UNIT 5 THE TEACHING AND STUDENT

MODELS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Types of Teaching Models
5.3.1 Advanced Organizer Model (Ausubel's Model)
5.3.2 Inquiry Training Model (Suchmann's Model, 1962)
5.3.3 Mastery Leaming Model (Bloom's Model)
5.4 Teaching Methods
I 5.4.1 Discovery Learning
!
5.5 Programmed Learning
5.5.1 What is Programmed Leaming ?
I 5.5.2 Principles of Programmed Learning
5.5.3 Types of Programming
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Unit-end Exercises
5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.9 Suggested Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Teaching well means helping students learn well. Powerful learners have expanded repertories
of strategies for acquiring education. Models of teaching are designed to impart those strategies
which will help students to develop their personality as a whole. Models of teaching are really
models of learning. As we help students acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of
thinking and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. In this
unit some models are introduced with their purposes and relevance to teaching-learning.
These models capitalize on our nature as social creatures to further learning and to expand
our ability to relate productively to one another. The simplest forms of cooperative learning
organize students to help one another respond to the cognitive and social tasks presented to
them through the information-processing models of teaching. The work of teaching may be
planned, performed and assessed in several ways. Method can not be universal, they change
in the hands of every teacher according to hisher own interest, capacity or attitude. Among
many, discovery learning and programmed learning are more prominent and amendable for
implementation in the computer based learning.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
describe the teaching models;
describe each model in terms of its underlying theory for real leaming situations;
describe teaching models, means and concept of discovery learning;
meaning and concept of programmed learning;
difference between programmed instruction and programmed learning.
 -
Design, Issues and Strategies
5.3 TYPES OF TEACHING MODELS
The core of the process of teaching is the arrangement of environments within which the
sttidents can interxt. A inodel of teaching is a plan or pattern that we can use to design face-
to-face teaching in classroom. Each model guides us as we design instruction to help students
achieve various objectives. Israel Shaffer has told three philosophical models :
Inipression Model
Insight Model
e Rule Model
Another contribution was of John P-Pecesces, who gave the following classification:
Basic Teaching Model
Con!tputer Based Teaching Model
e Teaching Model for School Learning
Inleraction Model of Teaching.
B.R. Joyce has divided all the learning models in these groups:
e Social Interaction Model
e Personal Source and
Behaviours Modification Source
For inclusion in this course, we have selected only three models, which come under information
processing source. We have selected these hecause they constitute a basic repertoire for
schooling. Let's sec them, one by one.

5.3.1 Advanced Organizer Model (Ausubel's Model)

Ausubel's primary concern is to help teachers organize and convey large amounts of information
as meadingfully and efficiently as possible. This model is designed to strengthen student's
cognitive structures, a term Ausubel uses for a person's knowledge of a particular subject
matter at any glven time and how well organized, clear and stable it is. This model is taken
from verbal learning principle, in which the main aim is to give the most possible to students.
According to Ausubel, any subject is a chain of concepts and in our mind also, when we
accept these facts, that is also settled as a chain in our mind, if new concept is presented as
related with the old one.
In this rhodel, teacher first recalls the previous knowledge, then gives the new knowledge on
the basis of previous one. It systemizes the subject in an order, and presents the topic in such
a way that the student will grasp it easily. It is also called as expository model. Here teacher
exposes the whole concepts among students. Teacher gives verbal instruction and students
grasp it as a whole and a chain is made in student's mind.
It is based on the following principles:
1. Principle of Progressive Differentiation : In it, the most progressive idea about the
subject is presented first, then are progressively differentiated in terms of detail and
specifically,
2. Principle of Integrated Reconciliation : It simply means how the ideas should be
consciously reconciled and integrated, with previous knowledge. Thus, the model is
called Advance Organizer Model.
Any model could be described on the basis of following points:
Focus or Aim
9 Smcture
Sacial System and Support System
A h s of Ausubel's Model The Teaching and
Student Models
To give the knowledge of concepts and facts of subject
To develop cognitive structure
To enable the students to arrange the knowledge in a social order
To present the pre-knowledge, explain facts and then present new knowledge so that
the new concepts are correlated to pre-knowledge.

Structure (Syntax)
There are three phases in this model. Phase one is the presentation of the advance organizer,
phase two is the presentation of the learning task and phase three is the strengthening of
cognitive organization. The activities are designed to increase the clarity and stability of the
new learning material. Phase and their corresponding activities have been presented in
Table 5.1

Table 5.1 : Syntax of the Advance Organizer Model

Phase Activities
Phase-1 : Presentation of advance organizer 1. Clarify aims of the lesson
2. Present organizer
Identify defining attributes
- Give examples
- Provide context
- Report
3. Prompt awareness o f learner's relevant
knowledge arid experience.

