UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

PSYC 221:
Introduction to General Psychology
 Lecturer

▪ Prof. Kwaku Oppong Asante

Email: koppongasante@ug.edu.gh
COURSE

& Ground Rules

→ Course Code, Name, & Credits
→ Pre-requisites
→ Description, Objectives, & Learning Outcomes
→ Course Delivery
→ Plagiarism Policy
→ Assessment and Grading
→ Notes on Disability and Student Mental Health
→ Readings
 Core Text

Dr. E. Nii-Boye Quarshie

Prof. Charity S. Akotia

Get your copy today!

…for your core text reading

and personal library
→ Be Regular and Punctual.

→ Read before you come to class!

→ While in class:
▪ Turned off / mute your phones
▪ Be respectful to and tolerant of one another
▪ Contribute to class discussions
▪ Listen carefully and make meaningful notes
▪ Raise your hand if you have a question
 Course Schedule [topics to cover]
Week Topic Remarks
1 Foundations of the science of psychology
2 Psychology in Ghana
3 Doing research in psychology
4 Human development across the lifespan IA – I
5 Psychology of learning and memory
6 Psychology and health
7 Psychology applied to work
8 Psychology and social behaviour IA – II
9 Psychology and abnormal behaviour
10 General overview of course and revision
▪ Questions?
▪ Concerns?
▪ Comments?
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to General Psychology

Topic 1
Foundations of the Science of Psychology
 1) Define and explain the term “Psychology”.
2) Identify and explain the goals of psychology as a
Science.
3) Identify and differentiate between Pseudo and
Parapsychological phenomena.
Lecture Outline 4) Discuss the schools of psychology and
and contemporary perspectives and specialities in
Objectives Psychology.
5) Careers in Psychology (with your Bachelor’s
Degree).
 1) Contemporary definition of
“Psychology”?

2) The scientific method?

3) The 4 goals of psychology as

science?
PSYC 101
 Do you remember what Psychology is NOT …?

Pseudo-psychology: Para-psychology:

1) Palmistry 1) Telepathy

2) Phrenology 2) Clairvoyance

3) Graphology 3) Precognition

4) Numerology 4) Psychokinesis (Telekinesis)

5) Astrology
 1) Structuralism
2) Functionalism
PSYC 101 3) Psychoanalytic
4) Behaviourism
5) Gestalt Psychology

Schools of Focus your revision on:

Psychology i. Founder(s) / Personalities
ii. Subject Matter
iii. Methodology
iv. Contribution(s)
v. Weakness(es)
 1) Behavioural perspective

2) Psychoanalytic perspective
PSYC 101
3) Humanistic perspective

4) Cognitive perspective
Contemporary 5) Evolutionary perspective
Perspectives in
Psychology 6) Biological perspective

7) Socio-cultural perspective

8) Eclectic Approach
 Contemporary Specialities
or Sub-fields in Psychology

PSYC 101
 Sub-fields of Psychology
1. Developmental 13. Health psychology
2. Social 14. Physiological
3. Clinical 15. Cross-Cultural
4. Counselling 16. Industrial and organisational
5. Experimental 17. Consumer
6. Environmental 18. Comparative
7. Community 19. Cognitive
8. Forensic 20. Geropsychology
9. Educational 21. Engineering
10. School 22. Quantitative
11. Sports 23. Clinical Neuropsychology
12. Traffic 24. … etc.
Careers in Psychology
(with your Bachelor’s Degree)

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
 Is Psychology the right major for me?
• 25% of students with a BA/BSc in psychology go to graduate school
• you are not qualified to be a “psychologist” without an advanced degree

• Psychology is a popular major among undergraduate students

• Provides skills for a variety of programmes

• A good choice in becoming a well-rounded, well-educated person:

• Knowledge base.
• Thinking skills.
• Language skills.
• Information gathering and synthesis.
• Research methods and statistical skills.
• Interpersonal skills.
 What do employers want?

