quantity
S.I Unit: Newton

C
Pressure: scalar quantity

SS
Invented by
Blaise Pascal

Pressure = Thrust 1 atm = 10 Pascal

Area
Unit of pressure

P = Kgm
s m
N
m
R
A
= Kg/ms or N/m
RM

Pressure in Fluids
PA

Buoyant Force

Upward force by liquid

 Archimedes Principle

C
Less buoyant force

SS
River water has less
density No salt content

R Same water level

A
Sea water has high density
High salt content
RM

Ice
High buoyant force

Relative Density
Density = Mass
Volume
PA

R. D = Density of a substance S.I unit: Kg

Density of water m

No unit
Work and Energy

What is work?
S.I unit: Nm/Joule James Prescott Joule
Force cause a displacement

Work = Force x Displacement

Work = FS cos 0

C
1J=1N.1m Scalar quantity
1J=2N.1m

SS
2
1J=1N.2m
2

+ve: force and displacement have same direction

Work
R Parallel
-ve: force and displacement are antiparallel
180
A
Displacement = 0
0
Angle between force and displacement is 90
RM

Displacement
Force
PA
 Work
What is Energy?
Energy: Capacity to do work
S.I unit: Joule
Biggest source of energy: Sun

Forms of Energy
Mass

C
Kinetic Energy = 1 m x V
Velocity
2

SS
The energy an object has
because of its motion

K. E = 1 mV
2
R
A
Relation between K.E and Momentum

K. E = 1 m V = (mV) = p = K.E
RM

2m 2m 2m

p = K.E
2m

(2p) = K.E = 4 p
PA

2m 2m
The energy stored in P.E converted to K.E
an object due to its P.E becomes less and K.E keeps
P.E increasing Velocity max
position
Potential Energy K.E
Eg: Gravitational P.E
Energy = mgh
Concept of dams based on this Weight = Force = mg
Work done = Energy = F . S

mgh
 C
SS
Scaler
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created, nor be destroyed. It can be converted
from one form to another

Electrical Heat
R
1. Dynamo: Mechanical energy Electrical energy
A
2. Generator: Mechanical energy Electrical energy
3. Motor: Electrical energy Mechanical energy
RM

4. Microphone: Sound energy Electrical Energy

5. Loudspeaker: Electrical energy Sound energy

Rate of doing work

Power = Work J J/S Watt

Time S
PA

Scalar quantity

Rate of change of velocity = acceleration = V

t
Rate of change of momentum = p
t
Horse Power

1 HP = 746W 1 kW = 1000 W
1 HP = 0.746 kW
Power = Force x Velocity

P = FV

C
Bulb
Electrical Energy Light + Heat energy

SS
Bulb filament made of tungsten (W)

One Liners (MCQs)

R
Galileo Galilei was the 1st to conclude that in vacuum all objects fall with the same
acceleration g and reach ground at same time
A
An object falling freely from a height x, after fallen to a height x/2, it will possess
RM

Half potential and half kinetic energy

Constant
The mass of an object on the surface of the moon is 60 N, the mass on the surface of
the earth will be 60 N Weight changes not mass

If an apple is taken to the mountain top, then it’s weight is decreased

PA

Battery: Chemical energy Electrical energy

The lifting of an object up and down the parade of an army, and the free fall of a
heavy object are all examples of: Rectilinear motion

Oscillatory Motion: to and fro Motion Follows same Path

Periodic motion: follows same path at particular interval

PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
Sound: it is a form of energy

How is sound produced?

By vibrating objects
Example: vocal chords -- Vibrate > Produced sound

How sound propagates?

C
SS
b
Medium between
tuning fork and ears
R
A
Types of waves
Sound energy travels in the form of energy
RM

Waves

L
-
Mechanical wave
Non-mechanical wave
Medium is required to No medium is required to
PA

propagate propagate
Ex: Sound waves Ex: Light waves

............
↑

-
↑

The particles in the

medium helps the
sound to propagate
 C
SS
Particles do not
move

R
A
RM
PA

Compression Rarefaction

Particles Density Particles far

together Pressure away
 Less density

Particles condensed
More density

Resting position is where the

coils are neither compressed
nor rarified

C
Wavelength

SS
Characteristics of sound waves

Frequency ( ) = 1 Unit: s ; Hertz

Time R
Determines pitch of a sound
A
Girls have high pitch, high shrillness Vocal cords
vibrates quickly Limit: 0-130 dB
RM

(sound above this

Amplitude: determines Loudness Unit: dB (decibel) is considered as
noise)
Can be defined as the loudness of the amount of
maximum displacement of vibrating particles of the
medium from their mean position when the sound is
produced
PA
 Amplitude

Wavelength
Amplitude

C
SS
Vibrated 1
TimeR
A
time
RM

Time

Vibrated 4
times
PA

Wave taking less

time to vibrate

Timber: quality of sound

Note: sound, which is a mixture of several frequencies

Mosquito: frequency Pitch

Lion: amplitude Loudness
 Audible range: 20 Hz-20,000 Hz

Less than this: infrasonic More than this: ultrasonic

sound sound
Ex: rhinoceros
Mach no = Speed of any body
Subsonic: Mach < 1 Speed of sound in that medium

C
Supersonic: >1 ; < 5
Hypersonic: Mach > 5

SS
Transonic: Mach = 1

Speed of sound

Solid > Liquid > Gas

Light = 3x10 m/s
Speed of light is
R
A
more than the speed
of the sound
RM

It is a reflection of sound that arrives

PA

at the listener with the delay after

Reflection of Sound the direct sound
Sounds reflection: Echo
Reflect
Source
Distant: 17.2 m
Distinct reflection
Distinct reflection
 Reverberation: repeated reflection of sound

C
SS
R
A
Repeated sound
RM

reflection

Penetrating power is very high

Applications of Ultrasonic sounds
Produced by bats, dolphins
Ultrasound is banned in gender determination
To monitor growth and development of fetus
PA

Used to identify kidney stones and to break kidney stones

To identify the conditions of our internal organs

SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging

Device that is used for detecting and locating

objects specially underwater by the means of
sound waves sent out to be reflected by the
objects
One Liners (MCQs)

Loudness of sound is proportional to the Square of the amplitude of the vibration,

producing the sound

Study of production and propagation of sound waves: Acoustics

C
If an object executes 10 oscillations per second, then its frequency in kilohertz is
equal to: 0.01
10

SS
1000

The approximate speed of sound in distilled water at 25 C (77 F): 1498 m/s

Sound wave cannot travel through a: wooden hollow pipe placed in vacuum
R
The velocity of sound in air is affected by the change in the: Atmospheric
pressure, moisture, temperature of air
A
Temp Velocity
RM

V = velocity of sound in moist air

V. = velocity of sound in dry air
V >V

When the temperature increases the frequency of the sound from an organ pipe
Increases
PA

Stationary waves of frequency 3000 Hz are formed in a medium in which the

velocity of sound is 1200 m/s. The distance between a node and the
neighbouring anti node is?

V=n
1200 = 300 x
=4
 What is light? - It is a form of energy
I
>
It has dual nature Particle and as a form of wave
-

Light is a form of transverse wave

-

It can travel in vacuum

-

It can be polarised

Reflection of Light

C
When a ray of light approaches a smooth polish surface, and the light ray

...
bounces back

SS
Laws of Reflection
1. The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal ray all lie in the same plane
>
-

- Normal

R -
-
-
Reflected ray
A
Incident ray
i= r

E
i r
RM

- k
Reflecting Horizontal
surface perpendicular
PA

Types of Mirror
Plane Mirror
Spherical Mirror Convex Mirror
Concave Mirror
-

Concave Mirror -
Reflecting surfaces =
-
curved inwards
-

L
 Convex Mirror

Reflecting surface is curved

outwards

C
SS
C = 2F

R
A
Concave Convex
Mirror Mirror
RM

Types of Image

Real Image Virtual Image

PA

It can be obtained on It cannot be obtained on

screen screen
It is inverted It is erect
 C
SS
Image Formation
R Image formed behind
A
the mirror
RM

x x
PA

Plane Mirror
1. Image distance = Object distance
2. Object size = Image size
3. Erect Virtual
4. Laterally inverted: Left Right
Right Left
 Image Fromation
of Concave Mirror

C
SS
R
A
Object Image Nature
RM

1. Focus Real and Inverted, extremely diminished

2. Beyond C C and F Real and Inverted, diminished

3. At C At C Real and inverted, equal

PA

4. B/W C and F Beyond C Real and inverted, enlarged

5. At F Real and inverted, highly enlarged

Image Formation of Convex Mirror

C
y

SS
+ve

-ve +ve

FR x
A
-ve
Inverted image
-y
Inverted
RM

Numericals
Sign convention
u: object distance -ve (always) R = 2F
PA

v: image distance
Concave: -ve
f: focal length
Convex: +ve
R: radii of curvature

Height of image
Mirror Formula

1+1=1 Magnification = h = v
v u f h u

Height of object
Given:

C
u = -25 cm
f = -15 cm

SS
1+1=1
v u f h = -37.5
4 cm -25
1 + -1 = - 1
v 25 15 37.5 x 4
1=1-1
v 25 15
1=3-5
R
25
h = -6 cm
Enlarged image
A
v 75
1 = -2
Inverted
RM

v 75
-75 = -37.5 cm
2

Uses of Mirror
Concave
PA

Magnifying
Shaving mirror Used in solar furnace
Torchlight
Dentist mirror

Convex Diminishing
Rear view mirror in vehicle
Security reasons In ATMs
Sunglasses
Reflection in street light
 Refraction of Light

C
SS
Types of Medium
1. Rare Medium
2. Denser Medium
R Air: rarer
Water
A
Medium with more Glass: denser
Density
RM

Case A When a ray of light travels, its

Case B
path changes

i
PA

1 Rare

2 Denser
r
No difference
Bend towards the
normal
i> r
Light ray path is rectilinear
 Case C

i
Denser

C
Rarer
r

SS
Bend away from
the normal
i< r

Laws of Refraction
R
1. Incident ray, refracted, ray and normal ray all lie in same plane
2. sin i = constant Given pair of media and light of particular wavelength
A
sin r
Two mediums
RM

Refraction through a Glass Slab

Rarer
PA

Denser

Lateral Distance
No refraction if strikes
at 90 i= e
Angle of incidence = angle of emergence
Refractive Index Represented with “n” or “u”

n = Speed of light in air/vacuum

Speed of light in given medium

n =V Speed of light in air/vacuum: 3 x 10 m/s

V

C
SS
R
A
RM

Densest medium

Spherical Lens
Lens is transparent
Forms image through refraction
PA

Centre narrow
Centre bulged Ends wider
Ends narrow
 Converging lens

C
Diverging lens

Image Formation

SS
R
A
= Concave Mirror = Convex Mirror
RM

Image Formation in Convex Lens

Same as Concave Mirror
PA

Beyond C (same)
 C
SS
R
Image Formation of Concave Lens
A
Same as Convex Mirror
RM
PA

Uses
Concave Lens Convex Lens
In treatment of Myopia In treatment of Hypermetropia
Used as magnifying lens
In camera lens
 f = -15 cm

C
u=?
v = -10 cm

SS
Lens formula = 1 - 1 = 1
v u f

Magnification formula = h = v
h u

1=1-1
u v f
R
A
m = -10
1=1 - 1 -30
u -10 -15 m=1
RM

1=1 - 1 3
u 15 10
1 = 2 - 3 = -1
u 30 30 m = 1 object size = image size (same size)
m < 1 h > h (Diminished)
1 m > 1 h < h (Enlarged)
u
PA

u= -30

Power of Lens

Power = 1
1=m
Focal Length
m
+ve -ve Dioptre (S.I unit of power of lens)

Convex Concave
Diffraction: it is bending of light around the corner of an obstacle

Question -10
Convex lens = 5cm

C
Concave lens = 10 cm
Convex lens = 2 cm
When all the focal length is

SS
added what power do we
get?

Sol: 5 - 10 + 2 = -3 Concave lens

R
A
RM
PA
 Control lensT

C
D

SS
(
Connected to brain
L
(brain sees the
Aqueous humour
L
object not the eye)
Pupil
R
Eye: Click images/formation
A
Cornea
RM

Outermost part

!
Causes refraction of light
Used in eye donation

Aqueous humour
Provides nourishment to cornea
PA

Maintains eye pressure

Iris
Dark muscular structure It also determines colour of the eye
Controls the size of pupil

Pupil
To control the amount of light entering the eye
 Lens
focuses the light ray on the retina

:
Retina
It is the spot where image is formed
Here optical energy is converted to electrical energy

C
Blind Spot
Optic nerves meet retina
No image is formed here

SS
Power of Accommodation
Eye can change focal length (situation based) Ciliary muscles

R
A
RM
PA

Least distance of distance of distinct vision: 25 cm

Defects of Eye
Myopia/Near Sightedness
-

Far object not visible clearly Focal length decreases

Correction: -ve power lens Concave lens
>
-
and Power increases
Image is formed in
front of the retina
 Hypermetropia/Far Sightedness Cannot see nearby objects

..
Image formed behind the retina

!
Light focuses behind the retina
instead of focusing on the retina

:
Correction: +ve lens Convex lens
Usually occurs above 40 yrs

C
SS
Presbyopia
Lens hardens with age Loses flexibility
Age: 55+

R
Correction: Concave + Convex lens
(Bifocal lens)
A
Glaucoma/Trachoma
Both caused due to increase in eye
RM

pressure
Glaucoma is hereditary
Not curable
-

>
-

Trachoma is bacterial infection

Tonometry: to measure your eye pressure Concave lens

PA

Colour Blindness -

IIIIIIIIIII
It is hereditary
Retina made of cone cells and rod cells
Convex lens
Not present in colourblind
people
Refraction of Light by a PRISM

V
·
Hi
L
R 7
Angle of Deviation
- ↓
-VX I'll
D
Wavelength

↓ Wavelength↑ Deviation↓

C
Ray of light away from the normal

SS
Dispersion of White Light in a Glass Prism

R -
-
Highest wavelength
Less deviation
A
Consist of 7 different colours
↑ Decreasing
wavelength
RM

V
↓
More deviation
PA

Red: more speed >

-
Less refractive index
Violet: less speed More refractive index
-
>

n = Speed of light in air

Speed of light in prism
 C
SS
Electromagnetic Spectrum

TRICK
Rich Man in Victor Uses X Gold

Radio Micro
R
Infrared Visible UV rays X-ray Gamma rays
A
waves waves

Left to right Wavelength decreases and

RM

frequency increases and energy increases

E = hf
SI unit: Hertz E = hc

wavelength
PA

Due to dispersion

2 refraction and 1 reflection

Dispersion of white light

Rainbow is formed to the here
opposite direction of the Sun
Refraction in Atmosphere
Twinkling of Stars Due to affects of the Earth’s atmosphere (atmospheric refraction of
star light)

C
Refractive index

SS
of different types of
gases In refraction, the actual
position of stars
changes to apparent
position
R
Advance Sunrise and Delayed Sunset
A
RM
PA

In this phenomenon, the sun appears to rise early by two minutes

and set late by two minutes. When the rays from the sun hit
atmosphere, they get refracted
 Scattering of Light

C
SS
Blue colour of sky: blue light is scattered more than the other colours because it travels as
shorter, smaller waves
Our sky appears black without atmosphere
R
A
RM
PA

Red colour of Sun during sunrise and sunset: red light scatter the least by the molecules
present in the air, so at sunset and sunrise, the sunlight travels longer path through the
atmosphere to reach our eyes. The blue light catches the most and has been mostly
removed, leaving the red light remaining which reaches our eyes.

More wavelength
 C
SS
Tyndall Effect

R >
Colloidal solution scatter the light
- most because the dispersed
A
particles of colloid are bigger and
they defect light
RM

2 1

Why are danger signs red?

PA

-
> Red has maximum wavelength and
is least scattered allowing it to
travel long distances without
getting scattered
 Total Internal Reflection
-

This phenomenon is responsible for optical illusions

/
Condition of TIR
Examples: Mirage, optical fibers 1. Light should travel from denser to
rare medium
2. light should hit an angle greater
than critical angle

C
↓

SS
The layer above the ground
gets warmed. The light ray gets

R refracted when light moves

through the cold air and into
the hot air layer
>
-
Total internal reflection
A
RM
PA

Optical Fibers
ONE LINERS (MCQs)

The materials through which things can be seen are called transparent materials

The reflection on the bathroom mirror, the lake and the glare on pair of glasses are
caused by specular reflection

Gold and copper happen to absorb blue and violet light, leaving the yellow light

C
The phenomenon which deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium when

SS
they are excited to vibrational energy levels is called Raman Effect

The phenomena in which mountain tops acquired a rose or orange hue around the
sunrise and sunset is called Alpenglow

Canada balsam has refractive index closes to that of crown glass

R
A
RM
PA
 What is Electric Current?
↑
Flow of charge per unit time
↑

Flow of electrons per unit time Electric Current

19 4)
1 e = 1.6 x 10 Coulomb
-

i=q
S.I unit of charge t

C
q=ixt
q=nxe
is
1 C = n x 1.6 x 10
Id
-

SS
n = 6 x 10 e -

I
Electric current is measured by Ammeter
↑
Current S.I unit: Ampere

R Charge
Current = Charge
Time
A
L W
+ve -ve
RM

↑
Like charges repel each other -
Conductor: is a material that
-
Opposite charges attracts each other conducts electricity/allows electron
to flow through it
PA

Potential Difference
↑

The amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to other in an
electric field ↓
Measured though: Voltmeter
Potential < V=W · S.I unit: Volt ↑

difference q

L
1 volt: if one Joule of work is done in moving,
Work done to move the one coulomb of charge
charge 1V = 1J &
1C
Ohm’s Law The current flowing in a conductor is directly
By George Simon Ohm in 1827 proportional to the voltage across the conductor,
V I provided all the physical condition and temperature
V = IR remain constant
Resistance

C
S.I unit Ohm ( )

SS
Resistance: the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charge through it

Factors effecting Resistance

1. Length
R
Length Resistance (More collision of electrons)
A
2. Area of cross-section Area Resistance (Less collision of electrons)
3. Temperature Temperature Resistance
4. Nature of material Increase movement of e and K.E
RM

Resistivity/Specific resistance

R L = mho/ohm
R 1 =lm The resistivity of a material is the
A resistance of a wire of that material
⑳m
m
R L m=
PA

A
R= L S.I unit
A
 C
SS
Alloy has greater resistivity than its constituent metals

Types of Materials

electrons
R
Conductor: materials that conduct electricity/allow electric flow through them

Seen in metals
Has free
A
Semi-conductor: they are materials which have conductivity between conductors and non-
conductors or insulator. Eg: Silicon (usually Metalloids)
RM

Insulator: materials that do not allow electricity to pass through them. Eg: Non-metals
such as glass, wood

Resistance of a System of Resistance

Types:
1. Series
2. Parallel Parallel
PA

Series
R R

1 =1 +1 +1
R R R R
R R
R =R +R +R +R
-
Series: same current; different potential difference
-

Parallel: same potential difference; different current

Q. 2 resistors = 20I and 4l (Series)

Connected to a 6 volt battery
Current flow?