I Phase-11 : Presenting the learning task. I I. Present material

I
I I 2. Maintain attention
I
1 ( 3. Make organization explicit I
I 1 4. Mnke logical order of learning ~natcrialexplicit 1
Phase-111 : Strengthening the cognitive organization.
I 1.
2.
Use principles of integrative reconciliation
Promote active reception learning
I
3. Elicit critid approach to subject matter

L 4. Clarity

The actual organizer, however is built around the major concepts or propositions of a discipline
or area of study. Following the presentation of the advance organizer in phase one, in phase
two the learning inaterial is presented in the form of lectures, discussions, films, experiments
or reading.
The purpose of phase three is to anchor &c new learning material in the student's existing
cognitive structure that is, to strengthen it. Ideally. the initiation of phase three is shared by
teachers and students. At first, however, the teacher will have to respond to the student's need
for clarification. Essentially, Ausubel has provided us with a method for improving act only
presentations but also student's abilities to learn from them.

Social System
In this model, the teacher is more active. Auslrbel believed that only teacher can represent the
systematic order of knowledge.
Teacher is enable to make effective concepts of knowledge. student's can't class-atnosphere
is autocratic. Student's role is very less, they are only listeners. But in phase two and phase
three, interaction of teacher and student is also done. The successful acquisition of the
material will depend on the learner's desire to integrate it with hisfher prior knowledge, on
their critical faculties, and on the teacher's presentatiors and orga~izationof the material.
Design, k u e s and Strategies Support Spstem
Well organized material is the critical support requirement of this model. The effectiveness
of the advance organizer depends on an integral and appropriate relationship between the
conceptual organizer and the content. Oral and written question-answers could be used for the
presentation of knowledge.

Applicatiop of Model
The model is especially useful to structure extended curriculum sequences or courses and to
guide students systematically in the key ideas. Following are the main application of this
model:
1. Abstract subjects which can't be seen or presented, can be easily taught by this model.
2. Cognitive aims can be achieved by this model. Selection, organization, presentation and
expression can be achieved.
3. We would expect on increase, too in the learner's grasps of factual information which
could be linked to and explained by the key ideas, the concept of ideas. The concept of
socialization can be drawn in the study of socialization patterns in different cultures. This
advande organizer thus aids in expanding students knowledge about cultures.
4. It can also be shaped to teach the skill of effective reception learning. Critical thinking
and cognitive reorganization can be explained to the learners, who receive direct instruction
in orderly thinking and in the notion of knowledge hierarchies.
5 . This model is considered good and used widely in school. When we present the subject
in organized way, student gets all matter in systematic order. In less time, more knowledge
can bg given.
6. The idstructional effect of this model is that the ability to learn from reading, lectures,
and other media is used. Presentation is another effect, as an interest in inquiry and
precise habits of thing.

5.3.2 Inquiry Training Model (Schumann's Model, 1962)

It was developed by Richard Schumann to teach students a process for investigating and
explaining unusual phenomena. His mode takes students through miniature versions of the
kinds of ptocedures that scholars use to organize knowledge and generate principles. Based
on a conception of scientific method, it attempts to teach students some of the skills and
language of scholarly inquiry.
Inquiry trdining originated with the belief in the development of independent learners; its
method requires active participation in scientific inquiry, Children are curious and eager to
grow, and inquiry training capitalizes on their natural energetic explorations, giving them

Advance
Organizer
Model -------------- Interest in Inquiry
I

Habits of W i s e
- Instructional

8 Fig. 5.1 :Inatruetlonnl and N u r t u r ~ tEffects: Advance Organizer Model

specific directions so that they explore new areas more forcefully. The general goal of inquiry The lkacblng m d
Student Mod&
training is to help students develop the intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise
questions and search out answers stemming from the curiosity. Thus, Schumann is interested
in helping students inquire independently, but in a disciplined way. He wants students to
question why events happen as they do and to acquire and process data logically, and he wants
them to develop general intellectual strategies that they can use to find out why things are as
they are.
Inquiry training begins by presenting students with a puzzling event. Schumann believes that
individuals faced with such a situation are naturally motivated to solve the puzzle.
Schumann believes, further, it is important to convey to students the attitude that all knowledge
is tentative. Students should recognize and be comfortable with the ambiguity that genuine
inquiry entails. The development of knowledge is facilitated by help and ideas from colleagues
if we can learn to tolerate alternative points of view. Thus, Schumann's theory is that:
Students inquire naturally when they are puzzled.
They can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies.
New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students existing frame of references.
Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative,
emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.