▪ People skills
▪ Critical reasoning
▪ Research and writing skills
▪ Techniques of scientific research and statistical analysis
▪ Diverse educational backgrounds
 Student Characteristics Valued by Professors and
Employers
Intellectual Ability Independent Work Skills
Scholastic Ability Written Communication Skills
Motivation Oral Communication Skills
Creativity Foreign Language Skills
Character Analytical Thinking Skills
Emotional Maturity Research Skills
Positive/Optimistic Attitude Statistical Skills
Empathetic Understanding Computer Skills
Adaptability/Flexibility Technology/Equipment/Material Skills
Ability to Handle Stress Teaching Skills
Interpersonal Skills Counseling Skills
Group Work Skills Organization Skills
Cross-Cultural Interaction Skills Leadership Skills

Aubrecht, L. (Winter, 2001) What Can You Do With a BA in Psychology? Eye on Psi Chi, 5(2), 29-31.
 What jobs can I get with a Bachelors Degree
in Psychology?
▪ Business
▪ Social service and health care
▪ Government, military, law
▪ Education
▪ Humanitarian Services and NGO management
▪ Entrepreneurships
▪ Research
 Tips to help you get a job with a
Bachelors Degree in Psychology

• Pick major courses and electives that will support your choice of
employment.
– Mental Health/Human Services/Developmental Disabilities: Child
Development, Adolescent Development, Adult Development and Aging,
Abnormal Psychology, Cross-Cultural Psychology, Learning,
Personality, Cognition and Independent Study/Research in a related
area.
– Business/Industry/Sales: Cross-Cultural Psychology, Industrial -
Organizational Psychology, Personality, Social Psychology, Tests and
Measurements, Cognition, and Independent Study/Research in a
related area.
 Tips to help you get a job with a Bachelors Degree in
Psychology

• Pick major courses and electives that will support your choice of
employment.

– Research related: Research Methods and Statistics for

Psychologist, Research Seminars, Tests and Measurements,
Personality, Physiological Psychology, Cognition, and
Independent Study/Research in a related area.
 Tips to help you get a job with a Bachelors Degree in
Psychology

• Choose a minor that supports your job interests.

• Consider an internship and/or independent study/research.

• Participate in organisations.
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Welcome!
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to General Psychology
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to General Psychology

Topic 2

Psychology in Ghana
 1) Recap of the history of Psychology in the West
and earlier scholars.
2) Trace the history of Psychology in Africa and
Ghana, and earlier scholars.
3) Psychology education and training in Ghana.
Lecture Outline
and 4) Professional practice of Psychology in Ghana.
Objectives 5) Challenges and prospects of Psychology in
Ghana.
 Development of Psychology
(in the West)
Psychology has a long past but a short history:
• Long past - it has its roots in philosophy (the study of knowledge, reality
and human nature.
[Socrates → Plato → Aristotle → Descartes →Locke].

• Short history – it is a little over a 100 years old!

• Psychology’s history as a science started in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt

established the first ever psychological lab in Leipzig (Germany) to study
conscious experience.
 ▪ “Father of Modern Psychology”

PSYC 101

Can you remember the

earlier male and female
scholars?
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920)
 Women in the History of Psychology
(in the West)

Christine Ladd-Franklin Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Washburn

(1847 – 1930) (1863 – 1930) (1871 – 1939)
 History of Psychology
in Africa and Ghana
▪ In Africa, the scientific study of psychology
began in the early years of the 20th century.

▪ It emerged out of the contact of African

people with Europeans and evolved during
the colonial period.
▪ Further reading: Oppong Asante & Oppong
(2012); Oppong et al. (2014)
 Psychology Education & Training in Ghana

▪ Initially, as a taught subject in the Colleges of Education in

the late 1890s.

▪ Psychology related professions existed in Ghana, in the

early 1890s although not formally recognized as such.

▪ Psychology teaching at the University level began in

1963 at the University of Ghana.

▪ Taught as a combined psychology-sociology course in the

Department of Sociology of the University of Ghana.
Rationale for Introducing Psychology into the Curriculum of
the University of Ghana

“It was thought that pressures that accompany rapid

political, economic and social changes in a developing
country like Ghana would cause many human problems for
whose solution psychological teaching and research can be
directly relevant” (Agbodeka, 1998, p. 177).
 Psychology Education & Training in Ghana (conti…)

• As an independent academic discipline when the

Department of Psychology was established at the University
of Ghana, Legon, in May 1967.

• It started with 4 students and 3 lecturers.