C
>
-

Red = R ↑ + R I
V = IR
20 + 4 = 24z

SS
6 V = I x 24e
1/6 =I
4 24
/
0.25 A = I

Q. R = 522
&

P.d = 12 V
Current?
; R = 10+ ; R32
= 30
R >
-
Parallelly connected
A
-

V = IR V = IR V = IR
RM

12 = I x 5 12 = I x 10 12 = I x 30
12 = I 1.2 A = I 0.4 A = I
5
2.4 A = I
>
- 2.4 + 1.2 + 0.4 = 4.0 A
1 =1 +1 +1
OR H M
- -
>
-

Rea R R I R3
PA

1 =1+1 +1
- - -
V = IR
R ed 5 10 30
12
/ = I x↓
3
1=6+3+1
I =4A
R ec 30
1 = 10
Rea 30
R = 3I
Heating effect of Electric Current

&
V=W Power = Work Done
q Time
-
Substituting
Electric Power = qV-

C
Electric Power = VI
Heat = Power x t

SS
Heat = VIt
IR x IT
Z
I RT = H

Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

R
:
A
men

-en
m
↓
RM

Filament made of
Coils in heater made of Nichrome
↓ Tungsten (W)
Alloy of Ni and Cr
-

Has high melting

point
PA

Fuse
I
Low melting point
-

It is used to protect electrical

appliances from excessive current
and to prevent short circuits or
mismatched loads
Electric Power

P = VI
P=I R V = IR
P=V V =I
R R

C
Commercial Unit of Energy
1 unit = 1 kWh

SS
Pxt 1 kW = 1000 W
1000 x 3600s 1 hr = 60 mins
36 x 10 Ws 60 x 60 = 3600 secs
3.6 x 10 J 1 unit

220 V; 50 Hz
R
In electric appliances
A
Live wire: Red
Colour of wire
Neutral: Black
Ground/Earth: Green/Yellow
RM
PA
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
~

Heating effect of electric

Discovery
current: James Joule (1840)
-

Hans Christian Orsted in 1820

C
SS
Electric current passed through the
>
-
>
wire

/
d
>
-

R
A
V

Causing deflection in the

compass whenever there is
RM

a current in wire showing

current carrying wire
produces a magnetic field
around it

Direction of magnetic field changes due

PA

to change in direction of current in the

wire
 Magnetic Field Lines

C
SS
Same poles repel each other Iron fillings align themselves with
-

Different poles attract each other the magnetic field > - when spread

R across a magnetic bar, they

respond to magnetic effect of the
bar magnet and align themselves
A
accordingly
RM

-
>
Magnetic field lines originate from North Pole
outside the magnet and terminate at South Pole
-
>
Magnetic field line are in the form of closed
loop
PA

>
-
Magnetic field lines never intersect each other
d
L If they insect, there will be
Vector quantity two directions of magnetic
field lines which is not
possible
=>
If magnetic field lines are closer - Magnetic
Field↑
Magnetic Field due to a Current Carrying Conductor

Magnetic field lines around a straight

conductor carrying current are concentric
circles whose centre lie on the wire

C
Magnetic Field 1

SS
Distance

Distance Magnetic Field

Current Magnetic Field

R Direction of current changes

Magnetic Field changes
Direction of
A
RM

Current upwards: Magnetic field Anti-clockwise

Current downwards: Magnetic field Clockwise
PA

Maxwells Right Hand Thumb Rule

to find direction of magnetic field
 South Pole North Pole

C
Clockwise Anti-clockwise

SS
Maxwell’s screw rule to find
direction of magnetic field in a
straight current carrying conductor

Magnetic Field due to a Current carrying Circular Loop

R
A
RM

No. of turns in loop Magnetic Field

Distance Magnetic Field
Current Magnetic Field
PA

In centre, the magnetic

field lines are parallel
and uniform
Magnetic Field due to a current carrying Solenoid

Behaves like a bar magnet

when current is passed

In a solenoid the magnetic field is

C
maximum inside the solenoid

It is uniform

SS
Current passed through a
solenoid
If direction of current is
Magnetic field lines outside the
reversed, the direction of
R
magnetic field is also
reversed
solenoid is very weak Considered to
be practically zero
A
Electromagnetic
RM

Soft iron rod that behaves like

a magnet when current is
passed through it
PA
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

Current direction upwards

C
SS
Magnetic field

Motor works on principle of Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Electric energy Mechanical energy

Force will be Maximum: the angle between the conductor and the magnetic

R
field is 90

Minimum: The conductor is placed along the direction of

A
magnetic field, whether parallel or antiparallel Zero
RM

Used when a current carrying

conductor is introduced in an
PA

external magnetic field

Electromagnetic Induction

Generator work on this concept

C
It is the phenomenon in which
electric current is generated by
charging magnetic fields

SS
Discovered by Michael Faraday in
1831

When the bar magnet is pushed

towards the coil, the pointer in the
galvanometer deflects
R The relative motion between the
A
magnet and the coil is responsible
for generation of electric current in
the coil
RM

Generator Mechanical Energy Electrical

Energy
PA
 Short circuit: it is caused due to breaking of insulation of wires, forming the contact
between live wire and neutral wire

Current in a circuit increases abruptly

C
One Liners (MCQs)

SS
Device that is used to either break an electric circuit or to complete it: Switch

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff stated that at a junction in electric circuit, the sum of
currents flowing in the junction is equal to the sum of current flowing out of the
junction

R
Wheatstone Bridge is an arrangement of four resistors used for accurate
measurement of resistance
A
RM

Coil of wire in an electric room heater is known as: Element

PA

The current in the bulb will stop flowing if the circuit is broken

In the symbol of electric cell, the thicker, shorter line represents the: Negative
terminal

Michael Faraday gave the concept of electric field for the first time
 The scientist who was awarded an Noble Prize for the services to Theoretical Physics,
and specially for his discovery of Law of Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein
E = hv

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 small, simple, unicellular

no Nucleus, circular DNA, lack membrane Prokaryotic cell Building blocks of life in cork ((Dead Cell)
e.g. - bacteria, cynobacria, mycoplasma 1st by Robert Hooke (1665)
Definition Fundamental unit of life Father of cytology
Types of cell
large, complex, unicellular & multicellular Structural or functional basis of life by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1674) in pond water (Living Cell)
Nucleus & Membrane present, linear DNA Eukaryotic cell
Discovery by Robert Brown (1831) Nucleus
G1 - Growth e.g. - Plant, Animal
by Fredrick Mischer (1869) Molecule discovery of DNA
S - DNA synthesis
phases Watson & Crick (1953) Double-helical structure of DNA
G2 - Gorwth & preparation for mitosis Thin, elastic, flexible, Living
by Camillo Golgi Golgi bodies
M - Mitosis provide definite shape & holds content
Cell membrane
occurs in Somatic cells Cell Division Selectively permeable

Nucleus divides once Mitosis Proteins+lipids (composition)

diploid (2), 2 daughter cells Provides determines shape, strength &

Types: turgidity
occurs in Germ Cells Powerhouse of the cell
Freely permeable, Non-living
Nucleus divides twice Meiosis ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
Energy currency Cell wall Plants - made up of Cellulose
haploid (1), 4 daughter cells Mitochondria
Outer: Porous Bacterial - made up of Peptidoglycan
Two-membranes
Inner: ATP synthesis Fungi - made up of Chitin
Has its own DNA & Ribosomes Largest cell structure
Suicidal bag of the cell Lysosomes Cell “Brain of the cell”
Cis face - towards nucleus Nucleus Composed of membranes & Covers Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Trans face - towards plasma membrane Golgi bodies Separates nucleus from cytoplasm
Parts of Cell
Stores, modification of package Components Liquid ground substance of nuclear envelope
Functions
Forms lysosomes one or more in number
Cell organelles Nucleoplasm Nucleolus
Rough ER: makes proteins, ribosomes present forms protein forming centres-Ribosomes
Endoplasmic
Smooth ER: synthesis of fats and lipids, Reticulum Types Entangled mass of thread like structures
ribosomes absent
Thread like structures
Large, distinct, Permanent Chromatin material visible during cell division
in plants
Provide turgidity & rigidity DNA Consists of genes
Vacuoles Chromosome Components:
Small, temporary Proteins
in animals
stores glucose, glycogen, protein 22 pairs (autosomal)
23 Pairs
Only in plant cell 1 pair (sex pair - XX & XY)
Has its own DNA & Ribosomes Plastids Parts between plasma membrane & nuclear
envelope
stores chlorophyll pigment Chloroplasts
Cytoplasm Cell organelles present in it
stores colour pigment Chromoplasts Types
Cytos: Aqueous ground substance
Stores starch, oil and protein granules Leucoplasts
 Food storage tissue

contain intercellular airy spaces

Aerenchyma which helps to float
Parenchyma
Chlorenchyma contains chlorophyll

in leaf stalks & stem of dicots

Present in growing reason Living, Irregularly thickened at corners,

little intercellular space
Collenchyma
Vocuoles absent
Provides mechanical strength & flexibility
Intercellular space absent Allows bending of parts

active cell in Outer parts

dence Cytoplasm Meristematic tissue Dead cells

Simple tissue Sclerenchyma
Provides toughness to the tissue
perform cell division
Outermost layer of plant parts
Present at shoot & root apex
Plants of dry habitats have thicker
Increase length of root & stem Apical tissue epidermis
Present at the base of leaves/internodes Cutin is waxy materials & Layer of cutin is
Epidermis called cuticle
Increase length of leaves & internodes Intercalary tissue Type
Cuticle prevents water loss, Injury & Fungi
Present beneath the bark infection
Increase girth of root or stem Lateral tissue
Epidermal cells of roots form long hair like
Plant Tissue Protective tissue structures which increase absorption
surface area

Permanent tissue in mature roots and shoots

Cork Protection to mature roots and shoots

Dead, Intercellular spaces absent,

Walls have suberin
Cell wall in thin/thick
one-way conduction

large central vacuoles Conducts water & minerals

Xylem parenchyma
by the process of differentiation Xylem - food storage
Meristematic convert in Permanent
Tracheids Living
Types
Vessels

Complex tissue Xylem fibres/sclerenchyma

two-way conduction

Conducts food

Sieve tubes
Phloem
Companion cells

Types Phloem parenchyma - food storage

Phloem fibers/Sclerenchyma
- rigidity & support
 Cells + loose gel like matrix

Around blood vessels & nerves, in bone Covering/protective tissues of animal body
Loose
marrow & space inside organs
extremely thin, flat, Irregularly shaped
Connects skin + muscles, Supports internal
organs, Helps in repair of tissues Single layer of cells
Areolar
Connects muscles to bones Squamous Simple Forms delicate lining
Tendons
Great strength & Limited flexibility eg: mouth and oesophagus
Dense
Connects bones to bones Cells are arranged in layers
Ligaments
Considerable strength Stratified Prevent wear and tear
rounded/oval & contain large fat droplets Epithelial eg: Skin

Below the skin Adipose Cube like structure

Cuboidal
Prevents mechanical shocks, Act as eg: Sweat glands, Salivary glands, Thyroid
insulation glands, Lining of Kidney tubules

flexible, Widely spaced out Pillar like structure

Cartilage Columnar
present in Ear pinna, nose tip, trachea, larynx
Skeletal
Animal Tissue Lining of intestine, stomach, gallbladder
Very strong, Non flexible, Hard and rigid
have Cilia (hair like projections on surface)
Supports the body & Provides shape Bones which facilitates movement
Ciliated
Protects vital body organs like brain, lungs, Connective Movement of mucus, urine, egg etc
etc.

92% water & 8% harmones, protines etc Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves
Plasma Liquid
yellow fluid
Nervous Fundamental unit: Neuron
Red due to hemoglobin (Fe)
Sense stimuli: Touch, Smell, Taste, Hearing &
transports oxygen Sight

Graveyard of RBC: Spleen

RBC
Blood
Biconcave / disc shaped Are elongated & large sized
known as erythrocytes
Contraction & relaxation
Life span: 120 days
Unbranched, multinucleated & Striations
Helps in blood clotting
Skeletal Fast, Easily fatigue & Voluntary
known as thrombocytes Platelets Solid
present in Biceps, bone
Life span: 7-10 days
Fluid
Muscular Unbranched, Uninucleated & Non-striations
Prevent from infection

formed in bone marrow Smooth/Visceral Slow, Do not fatigue & Involuntary

Monocytes, Lymphocytes, Neutrophils, present in soft interior organs: lung, liver,

Types WBC
Basophils & Eosinophils abdomen, intestines
known as leukocytes
Branched, uninucleated & Striations
Life span: 12 days
Cardiac Do not fatigue & Involuntary
Colourless fluid
Lymph Help to pump & distribute blood
RBCs & Blood proteins are absent
 Locomotion through appendages

Cell wall is absent except Euglena

can be Autotrophic/Heterotrophic

Unicellular Protista eg: Unicellular algae, diatoms, protozoa

mostly aquatic, solitary or colonial

free living/parasitic/symbiotic

Cilia - hair-like structure

Helps in movement
PHYLUM PROTOZOA Paramecium

Diversity in living Flagellum - tail-like structure

Helps in movement
organism Euglena

Pseudopod - false feet

Helps in movement
Amoeba

Multicellular except yeast

Can be autotrophic/heterotrophic Eukaryotes Cell wall is made up of complex sugar chitin

Cell wall maybe present/absent Monera Prokaryotes in symbiotic relationship

(benefit from each other)
eg: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Lichen - Blue green algae + fungi
Cynobacteria (Blue-green algae)
Used in medicine

Fungi Penicillin Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin

Used in bakery
Yeast

Heterotrophic
Cell wall present
Saprophytic: Decaying organic material as
food

Parasitic: Dependent on protoplasm of a

Multicellular host organism for food

Plantae

Cell wall absent Animalia

 PLANTAE

don't have diff. body part have diff. body part

Thallophyta Without vascular tissue With vascular tissue

Plants are called as algae Bryophyta Cryptogams Phanerogams

(don't produce seeds) (produce seeds)

Green algae: Chlorophyceae Amphibians of Plant Kingdom

Pteridophytes Bear naked seeds Bear covered seeds
Root like structures present: Rhizoids
Chlorella
Autotrophic, non-motile Found in cracks of rocks, Gymnosperms Angiosperms
moist & shady places
Red algae: Rhodophyceae
Found in damp and moist areas
First terrestrial plants Usually perennials, evergreen flowering plants, highly evolved
Brown algae: Phaeophyceae
& mostly woody plants
eg: Riccia, Moss (funaria), Marchantia
eg: Marsilea and fern, Horsetails Ovary gets modified into fruit
eg: Pinnes, Cycas & Deodar
Sargassum grass, Lamanaria (Kelps)
Embryos have structure: Cotyledons
Blue green algae: Cyanobacteria
Monocots
(One cotyledon)
eg: Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Ulva, and Chara
Type
Dicots
(Two cotylodeons)
 Organ system organisation
Cellular level organization
Bilateral symmetry
Diploblastic & Acoelomate
Triploblastic & coelomate
have pores so it called sponges
Notochord: rod like structure Porifera
Non-mobile, aquatic
Paired gills slits in pharynx
Endoskeleton is present Tissue level organisation
Closed blood vascular system
eg: Scyon, Euplectella, Spongilla Radial symmetry
Do not have proper notochord
Diploblastic & Acoelomate
Nerve cord is present Protochordata
Cnidaria/ Aquatic
eg: Herdmania, Amphioxus, Balanogesus Coelenterata
Chordata Exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate
jawless vertebrates
Cyclostomata Anus is absent
eg: Petromyzon/Myxine, hog fishes, lamprey Organ level organisation
fishes eg: Jelly fish, Coral and hydra
Bilateral symmetry
2 Chambered heart Pieces
Triploblastic & Acoelomate
eg: Dog fish, Shark, tuna
Anus is absent
mucous glands in skin for respiration Platyhelminthes
dorsoventrally flattened body (like ribbon)
3 chambered heart Amphibians

eg: Frogs, toads, salamader parasitic or free living

3 chambered heart Hermaphrodite (Male+Female part present)