-
B b l e 5.2 : Syntax of the Inquiry 'kaining Model

Phases Activities
Phase-1 : Confrontat~onwith problem. - Explain inquiry procedures.
- Present discrepant event.

Phase-I1 : Data gathering and verification. - Verify the nature of objects and conditions.
- Verify the occurrence of the problem situation.
Phase-I11 Data gathering experimentations. - Isolate relevant
Variables, Hypothesis (and test) casual relationships.

Phase-IV: Organization and formulating an - Formulate rules or explanations.

explanation.-

Phase-V: Analyze inquiry strategy and

develop more effectiveness.

Scientific

Strategies for Creative Inquiry

'kaining
..........................
........ .................
......
.........
........
... ............
.....-....
... -"..Autonomy in Lesfillag
...-... .*...,
-...
lblerance of Ambiguity

Tentative Nature of
Knowledge I
Fig.S.2 : Instructional and Nurtur~ntEffects of Inquiry Waining Model
Design, Issues and Strategies Syntax
Inquiry training has five phases. The first phase is the student's confrontations with the
puzzling situation. Phase two and three are the data-gathering operations, verifications and
expetimentation. In these two phases, students ask a series of questions to which the teacher
replies yes or no, and they conduct a series of experiments on the environment of the problem
situation. In the fourth phase, students organize the information they obtained during the data
gathering and try to explain the discrepancy. Finally, in phase five, students analyze the
problem-solving strategies they used during the inquiry. In Table 5.2, phases and corresponding
activities related to the syntax of the inquiry training model has been given.

5.3.3 Mastery Learning Model (Bloom's Model)

Mastery learning is a term, formulated by John B.Carrol1 (1971) and Benjamin Bloom (1971).
Mastery learning provides a compact and interesting way of increasing the likelihood that
more students will attain a satisfactory level of performance in school subjects.
They transformed their views into a system with the following characteristics:
1. Mastery of any subject is defined in terms of sets of major objectives which represent the
purpose of the course or unit.
2. The substance is then divided into a larger set of relatively small learning units, each one
accompanied by its own objectives, which are parts of the larger ones or thought essential
to their mastery.
3. Learhing material are then identified and the instructional strategy selected.
4. Each unit is accompanied by brief diagnostic tests which measure the student's developing
progress (the formative evaluation) and identify the particular problem each student is
having.
5. The data obtained from administering the test is used to provide supplementary instruction
to the students to help them overcome their problems.
If instmation is managed in this way, Bloom believes, then time to learn can be adjusted to
fit aptitude. Students of lesser aptitude can be given more time and more feedback while the
progress o f all is monitored with the assistance of tests.
This model is called so, because it believes in achieving mastery on a particular subject.
Every class suffer from 'under-achievers' (performance of the students lacked from normal
students), these students suffer from inferiority complex, which affects their progress. This
inferiority complex affects self-concept. These students have low self-concept, which affects
teaching. Ultimately it is an enormous wastage of expenditure on education.
Thus, Bloom presented this model to achieve mastery on a particular subject to a certain limit,
to every student, called it 'Mastery Learning Model', based on two assumptions.
1. Except physically, mentally and emotionally handicapped students (ninety five percent)
all students can master a certain subject, if they have given choice to learn by their own
speed, and by proper teaching methods.
2. A subject can be mastered from 90 to 95%, if proper teaching methods are adopted.
Focus (Aim) of the Model
Followi~gare the main aims of this model:
1. To qlevelop in each pupil, a demonstrable degree of mastery over subject.
2. To provide facilities to students to develop their own skills.
3. To enable each pupil to learn at hisher own pace.
,I1
4.
5.
To develop better self-concept in students.
To develop self-initiating and self-directing learning in students.
1
Syntax
I
It is divbded into three phases. It proceeds in the following way: 1
 First, all students are taught together in same way. The Tesching and
Student Modelo
Then a mastery test is given to check, if students have mastered the subject.
We separate those students, who could not master the subject, and diagnose their difficulty
and divide them in various groups according to their problems.
They are given mastery learning according to their difficulty requirements and then again
they are checked by mastery test.

Table 53: Phases in Mastery Learning Model

Phases Activities
Phase-I: Core Teaching Session I. lnfodng the students about instructional objects.
2. Making the expected mastery level explicit to student.