• Prof. C. E. Fiscian was the first Head of Department,

supported by Mr. H. C. A. Bulley with Prof. Gustav Jahoda
joining them later.
Men in the Historical Evolution of
Psychology in Ghana
• Prof. C. E. Fiscian • Mr. H. C. A. Bulley
• Prof. Gustav Jahoda • Prof. Samuel A. Danquah
• Prof. Joseph Y. OPoku
Women in the Historical Evolution of
Psychology in Ghana
Core Text
Part I: Foremothers of Psychology in Ghana
▪ Dr. Araba H. Sefa-Dedeh
▪ Prof. Angela Lamensdorf Ofori-Atta
▪ Mrs. Rachel Phillips
▪ Prof. Charity Sylvia Akotia
▪ Prof. Frances Emily Owusu-Ansah
▪ Prof. Ama de-Graft Aikins
▪ Dr. Epiphania Emefa Bonsi
▪ Dr. Dinah Baah-Odoom
Part II: Women in Contemporary Psychology in Ghana
▪ Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku
▪ Dr. Angela Anarfi Gyasi-
Gyamerah
▪ Dr. Erica Danfrekua Dickson
▪ Prof. Abigail Opoku Mensah
▪ Prof. Annabella Osei-Tutu
▪ Prof. Joana Salifu Yendork
 Psychology at the
University of Ghana
 Psychology at the University of Ghana (contin…)

Programmes
• Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) (4 years)
• Master of Philosophy (MPhil) ( 2 years)
– Clinical Psychology
– Industrial & Organisational Psychology
– Social & Community Psychology
– Counselling Psychology
– Developmental Psychology
• Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) (4 years)
 Psychology at the
University of Cape Coast
 Psychology at the University of Cape Coast
(contin…)

• The Department of Psychology (formerly Educational

Foundations), was established in the late 1970s with the sole
aim of producing graduates with the degree of Bachelor of
Education in Psychology (B.Ed Psychology).

• It was only in the 2005/2006 academic year that the university

introduced its B.Sc. Psychology
 Psychology at the University of Cape Coast
(contin…)

Programmes
• Bachelor in Psychological Foundations of Education (B.Ed )(4
years)
• Master of Philosophy (MPhil)/MA
– Clinical Health Psychology
– Educational Psychology
• Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) (4 years)
– Educational Psychology
Psychology at Methodist University,
Ghana
 Psychology at Methodist University, Ghana
(contin…)

▪ The Department of Psychology at Methodist University College

was originally established as Department of General Studies at
the inception of the university in early 2002. By the end of 2008, a
full-fledged department had been established for teaching and
research in psychology as part of the Faculty of Social Studies
Psychology at Methodist University, Ghana
(contin…)
Programmes
• Bachelor of Arts (BA) (4 years)
–Psychology
–Religion, Ethics and Psychology
• Master of Philosophy (MPhil)/MA
–Guidance & Counselling Psychology
Regent University
College of Science
and Technology
 Regent University College of Science and
Technology
• The Department of Psychology was established in
September, 2008.

Programmes
• Bachelor of Science(BSc) in Human Development &
Psychology (4 years)
 Other Institutions
• Central University
– BA Family Counseling and Theology
• Lancaster University Ghana
– Bachelor of Science in Psychology (Bsc) since 2016
• University of Education, Winneba,
– BA and MA in Educational Psychology and allied programmes.
• University of Applied Management (UAM)
– B.A and M.A in Business Psychology
Professional Practice 1) Clinical Psychologists
of Psychology in 2) Clinical Health Psychologists
Ghana 3) Health Psychologists
4) Community Psychologist
5) Psychotherapists
6) Educational Psychologists
7) Industrial & Organisational
Psychologists
[GPC Gazette, 2022] 8) Sports & Exercise Psychologists
9) Social Psychologists
10) Psychometricians
11) Professional Counselling
Psychologists
12) Paraprofessional career &
Guidance Counsellors
The passage of:
▪ The Mental Health Act, 2012 (Act
846) has helped in the hiring and
placement of psychologists into
the various public and private
(health) institutions.

▪ The Health Professions

Regulatory Bodies Act, 2013 (Act
857) Establishes the Ghana
Psychology Council.
Mission: To regulate the training and practice of
psychologists, therapists and lay practitioners in Ghana.