Vertebrates Organ system organisation
Exception: Crocodile (4 chambered heart) eg: Planareia, Liverfluke, Tape worm
Reptiles
Cold blooded animals Bilateral symmetry
Largest phylum in animal kingdom
eg: snake, turtle, lizard, crocodile Triploblastic & Pseudocoelom

warm blooded animals Organ system organisation Nematodes/ Body is cylindrical

4 chambered heart Aves Bilateral symmetry
Aschelmithes
eg: Elephantiasis (filarial worms) & Worms in
lay eggs intestines (roundworms/pinworms)
Triploblastic & coelomate
warm blooded organism
jointed legs
ANIMALIA Organ system organisation
Sexes are separate
Bilateral symmetry
4 chambered heart
Segmented body into head, thorax/cahals
mammary glands Mammalian thorax, abdomen Arthropoda Triploblastic & coelomate

Exception: Mammals but lay eggs Open circulatory system Annelida Body segmetation is present
eg: Platypus & echidnas 2nd largest phylum
Locomotory organs paired, lateral
Exoskeleton is made of chitin appendages - Parapodia (Nereis)
eg: Human, Whale, Dolphins
Organ system organisation
Unisexual
eg: Earthworms, Leech
Organ system organisation Bilateral symmetry
eg: Spider, Crab, Crayfish, Silverfish
Radial symmetry Triploblastic & coelomate
Mollusca
Triploblastic & coelomate Body is soft

Exoskeleton is hard (snails)

Spiny skinned organism Echinodermata
Star shaped, spherical, elongated Open circulatory system

No segmentation eg: Octopus, Pila, Unio, Snail

eg: Star fish, Brittle Stars, Sea urchins

 Not growth related
Nastic Movement
eg: movement by touch: Thigmonastic
Movement (touch me not plant) Brain
Central Nervous System
Growth related Spinal Cord
Nervous System
in response to light
Peripheral Nervous System Nerves
Plant Movement Longest cell in our body
Positive movement: Shoots Phototropic

Negative movement: Roots Neuron basic unit of nervous system

in response to water
Nerves Glial cells
Positive movement: Roots Hydrotropism Tropic Movement
Synapse Gap between nerve
Negative movement: Shoots

in response to chemical stimuli Cerebrum Memory

Chemotropism
eg: Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule Fore Brain Thalamus Pain and Sensation

in response to Gravity Released by thyroid gland

Regulates body temperature
(largest endocrine gland) Hypothalamus
Hunger, thrust & Sleet
Positive movement: Roots Geotropism
Located in neck region Thyroxine Controls involuntary actions such as change in
Negative movement: Shoots pupil size & reflex movements
deficiency of Iodine cause Goitre in it Brain Mid Brain
vision, hearing
secreted by pituitary gland (Master Gland)

known as Somatotropin
BRAIN Cerebellum Controls posture and balance

Growth Hormone Hind Brain Pons Connects Brain and Spinal Cord
less amount leads to dwarfism
Controls Automatic Nervous System
surplus amount leads to Acromegaly Medulla Oblongata
(ANS) - Respiration/heartbeat/Digestion

regulates blood pressure, heart beat

Growth hormone
located above kidneys Auxin
involved in phototropism
Adrenal Gland Animals Hormones (response towards light)
Fight or Flight hormone
Growth hormone
Deficiency causes - Addison’s disease
Gibbrelin
Responsible for germination/flowering
Secreted by Pancreas
Insulin & Glucagon
regulates sugar levels Plant Hormones Cytokinins Promote cell division

It inhibits growth
male Testosterone
Abscisic Acid
Sex Hormones
stress hormone
female Estrogen/Progesterone
Gaseous hormone
Regulate sleep
Ethylene
helps in fruit ripening
Released by Pineal Gland
Melatonin
(pea-sized gland)

located in brain
 involves a single parent

divides into two offsprings

BINARY FISSION Only for unicellular organisms

involves two parents eg: Amoeba, Bcteria, Paramecium, Leishmania

Reproductive organ in plants: Flower divides into many offsprings

supports anther Filament Male part called MULTIPLE FISSION Only for unicellular organisms
STAMEN
produces pollen Anther
eg: Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)
sticky bulb that catches pollen Stigma
Female part called Breaks into half which is not
passageway for grain Style fully develop & become a new one
PISTIL
holds the eggs awaiting fertilisation. FRAGMENTATION only for simple multicellular organisms
Ovary
Becomes the fruit
in PLANT
Anemophily - Wind eg: spirogyra & sea anemone

pollen grains reach Develops buds to be new one

Hydrophily - Water Pollination
stigma through
Antemophily - Insect BUDDING only for simple multicellular organisms
SEXUAL
eg: Hibiscus, sunflower, rose, lily, tulip, Male + female part = eg: hydra & yeast
tomato, chilli Bisexual/Monoecious
repairs or regenerates the missing part of body
eg: Papaya, cucumber, watermelon, musk Only Male or Female = ASEXUAL
melon, bitter guard Unisexual REGENERATION only for simple multicellular organisms

produce form Testicle Sperm Male sex cells eg: planaria, hydra & rhizopus

produce form Overy Ovum Female sex cells Bob and stick like structures that releases spores

Menarche - Ovaries start to mature & produce SPORE FORMATION only for simple multicellular organisms
eggs (age 11-12 yrs)
eg: Rhizopus
Menopause -natural decline in producing eggs
(age 40-50yrs)
grow from a fragment or cutting of parent plants

Gametogenesis > Insemination > stem or leaf is cut and planted into soi
Fertilisation > Zygote > Implantation > in HUMANS CUTTING
Gestation
REPRODUCTION eg: rose plant, money plant, sugarcane plant,
banana plant
Cervical cancer - VEGETATIVE
by Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) PROPAGATION stem of the plant is bent to the ground and
covered with soil
LAYERING
fertility treatment where eggs are combined
IVF (In vitro fertilisation) eg: Lemon, strawberry
with the sperm outside the body in a lab

surgically blocking fallopian tube Tubectomy cutting from some other plant attached to
the stem of a plant
Methods of GRAFTING
surgically blocking Vas deferens Vasectomy
Sterilisation eg: Rose plant
asexual reproduction in which of
embryo occurred directly from egg Scientific artificial vegetative propagation
without fertilis TISSUE CULTURE
Parthenogenesis
eg: Snake plant
eg: Honey bees, lizard
 known as Buccal Cavity

Mouth Saliva Gland releases Salivary Amylase

enzyme breaks complex carbohydrates to

simple carbohydrates
1.5 m long

Absorb water from food Large intestine Food pipe

Oesophagus
store the waste material food directly goes to stomach
Rectum
further releases through Anus
known as Gastric juice

HCl kills harmful bacteria

allows food to pass from make acidic medium

Sphincter muscle
stomach to small intestine
works in acidic medium
7-8 m long
Stomach Pepsin
breaks protein into Amino acids
3 parts - Duodenum, Jejunum & Ileum
protects inner delicate lining of
Major part of digestion occur here Mucus membrane
stomach from gastric juice
largest gland
secreted by liver DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
dark red brown in colour
basic/alkaline medium Bile juice
Position - right of abdomen side
large Fat globules into Smaller one Small intestine star shaped phagocytic cells
secreted by Pancreas Liver Kupffer cells
involved in breakdown of RBCs
breaks carbs amylase
major parenchymal cells
fats into fatty acid lipase Pancreatic juice Hepatocytes
responsible for various cellular functions
Works in basic medium
trypsin not a part of Alimentary Canal
proteins into amino acid

e finger-like projections
Villi
help in increase of surface area for food
absorption
 absence of oxygen

in yeast Anaerobic respiration

Breathing starts from it
Ethanol + CO2 + Energy Nostrils
hairs and mucus purifies the air in nose
oxygen in minute concentration

in muscle cells Pharynx where both food and air enters

Lack of oxygen Type
Lactic acid + Energy

Develops cramps in muscle Adam’s apple larynx - sound box

presence of oxygen

boney structure
in mitochondria Aerobic respiration

protect Lungs
CO2 + Water + Energy
Rib cage
Inhale - expand

Exhale - contract

Connected to capillaries
RESPIRATORY Sheet-like structure
supplies this oxygen to blood capillaries
SYSTEM Diaphragm Inhale - move downward
Nitrogen - 78%
Exhale - move upward
Oxgen - 21% Breathe in Alveoli
Carbon Dioxide - 0.036% Prevents trachea from collapsing
rings of
Nitrogen - 78% cartilage Oxygen passes thorugh
Trachea > bronchus > Bronchi
Oxygen - 16% Breathe out

Carbon Dioxide - 4.4%

 Pacemaker (Artificial Heart)

Sphygmomanometer To measure arterial blood pressure

Discovery - Karl Landsteiner
carries oxygenated blood
Universal donor - O (-ve)
Arteries Narrow, thicker
Universal acceptor - AB (+ve)
Exception :
by YM Bhende
Pulmonary artery - carries deoxygenated
in 1952, Bombay
Blood Group Heart carries deoxygenated blood
Lacks H antigen on RBCs Bombay blood
Veins
Exception :
cannot take blood from anyone
Pulmonary vein: carries oxygenated blood
protein on the surface of RBCs
heart contracts
Systole
Protein present - Rh(+ve) Rh factor
120 mm of Hg pressure
Protein absent - Rh(-ve)
heart relaxes
Diastole
80 mm of Hg pressure
form L. Ventricle to Body
Arota
CIRCULATION
Largest artery
From Body to R. Atrium
Superior & Inferior
from Lungs to L. Atrium
SYSTEM Vena Cava carry deoxygenated blood

Form L. Atrium to L. Ventricle

Pulmonary Vein Form R. Atrium to R. Ventricle
through Mitral valve through Tricuspid valve
Pulmonary Artery
from R. Ventricle to Lungs
 Basic unit - Nephron (specialised cells)

Millions of nephron present in one kidney

Ultrafiltration (filters everything) Glomerulus
Right kidney is slightly
lower than left kidney
Reabsorption & removal
Bowman's capsule
of nutrients/urea
Kidney to heart
Water - 95% Nephron kidney Renal vein
Deoxygenated blood
Urea - 2%
Kidney stone made of Calcium oxalate
pH: 4.5-5 Urine component
Artificial process to remove
the waste from blood
Yellow due to Dialysis
Urobilin/Urochrome
When both kidney malfunctions

Waste product
EXCRETORY SYSTEM Solid by kidneys

Kidney converts ammonia to urea Liquid by skin

Ammonia Waste removal
Urea is major excretory product Gaseous by lungs

Urine > Ureter > Urinary bladder Yellow solid waste from anus due to bilirubin
 DNA
genetic material encoded in a protein
envelope known as Capsid
RNA

behave as Non-living outside

diseases that last for a short period of time
Become active after getting a host
Acute disease
eg: fever, cold, cough
Prokaryotes, Unicellular and living entity cannot be treated with antibiotics
diseases that last for a long period of time
genetic material is called genophore affects liver
Chronic diseases
(bacterial DNA) Protozoa - plasmodium eg: Diabetes, TB, elephantiasis (filaria)
Hepatitis A: Transmission through food
Divides on its own Carrier - female Anopheles mosquito diseases that spread from one person to
Hepatitis B: Sexually transmitted through
another Hepatitis
Parasitic/Saprophytic bodily fluids
Treatment - Quinine (found in bark of
Malaria
cinchona tree) COMMUNICABLE eg: AIDS, cold, chicken pox, COVID
Antibiotics used to treat Hepatitis C: Transmitted when in contact with
infected blood
Detection - VIVAX TEST infectious diseases
Death due to plague known as
- Black Death Malaria Day - 25th April Classification diseases that cannot spread from contact
India’s first indigenous Hepatitis-A vaccine:
Havisure
1897-1906 - 12 Million death in India Plague
Protozoa
Protozoa - Trypanosoma NON-COMMUNICABLE non-infectious diseases
Sleeping Sickness Jaundice mainly affects liver
Caused by - Yersinia pestis Carrier - Tse Tse flies eg: diabetes, arthritis, glaucoma, polio
Mums affects the parotid salivary glands
Affects skin Protozoa - Leishmania Sudden an intention cases across several
Kala Azar Pandemic Virus - Poliomyelitis virus Entovirus
countries, continents, or the world
Also known as Hansen’s Disease Leprosy Carrier - Sandfly
eradicated from India, as declared in 2023
Sudden increase in cases spreading through
Caused by: Mycobacterium leprae Epidemic
a large population
affects the nervous system
Clostridium tetani Tetanus These disease are constantly present in a
Polio 1st polio vaccine - by Dr. Jonas Salk
Endemic population or region with relatively low
Diphtheria spread
Whooping cough Inactivated (killed) polio vaccine (IPV)
Affects respiratory tract - by Dr. John Salk

Affects reproductive organs Gonorrhoea Bacteria DISEASES VIRUS Live attenuated (weakened) oral polio
vaccine (OPV) - by Dr. Albert Sabin
Streptococcus
Pneumonia caused due to gene malfunction (meiosis) affects the cervix region in women
pneumoniae
Baldness Down Syndrome Cervical Cancer Virus - Human Papillomavirus
Salmonella typhi
Athlete’s foot Thalassemia Detected through - Smear Test
Typhoid
Widal Test Mendelian Disorders
Ring worm Fungi Sickle Cell Anaemia Dengue carrier - female Aedes aegypti mosquito
Change in gene (gene defects)
Transferred through animals Anthrax
Skin disease Scabies
GENETIC DISORDERS Colour blindness sexually-transmitted diseases
Caused by - Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Asthma X-chromosome is missing, virus - HIV (Human
Turner’s Syndrome Retrovirus
Mainly attack lungs seen only in female Immunodeficiency Virus)
Tuberclosis (TB)
Commonly referred as White Plague Albinism death - due to weak immune system

Vaccine - BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) Angelman Syndrome Acquired Immunodeficiency method of transmission - sexual contact,
Syndrome (AIDS) blood transfusions, from mother to baby
Caused by: Vibrio cholera Presence of an extra copy of
Klienfelter Syndrome
X-chromosome in males test - ELISA Test (Enzyme-linked
It is a water borne disease Cholera Immunosorbent Assay)

Death due to cholera known as AIDS DAY - 1st Dec

- Blue Death
Measles
Syphilis
Influenza
Staphylococcus bacteria Acne
Swine flu H1N1

Rabies

Bird flu H5N1

eradicated in 1979
Small pox
last case in Somalia (Africa)
 discovered by - Casimir Funk

Retinol

Vitamin A Deficiency - Night Blindness / Xerophthalmia

make own food through
photosynthesis Source - Carrot, mango, apple, papaya

Requires - CO2, Water, Sunlight Thiamine

6CO2 + 6H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Deficiency - Bone / Tooth issues Calcium Vitamin B1
Deficiency - Beri-beri
in stroma Dark reaction Deficiency - Goitre Iodine Minerals
Presence of - Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
Chlorophyll > Plastic(Chloroplast)
in grana Light reaction Deficiency - Anaemia Iron
Niacin / Niacinamide
Magnesium sulfur Oxygen Carbon Vitamin B3
Deficiency - Pallagra, 3D
Macronutrients In Plant Vitamin B Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid

Silicon Calcium Potassium Phosphorus Nitrogen Hydrogen Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine / Pyridoxamine / Pyridoxal

Vitamin B7/ H Biotin

Vitamin B9/B11 Folic Acid

NPK used in Urea
Cyanocobalamin
Sodium Chlorine Molybdenum Copper Iron vitamin Vitamin B12
Deficiency - Pernicias anemia
Micronutrients
Ascorbic Acid
Cobalt Nickle Boron Zinc Manganese
Vitamin C Deficiency - Scurvy / Bleeding Gum

Source - Lemon, Amla

Calciferol

Vitamin D Deficiency - Rickets / Osteomalacia

eg: Green plant, Phytoplantons Autotrophic
NUTRIENTS Source - Sunlight, Fish oil
feed on dead & decaying
Saprophytic Nutrition Tocopherols
eg: Fungi, Yeast Micronutrients
Vitamin E Deficiency - Anti-Sterility
eg: Cuscuta, Plasmodium, Nematodes Parasitic Heterotrophic In Animal
Macronutrients Source - Sprouts
eg: Man, Dog, Amoeba Holozoic
Phylloquinone
Vitamin K
Deficiency - no blood clotting
High energy storage
Water Soluble Vitamin B & Vitamin C
Storage in Adipose tissue type
Fat Soluble Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E & Vitamin K
Single bond Sugar Glucose

Hard to digest Saturated provides Energy

need to be consumed
eg: Animal fat, Trans fat Monosachhride Essential
Fats eg: Leucine, Histidine, Lysine, Tryptophan
Double / Triple Bond 1 molecule of Sugar Simple fundamental unit - Amino acids
body synthesises on its own
Easily to digest Unsaturated eg: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose Non -essential
Carbohydrates eg: Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, Arginine
eg: Vegetable oil, Plant fat 2 molecule of sugar
Disachhride Proteins Body building nutrients
Bile juice emulsify fat eg: Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose
Complex Egg: white part (proteins), yolk: yellow part
Lipase turn fat in Fatty acid many moleucle of sugar (fats, vitamins, etc)
Polyschhride eg:
eg: Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose Soyabean

sugar is present or not Benedict Test

 hardest part
Enamel
Calcium Phospate (CaPo4)