I I 3
Presenting the learning task m the class as a whole.
I
1 ( 4. Administering mastery test and diagnosing pupil difficulty. I
I. Clarify the pupil according to mastery level.
2. Provide alternative learning material to different group.
3. Organizing small groups instructor with teachers.
4. Organizing tutoring pairs with the pea group.
5. Diagnosing individual study.
6. Administering diagnosing test and pupils evaluation.

I
Phase-111: Intensive Teaching Session 1. Tutoring by the peers and the teachers.
2. Providing further material for practice.
3. Consolidation of the gains in differential teaching session.

4. Administering mastery test.

Phase one requires that the teacher present the problem situation and explain the inquiry
procedures to the students ( h e objectives and the procedures of the YesINo question). The
formulation of a discrepant event requires some thought, although the strategy can be based
on relatively simple problem - a puzzle, riddle, or magic trick - that doesn't requite much
background knowledge of course, the ultimate goal is to have students, especially older
students, experience the creation of new knowledge, much as scholars do. However, beginning
inquiries can be based on very simple ideas.
Phase two, verification, is the process whereby students gather information about an event
they see or experience. In experimentation,phase three, students introduce new elements into
the situation to see if the event happen differently. Although verification and experimentation
are described as separate phases of the model, the students thinking and the types of questions
they generate usually alternate between these two aspects of data gathering.
In phase four, the teacher calls on the students to organize the data and to formulate an
explanation. Some students have difficulty making the intellectual leap between comprehending
the information they have gathered and constructing a clear explanation of it. They may give
inadequate explanations, omitting essential details. Together the group can shape the explanation
that fully responds to the problem situation. Finally, in phase five, the students are asked to
analyze their pattern of inquiry.
They may determine the questions that were most effective, the lines of questioning that were
productive and those that were not, or the type of information they needed and didn't obtain.
This phase is essential if we are to make the inquiry process, a'conscious one and systematically
try to improve it.

Social System
Schumann's intention is that the social system be cooperative and rigorous. Although the
inquiry training model can be quite highly structured, with the social system controlled
largely by the teacher, the intellectual environment is open to all relevant ideas; teachers and
students participate as equals where ideas are concerned. Moreover the teacher should
encourage students to initiate inquiry as much as possible. As the student learn the principles
Design,Issug and Strategies of inquiry, the structure can expand to include the use of resource material, dialogue with
other students, experimentation, and discussion with teachers. The utilization of the inquiry
training model is especially suited to the open-classroom setting, where the teachers role is
that of instructional manager and monitor.

Support System
The optimal support is a set of confronting materials, a teacher who understands the intellectual
processes and strategies of inquiry and resource materials bearing on the problem.
Therefore, practical exam is adopted, not written.

Applicatfon of Model
Although inquiry training was originally developed for the natural sciences, its procedures are
usable in all subject areas; any topic that can be formulated as a puzzling situation is a
candidate for inquiry training. In literature, murder mysteries and science fiction stories or
plots make excellent puzzling situations. Following are the major applications of this model:
1. Develop scientific aptitude in students.
2. Self-confidence and selfdependency is developed by this model.
3. This model prepares the student for life, i.e. to solve the daily problems of life.
4. This model is very useful for scientific subjects.
5. Knowledge retains in the mind of student for a longer period because they learn by their
own efforts.
6. It develops a critical attitude and decision power in students.
7. The instructional effects of this model are process skills, active autonomous learning,
verbal expressiveness, tolerance of ambiguity, logical thinking.
Thus, it is possible for nearly all students to master any given set of objectives, if sufficient
time (the opportunity to learn) is provided along with appropriate materials and instruction.
Thus viewed through these phases, they become primarily a guide to how much time a learner
will need. It also suggests how to instruct, because learners of different aptitudes will learn
mori: efficiently if the style of instruction is suited to their requirements.

Social System
In mastery learning model, teachers role is like a manager because teachers, arrange the
education for students, assessing the students, classify them, solve their problems, prepare
different lesson plans for different groups. Interaction of students and teacher is found in all
the three phases. In all activities teachers role is highly important.

Evaluation (Support) System

Evaluation is not done for the whole class, but for every individual student, emphasis is laid
on achievements and weak points of each and every student.
Criterion test is conducted. It provides a compact and interesting way of increasing the
likelihood that more students will attain a satisfactory level of performance in school subjects.