Mandate: To secure in the public interest the highest

standards in the training and practice of applied
psychology.
 Functions of the GPC
– Assess facilities and content of training programmes of
psychologists, therapists and lay practitioners
– Compile and keep registers of registered practitioners
– Prescribe and enforce professional standards and conduct for
practitioners
– Exercise disciplinary power over professionals and lay
practitioners (lay counsellors)
 • The Association is concerned with
all matters affecting the teaching,
GPA and professional practice of
psychology and other related
professional practice in Ghana,
and takes such actions with
respect thereto as may be
considered expedient.
 Aims and Objectives of GPA
– Maximize the impact(s) of practice of the various constituent bodies on the generality of the
country as they avail the public of their services.
– Promote, support and enhance research activities.
– Encourage and support the publication of psychological literature
– Collaborate with Psychological Council for professional training
– Promote the welfare of its members
– Be responsible for certification of individuals who seek to apply for membership.
– Promote the professional development of its members
– Assist the Ghana Psychological Council to ensure that the established ethical standards are
adhered to in practice
– Collaborate with Psychological Council to promote and monitor public and private practice
within the confines of the law.
 Challenges for Psychology/Psychologists in Ghana

– Only a few universities in Ghana offer a 4-year bachelor’s

degree in psychology (this limits access to psychology
education).
– Over reliance on Western theories for applications (psychology
in Ghana is mostly foreign in its content and relies
predominantly on western theories).
– Psychology is still not well-known among Ghanaians
 Prospects for Psychology in Ghana
– Repeated exposure of Ghanaian policy-makers and the
general populace to the applications of psychological
principles and the role of psychologists will enhance public
attitude towards the profession and the professionals

– Provide appropriate solutions to some of the critical social and

educational problems Ghanaians and policymakers face.
 Prospects for Psychology in Ghana (conti…)

– Ghanaian psychologists can also focus their attention on creating

psychological sense of community to mend the ethnic divisions among
Ghanaians

– Contribute evidence to health-related behaviour change and health

promotion efforts in the country.

– Respond to disaster, conflict and post-conflict situations through

trauma management efforts etc.
Some Publications on Psychology in Ghana
Some Publications [conti…]
Some Publications [conti…]
Some Publications [conti…]
 ▪ Quarshie, E. N. B., & Akotia, C. S. (Ed). (2023). Women in
Psychology in Ghana: An Autobiographical Collection. Accra,
Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers. ISBN: 978-9988-8831-1-9.

Further Reading ▪ Oppong, S., Oppong Asante, K., & Kumako, S. (2014). History,
development and current status of psychology in Ghana. In C.
S. Akotia & C. C. Mate-Kole (Eds.), Contemporary Psychology:
Readings from Ghana (pp.1-17). Accra, Ghana: Digibooks.

▪ Oppong Asante, K., & Oppong, S. (2012). Psychology in

Ghana. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(3), 473-476.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2012.10820557.

▪ Aikins, A. D. G., Ofori-Atta, A. L., Anum, A., & Dzokoto, V. A.

(2014). Psychology in Ghana: a review of research and
practice. In Changing perspectives on the Social Sciences in
Ghana (pp. 75-93). Springer, Dordrecht.
I thank you ▪ Questions?
for your attention
▪ Comments?
▪ Concerns?

✓ Announcements
College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2014/2015 – 2016/2017
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to
General Psychology

Session 3
Doing Research
in Psychology
  The objectives of this session are
to:
1. Explore the methods of
acquiring knowledge both
scientifically and unscientifically
2. Discuss why the scientific method
is preferred in psychology
Session 3. Review methods in psychological
Overview investigations
4. Discuss ethical issues in
psychological research
 1. Methods of Acquiring
Knowledge

2. The Scientific Method

3. Overview of Research Methods

in Psychology
Session
Topics 4. Ethics in Psychological Research
 SESSION READINGS

Session Reading:

• Fieldman, R. S. (2019). Essentials

of understanding psychology (13th
ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

Slide 5
 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
1]. Non-scientific Method

1] Non-scientific Method i. Commonsense

ii. Intuition
2] Scientific Method
iii. Tenacity

iv. Rationalism

v. Empiricism

vi. Authority

vii. Apriori
 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
2]. Scientific Method

1] Non-scientific Method ▪ What is science?

▪ It means “knowledge”
2] Scientific Method
(Latin word, “scientia”).