Crown Dentin

Pulp cavity
Father of Genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel
Structure Neck
study in Pea (Piscum Satvium) plant
Root Canal
Root
22 pair
Cement
called Sex chromosome
Incisors (8) Biting
Chromosome
male - XY
Canines (4) Tearing of food
Female - XX 1 pair
Type Pre-Molars (8) Chewing / Grinding
Trans gender -
Chromosomal Abnormality Wisdom tooth / 3rd molar
Morals (12)
Genetics Tooth Chewing / Grinding
X-chromosome is missing
Turner's Syndrome
Adult 32
In female (X)
No. of tooth
20
X-chromosome is extra
Child
Down's Sundrome
in child Pre-molars are absent
In male (XXY)
Adult 2123 / 2123
seems similar ; different function
Homologous Dentine formula
organ Child 2102 / 2102
eg: Human hand, Dog hand, Bird hand
Elephant's tusk is Incisor
seems different ; similar function
Analogous
organ Bird's beak is modified form of teeth
eg: Butterfly wing, Bat wing, Bird wing
PA
RM
A
The Cell
R
SS
C
Cell Defination
-

building blocks of life Cell

. fundamental unit of life
structural or functional basis of life ↓

C
Tissue
Cell Study -> is called cytology ↓

SS
-

Cyto: Cell Organs

Logy: Study ↓
Organ system

Cell Discovery

.
-

R
First discovery by: Robert Hooke (1665)
Observed in cork
A
Cork is obtained from bark of tree

↓
RM

Dead cell

Cork Cell
↓
Father of
PA

cytology

Sin

Honeycomb shape
-
(with compartments)
 Some other discoveries
- in pond water
↑
I

-
n
Atomic
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
Robert Brown (1831) Nuclues
--

>
~
Free living cells in water (Father of modern
cytology)

C
-

↑ Purkinje (1839) named Protoplasm

-

SS
Cell Theory
-

↑
“All the plants and animals are composed of cells”
“Basic unit of life”
↓
↑

Given by: Schleiden and Schwan (1838)

R↓
Virchow further worked on it > New cells are formed
A
from Pre-existing cells

Other characteristics:

----
RM

Parts of Cell Selectively permeable (only

allows some materials)
60-80% Proteins+lipids (composition)
I

--
Flexibility enables the cell
W

Cell membrane

I
to engulf food
-
Protects the cell:
bodyguard -M

Thin, elastic, flexible

PA

W
Living
W
Outer most covering
-
Provides definite
shape and holds
content of cell
I
Present in both plant
and animal
 Movements across Cell Nembrane
-

↑
Diffusion
-

I Spontaneous movement of molecules

from high to lower concentration

C
->mixing
Rate of Diffusion
-

SS
Gases > liquids > solids

ex: Agarbatti smell diffusion,

ions/molecules - CO2 , O2

due to cellular activities, CO2 production

-

takes place
R
A
Conc. of CO > Conc. of CO2

I
inside cell in external environment
RM

CO leaves cell through

diffusion
humesha concentration

- of water hi Lena hai

Osmosis: Movement from high to low but through a semipermeable membrane

PA

I
-

un
Solution
Solution == Solute
Solute+ +Solvent
Solute

Hypertonic
-
Hypotonic
-
Isotonic
-

Solute > Solvent Solute <A

> Solvent Solute = Solvent

cell absorbs water through

osmosis, no energy is required
and lasts upto equilibrium state
 -> Dilute solution

in
-

C
I SS
Concentrated
solution

e R t
Swollen cell
A
Shrunken cell No change in cell

Normal solution
RM
PA

. ..
Cell wall I- Cell membrane

↑
Bacterial cell wall made of
Only present in plants

:
Peptidoglycan and and
and bacteria and fungi outermost layer is called as
Non-living
I
bacteria l cell wall
Glycocalyx
Freely permeable made of: Glycocalyx
Determines shape
I
Fungi: Chitin
Made up of cellulose
Provides strength and
turgidity to cells
 C
SS
R
A
RM

/
cell membrane
PA
 cellular component

-
of cell
Centrally located
Large in size

C
Largest cell
structure
I “Brain of the cell”

SS
involved in formation

=*
of proteins

Components of Nucleus

R
A
Nuclear envelope Nucleoplasm
> Covered by NE
-
I
Composed of membranes Liquid ground
substance of nuclear
RM

-
Covers Nucleus
W Separates nucleus from envelope
cytoplasm Types:
-
Permits materials between One or more in
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
Nucleolus
- numbers
Forms protein
I
Pores are present called: nuclear
Chromatin forming centres-
pores
material Ribosomes
PA

-8
Chromatin material
-

-
Entangled mass of thread like structures
During cell division they get organised into
chromosomes
 Chromosomes
...

Thread like structures

i
,
Visible during cell division
Components:
-

C
DNA
Proteins
-

chromosomes: 23 pairs

SS
1
-

Eli
22 pairs Molecule discovery: Fredrick Mischer
-- Double-helical
↑ -

DNA(1869)
(autosomal)
v

1 pair (sex structure: Watson and

-

Consists of genes Crick (1953)

T
pair)
Genetic information
transferred from one
Total: 46
chromosomes
R
generation to another

#
are basic
The functional
physicalsegment of DNA
and functional

·
A
unit of heredity
XY: Male Or
XX: Female I
Are functional unit of DNA
RM

↓
Four bases of DNA
/

Adenine (A)
↑

Cytosine (C)
↑
Guanine (G)
I

Thymine (T)

Cytoplasm
-
PA

- Parts between plasma

membrane and nuclear
envelope
-
Cell organelles present in
cytoplasm
Cytos: Aqueous ground substance
of cytoplasm
 Types of cell
Cell wall is absent in Tapeworm

E
N

Prokaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cell

C
SS
or 1-10Nee - or 5-10 e
meter meter

R
A
ex: bacteria,
cynobacteria, - --

I
mycoplasma ex: Plant and
Animal cells
RM

Pro: before Karyotes: nucleus

Eu: true

Blue green algae -

Common in both: ribosomes
PA
 Cell sap consists of:
Amino acids
-

Sugars
Cell organelles - Organic acids
:

in plants:
Large, distinct
: Store cell sap
W

C
Sausage shape Provide

:
turgidity and in animals:

II
Mitochondria e rigidity Small, temporary

I
-
-
50-90% of and stores glucose,

SS
“powerhouse of the cell”- volume glycogen, protein

T
ATP (Adenosine Permanent
Triphosphate), makes
energy Vacuoles
X-
Two-membranes:
Membrane bound
Outer: Porous
Solid or liquid
Inner: ATP synthesis
filled
Has its own DNA and

R Sac-like

is
Energy ribosomes
currency
of the cell
A
Lysosomes
-
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
“Suicidal bag of the Membrane bound organelle

.
I
cell”- waste disposal
RM

of cell Rough ER: makes proteins,

Filled with digestive Large network ribosomes present
enzymes of tubes and Smooth ER: synthesis of
Membrane bound, spherical sac sheets fats and lipids, ribosomes
like structure absent
Golgi bodies

Types
I Breaks digestive enzymes to -

Long Tubules
simpler substances ·
-
Discovered by Camillo Vesicles
Golgi -
Cisternae
PA

Other functions of ER -
Consists of vesicles,
-

Detoxification of proteins and drugs cisternae, vacuoles Attached to plasma membrane on

↑
ER forms network system -
>
Cis face: towards one side and outer nuclear
nucleus membrane on other
>
-
Trans face: towards
Functions:
plasma membrane
in RER
Proteins: RER
·
-
Functions:
-
Fats and lipids: SER
Proteins and lipids act as
-
Stores, modification
hormones and enzymes
of package -
ER serves as transport bet H
-
Simple sugars from
cytoplasm and nucleus
complex sugars
↑
Forms lysosomes
 C
SS
Plastids

I
- -

Only in plant cell, not in

· animal cell
R
Has its own DNA and
Ribosomes
A
contains Mg for
Types:
- food synthesis
-
Chloroplasts: contains chlorophyll pigment
Also contain yellow and orange pigments
RM

-
Chromoplasts: contains different types of

L Leucoplasts: colourless or white in colour - imparts colour to

pigments which provides colour

flowers and fruits

Stores starch, oil and protein granules
PA

Cell Division
-- Types:
Phases of Cell Cycle
S
Division of cells into new cells -

Reason for division:

-

I Mitosis

E
growth of organism Meiosis
replace old, dead and injured
cells
for gamete formation
 Mitosis Meiosis
--involved in

C
e
-

-
reproduction
---

SS
-

-
2 -
1
- -

W
-
Largest cell in
- humans
- Smallest cell in
-

qu -
R -
-
humans
A
/
-

* Learn only marked ones

RM

I
largest cell: Ostrich egg
-
smallest cell: Mycoplasma
Gallicepticum
↑
Longest cell in human:
Uncontrolled cell Neurons
division
-
Smallest cell in humans: Sperm
cell
-
Largest cell in humans: Ovum
PA
 Endocytosis
-

Type of active transport

- Movement of particle into the
cell from external environment

C
↑
Endo: andar

SS
↑

Exo: bahar
v

It is of two types
I Phagocytosis
↑
Pinocytosis

R -
Phagocytosis
Cell’s eating process
A
-
Large particles taken into cell

Process
↑
Plasma membrane invaginate
RM

Vacuole formation
↑
Merging of vacuole with Lysosomes
↑
Vacuole formation
-

Release of contents outside the cell

L
PA

-
L
/

g
False feet generates

Pseudopodia: false feet of amoeba

 Pinocytosis
·
Cell’s drinking process
Extracellular fluid is taken into cell
I

Exocytosis
Movement of particles from cell to external

·
environment
Also called cell vomiting
Vomited particles are:

C
Undigested residues from endocytosis
Enzymes and hormones

SS
R
A
RM

Bacteria Flagella Helps in mobility/movement in bacteria

- Three parts
Filament
R
Hook
-

Basal body
PA

>
-
Basal body
↑
Biological stains used in histology and cytology to colour cell
nuclei red: Safranin

I
Most abundant molecule in cell: Water (70% or more of total cell
mass)

C
- Phases of Golgi apparatus:
Concave: maturing face

SS
Convex

- Group of ribosomes attached to mRNA: Polysomes

I Mitochondria without outer membrane is called mitoplast

-
Active transport example: Sodium and Potassium pumps

-
Peptidoglycan: Bacteria
Cellulose: Plants
R
A
/
Chitin: Insects
-
Pectin: Fruits
RM
PA
 LECTURE - 2 (TISSUES )
Outermost layer found in cell envelope of bacteria: Glycocalyx

:
I Bacterial cell wall: Peptidoglycan

/
Plasmid DNA function: to confer certain unique phenotypic characters to bacteria

C
/
Role of ribosomes of a polysome is to translate mRNA into proteins

Peroxisomes: oxidative crystals

SS
I
Cell that isdete
aloe void in shape: White blood cell (has irregular shape)
amoeboid

Transcription: the process of the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA

Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown

Cell Cycle
R
A
- Mitosis (cell division)
RM
PA

W
DNA synthesis
 Major microtubule-organizing centre (MTOC) in eukaryotic cells

=
involved in various cellular process, including sensory reception,
locomotion, and embryogenesis: Centrosome

Cell theory that proved the quasi-fluid nature of lipids to enable

C
lateral movement of proteins within the bilayer: Fluid Mosaic Model

Protein that protects epithelial cells from damage: Keratin

SS
Tissues

group of cells that have similar structure combined together to perform

a specific function forms a tissue

R Tissues
A
plant tissues animal tissues
RM

Importance

Causes division of labour in multicellular organisms

Decreases workload on individual cells
-
Leads to organisation
PA

Basic Unit of Life -> Cell

Group of cells -> Tissue

Group of tissues - Organs

Group of organs Organ System

Group of Organs
E Organism
System
 Plant tissue

it C
Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue
-

SS
occurrence: growing regions of plants -
when cell lose the ability to
(root, shoot, etc) divide, by the process of
shape: spherical, oval or rectangular differentiation, the take a
Intercellular spaces: absent permanent shape, size and
Vacuoles: absent function
Active cells -
Structure: large central vacuoles
Cytoplasm: dense
Cell wall: cellulose
Nuclei: prominent
Cell division
R j

·
Cell wall in thin/thick
Function:
-

protection
A
-
Support
>
Storage
-
Photosynthesis
RM

I ⑳8
④
④
-I
Tips of roots
and shoots
Nodes
PA

I
Sideways growth

=
↓
Height growth: Apical and intercalate
Width growth: Lateral
Types
Types of Permanent Tissue
- -

Lateral Intercalary Apical

- - -
-
Simple Tissue
-
Present beneath the I
Present at the base of ~
Present at shoot
~
Complex Tissue
bark leaves/internodes and root apex
/
Increase girth of root -
Increase length of -
Increase in length
or stem leaves and internodes of root and stem
 Simple Tissue
>
- Types mechanical tissue
- -

I
a) Collenchyma Tissue
-

Occurrence: in leaf stalks and stem of dicots

C
-

Cell Structure
-

I Living

SS
I Elongated
/
Irregularly thickened at corners
I
Very little intercellular space

Functions
e

↑
Provides mechanical strength and flexibility
S
Allows bending of parts
ex: tendrils and stems of climbers
R
A
b) Parenchyma Tissue
-

Aerenchyma
-

Functions
-

Chlorenchyma
-

Food storage tissue

RM

·
In some cases contains chlorophyll, called
Chlorenchyma
When loosely packed, intercellular airy spaces
I are present called Aerenchyma

Provides buoyancy to parts,

helps them float
PA

@°@°
c) Sclerenchyma Tissue -
-
> Dead cells

-
Provides toughness to the tissue

Occurrence: Outer parts

-

eg: bark, husk of coconut , veins of leaves

-
Walls are thick -
>
Lignin
 Protective Tissue (part of simple tissues)
-

Types:

EEpidermis

C
Cork

a) Epidermis Cuticle

· SS
-

I
Occurrence: Outermost layer of plant parts
-

eg: leaves, flowers, stem and roots

Functions:
-

Protects all parts of plants cactus plant

I
W

Prevents water loss

-

R
Plants of dry habitats have thicker epidermis
Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of plant secrete waxy secretions which
prevents from:
A
I
-
Water loss
Injury
RM

Fungi infection
W
Plants growing in desert have cuticle
I
Layer of cutin is called cuticle
Cutin is waxy materials and water resistant

:
W
Cuticle aids in protection against water loss, injury
and invasion of fungi
Epidermal cells of the roots form hair like structures
PA

Long hair like parts increase absorption surface area of roots

In leaves, epidermal cells form stomata
↑ Stomata are guarded by guard cells which are kidney shaped and regulate
gaseous exchange
Guttation: the process of planting axis
External protective tissue
liquid from its leaves or blades
Dead
Types Hydathode: a plant organ responsible
Compactly arranged cells
for gat vascular plants
- -

Intercellular spaces absent

b) Cork The process happens at night
- -
Walls have suberin

-
Occurrence: in mature roots and shoots
-
 Functions:
-

Protection to mature roots and shoots

- Suberin regulate gaseous exchange and water passage

C
Complex Permanent Tissue
-

Made up of more than one type of cells

SS
-

Function
- Xylem
-
Transport water, minerals and food materials

Types
-

I vascular tissues
·
Xylem
↑
Phloem
R
A
Xylem
-

-
Conducting tissue (one-way conduction)
RM

-
Conducts water and minerals from roots to shoots Xylem Types:
-

Xylem parenchyma: food

!
Phloem storage
Living
-

Tracheids
-
Conducts food (two-way conduction) Vessels
Xylem fibres /sclerenchyma

·
PA

Phloem Types:
- dead
Sieve tubes
Companion cells
Phloem parenchyma: food
storage
Phloem fibers: rigidity and
support or Phloem Sclerenchyma
 Animal Tissue

↓ V
I I
W
↓
Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

C
-
-

E E
-

-
-

Squamous Striated Areolar

Cuboidal Smooth Adipose

SS
·
Columnar
Stratified Cardiac Skeletal
Ciliated Fluid

a) Epithelial >
Tightly packed

Characteristics
R
Covering/protective tissues of animal body ; cells form continous sheet
A
Function > -
Forms lining of mouth and
alimentary canal
Protection to body from injury ,·
t e
infection
and and damage
damage ↑ Eliminates waste
I Absorption of water and nutrients
Types
RM

i) Squamous Epithelial Tissue

↑

Cells are extremely thin

Types
-
-

Cells are flat

-

Irregularly shaped
a) Simple Squamous Tissue
-

-
Single layer of cells
PA

-
Forms delicate lining
eg: mouth and oesophagus

food pipe

b) Stratified Squamous Tissue

Cells are arranged in layers
Prevent wear and tear
eg: Skin
 ii) Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue
-

Structure
- -

I
Cube like
Tall = wide

: C
Occurrence
-

↑
Sweat glands
↑
Salivary glands

SS
↑
Thyroid glands
a
Lining of Kidney tubules

iii) Columnar Epithelial Tissue

e n

↑
Structure
-

Pillar like cells

Tall > Wide
R
A
Occurrence
- - -

-
Lining of intestine
Lining of stomach, gallbladder
RM

iii)
iv Ciliated Epithelial Tissue
-

Structure
-

W
Cuboidal/Columnar cells
PA

v
Cells have hair like projections on free surface
called “cilia”, which facilitates movement

Occurrence
-

Respiratory tract
. Urinary tubules or kidney
Function
Movement of mucus, urine, egg etc through
rhythmic beating of cilia
 b) Muscular Tissue/ Muscle Tissue
-