Application
Bloom's mastery learning model is aptly used in attaining mastery over a subject. Following
are the main applications:
1. This model is highly useful to make mastery (ninety percent) over the subject matter.
2. There are certain concepts in a subject, which the students must know. This model is
useful to master these basic concepts.
. 3. This model develops self-concept in the right direction.
Ryburn had aptly remarked, "To teach, we must use experience already gained as a starting
point of o r work." Teaching is'not a mechanical activity as it is generally understood and
practised. We can't thrust some facts in the mind of an individual with any teaching device
12 mdchanically. Selection of a suitable teaching method model, a blending of a suitable model,
f
reflects the technical points of a teacher and will surely gain an insight into the actual teaching
learning process.

5.4 TEACHING METHODS

Meaning of Method
The word 'method' in Latin means 'mode' or 'way'. It means the mode by which the
material is communicated from the teacher to the student. Method of teaching may be
redefined as the methods by which the teacher impart knowledge and skills while teaching
and the students comprehend knowledge and acquire the skills in the process of learning.
This definition clarifies that method includes both teaching (teachers activity) and learning
(learners activity).
Rage defined, 'Teaching method are patterns of the teacher behaviours that are recurrent,
applicable to various subject matters, characteristic of more than one teacher, and relevant to
learning.'
It means methods are a part of the behaviour of teacher which heishe uses as a strategy or
tactics of teaching. The method is also related to content and is helpful in generating learning.

History of Teaching Methods

A careful study of history of teaching methods has indicated that method of teaching has been
an evolutionary process. Most of the significant changes in teaching methods have usually
been associated with wider social and cultural changes. Historically speaking, J.A.Comenius
was the person who laid emphasis on teaching methods.
Comenius laid emphasis on the importance of sense experience and also suggested that nature
itself could provide such experiences. Comenius, in Jean Piaget's view, "may undoubtedly be
considered as one of the precursory of the genetic idea in developmental psychology". He has
further advocated that thinking was related to action as the sense impression, and out of the
Design, Issues and Strategla internlationship of the three came learning. Action should come prior to skill and training
theory.
Pestalozzi laid emphasis on "psychologizing education" :
1. To develop methods in line with the developmental pattern of children's growth, and
2. To make the process of perception as the central element in his teaching method.
Froebel methods laid emphasis on the study of child taking account of emotional as well as
intellectual development.
Herbert devised a series of instructional steps which is known as Herbertian Teaching Method.
The most popular form of 5 steps is as follows:

2. Presentation
3. Association
4. Assimilation
5. Application
Similarly the supporters of Progressive Education and John Dewey have^ observed that the
essential element in all methods is activity.
It will be relevant to say that teaching methods have been influenced over the years, by many
factors, Such as:
1. Educational goals
2. Cultural and political factors
3, Study of learner's intellectual growth
4. Educational psychology
5. Analysis bf learning and teaching
6. Technology

Grouping of Teaching Methods

These are numerous methods of teaching with common characteristics. These common
characteristics h e related to classroom interactions and also indicate the behaviour of teacher.
These are also \related to different modes of learning.
LD. Zerve andlN. Vaidya have tried to arrange different methods into different groups.
I. Oral Method
1. Narration
2. Recitation
3. Lecture
4. Discussion
Common Characteristics
1. Teacher-centred method
2. The teacher communicates information or gives knowledge through verbal means.
Learner is a passive listener
II. Activity Method
1. Demonstratidn
2. Activity
3. Project
4. Laboratory
14
 5. Heuristic The Teaching and
Student Models
6. Discovery learningnnquiry approval
7. Problem-solving
8. Supervised method
Common Character
1. Learner-centered
2. Learning takes place due to active involvement of learner
3. Teacher functions as a facilitator of learning or as a stage setter for learning.
1 111. Special Method
I 1. Programmed learning

iI
2. Team teaching

- 3. Computer assisted learning

4. Personalized system of instruction
1 These fulfil a specific requirement which is based on psychological theories or technological
facilities. These methods seek participation of learner.
Selection of suitable teaching method is based on the objective of the lesson, needs of the
learner and nature of the content. Some of the commonly used teaching method are:
- Lecture Method
- Discussion Method
- Demonstration Method
- Project Method
- Inquiry Approach
These methods have already been discussed in details in courses ES-331 and ES-332. However,
we shall discuss about Discovery Method in detail as it is mainly used in the computer based
education programs.