Function Are elongated and

-

large sized
Movement of body

.
- Contraction and
Contractile protein relaxation

C
Types
- -

SS
↑
Cardiac muscle
-
Skeletal muscle
-
Smooth muscle

a) Skeletal Muscle
R -

Muscle fibres are elongated and

cylindrical
A
·
Fast in nature
Unbranched
↑ Each cell is multinucleated (many nuclei)
RM

I Striations are present (alternate dark

and light bands
-
Easily fatigue

Occurrence
--
Biceps, bone

Other names
PA

Attached to skeletal: Skeleton Muscles

I
Striations are present: Striated Muscles
I Are under our control: Voluntary muscles
 b) Smooth/Visceral Muscles Uninucleated
>
-
-

Nucleus located at the centre of each cell

·

Striations are absent

-

Unbranched
-

C
Slow
W soft interior organs:
Do not fatigue
- lung, liver, abdomen,
intestines
-

SS
Other names
-
Found in visceral organs: Visceral Muscles
Striations are absent: Unstriated muscles
↑

Not under our control: Involuntary Muscles

·

R
Organs like; that have visceral muscles
A
RM

Intestine Uterus Blood vessels

PA

Stomach Bronchi Iris

 c) Cardiac Muscles
-

↑
Fibres are cylindrical in shape
-
Each fibre is uninucleated
↑ Fibres are branched

C
-
Striations are present
-
Do not fatigue

SS
Other names
-

·
Cardiac muscle: only present in heart
-
Striated: Striations are present
-
Not under our control: Involuntary muscles

Function
-

W
Perform contraction and relaxation in wall of heart
/

R
Help to pump and distribute blood to body
A
RM
PA
 c) Connective Tissue
-

Connects various body parts

. Cells are embedded in an intracellular matrix
Matrix may be jelly, fluid, dense or rigid

C
/1Y
Cartilage Blood Bone

SS
R
A
Tendons Dermis
RM
PA

Adipose Cartilage
 Structure
Cells + loose gel like matrix

i
Occurrence
Types of Connective tissue
-
Between skin and muscles
Around blood vessels and nerves
a) Areolar Connective Tissue In bone marrow
In space inside organs
i) Loose Connective Tissue

C
Functions
ii) Dense Connective Tissue
Connects skin + muscles

E Ligaments Fills the space inside the organs

Supports internal organs

SS
Tendons Helps in repair of tissues

b) Adipose Connective Tissue

ii) Dense Connective Tissue

↑
-

a) Tendons
-

Fibrous tissue
R
A
-
Great strength
~
Limited flexibility
~
Connects muscles to bones
RM

Muscle -

Tendon -

Bone

W
b) Ligaments
-

↑
Considerable strength
Bone Ligament Bone
PA

Little matrix is present

- -

W
Connects bones to bones

. b) Adipose Connective Tissue

-

Structure
-

Aggregation of fat cells

Cells are rounded/oval and contain large fat droplets
 Occurrence fatty people have more Function
- -

Below the skin - adipose tissue Prevents body from mechanical

:
Bet internal organs
n shocks
Fat reservation
Act as insulation
Temperature regulation

C
c) Skeletal Connective Tissue
-

Types
-

SS
-
Cartilage
-
Bones

I
-

- -
300 bones: child

206 bones: adult

Longest bone: Femur (Thighs)

Shortest bone: Stapes (Ear)

i) Cartilage
R
A
-

Widely spaced out cells

. Matrix is gel-like
RM

- Matrix is slightly elastic

-
Cartilage is flexible

Occurrence
-

/
Ear pinna, nose tip, trachea, larynx
Smoothens bone surfaces at joints

:
Function
PA

-
Support and flexibility to body parts

ii) Bones
-

Very strong
-
Non flexible
Hard and rigid
↑
Matrix is hard and composed of calcium and
phosphorous compounds
 Functions
-

Forms a framework

: Supports the body

Provides shape to body
Protects vital body organs like brain, lungs, etc.

C
I Layer: meningitis

SS
22 bones in brain

8: cranial
14: facial

d) Fluid Connective Tissue

R
A
-

Connects different part of the body

Maintains a continuity
RM

Types

E Blood
Lymph

i) Blood Function: transports gases, digested

PA

-
-

food, hormones, waste materials

Blood

55% E / I °
45%
Liquid Solid
/ / -
Plasma: E 90% water RBC WBC Platelets

~ Remaining:and
92% water
proteins,
hormones
Protein,
glucose,
salts,
8% hormones,
fats,
V vitamins
Yellow fluid
 Solid

- in
RBC WBC Platelets

!
- -

C
red in colour due Also known as leukocytes I
Helps in blood
to presence of heme (Fe) Prevent from infection, clotting
Heme has high affinity provide our body a If suffering from

SS
towards oxygen defence mechanism dengue, it reduces
Heme transports oxygen S
Is formed in bone Also known as
throughout the body to marrow thrombocytes
carry out respiration to
produce energy Types : No. of formation: 150-400K
Life span: 7-10 days

-
Graveyard of RBC: Spleen Monocytes
Shape: Biconcave; disc- Lymphocytes > T cells and B cells
shaped
Also known as erythrocytes R ·
Basophils
Neutrophils
Neutrophils
Basophils
Eosinophils
> Granulocytes
A
- Time period of Shape: round/irregular
RBC: 120 days
End point: Spleen Life span: 12 days
RM

I -

I No of formation: 4.5-6.5M ↑ No. of formation: 4000-10,000

Order in number:
-
- study of blood: hematology

RBC > Platelets > WBCs

PA

ii) Lymph
-

Structure
-
Colourless fluid
RBCs and Blood proteins are absent
 d) Nervous Tissue
-

cell body

C
SS
Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves fundamental unit of kidney:

Function
R
: Fundamental unit of nervous system: Neuron
G
Converts Chemical Energy to
W

·
Nephron
Study of kidney: Nephrology
A
- -

Sense stimuli: Electrical Energy

- ~
Touch
Smell
RM

Taste
Hearing
Sight

/
PA

Hair like structures receives

signals from other neurons

I
Glial cells: far more numerous than neurons and unlike
neurons, they are capable of mitosis
 C
A
R I.
SS
-
one neuron’s dendrite
transmit information to
other neuron’s cell body
The gap bet these two
is called synapse
RM

· Camel hump is made of: Adipose tissue

PA
 Plant and Animal

C
Kingdom

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
Father of Taxonomy

: 1735: Carl Linnaeus

SS
Gave 2 Kingdom Classification
Animal
--
Plant 5 kingdoms
Taxonomy: it is the science of classifying and naming

i
-

the living organisms

R
5 kingdoms classification by Robert Whittaker in 1969 These two ·
Me
important
s ett
kingdoms
Kingdoms arevery
very important
A
I
Ernst Haeckel in 1866 coined the term “Ecology”
3 Kingdom Classification (1864)
I Father of Indian ecology: Ramdeo Mishra
RM

↑ Carl Woese (1997): 3 domains TRICK to learn the order

)
>
- )
Kabaddi

Play
PA

Class

Our

Of

Girls

E
Sum
Some
 Diversity in living organism

↓ ↓
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Classification is based on following: ↓ ↓ ↓

Monera Unicellular Multicellular

↓ ↓ ↓
Prokaryote v/s Eukaryote cell structure Protista Cell wall W Cell wall X

:
Unicellular/Multicellular organization ↓ ↓ ↓
Plantae Fungi Animalia

C
e
Moses
Modes ofofnutrition
nutrition
Further classification is done into sub groups

SS
KINGDOM MONERA

Microscopic, Prokaryotic Can be autotrophic/heterotrophic

I

Prokaryotic

I Cell wall maybe present/absent

R
eg: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cynobacteria (Blue-green algae)
Well defined nucleus and membrane bound organelles is absent
A
KINGDOM PROTISTA Kingdom Monera Classification
· Archaebacteria
-

Mostly autotrophs
Characteristics
RM

Few photosynthesis
Unicellular eukaryotic organisms
Locomotion through appendages - Eubacteria
Cell wall is present
Cell wall is absent except Euglena
·

Plasma membrane is present

Cytoplasm present

...
Mode of Nutrition Ribosomes present
Autotrophic/Heterotrophic
PA

eg: Unicellular algae,( diatoms,) protozoa

Classification of kingdom Protista

PHYLUM PROTOZOA

Unicellular, mostly aquatic, solitary or colonial

free living/parasitic/symbiotic
eg: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium , Plasmodium
-
C
SS
Helps in movement/locomotion
Also, helps to move food to its oral
cavity

R
A
RM

Euglena has a
-
PA

tail-like structure

T
Helps in cell movement
 C
- -

I
SS
false feet
R
A
KINGDOM FUNGI
RM
PA

Characteristics

Multicellular except yeast

. Cell wall is present and is made of complex sugar chitin
 benefit from each other
Some are in symbiotic relationship

!...
eg: Lichen - Blue green algae + fungi
India’s first lichen park: Uttarakhand

C
changes gives food gives water + shelter
colour due to to fungus + minerals to algae
global warming

SS
Used in medicine: Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Used in bakery: Yeast discovered Penicillin

Mode of nutrition

Heterotrophic
R
A
Saprophytic: Decaying organic material as food
Parasitic: Dependent on protoplasm of a host organism for food
RM
PA
 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Multicellular
- Eukaryotes

C
Cell Wall present Cellulose
! AutotrophsA
Sedentary
ic in
in nature
nature

SS
R
A
FI
RM

conducting tissue
without
PA

↓
↑
hidden reproductive
Cryptogams

organs
 C
SS
R
⑦
.
A
RM

single cotyledon
Two cotyledons

PHYLUMS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

PA

Characteristics of Thallophyta

no distinguished root or stem

elemen
Plantsdodo
Plants nothave
have well-differentiated body parts

.
or body
Plants are called as algae
Mostly aquatic
eg: Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Ulva, and Chara
Presence or absence of vascular tissues

: Ability to bear seeds

Ability to produce flower
 Phycology: Study of algae
I
↑
Green algae: Chlorophyceae
/
Red algae: Rhodophyceae

C
: Brown algae: Phaeophyceae

Sargassum grass, V

SS
Lamanaria (Kelps) Chlorella
↑ Blue green algae: Cyanobacteria

Characteristics of Bryophyta
R / Antheridium: the male sex organ of algae,
Moses, ferns, fungi, and other non-
flowering plants
A
They are known as “Amphibians of Plant Kingdom”

=
Well differentiated body: Stem and leaves
RM

Root like structures present: Rhizoids

Autotrophic, non-motile
No specialised tissues for water and food conduction
↑
Found in damp and moist areas
M
eg: Riccia
Ricia, Moss (funaria), Marchantia
PA
 > Found in cracks of rocks, moist and shady
places
Characteristics of Pteridophyta

-
First terrestrial plants
zameen par
-
Well-differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves

C
I
Well-developed reproductive organs are hidden
- Specialised tissue for food and water conduction: Vascular tissues are
present

SS
eg: Marsilea and fern , Horsetails

R
A
RM
PA
 Characteristics of Gymnosperms

Gymno: Without cover

:
Sperma: Seeds without fruit

C
-
Usually perennials, evergreen and mostly woody plants
True roots, stem, and leaves are present
Xylem vessel absent

SS
eg: Pinnes and Deodar , Cycas

Pinus coniferous forest: in

temperate regions

Characteristics of Angiosperms
R Plants
A
Types L v
-
Monocots Woody Non-woody
Angio: Covered
-

Dicots I v
Sperma: Seed Herbs Shrubs
RM

↓
They are flowering plants and produce seeds enclosed within fruit Stem
They are highly evolved
Ovary gets modified into fruit
Seeds have embryo inside it and these seeds develop inside ovary
Embryos have structure: Cotyledons seed leaves
-
PA

seeds that were

-
Cotyledons earlier ovules
↓
Emerge
/
-
W
Green

V
that was earlier
During seed germination ovary
 C
SS
KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Eukaryotic
R
Classified into phyla on the basis

ii
-
A
Multicellular of extent and type of body
design differentiation found
Heterotrophic
Cell wall absent
RM

Most of them are mobile

Characteristics of Porifera

They have holes called pores i.e. body is perforated that is why called sponges
Have water canal system (pores se paani)
PA

Asymmetrical body
Cellular level organization
Two layer germ layers: Diploblastic
Exclusively aquatic

Ectoderm: cells Endoderm: cells inside the

outside the body body
Endoskeleton is present
· Other examples: Euplectella, Spongilla
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 Characteristics of Coelenterata/Cnidaria

Aquatic animals

It·
Tissue level organisation

C
Hard skeleton developed outside called Exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate
Body made of two layers: Diploblastic Ectoderm: makes up cells outside of body
Anus is absent Endoderm: makes inner lining of the body

SS
Radial symmetry (divided in equal parts
from anywhere)
Central gastrovascular cavity is present
eg: Coral and hydra
-
Mouth is present surrounded by tentacles
I

Hydra)
R
Mostly marine somewhere, freshwater animals (eg:
A
Characteristics of Platyhelminthes

They have dorsoventrally

flattened body, dorsoventrally
flattened body like a ribbon
RM

Bilateral symmetry
Organ level organisation
Triploblastic animals: three germ layers
True internal cavity/coelom absent: Acoelomate
PA

Body cavity

.
They can be parasitic or free living
Coelom have organs accommodated
Either free, living or parasitic and terrestrial
Free living Parasite
Suckers and hooks are usually present
Hermaphrodite (Male+Female part present) animals
Anus is absent
 Characteristics of Nematodes/Aschelmithes

Body is cylindrical Animals show sexual dimorphism

/

-
Bilateral symmetry

C
Triploblastic organisation
Organ
* level organisation
Organ system organization
No real organs present

SS
false cavity
Pseudocoelom present
L
Alimentary is complete: mouth and anus (Different
(entry and exitandpoint
entry same)
exit point)
eg: Elephantiasis (filarial worms)
Worms in intestines (roundworms/pinworms)
Sexes are separate

R
A
Hermaphrodite: having both male and
female part
Unisexual: either male or female part
RM

↑
Locomotory organs paired, lateral appendages
parapodia (Nereis)
-
Alimentary canal is tube like extend from mouth
to anus
They are usually found in freshwater, marine
↑
-

Characteristics of Annelida water, land

PA

Bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic

:
Cylindrical/dorsoventrally flattened
Brown colour skin is present
True coelomate animal
True organ packaged in coelom
-
Organ ⑭level
systemorganisation
organization
-
Body segmetation is present
/
Reproduction: Sexually
 Characteristics of Arthropoda

Largest phylum in animal kingdom

:
They have jointed legs

C
Bilateral symmetry
Segmented body into head, thorax/cahals thorax, abdomen
Open circulatory system (blood openly flows; not through a blood vessel)

SS
Coelom is present and is blood filled
Triploblastic
Respiration through gills, trachea
Excreation through Malpighian Tubules
Exoskeleton is made of chitin
Unisexual
R
A
RM
PA

Devil fish: common name of octopus

Characteristics of Mollusca
2nd largest phylum
Body is soft
Exoskeleton is hard (snails)
Little segmentation
Open circulatory system
 Blue colour blood: Haemocyanin
Alimentary canal is complete
Kidney like organs for excretion is present
Respiration through gills

C
Unisexual

SS
Characteristics of Echinodermata

-
Spiny skinned organism
I
Star shaped, spherical, elongated
-
Radial symmetry

:
I

↑
-
Triploblastic
Coelomic cavity is present
No segmentation
R
A
I Organ Me
level
systemsystem
organization
RM

Characteristics of Chordata
Types:
I
They have notochord: rod like structure Notochord not -

a) Protochordata
-
Paired gills slits in pharynx developed b) Vertebrata
- Bilateral properly I
- Triploblastic Notochord
PA

-
Organ system level organisation properly
-
Closed blood vascular system developed
- Heart is ventral
Rod like structure -
-
Hemichordata Invertebrates
-
>
 C
SS
Characteristics of Protochordata

-
R
Do not have proper notochord present during all stages of life
A
I
Bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic Post anal tail present
-
I

Coelomate animals
RM

I
Nerve cord is present
-
Pharyngeal gill slits present
PA
 Ill
C
SS
R
A
RM

Characteristics of Vertebrates

Characteristics of Cyclostomata
PA

They are jawless vertebrates

!
eg: Petromyzon/Myxine , hog fishes, lamprey
Arthropoda
· Crayfish
-
Silverfish
Characteristics of Pieces
Mammals
-
Whale
They are fishes /
Dolphins
eg: Dog fish, Shark, tuna
Chambered heart: 2
 Characteristics of Amphibians

They have mucous glands in skin for respiration

:
They have 3 chambered heart or through gills
eg: Frogs, toads, R
amphibians
salamander

C
Characteristics of Reptiles

SS
They have 3 chambered heart
Exception: Crocodile 4 chambered heart
Cold blooded animals
eg: snake, turtle, lizard, crocodile

Characteristics of Aves
R
A
They are warm blooded animals
They have 4 chambered heart
They lay eggs
RM

Characteristics of Mammalian

They are warm blooded organism

They have 4 chambered heart
PA

They have mammary glands

Exception: Mammals but lay eggs eg: Platypus and echidnas
 Plant and Animal

C
Kingdom

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
Father of Taxonomy

: 1735: Carl Linnaeus

SS
Gave 2 Kingdom Classification
Animal
--
Plant 5 kingdoms
Taxonomy: it is the science of classifying and naming

i
-

the living organisms

R
5 kingdoms classification by Robert Whittaker in 1969 These two ·
Me
important
s ett
kingdoms
Kingdoms arevery
very important
A
I
Ernst Haeckel in 1866 coined the term “Ecology”
3 Kingdom Classification (1864)
I Father of Indian ecology: Ramdeo Mishra
RM