5.4.1 Discovery Learning

It can be described as process of teaching and learning with the hefp of which learners try
to find out something which was unknown to them earlier.
Discovery refers to a process of self-learning where by learners generate concepts and ideas
with very little teacher intervention.
Inquiry refers to stages beyond discovery where learners are systematically acquainted with
scientific and logical rules used to verify those ideas.
The discovery method is used to discover new knowledge (it is at least new for the learner)
. through experimentation, problem solving or project work.
The BSCS Biology Teachers Handbook (1970) presents "Invitation to Inquiry", in which
student tries to do an experiment or any activity where hetshe learns through active participation
I and systematic, continuous, work done in laboratory.
The study of science as inquiry necessitates the utilization of a variety of human resources.
It is based on student's active participation. He is engaged in laboratory work, searching new
ideas in books, reading, journals, identifying problems, developing hypothesis, planning
experiments, conducting experiments and gathering data. It needs creative productive thinking.
It also needs sufficient background in the subject. It requires the student to work with on
open mind.

Background
Historically speaking, discovery method or inquiry approach emerged not only to minimize
lecture method or memorization, but also to use the approach which is practiced by scientists.
Design, Issues and Stmtegim Kuslon and Stone have mentioned that inquiry teaching is that teaching where teachers and
students study scientific phenomenon with the approach and the spirit of the scientist.
Since the publication of "how we think" by Dewey. problem solving approach has been
accepted as an alternative to passive. In the 20th century John Dewey was the exponent of
discovery leaming and reflective thinking to remove the passivity of lecture method. According
to Dewey, knowledge is "an outcome of inquiry and a resource in further inquiry". The recent
resurgence of activity in science cumculum revision in visa has encouraged the development
of those instructional processes which are inquiry or discovery based.

What is Discovery or Inquiry ?

The art of good teaching is assisting the students to learn themselves, to discover or to find
out themselves. Discovery learning demands learners active participation and require hisher
own initiative to plan and conduct experiments. Engaging in discovery means (a) students try
to enter in the field of work which is unknown to them (b) students projedt and speculate
intelligently on the basis of uses, the underlying principles and generalization of the physical
phenomena, (c) draw conclusions, inferences after conducting the experiment or investigation.
It is true that discovery learning has its roots in Socratic method, or 'Reflective Thinking' by
John Dewey or Heuristic method or experimentation. Discovery-based activities focus on
powerful classroom environments that prompt students to participate in learning. A highly
motivated learner engages himherself in meaningful learning.
Inquiry involves these processes which are known as identifying a problem, experiment, data
and drawing conclusions. Schwab has correctly said that inquiry approach helps students to
see science in operation. Otherwise, in traditional course students simply talk about science.
Inquiry approach seeks participation of learner for solving some problems.

Organization of Discovery or Inquiry Based Activities

A teacher should organize students in small groups and assign roles to them in specific tasks.
This will seek involvement of students in learning. Each group can be assigned task such as:
- to outline s procedure to answer the questions
- to conduct the investigation
- to collect data
- to write and report
J. Richard Srichman has advocated self-directedlinquiry where a learner directs and controls
hidher own learning. Inquiry approach or discovery, the following conditions are most
significant:
1. Freedom to learner
2. Providing a responsive environment
3. Guidance of teacher (if needed)
4. Encouragement to continue learning through discovery
It is the responsibility of teacher to establish those conditions which will sustain inquiry,
Schwab has used two modes of inquiry. He uses the term stable inquiry which is concerned
in determiningthe renown concepts, while the fluid inquiry invests new concepts and tests
them for adequacy and feasibility. The goal of fluid inquiry is development of new principles
which will re-define the subject matter and guide a new course of effective, stable inquiry.

Advantage (BCuner)
1. Increase intellectual potency of the learner. Individual learns and develops hidher mind
by using it. Since the leamer is trying to leam himherself by using hislher mental
process, he/she will grow intellectually.
2. Is based on internal motivator rather than external motivator. Learner is searching an
answer to a problem, he/she is trying to discover something.

16
Heuristic m e t . contains Project, Demonstration and Discussion.
1. These develop the ability to sense the relevance of variable, make intuitive leaps and cast
problems into forms with which they know how to work. This they learn to organize and
conduct investigation.
2. Helps in conservation of memory, aids in retention.
3. Increase achievement level of learner.
4. Instruction student-centered rather than teacher-centered
5. Minimizes verbal learning and gives time to student to assimilate and accumulate
information.

Limitation
1. Teachers are not properly trained, to guide.
2. It is evident that school environment believes in achievement through verbalization,
hence discovery is not encouraged.
3. Examination is recall type. Thus, a teacher prepares students for the next grade level.
Consequently information is stressed and inquiry skills are de-emphasized.
4. Teacher feels difficulty in getting equipment and materials. Students need apparatus and
material to explore and test ideas. Non-availability of material makes it difficult to work
for most students.
5. Takes more time than recapture learning. Therefore, it is avoided. (Role of teacher in
discovery or inquiry learning.)
HeIShe is the person to generate proper environment where students feel encouraged and
motivated to learn through inquiry.
1. A science teacher should try as a motivator and facilitator.
2. SheMe should provide responsive environment for inquiry learning.
3. ShelHe should work as a 'stage-setter' by providing required materials and facilities.
4. SheIHe is not simply an 'initiator' of inquiry learning but also provides continuous
support to s t u d w t i l l they become self-learners.
Richard Suchmann developed the inquiry development programme, and suggested that it:
1. Encourages students to ask questions.
2. Allows students to ask as many question as they wish.
3. Allows students to test an idea any time.
4. Encourages interaction and discussion among students.
5. Allows students to 'mess around' with materials connected with a given inquiry session,
gives them the freedom to explore their ideas in laboratory, book, resource-if they
desire this exploration.

Facilities for Inquiry Approach

When a teacher thinks of inquiry method, the first question which arises in hislher mind is
how can I effectively organize my classroom space a laboratory and materials for inquiry
learning?
A teacher can use hislher classroom by organizing small group activities. But in hidher
laboratory helshe can organize project area, individual study area, and organizing small group
experimentation.
In Indian condition as a teacher one has to deal with shortage of space as well as material.
This short coming can be overlooked if we realize the importance of inquiry learning in
comparison to verbal learning of expository learning.

Summary and Conclusions

1. Discovery or 'inquiry processes' can be described as methods of teaching and learning
17
Design, Issues and Strategies which help the students to learn themselves with minimum help from teacher.
2. It is a self-learning process.
3. Discovery approach has its roots.
4. The essedtial conditions for discovery learning are as follows:
@ F r d o m to the learner
@ holiding a responsive environment
@ Guidance of teacher (if needed)
Encouragement to continue learning through discovery.
5. A teacher has to play a significant role in using discovery method, for example
@ He@& should work as a stage setter
@ H e h e will act as a facilitator of learning
@ He&& should help and guide students in undertaking learning by discovery.
6. There are some advantages of learning by discovery such as :
@ Inqqiry learning improves the intellectual ability of the learner
@ Encourages intrinsic motivator
Helbs the learner to use process of science
A better understanding and much longer retention.
In our schools in India, generally there are certain limitations in using this method
1. Teachers are not adequately trained to use discovery method
2. Shortage of apparatus and equipment
3. Limitation of 'syllabus and examination'
4.-.
..Students are not encouraged or motivated
.
. to learn- by inquiry
.-.-.........
approach.
a - -- .~ . .- ....... .
.-
..
.
~.
..
..
..
.

Check Pk)urr t9rogress

1
;Notes: a ) Write vour answers tn !he YT? LC? g ~ v c nhe!!"&.

5.5 PROGRAMMED LEARNING

5.5.1 What is Programmed Learning ?

Programmed liearning is an arrangement of sequential experiences leading to proficiencpin
terms of stimulus-response (SR) relations.
According to Dulxice, it is a teaching method, and Response Stimulus theory is its basis.
According to Prof. Gagne, it consists of making 'Teaching models' which take into account
the initial and terminal response of the learner which are graded in accordance with a detailed
schedule and pennit intermediate assessment of the strategies employed.
Ake Bjerstedt (1972) has said that the term programmed learning can be used in two ways.
In a narrow sense, it involves the composing of a series of tasks and their arrangement in what
one believes to be an instructionally appropriate series following certain special principles. In
18
 the broad sense programming comprises, in addition to the above, comprehensive preparatory The Tcachlng and
work aimed at, among other things the analysis of goals, students, and subject matter Studcat Mod&
characteristics as well as comprehensive follow up with successive testing and revision of the
first version.
Programmed learning has arrived on the educational scene mainly due to the laboratory
experiments of Prof. B.F. Skinner. Skinner's theory of 'operant conditioning' became the
basis for programmed learning technology. There are three specific elements in this process:
- a stimulus which is initially present and which becomes the occasion for a response.
- a response which is entitled rather than elicited.
- a stimulus which follows the response and which increases the probability that the response
b
will reach in future. This is known as SR and pronounced as reinforcing stimulus.
Programmed learning has adopted this procedure of operant conditioning and today established
a form of technology of teaching.