↑ Carl Woese (1997): 3 domains TRICK to learn the order

)
>
- )
Kabaddi

Play
PA

Class

Our

Of

Girls

E
Sum
Some
 Diversity in living organism

↓ ↓
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Classification is based on following: ↓ ↓ ↓

Monera Unicellular Multicellular

↓ ↓ ↓
Prokaryote v/s Eukaryote cell structure Protista Cell wall W Cell wall X

:
Unicellular/Multicellular organization ↓ ↓ ↓
Plantae Fungi Animalia

C
e
Moses
Modes ofofnutrition
nutrition
Further classification is done into sub groups

SS
KINGDOM MONERA

Microscopic, Prokaryotic Can be autotrophic/heterotrophic

I

Prokaryotic

I Cell wall maybe present/absent

R
eg: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cynobacteria (Blue-green algae)
Well defined nucleus and membrane bound organelles is absent
A
KINGDOM PROTISTA Kingdom Monera Classification
· Archaebacteria
-

Mostly autotrophs
Characteristics
RM

Few photosynthesis
Unicellular eukaryotic organisms
Locomotion through appendages - Eubacteria
Cell wall is present
Cell wall is absent except Euglena
·

Plasma membrane is present

Cytoplasm present

...
Mode of Nutrition Ribosomes present
Autotrophic/Heterotrophic
PA

eg: Unicellular algae,( diatoms,) protozoa

Classification of kingdom Protista

PHYLUM PROTOZOA

Unicellular, mostly aquatic, solitary or colonial

free living/parasitic/symbiotic
eg: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium , Plasmodium
-
C
SS
Helps in movement/locomotion
Also, helps to move food to its oral
cavity

R
A
RM

Euglena has a
-
PA

tail-like structure

T
Helps in cell movement
 C
- -

I
SS
false feet
R
A
KINGDOM FUNGI
RM
PA

Characteristics

Multicellular except yeast

. Cell wall is present and is made of complex sugar chitin
 benefit from each other
Some are in symbiotic relationship

!...
eg: Lichen - Blue green algae + fungi
India’s first lichen park: Uttarakhand

C
changes gives food gives water + shelter
colour due to to fungus + minerals to algae
global warming

SS
Used in medicine: Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Used in bakery: Yeast discovered Penicillin

Mode of nutrition

Heterotrophic
R
A
Saprophytic: Decaying organic material as food
Parasitic: Dependent on protoplasm of a host organism for food
RM
PA
 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Multicellular
- Eukaryotes

C
Cell Wall present Cellulose
! AutotrophsA
Sedentary
ic in
in nature
nature

SS
R
A
FI
RM

conducting tissue
without
PA

↓
↑
hidden reproductive
Cryptogams

organs
 C
SS
R
⑦
.
A
RM

single cotyledon
Two cotyledons

PHYLUMS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

PA

Characteristics of Thallophyta

no distinguished root or stem

elemen
Plantsdodo
Plants nothave
have well-differentiated body parts

.
or body
Plants are called as algae
Mostly aquatic
eg: Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Ulva, and Chara
Presence or absence of vascular tissues

: Ability to bear seeds

Ability to produce flower
 Phycology: Study of algae
I
↑
Green algae: Chlorophyceae
/
Red algae: Rhodophyceae

C
: Brown algae: Phaeophyceae

Sargassum grass, V

SS
Lamanaria (Kelps) Chlorella
↑ Blue green algae: Cyanobacteria

Characteristics of Bryophyta
R / Antheridium: the male sex organ of algae,
Moses, ferns, fungi, and other non-
flowering plants
A
They are known as “Amphibians of Plant Kingdom”

=
Well differentiated body: Stem and leaves
RM

Root like structures present: Rhizoids

Autotrophic, non-motile
No specialised tissues for water and food conduction
↑
Found in damp and moist areas
M
eg: Riccia
Ricia, Moss (funaria), Marchantia
PA
 > Found in cracks of rocks, moist and shady
places
Characteristics of Pteridophyta

-
First terrestrial plants
zameen par
-
Well-differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves

C
I
Well-developed reproductive organs are hidden
- Specialised tissue for food and water conduction: Vascular tissues are
present

SS
eg: Marsilea and fern , Horsetails

R
A
RM
PA
 Characteristics of Gymnosperms

Gymno: Without cover

:
Sperma: Seeds without fruit

C
-
Usually perennials, evergreen and mostly woody plants
True roots, stem, and leaves are present
Xylem vessel absent

SS
eg: Pinnes and Deodar , Cycas

Pinus coniferous forest: in

temperate regions

Characteristics of Angiosperms
R Plants
A
Types L v
-
Monocots Woody Non-woody
Angio: Covered
-

Dicots I v
Sperma: Seed Herbs Shrubs
RM

↓
They are flowering plants and produce seeds enclosed within fruit Stem
They are highly evolved
Ovary gets modified into fruit
Seeds have embryo inside it and these seeds develop inside ovary
Embryos have structure: Cotyledons seed leaves
-
PA

seeds that were

-
Cotyledons earlier ovules
↓
Emerge
/
-
W
Green

V
that was earlier
During seed germination ovary
 C
SS
KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Eukaryotic
R
Classified into phyla on the basis

ii
-
A
Multicellular of extent and type of body
design differentiation found
Heterotrophic
Cell wall absent
RM

Most of them are mobile

Characteristics of Porifera

They have holes called pores i.e. body is perforated that is why called sponges
Have water canal system (pores se paani)
PA

Asymmetrical body
Cellular level organization
Two layer germ layers: Diploblastic
Exclusively aquatic

Ectoderm: cells Endoderm: cells inside the

outside the body body
Endoskeleton is present
· Other examples: Euplectella, Spongilla
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 Characteristics of Coelenterata/Cnidaria

Aquatic animals

It·
Tissue level organisation

C
Hard skeleton developed outside called Exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate
Body made of two layers: Diploblastic Ectoderm: makes up cells outside of body
Anus is absent Endoderm: makes inner lining of the body

SS
Radial symmetry (divided in equal parts
from anywhere)
Central gastrovascular cavity is present
eg: Coral and hydra
-
Mouth is present surrounded by tentacles
I

Hydra)
R
Mostly marine somewhere, freshwater animals (eg:
A
Characteristics of Platyhelminthes

They have dorsoventrally

flattened body, dorsoventrally
flattened body like a ribbon
RM

Bilateral symmetry
Organ level organisation
Triploblastic animals: three germ layers
True internal cavity/coelom absent: Acoelomate
PA

Body cavity

.
They can be parasitic or free living
Coelom have organs accommodated
Either free, living or parasitic and terrestrial
Free living Parasite
Suckers and hooks are usually present
Hermaphrodite (Male+Female part present) animals
Anus is absent
 Characteristics of Nematodes/Aschelmithes

Body is cylindrical Animals show sexual dimorphism

/

-
Bilateral symmetry

C
Triploblastic organisation
Organ
* level organisation
Organ system organization
No real organs present

SS
false cavity
Pseudocoelom present
L
Alimentary is complete: mouth and anus (Different
(entry and exitandpoint
entry same)
exit point)
eg: Elephantiasis (filarial worms)
Worms in intestines (roundworms/pinworms)
Sexes are separate

R
A
Hermaphrodite: having both male and
female part
Unisexual: either male or female part
RM

↑
Locomotory organs paired, lateral appendages
parapodia (Nereis)
-
Alimentary canal is tube like extend from mouth
to anus
They are usually found in freshwater, marine
↑
-

Characteristics of Annelida water, land

PA

Bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic

:
Cylindrical/dorsoventrally flattened
Brown colour skin is present
True coelomate animal
True organ packaged in coelom
-
Organ ⑭level
systemorganisation
organization
-
Body segmetation is present
/
Reproduction: Sexually
 Characteristics of Arthropoda

Largest phylum in animal kingdom

:
They have jointed legs

C
Bilateral symmetry
Segmented body into head, thorax/cahals thorax, abdomen
Open circulatory system (blood openly flows; not through a blood vessel)

SS
Coelom is present and is blood filled
Triploblastic
Respiration through gills, trachea
Excreation through Malpighian Tubules
Exoskeleton is made of chitin
Unisexual
R
A
RM
PA

Devil fish: common name of octopus

Characteristics of Mollusca
2nd largest phylum
Body is soft
Exoskeleton is hard (snails)
Little segmentation
Open circulatory system
 Blue colour blood: Haemocyanin
Alimentary canal is complete
Kidney like organs for excretion is present
Respiration through gills

C
Unisexual

SS
Characteristics of Echinodermata

-
Spiny skinned organism
I
Star shaped, spherical, elongated
-
Radial symmetry

:
I

↑
-
Triploblastic
Coelomic cavity is present
No segmentation
R
A
I Organ Me
level
systemsystem
organization
RM

Characteristics of Chordata
Types:
I
They have notochord: rod like structure Notochord not -

a) Protochordata
-
Paired gills slits in pharynx developed b) Vertebrata
- Bilateral properly I
- Triploblastic Notochord
PA

-
Organ system level organisation properly
-
Closed blood vascular system developed
- Heart is ventral
Rod like structure -
-
Hemichordata Invertebrates
-
>
 C
SS
Characteristics of Protochordata

-
R
Do not have proper notochord present during all stages of life
A
I
Bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic Post anal tail present
-
I

Coelomate animals
RM

I
Nerve cord is present
-
Pharyngeal gill slits present
PA
 Ill
C
SS
R
A
RM

Characteristics of Vertebrates

Characteristics of Cyclostomata
PA

They are jawless vertebrates

!
eg: Petromyzon/Myxine , hog fishes, lamprey
Arthropoda
· Crayfish
-
Silverfish
Characteristics of Pieces
Mammals
-
Whale
They are fishes /
Dolphins
eg: Dog fish, Shark, tuna
Chambered heart: 2
 Characteristics of Amphibians

They have mucous glands in skin for respiration

:
They have 3 chambered heart or through gills
eg: Frogs, toads, R
amphibians
salamander

C
Characteristics of Reptiles

SS
They have 3 chambered heart
Exception: Crocodile 4 chambered heart
Cold blooded animals
eg: snake, turtle, lizard, crocodile

Characteristics of Aves
R
A
They are warm blooded animals
They have 4 chambered heart
They lay eggs
RM

Characteristics of Mammalian

They are warm blooded organism

They have 4 chambered heart
PA

They have mammary glands

Exception: Mammals but lay eggs eg: Platypus and echidnas
PA
RM
A BRAIN
R
SS
C
 Nervous System

L X
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

V V V
Brain Spinal Cord Nerves

C
Information
↓
Body Brain

SS
-
T
Notochord

-
Vestigial organs: organs, tissues or cells in
the body, which are no more functional,
the way they were in their ancestral
form of trait

-
Examples:
Tailbone
Coccyx
R
A
I

Wisdom tooth
:
-

Pinna
Tonsils
RM

>
- Sense Organs

Photoreceptors
-
Olfactory
PA

↑ Thermoreceptors
>
-
Tactile

Photoreceptors <

Gustatory
 Layer of brain called
“Meninges” that covers
and protects the brain
Control and Coordination

... C
inflammation of
meninges causes a

SS
disease called
“Meningitis”

Parts of Brain
R
A
Fore Brain
Mid Brain
RM

major part
of brain Brain
- Male: 1400 g > Adult
-
Female: 1300 g
- The adult brain accounts for a
mere of 2% of body weight
Meningitis: an inflammation or
PA

>
-

20% of O2 and 20-25% of

swelling of protective
Glucose
membrane, covering the brain
and spinal cord
-

Caused by a viral or bacterial Hind Brain

infection
Total no. of bones in brain: 22
smallest portion
of brain
*
14:
14:Facial bones
cranial 8: Cranial bones
8: facial
 Fore Brain

Function loss of memory and

Controls voluntary action difficulty in performing

" C
Associated with hunger, memory, pain loss of memory day to day function

Parts

SS
Cerebrum (Memory) Associated diseases: Amnesia and Dementia
Thalamus (Pain and Sensation) Touch (skin), Nose, Tongue
Alzheimer’s
·
p) Disease
Hypothalamus (Regulates body temperature and Hunger thrust and Sleet)

Fore brain > Hind brain > Mid brain

Mid Brain R Eye movement and pupil dilation
A
Function ↑
Controls involuntary actions such as change in pupil size and reflex movements
(vision, hearing)
RM

Hind Brain

Function
a) Cerebellum
PA

Controls posture and balance

b) Pons
Connects Brain and Spinal Cord
7 Memory storage

c) Medulla Oblongata
Controls ANS - Respiration/heartbeat/Digestion

Automatic Nervous System

 basic unit of nervous system
Longest cell in our body

"
..
C
SS
Cell body

Cyton Glial cells

Synapse R
A
Gap between nerve ending of one neuron’s and dendrite of other neuron. Here
electrical signal is converted into information which is in the chemical signal
RM

Hormones

Hormones discovery: E.H. Starling Growth related

Plant Hormones
PA

Not growth related

Types
1) Auxin
Growth hormone
It is involved in phototropism (response towards light)

2) Gibbrelin
Growth hormone
W
Responsible for germination/flowering
 3) Cytokinins
W
Promote cell division
Cyto: cell

i
Kinin: division

.... C
4) Abscisic Acid
-
It inhibits growth

SS
-
It is a stress hormone

5) Ethylene Gaseous hormone

It helps in fruit ripening

Hormones in Animals
R
A
Types
RM

1) Endocrine Glands
They are ductless glands
They secrete hormones into the blood
eg: adrenal glands, pituitary glands, etc

Ductless Glands
PA

a) Thyroxine
Released by thyroid gland largest endocrine gland
Located in neck region Butterfly shape
Due to the deficiency of Iodine, thyroid gland is effected
a and causes a disease
birth disease
known as Goitre Hypothyroidism: thyroid gland doesn’t produce
Thyroxine Hormone enough thyroid hormone
Hyperthyroidism: overproduction of thyroid
hormone
I used in treatment of goitre
 - Anti diuretic hormone
/ Helps kidney to control the
When secreted in less amount of water
amount leads to dwarfism When secreted in surplus amount
leads to Acromegaly
b) Growth Hormone
It is secreted by pituitary gland (Master Gland)

:
Growth hormone is also known as Somatotropin

C
c) Adrenal Gland
It regulates blood pressure, heart beat
It located above kidneys

SS
-
Also known as “Fight or Flight hormone”
-
Deficiency causes Addison’s disease
-

It helps in regulating blood glucose level

/

-Sugar levels ↑
Insulin & Glucagon X cells
·

Secreted by Pancreas 2 largest gland

R
Mixed gland
cells: B cells of Islet of Langerhans
It regulates sugar levels (glucose level in the blood)
A
Sex Hormones
RM

W
In male: Testosterone involved in secondary sex characteristics
In female: Estrogen/Progesterone

female secondary sex regulating menstrual cycle,

characteristics pregnancy
PA

Melatonin
Regulate sleep
Released by Pineal Gland pea-sized gland
It is located in brain
 Plant Movement

Types

!
“touch me not” plant

C
1) Nastic Movement
Not growth related
eg: movement in response to touch: Thigmonastic Movement

SS
2) Tropic Movement
Growth related

a) Phototropic movement

I
R
Movement in response to light
Positive movement: Towards the light source
Negative movement: Away from the light source
A
RM

1 + Ve

Ve
+

7
PA

W
 b) Hydrotropism Movement
↑
Movement in response to water

C
=@π@π@°

-
VE

SS
-

R
A
RM

c) Chemotropism Movement eg: Growth of pollen tube

Movement in response to chemical stimuli towards the ovule

)
PA

r
 d) Geotropism Movement
Movement in response to Gravity

...
C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
REPRODUCTION
 -I
requirement of only one living being requirement of male and
female to produce offspring

REPRODUCTION
It is a method by which offsprings are produced by the living beings
. Reproduction is not a necessary instinct for survival of a living being

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
I
It involves a single parent
-
Occurs in simple organisms like microorganisms, plants

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
↑
It involves two parents
/
Mother
↑
Father
eg: in humans, dogs, elephants, birds, fishes, plants
 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a) BINARY FISSION
↑
It is a process of reproduction in which a unicellular organism divides
into two organisms
I
Only for unicellular organisms
Protozoa that causes Kala

I Azar disease

1
I reproduction on basis of particular
orientation
any orientation

I
Nucleus inside spreading to
Bi: meaning two

divide
 Malaria causing protozoa
b) MULTIPLE FISSION
It will develop many offsprings I

.
↑
It happens in unicellular organisms: Malarial Parasite, Plasmodium
Plasmodium

Many daughter nuclei

develops

green algae
c) FRAGMENTATION
↑ it is used by simple multicellular organisms like spirogyra and sea
anemone
&
Green algae

I
Red algae mode of reproduction: Fragmentation
 I
Breaks into half, which is not
fully develop that later develops
into complete spirogyra

d) BUDDING
I
It is a process used by simple multicellular organisms like hydra and yeast

P Develops buds to form

I
main method of
reproduction in hydra
is budding
complete hydra
 not exactly a method of
Bread mould
reproduction

.
e) REGENERATION
It occurs in simple multicellular organisms like planaria and hydra, rhizopus

"
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Eg: Tapeworms, flatworms
They are free living

f) VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

cutting of parent plants

-

organisms repairs or regenerates

the missing part of the body and
forms a complete organism again

It is a type of reproduction where new plants grow from a fragment or

Buds develop that is
not completely
developed
 eg: in a barren land when it rains,
grass grows as stems are present
on the ground