5.5.2 Principles of Programmed Learning

1. Objective specification
You have gone through the objectives in each unit of the course materials. They are a
good example of it. It means identifying the terminal behaviours that the learning will
be able to perform when he had completed the program. It is described in the intended
outcome rather than the substantive content.
2. Small step size
Here the information is divided into small steps or units to do such requiring activity
sanctioned by reinforces.
3. Overt responding
It means that students or learners must act on each 'unit of information' by means of
exercises provided to assimilate it.
4. Success of minimal error
This means that error and failure must be avoided at all costs because they are considered
as barriers or hinderance to learning.
5. Immediate feedback
In order to ensure success and satisfaction the learners must know that the action as
correct or wrong.
6. Logical and graded progress
It implies two things - relevance of content and its graded presentation.
7. Self pacing
Each learner moves at his or her own pace thus, allowing for individualizationof insuuction.
8. Empirical testing
It is used for program development and validation.

5.5.3 v p e s of Programming
These are mainly of three types: linear, branching and mathematical, which are included in
software. The other form is hardware, which is represented by Learner Controlled Instruction
(LCI), Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Teaching Machines.
Linear Programming
Here every learning follows the identical sequence, that is the frames or modules are encountered
in a single, prearranged order. The proponent of this type of program is B.F. Skinner
(1958).
Design, Issues and Strategies
Branching Pmgramming
Here the pqrticular response omitted on a frame or mudule determines the alternative frame1
frames the learner proceeds to next. The proponent of this program type is Norman Crowder
(1960).
. . .. .
-
^
.
I
-
_ ....-.... _ _ .
! Check Your Progress
I

i Notes: ;I) Write your a!iswvrs i n lhtr space: y v c n h c l ~ \ \ ~

5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit teaching methods and principles of programmed learning are discussed. Ausubel
Model is primarily concerned to help you as a teacher to organize and convey large amount
of information meaningfully and effectively. This model is designed to strengthen student's
cognitive fltructure. Inquiry training model is developed to teach a process for investigating
and explaining unusual phenomena.
Teaching methods are the methods by which the teacher impart knowledge, skills while
teaching, students acquire the skills in the process of learning. Discovery method, Inquiry
method, and problem solving method are considered relevant in the present context.
In programmed learning the emphasis is on the learning process while in programmed instruction
the users llay emphasis on the instruction process. Two types of programmed learning are
discussed these are linear programming and branching programming. In linear program every
learner follows the identical sequence. The learner proceeds as if a linear track or path for
reaching the terminal behaviour.
In branchihg programming multiple choice question is asked to find out whether the student
has learned. The amount of information given is much larger than that of a linear program
and is followed by multiple choice answer.

5.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. In your study center, have a session as a discussion forum on the topic 'relevance of
different teaching methods and use of computer in teaching'. Write a report highlighting
the major issues emerged in it.
2. Go though all the teaching models. Describe the relevance of each of these m ~ d e l sin
the real classroom teaching situations. Discuss your answers with your colleagues.

5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Phasds of the organizer model are:
- Presentation of advance organizer
 - Presentation of learning task
- Strengthening the cognitive organization
2. Important application of inquiry training model are like:
- To develop scientific aptitude in students
- To develop skills to solve the daily problems of life
- To develop critical attitude and decision power in students
- To develop self-confidence
3. In advance organizer model teacher is more active. Teacher plays the role of presenter
while students are listeners. In the inquiry training model teachers and students participate
' ,.,,, as equals. Moreover the teacher should encourage the students to initiate inquiry as much
as possible. Inquiry training model is especially suitable for classroom discussions where
teacher's role is that of instructional manager and monitor. In all these activities teacher's
role is highly important.
4. Steps in problem solving method are:
1. Selection of problem
2. Statement of problem
3. Selection of material
4. Preparation for the solution
5. Discussions and deliberations
6. Statement of conclusion
7. Evaluation
5. Features of linear programming:
i) A line& program is composed of small steps.
ii) The arrangement of stimulus'response is linear. Every learner follows the same
path.
iii) The programmer controls the responses of the learner.
iv) The error of the response is reduced to minimum.
V) The emphasis is upon the responses. The learner must respond before proceeding
to next step.
vi) The learner is prompted in the beginning of the programme etc.
6. Assumptions of branching programme are:
- The basic learning takes place during the student's exposure to the material on each
page.
- The technique is based on the possibility of detecting and correcting errors.
- The learner controls the exact sequence that helshe will take.
- Through presentation of branch discrimination occurs in the power of learning
almost in the natural way.

5.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bruche Joyce & Marsha Weil; Models of Teaching, Printice Hall of India Private Limited,
New Delhi - 110 001.
Bruner, J. The Process of Education, Cambride, Mass; Harvard University Press.
Weil. M.; Deriving Teaching Skills from Models of Teaching, Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Oreleans.