TYPES

i) CUTTING: a part of plant (stem or leaf)

is cut and planted into soil
eg: rose plant, money plant, sugarcane plant,
-> Why is vegetative propagation done? banana plant
I
To save time
I
To get varieties of plants of same ii) LAYERING: the stem of the plant is bent
All
↑
or different type to the ground and covered with soil
eg: Lemon, strawberry

iii) GRAFTING: cutting from some other

plant attached to the stem of a plant and
planted to soil
eg: Rose plant
 g) TISSUE CULTURE
Scientific artificial vegetative propagation is known as tissue culture

:
Tissue from different parts of plant are cultured in chemicals in laboratory to
develop into a new plant

used in ornamental plants

eg: Snake plant
Cost of selling such plant
is very high

h) SPORE FORMATION
It occurs in simple multicellular organisms like rhizopus

Bob and stick

like structures that
releases spores and
these spores further
reproduces to rhizopus

bread mould

green colour fungus on bread: rhizopus

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

PLANT
Pollen grains

I D

-
Ovule becomes seeds

- Reproductive organ in plants: Flower

Two types of · female

flower
↑
Male + female part = Bisexual/Monoecious, eg: Hibiscus, sunflower, rose, lily, tulip,
tomato, chilli
Only Male or Female = Unisexual, eg: Papaya, cucumber, watermelon, musk melon,

i
l
bitter guard
ourd

Male part has:

I
Filament: supports anther
Anther: produces pollen +

collectively called STAMEN

-

collectively called PISTIL

Female part has:

:
Stigma: sticky bulb that catches pollen
Style: passageway for &grains
pollen
-
Ovary: the part of pistil that holds the eggs awaiting fertilisation. Becomes the fruit
 Pollination: pollen grains reach stigma through

-- -
I I

Wind Water Insect

I 11
Anemophily Hydrophily ↑
Antemophily
Entomophily

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Male sex cells Female sex cells

It
↓
Male gamete Ovum

Sperm

I
Zygote

Embryo

↓
Child
 Seminal fluid
(semen)

Vas deferens (sperm duct)

I Urethra

Produce -
> Sperm

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Ovules

Zygote

Embryo

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Fetus

↑ At the age 11-12 The ovaries start to mature, the oviducts, uterus, vagina, breast, become pigmented, this is
the first sign of menarche

Menopause: natural decline in reproductive hormones in women when she reaches her 40s or 50s

·
Gametogenesis Insemination Fertilisation Zygote Implantation Gestation
>
> D >

Cervical cancer is caused by Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)

 Artery: Deoxygenated blood/waste

:
Fetus Placenta

Veins: Oxygenated blood/nutrition

Placenta >Fetus

IVF (In vitro fertilisation)

IVF is a type of fertility treatment where eggs are combined with the sperm outside the body in a lab. The embryos
are then inserted into women’s vagina through the cervix up to the womb

Methods of Sterilisation
I
Tubectomy: It is a permanent method of contraception for woman. It involves surgically blocking the fallopian tube so
that the egg released by ovary cannot reach the uterus

&
Vasectomy: It is a permanent method of contraception in male. It involves cutting the supply of sperm to the semen

-
Parthenogenesis: it is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of an embryo occurred
directly from an egg without the need of fertilisation

Honey bees, lizard

Meaning
.Parthe: Virgin
↑
Genesis: Birth
 site of fertilisation

:
primary sex organ

Seedless fruit

Development of fruit without fertilisation: Parthenocarpy

Transfer of pollen grains from one anther to stigma of another flower of the same
plant is called: Geitonogamy

Productivity of an ecosystem is composed of: net primary productivity and gross

primary productivity
-

>
- energy
Gross required
primary to make
productivity - Energy
total biomass food to- gross primary
=>
required make food
consumed productivity

Sequence of parts of female reproductive organ:

Stigma
-
Style
-
Ovary
/
Thalamus
I
One nucleus of the pollen tube and secondary nucleus of the ovum grows into:
Endosperm

S
Arteries in umbilical cod:
ord: Two

:
Ability of a single cell to produce a fertile, adult individual: Totipotency

Cloning: process of creating exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism

Mutation: change in DNA or gene

Female gamete undergoes development to form new organisms without fertilisation

in some organism like honey bees, some lizards or birds: Parthenogenesis

/
Reproduction in humans is: Internal Fertilisation

↑
In Vitro fertilisation: joining of women’s egg and man’s sperm in a laboratory dish
(artificial way of fertilisation)

-
Metamorphosis: Change in form

Four stages of metamorphosis:

I
I

#
#
 -
Oviparous: lay eggs
eg: Frog

I
Viviparous: directly produce offsprings
eg: humans

Hereditary and Evolution

L
TT: pure tall
Tt: tall
First studied by: Gregor Johan Mendel
↑
/

tt: short

*
↑

father of genetics

Pea plant (as it shows varieties)

Scientific name: Pisum sativum

Sex Determination

-
Male/Female
↑ Chromosome: 23 pairs (total: 46)
↓ ↓
1 pair (sex chromosome) 22 pairs (autosomal chromosomes)

↓I I
Turner syndrome: Female is missing one X
Male Female chromosome (not a Mendelian disorder)
↓ ↓
XY XX Down syndrome: due to extra chromosome

!?
I

Sperm + Ova = Zygote (not a Mendelian disorder)

Y X
↓
Male chromosome determines the sex of a foetus
-
Homologous organs: look similar but functions are different

&
Analogous organs: look different but functions are similar
 LIFE PROCESS

C
DIGESTION+RESPIRATION

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 4 components of Life Process:
Digestion

" Respiration
Circulation
Excreation

C
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

SS
Mouth (Buccal Cavity)
Releases Salivary Amylase

=
(enzyme)
releases bile juice, it
Food pipe
is stored in gall
bladder food directly goes to
- stomach

Sphincter
R in stomach HCL is
released
A
muscles -

Gastric juice,
↓

-
medium is Acidic

-1 I
Allows food to
RM

pH value: 1.6
pass to small ↓
intestine highly acidic
.
Vestigial
Food excreation
Large intestine
small intestine jejunum and ileum is inside
and duodenum is outside
Longest part of large
PA

finger-like projections: Villi (provides

intestine
Complete digestion
surface area for food absorption)

->
Salivary Amylase: breaks complex carbohydrates to simple carbohydrates

-
-> Stomachbreaks
Pepsin: 1. proteins
HCl: kills->
harmful
Aminobacteria;
Acids medium Acidic
- Needs acidic medium from gastric juice Amino acids
2. Pepsin: breaks protein
HCl is present in gastric juice pH: 1.6
↑
Mucus membrane: protects inner delicate lining of stomach from gastric juice
 Sphincter muscle: it allows food to pass from stomach to small intestine

:
Small intestine: 7-8 m length, longest part of alimentary canal
↓ 3 parts: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
Major part of digestion occur here

C
Liver: largest gland located on right side of abdomen
↓

SS
Dark red brown
colour colour Small intestine: basic/alkanine

Bile juice functions

-
(Enzyme secreted
by liver) - Fat globules (large)
R globules
->
Smaller fat
A
amylase: breaks carbs

I
-

Pancreatic juice (secreted by Pancreas) ~

T-
↑

-
lipase: fats -> fatty acid
RM

Second largest gland -

trypsin: proteins -> amino acid
↓
Works in basic medium
provides by bile juice
PA

-
Large Intestine: 1.5 m length -

Maltose:
Maltase: in salivary gland and
↓ small intestine
Maltose -> Glucose
Absorption of water from
food
 ↑

Alimentary Canal: the whole passage along which food passes through

↓ Mouth
Liver and pancreas are
↓

C
not its part
Oesophagus
↓
Stomach

SS
↓
Small intestine
↓
Large intestine
↓
R Rectum
↓
A
Anus

Liver
RM

Liver converts glucose into glycogen and amino acids into proteins

·
-

It is of dark red brown colour

Position: right of abdomen side
Kupffer cells: star shaped phagocytic cells in the lining of liver sinusoids (They
are involved in breakdown of RBCs)
It is the largest gland
PA

Hepatocytes: They are the major parenchymal cells of the liver responsible for
various cellular functions

Villi
The finger-like projections in small intestine
They help in increase of surface area for food absorption
 Breathe in: upper Exhale: down
↑ Y
Lungs surrounded by rib cage
(boney structure)

I
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

hairs and mucus

C
purifies the air in-Breathe from larynx: sound box -

Adam’s apple
nose nostrils

SS
Pharynx: where -

both food and air Earnrings of

enters
/ cartilage (lines
in trachea)

=
Trachea bronchus ->
↓
-

Bronchi When we breathe -

Prevents trachea
-

S R
in it lowers to give

-
I
When we breathe out Bubble-like structures from collapsing
space to lungs
Lungs shrink and
diaphragm(upper) comes
A
I
to original position L Connected to capillaries
Breathe in connected to
↓
RM

Sheet-like arteries and

02 21%
- -> Alveoli supplies this oxygen to blood capillaries supplies O to
structure

L .
CO-0.036% every cell
N27 78%
O rich blood:
Cells oxygenated blood
Breathe out
↑ (respiration)
PA

CO 4.4%
i
O 16%
- reaches lungs
Waste material a -)
(CO
N27 78% - -

Diffusion from high

-

↓
C6 H12O6 -

conc. to low conc.

ATP: 38 molecules
↑

Food stored in form of Glycogen in Liver Carried by veins (carries deoxygenated

blood) ↓
Through exhalation to
Exhale < -
high concentration of CO24-- alveoli
 CO24
Oxygenated blood

!)
Lungs - Heart

Heart carries it
to lungs again

C
C
takes oxygen ated blood

SS
to all the cells

#
This CO2 travels Respiration
to heart CO (deoxygenated blood)
2

R
A
lungs is covered by outer

..
Different forms of respiration: membrane called pleura
RM

-
Anaerobic respiration: in absence of oxygen
in yeast -> Ethanol + CO + Energy
2

↑
Aerobic respiration: in presence of oxygen
in mitochondria -> CO + Water + Energy
2
PA

Lack of oxygen: oxygen in minute concentration

in muscle cells Lactic acid + Energy

Develops cramps in muscle during

athletic activities
 ↑
Network of air tubes for gas exchange in insects: Tracheae

-
Present between lungs: Thymus gland

·
Upper part of the respiratory tract with small hair-like structure: Cilia

C
↑
Fibre cannot be broken down by the GI tract, does not provide energy but
helps the body get rid of wastes and keeps the intestinal tract healthy

SS
- Metabolic reactions are carried out by: Protein
-

I
Anabolism: synthesis Catabolism: break down

R
Fluid secreted by new mothers during initial days of lactation, that boosts baby’s
immune system: Colostrum
A
, Indigestible portion of our diet: Roughage
RM

Pouch connected to the junction of small intestine and large intestine: Caecum

Bariatric surgery brings changes in: Digestive system

Done in obese people

PA

Organ that can regrow after damage: Liver

 Nose teeth: Incisors
Central incisor incisors: 4x2 = 8
- Lateral incisor
-
Uses: food biting
= 32

C
& Canine: 2x2 = 4
/
Uses: tearing of food

SS
Larger in canine animals

i li
Premolars: 4x2 = 8
Uses: chewing of food

R
Hardest part of hunman body: Enamel
Molars: 6x2 = 12
Uses: grinding of food
A
(Outer covered of teeth) made of Calcium phosphate

Inner covering: Dentine Dental formula: I C P M

RM

I C P M
Strongest part of human body: Jaw =2123
= Adults
2123
Wisdom teeth: 3rd molar
In children: Premolar absent
Elephant’s outer teeth is known as tusk (incisors) 3rd molar absent
PA

2102
/
Bird’s beak: extended, modified form of teeth 2102
 C
CIRCULATION

SS
AND
EXCRETION
R
A
RM
PA
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

C
-
Pumping organ: pumps
blood to cells

SS
R
A
Pacemaker: Artificial Heart
O rich blood: bright red :To measure arterial blood pressure : Sphygmomanometer is used
. CO rich blood: dark red
RM

Lungs

M
#
Largest vein -

Largest artery

Pulmonary artery
-
(right) longer
-

I
-

-
PA

Collects blood
Sinoatrial node 5
↓
initiates heartbeat

↓
W &
Because of aorta ↑

I ↓
Largest artery Septum (dividing wall
J
J E
Pumps blood
The human heart pumps blood
between left and right
Largest vein
Carries blood from heart to
part of heart)
different parts of the body
 superior vena cava

(Il Lungs

=E
pulmonary vein
deoxygenated Right Left
blood

C
Atrium Atrium

SS
Ventricle Ventricle
inferior vena cava

pulmonary artery

R Heart to different body parts (pure blood)

A
F Narrow, thicker (due to pressure)
RM

Arteries: carries oxygenated blood

Veins: carries deoxygenated blood -
different body parts to
Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated heart (impure blood)

Exception blood (right ventricle to lungs)

Pulmonary vein: carries oxygenated blood
(lungs to left atrium)
PA

-
When heart contracts: systole 120 mm of Hg (if more than this, then
>

high BP)

/ When heart relaxes: diastole >

80 mm of Hg (if less than this, then low
BP)

- Sound oh heart: lubb-dubb (when heart contracts)

 Blood Group valves of heart:
Mitral (Bicuspid valve)

~
Discovery: Karl Landsteiner Aortic
Universal donor: O- Tricuspid

C
Universal acceptor: AB+
by YM Bhendel#

SS
Bombay blood 1952, Bombay): Lacks H antigen on RBCs, have anti-H in the
serum i.e. cannot take blood from anyone

Systole: Contractions

I
Diastole: Relaxation

*
Given B+ blood
R ↑
Rh is derived from the use of blood of
rhesus monkeys in the basic test for
determining the presence of Rh antigen
Pacemaker:
in humanArtificial
blood heart
A
A+-
B+ Rh factor is a protein on the surface of

↓=
RBCs
RM

can die due to blood Rh+ Protein present

coagulation Rh- Protein not present
PA
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Waste removal Solid eg: by kidneys

+E.
C
Basic unit of kidney: Nephron
(specialised cells)
Gaseous eg: Liquid eg: by skin (sweating)
Millions of nephron present in one

SS
by lungs
kidney
Deoxygenated blood

Kidney to heart Renal vein Heart

X
Right kidney is slightly

R down than left kidney

A
C M P
↓b +

!"
2 ureters, sends - Cortex Medulla Pelvis
RM

wastes to urinary
blood

⑲ Yellow solid waste

PA

from anus due to

bilirubin

Waste product: Ammonia

Urea is major excretory
e
Kidney converts ammonia to urea product

Urine Ureter Urinary bladder

Colour: yellow due to Urobilin/Urochrome
 Reabsorption E
-Ultrafiltration (filters
everything)
and removal of

C
nutrients/urea C
↓

SS
Nephron: removes

R
A
- Colour: Yellow
RM

Urine component:
-
This colour comes from -
liver cells are made of kupffer
Water: 95% urochrome/urobilin, a
cells
I

waste product that

↑
Urea: 2% comes from breakdown
~
pH: 4.5-5
4.8
& of haemoglobin

I
Kidney stone made of: Calcium oxalate
PA

-
When both kidney malfunctions: Dialysis is done
-

↓
Artificial process to remove the
waste from blood
 ↑ Large bean-shaped lymphoid organ in human body: Spleen (lymphoid
organ)

Swollen bluish veins resulting from valves that do not close properly:

: C
Varicose veins

A healthy individual has 12-16 gm of haemoglobin in in every 100 mL

SS
of blood

Heart weight: 285 gm

RBCs develop in bone marrow

R
Brain weight: 1300-1400 gm, male brain weighs more than females
A
Blood clot (coagulation) is formed because of presence of platelets
RM

Carbon Monoxide reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood

Sweating/perspiration is a nature’s way of releasing excess water

from the body

Flame cells: kidney, found in aquatic vertebrates

PA
DISEASES AND
DEFICIENCY
 Classification of diseases on the basis of time

Acute disease: diseases that last for a short period of time

eg: fever, cold, cough

Chronic diseases: diseases that last for a long period of time

eg: Diabetes, TB, elephantiasis (filaria)

COMMUNICABLE AND NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Communicable diseases: diseases that spread from one person to another (infectious
diseases)
eg: AIDS, cold, chicken pox, COVID

Non-Communicable diseases: diseases that cannot spread from contact (non-

infectious)
eg: diabetes, arthritis, glaucoma, polio

DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUS DNA

-
-
Virus has a genetic material - RNA: Retrovirus eg: COVID virus
-
Behaves as a non-living entity outside
/
Requires a host to replicate (becomes living entity later)
Parasitic The person develops a symptom called
as Hydrophobia (fear of water)
VIRUS DISEASES TRICK

Dr. M I S H R A
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
dengue measles influenza swine flu hepatitis rabies AIDS
↓
H1N1
B E S T M P
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ - Poliomyelitis virus
bird flu encinitis small pox *mums
Mumps polio ↓
↓ ↓ Entovirus
H5N1 eradicated in 1979, last case in Somalia (Africa)
Genetic material
encoded in a protein
envelope known as
Capsid

Length: 2 um

.....
Diameter: 0.5 um

Coccus Bacillus Spirillum

 Size/diameter: 20-200 nm

:
1st to discover antibiotics Penicillin: Alexander Fleming

Difference between virus and bacteria

Virus Bacteria

Genetic material: DNA/RNA + Protein &

They are prokaryotes, they lack true nucleus

↓ and membrane bound organelles, instead they
Retrovirus have nucleoid. Their genetic material is called
Eg: CORONO virus genophore (bacterial DNA)

-
Non-living entity Unicellular and living entity

It needs a host cell Divides on its own

: Parasitic/Saprophytic
I

&

Parasitic in nature

It cannot be treated with antibiotics -

Antibiotics can be used to treat bacterial

infections
Pathogens

1. Virus
2. Bacteria
3. Protozoa
4. Fungus

Diseases caused by Virus

HEPATITIS Types: A, B, C Hepatitis A: Transmission through food

:
It affects liver (hepatitis is inflammation of the liver) Hepatitis B: Sexually transmitted through bodily
India’s first indigenous Hepatitis-A vaccine: Havisure fluids
-

Hepatitis C: Transmitted when in contact with

JAUNDICE infected blood
It mainly affects liver

MUMPS
It a viral disease that affects the parotid salivary glands (cheek and jaw area)

POLIO Totally eradicated from India, as declared in 2023

It affects the nervous system nerves in spinal cord or brain stem
Virus: Poliomyelitis/Polio virus
1st polio vaccine was created by: Dr. Jonas Salk

Inactivated (killed) polio vaccine (IPV) by Dr. John Salk

Live attenuated (weakened) oral polio vaccine (OPV) by Dr. Albert Sabin

CERVICAL CANCER
It affects the cervix region in women
Virus: Human Papillomavirus Causes cancer in the cervix
Detected through: Smear Test
 M
Diseases caused by virus

DENGUE
carrier: female Aedes aegypti mosquito

:
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
sexually-transmitted diseases
virus: HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus (retrovirus)
death: due to weak immune system
method of transmission: sexual contact, blood transfusions, from mother to baby
test: ELISA Test (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay)
AIDS DAY: 1st Dec

Diseases caused by bacteria

Widal Test Transferred
Affects reproductive organs
TRICK through animals

T Wo Go L P A T T
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
tetanus whooping cough gonorrhoea leprosy pneumonia typhoid anthrax ↑
typhoid
Tuberculosis (TB)

↓
V
V
Clostridium tetani
Salmonella typhi
CH P S Streptococcus * Mycobacterium
Salmonella
tuberculosis
typhi,↑
pneumoniae Clostridium tetani
=>>
cholera plague syphilis Mainly attack
lungs

Vibrio cholera Commonly referred as

“White Plague”
Acne caused due to: Staphylococcus bacteria
Di
d ↓
Affects respiratory
Diphtheria
tract
 PLAGUE
/ Death due to plague known as: Black Death
-

1897-1906: 12 Million death in India

Caused by: Yersinia pestis

:
LEPROSY
~

Affects skin
↑
Also known as Hansen’s Disease
&

Caused by: Mycobacterium leprae

CHOLERA
Caused by: Vibrio cholera
It is a water borne disease
Death due to cholera known as: Blue Death

TUBERCULOSIS
Caused by: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Vaccine: BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin)
 Diseases caused by fungi
-

B -> Baldness

A -> Athlete’s foot

R -> Ring worm

S -> Scabies

A -> Asthma

Diseases caused by Protozoan

Detection: VIVAX TEST
Malaria -> 25th April (Malaria Day)
↑
Protozoa: plasmodium
-
Carrier: female Anopheles mosquito
·
Treatment: Quinine (found in bark of cinchona tree)

Sleeping Sickness
I
Protozoa: Trypanosoma
I Carrier: Tse Tse flies
>
-

Kala Azar
I Protozoa: Leishmania
↑ Carrier: Sandfly
 Disease caused by Fungus

B: Baldness
A: Asthma
R: Ring worm
S: Scabies>
-
Skin disease
A: Athlete’s Foot

PANDEMIC/EPIDEMIC/ENDEMIC
Pandemic: Sudden an intention cases across several countries, continents, or the world
: Epidemic: Sudden increase in cases spreading through a large population
&
Endemic: These disease are constantly present in a population or region with relatively low spread
 GENETIC DISORDERS

Genetic disorders are caused due to gene malfunction (meiosis)

-
Down Syndrome MENDELIAN DISORDERS
Thalassemia C- Change in gene (gene defects)
-
I

Sickle Cell Anaemia L

-
↑

-
Colour blindness L
I
Turner’s Syndrome: *X-chromosome
One X-chromosome isismissing
missing, seen only in female
in female
/
Albinism
v
Angelman Syndrome
I
Klienfelter Syndrome: Presence of an extra copy of X-chromosome in males

v
↓
sexually transmitted diseases

Spread of diseases
↑
Air: TB, Pneumonia, common cold
↑

Water: Cholera, Diarrhoea, Amoebic dysentery

 ↑ TB spread through droplet infection (affects lungs)

- Visible sign of severe Iodine deficiency: Swelling in neck (goitre), if thyroid gland
doesn’t promote Thyroxine hormone

- Antibiotics do not work against viral diseases but only against bacterial diseases
(disrupts cell wall formation)

-
Beri beri cannot be prevented by vaccination

↓ According to WHO, “Hygiene refers to conditions, health, and prevent spread of

disease”
-

~
Plant diseases
W
Citrus cranker: bacteria
-, I
Rust ofm disease: fungus
wheat: fungus
-
Yellow vein mosaic: virus
W
Aster Yellow: bacteria
Crown Gall: bacteria

.
Ergot: fungus
Snow mild: fungus

"
Black know: fungus
Blight: fungus/bacteria

Disease caused by drinking contaminated water: Cholera

- Epilepsy: disorder resulting in abnormal electrical discharge from brain cells

causing seizures

↑
Jaundice: skin and eyes turn yellow due to deposit of bile pigments

Pernicious anaemia: due to B12 deficiency

Varicella Zoster virus: Chicken pox

 Wilson disease: excessive amount of deposition of Cu

=
↑
Night blindness: due to Vitamin A

Nyctophobia: fear of darkness

Diabetes mellitus: Glucose level is high

Monkey bite: disease caused is Rabies

Soft bone disease: Osteomalacia

Osteoporosis: when bones become fragile, due to deficiency of Vitamin D

Osteomyelitis: inflammation in bone

Mad Hatter Disease: due to Mercury poisoning

also responsible for Minimata disease

Inhaling iron dust causes Siderosis disease

Itai Itai: caused due to Cadium deposition

Blue baby syndrome: caused due to Nitrate deposition

Rickets: affects bones

Dementia, diarrhoea, dermatitis: three M

D’Souza
D’s causedcaused in Pellagra
by Pellagra
I
Helicobacter pylori: responsible for peptic ulcers

Escherichia coli: causes diarrhoea

:
- Mode of tranmission of disease “Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi”: insect

Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG): Tuberculosis

X-linked recessive disorder: Ne

Haemophilia
Hemophilia A A

Evil influence of stars: Influenza

Plague is caused by bacteria: Yersinia pestis

-
Flavivirus: genetic material is RNA
 NUTRITION IN

C
PLANTS AND

SS
ANIMALS
R
A
RM
PA
 NUTRIENTS IN ANIMALS

Nutrients is consumed in day to day life

High energy storage ↓ ↓ -

Vitamins
A Macronutrients Micronutrients

W ↑ ↓
-

C
L
t
L
Minerals
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins -Amino acids

SS
V
↑
Body building nutrients
Glucose
-CHO
↓ Storage: Adipose tissueneeded for↓growth of body
Sugar Energy
Benedict Test: a chemical test that detects

·
R
1912: Casimir Funk, coined the term “VITAMIN”
reducing sugars in a solution
A
On the basis of solubility:
RM

-> KEDA
PA

Amino Acids
↓ t
Essential amino acid Non-essential amino acid
↓ ↓
our body cannot synthesises on our body synthesises on its own
its own
 Carbohydrates/Sugar

V V
Simple Carbohydrates Complex Carbohydrates
Two molecules of sugar I
↓ 1 molecule of sugar
↓ ↓
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
↓ ↓ ↓

C
-
Glucose Sucrose Glycogen
-

Fructose -
> Fruits, honey Grains sugar (in cereals) < Maltose Starch
↑
Galactose Lactose Cellulose

SS
Milk sugar

Fats >
-
provide energy

Stored in adipose tissue > Provides insulation to the body

Saturated fats D
R
They are not easily digested as the molecules are tightly
packed together, and they have higher melting point
Single bond
A
Unsaturated fats D Double/Triple bond

They are easily digested

RM

Healthier
Found in vegetable oil, nuts and seeds

Trans fat it is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs naturally or artificially in foods

:...
/
PA

Proteins Produced by the breakdown of amino acids

↓
v
Total: 20 amino acids
Body building Growth CHON

Present in: Essential: need to be consumed

Egg: white part (proteins), Eg: Leucine, Histidine, Lysine,
↑

yolk: yellow part (fats, Non-essential Tryptophan

vitamins, etc) Body synthesises on its own
Soyabean Eg: Glutamine, glycine, proline, arginine
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 In carrot, mango, apple, papaya

I
In fish oil
-
I
Sunlight
Synthesised by our

C
I

body

SS
In sprouts

L
In citrus fruits

R /Nightblindness
A
-

I
RM

Vitamin B
complexes
Total: 8
PA

/bleeding gums

/anti-sterility

I (can happen A
in anyone)
to

No blood clotting
 TRICK Diseases
B1: Thymine Tho Beri Beri

B2: Riboflavin R

C
B3: Niacin Ne Pellagra >
-

3 Ds
↑
Dementia: loss of memory
Diarrhoea
B5: Pantothenic acid Pant
-

SS
↑

Dermatitis: skin issues

B6: Pyridoxin e Par

Minerals
-
Calcium: for bone/tooth health
B7: Biotin Biodata (Vitamin H) ~
Iodine: to prevent from Goitre
Iron: deficiency may lead to
B9: Folic Acid

MCa
R Foster
~

Anaemia
A
B12: Cobalamin/
Cynocobalmine Pernicious anaemia
Cyanocobalamin
RM

Vitamin D sources
I
Sunlight
↑
Fish oil

Vitamin C sources
-
Lemon
PA

-
Amla

Vitamin E sources
Sprouts

!
Vitamins in milk: A, B, and
D

Vitamin C not present

Not present in eggs as well
 Lipophilic vitamin required for protection of cell membrane and blood cells
formation: Vitamin E

A typical adult human body contains 25g of magnesium

.
C
Yeast breaks down the food material outside the body and then absorbs it

SS
Saprophytic mode of nutrition (feed on dead or decaying matter)

B12 is not present in plant foods Pernicious anaemia to be target by

year 2047 (India)

R
Brain gets energy from glucose

Proteins are made of 20 amino acids

A
I

Fats store maximum energy per gram

RM

<
Soya milk: protein rich more than meat

↑
Amla is richest in Vitamin C

-
Autotrophic mode of nutrition: Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and
PA

sunlight

~
Autotrophic mode of nutrition: bacteria

v
Fungi: Heterotrophic mode of nutrition

-
Amoeba: Holozoic mode of nutrition
 ⑤>⑦π⑤
!.

C
SS
R
Not more than 10% transfer of energy from one tropic level to another 0.1% N
A
RM

-
PA

-
Nutrients requirement of adolescents are higher than adult

↑
Nuts, vegetable oil, and fish are rich in sources of Omega 3 (fatty acids)

-
Threonine is essential for healthy skin and teeth
 C
SS
Phytoplanktons
R
A
Feed on dead and decaying
matters Nematodes
RM
PA
 -
Zinc plays an important role in cell division, cell growth, E
would healing and the
would
breakdown of carbohydrates

C
SS
NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
R
A
Plants make food through
RM

guard cells
photosynthesis
Requires: ↑
Stomata
CO2
Water ↑
Sunlight Mg
↓ - ↓
PA

Chlorophyll (green color)

0.036%
↑
Chloroplast
3 types:
↑ -
-

Chloroplast
1
thylakoids contain a pigment called chlorophyll,
Plastids -

Chromoplasts that absorbs light

↑ -
Leucoplast
Kitchen house of the cell
Cell of a plant
 sunlight
6CO2 + 6H-O -
C H O + 6O
cholorophyll
op oxygen is released during
↓ I Glucose photosynthesis

C
-Dark Light Study of algae: Phycology
reaction reaction ·
Algae as well performs photosynthesis
↓ ↓

SS
Site: stroma Site: grana
·
Green algae: Chlorophyta
-
Red algae: Rhodophyta
-

Yellow algae: Phycophyta

L
Food stored in leucoplast; starch and oils -
Fire algae: *
Pyrrophyta
Purophyta

I-
-
Golden brown algae: Chrysophyta
W
Calvin cycle (light-
-

R Amyloplast: starch

Aleuroplast: proteins
>
Brown algae: Phaeophyta
A
independent I
Mycology: Study of fungi
reaction)/C3 cycle
Elaioplast: fats and oil
RM

Colour
Traps light energy
Tomato: Lycopene -
-

Carotenoids
Carrot: Beta carotene/Xanthophyll

Red capsicum: Beta carotene

PA

↑
Cherries, apple, blueberries, grapes, pomegranate: Anthocyanin

M
In brown algae food is stored in the form of complex carbohydrates that
may be in the form laminarin and mannitol
 :
NPK used in
Urea

C
1828, Friedrich Wohler

SS
synthesised Urea Carbon, Hydrogen

Chlorella (algae) rich in protein and Iron

R
Starches are made of long chain of glucose
A
At least a half of the carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae
through photosynthesis
RM

↑
Protein synthesis in plants: by use of nitrogen (legumes)

it has rhizoid bacteria, that absorbs Nitrogen

from soil or atmosphere
PA

Glycolysis: breakdown of glucose into pyruvate

Release of water into air by plants: Transpiration (day)

Guttation: secretion of droplets from the pores (hydathodes) of plants at night

Application of plant and soil science to crop production is known as Agronomy

 Agrostology: study of grasses

:
Anatomy: study of body structure/body parts

C
Mango tree is example of autotroph

ATP obtained by respiration of one molecule of glucose: 2

SS
Glycation: result of covalent bonding of a sugar molecule

Prevent water loss in plants by

regulating the size of stomata’s

R pores
A
RM

White light made up of seven colours VIBGYOR

PA

Red color
Green colour Highly used
least used
 C
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

SS
R
A
RM
PA
DISCOVERIES
Antibiotics

C
8

SS
R
A
RM
PA

·
Food web: consists of all food chain in asingle
single ecosystem, described by English
ecologist Charles Elton (“Pyramid of numbers”)

Ernst Haeckel: described the term ecology

Father of modern ecology: Eugene Odum

 - Arthur Tansely: coined the term ecosystem

/ Raymond O Lindman:
Lindeman: mentioned about the energy transfer from one tropic
level to another

C
Helicobacter pylori discovered by: Robin Warren (Nobel Prize in Physiology

:
or Medicine in 2005

SS
Louis Pasteur: experimentally demonstrated how yeast is responsible for
making alcohol from sugar

Camillo Golgi received the Nobel Prize in 1906 along with Santiago Ramona

R
Cajal on the structure of nervous system

Observation of bacteria and protozoa: Antonie von Leeuwenhoek, 1974

A
: =
Animalcules Father of microbiology
RM

Purkinje: coined the term protoplasm in 1839

Salamander embryos cell division: observed by Walter Fleming, in 1879

“Every cell arises from another cell” by Rudolf Virchow in 1865

PA

Charles Darwin: Theory of Evolution, 1859

Natural system of plant classification: August Eichler

M
JBS Haldane
Heldon:: suggested life must have developed from simple inorganic
molecules

Circulation of blood by: William Harvey

Darwin of 20th century: Ernst Mayr

=
AO Hume: father of Indian Ornithology

Salim Ali: Ornithology

C
Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary: Goa

SS
DNA as a molecule discovery: 1869, Fredrick Miescher

Christian Barnard: performed world’s first human heart transplant

Crescograph discovered by: Jagdish Chandra Bose

R
To measure the growth in plants
A
Father of Surgery: Sushruta

Father of medicine: Charak

RM

Yoga philosophy: Patanjali

Presence of green mould prevented the growth of bacteria: Alexander Fleming

(penicillin)
PA

Article on the structure and origin of plant cells: 1838, by Matthias Sheldon

its structure by: Richard Willslatter, 1915

-
..
A
Nature of structure of Chlorophyll in plants and magnesium as a central elementsinin

Lachrymal gland produces tears

Onions produces# chemical irritants known as Syn-Propanethial-S-Oxide

 Cholera vaccine by: Jaime Ferran, 1885

Leon Calmette: BCG vaccine

Smallpox vaccine: by Edward Jenner

C
There is no vaccine for Hepatitis C (affects Liver)

SS
SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Solanum lycopersicum: Tomato

:
R
Parthenium hyterophorus: Carrot grass

Oleo gum resin (Asafoetida) obtained from: dried latex from the tap root of
A
ferula
↑ Megaptera novaeabgliae: humpback
RM

Canis lupus familaries: Dog whale

Mango: Mangifera indica Narcissus: Daffodila

~
Peacock: Pavo cristatus -
Rose: Rosa
PA

Lion tail macaque: Beard baboon Lily: Lilium

Comb jellies: Ctenophora

: Malus pumila: Apple

Passer domesticus: sparrow Banana: Musa paradisiaca Linn

Canis lupus: grey wolf Orange: Citrus sinensis

Capra aegagrus hircus: Goat Bos mutus: Wild Yak

W Buffalo: Bubalus bubalis

Ox: Bos taurus

:
-
Horse: Equus caballus

C
I Gazella benneti: Chinkara

Asian Elephant: Elephas maximus

SS
Housefly: Musca domestica

I Citrullus lanetus: Watermelon

R
A
RM
PA