▪ It is a series of steps,
procedures and
approaches that are used
to gather knowledge.
 Characteristics of Science

1) Objectivity

2) Control

3) Operationalism

4) Replication

5) Openness

6) Empirical approach

7) Invariance
 Assumptions of Science

i. Reality

ii. Causation

iii. Determinism/Discoverability

iv. Uniformity / Regularity

 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
2]. Scientific Method

1] Non-scientific Method i. Careful Observation

ii. Problem identification

2] Scientific Method
iii. Literature review

iv. Hypotheses formulation

v. Design of the study

vi. Data gathering/analysis

vii. Interpretation/conclusions
The Scientific Method is Cyclical

Slide 11
Overview of
Research
Methods in
Psychology
 What is Scientific Research?

▪ Much of what psychologists know about

thoughts, feelings and behaviour comes from
scientific research.

▪ “Scientific research is the systematic study of

some topic in order to find answers to
questions” (Langdridge, 2004).

▪ There can two types of scientific research:

basic research, and applied research.
 Basic Research Applied Research
▪ The goal is to ▪ It is generally focused on
understand the most answering questions related
to solving real-world
fundamental processes problems.
of behaviour and how
they operate.
Eg.,
Eg., ▪ Which treatments are best in
▪ Who exhibits more helping people who are
symptoms of depressed?
depression: men or ▪ What type of work
environment increases
women? productivity of employees?
▪ Do we have implicit
stereotypes that affect
our social behaviour?
 Overview of Research Methods in Psychology
(conti…)

Naturalistic
Observation

Case
Study
Descriptive
Studies
Survey
Basic &
Correlational
Applied
Studies
Research Qualitative
Studies
Experimental
Research
Overview continue ...

1). DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES

• These methods involve studying people as they live
their lives, so that we can describe their behaviour
and mental processes.
• Psychologists objectively and systematically
describe behaviour using:
1. Naturalistic Observation,

2. Case Studies, and

3. Surveys
Descriptive Studies continue ...

• Naturalistic Observation
• Naturalistic observation is the process of
carefully watching and recording behaviour as it
occurs in its natural environment without
interfering.

• Psychologists observe behaviour in real-world

settings and make no efforts to manipulate or
control the situation.
Descriptive Studies continue ...

• Psychologists conduct naturalistic

observations at soccer games, in the wild,
day-care centres, college dormitories,
shopping malls, restaurants and other
places people live in and frequent.
Descriptive Studies continue ...

• Strengths
1) Provides valuable information about how people
behave in real-world settings.
2) Valuable when more noticeable methods might alter
the behaviour you want to study.

• Weaknesses
1) Observer effect.
2) Cause-effect relationship cannot be established.
Descriptive Studies continue ...

Case Study
• A case study is an intensive or in-depth examination of
behaviour or mental processes in a particular
individual, group, or situation.
• It is particularly useful when studying something that is
new, complex, or relatively rare (Sacks, 2002).
• For example, suicide, a person’s fears, traumatic
experiences, etc.
Descriptive Studies continue ...

• Strength
• It provides relatively much comprehensive
understanding of a phenomenon.

• Weakness
• It is difficult to generalize findings of case
studies
Descriptive Studies continue ...

Surveys
▪ Psychologists use interviews or questionnaires
to ask people about their behaviour, attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, or other characteristics.

▪ A survey is a structured set of questions or

statements given to a group of people to
measure their attitudes, beliefs, values,
tendencies to act, or prevalence of a condition.
Overview continue ...

• Strengths
1) It allows for gathering a great deal of information in a
relatively short period of time.
2) Generalization of findings is possible.

• Weaknesses
1) The accuracy of information obtained in surveys may
be questionable.
2) Subtle differences in how questions are worded can
influence answers.
Overview continue ...

2). CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

▪ A correlational study is designed to find the degree of
the relationship (if any) between two or more
variables.
▪ It examines how two or more variables are correlated,
related or associated so that we can predict one from
the other.
For example,
▪ SHS grades and University class
▪ Educational level and income level.
Correlational Study continue ...

▪ Correlation coefficient: This is the statistical

measure of the direction and strength of the
relationship between two variables.

▪ Correlation coefficient ranges from negative one (-1)

through zero (0) to positive one (+1).

▪ Positive correlation,
▪ negative correlation, or
▪ zero correlation (non-existing correlation).
Correlational Study continue ...

▪ Positive Correlation: this indicates that increases in

one variable are matched by increases in the other
(or decreases correspond with decreases). Eg.,

▪ Negative Correlation: Increases in the first variable

are associated with decreases in the second
variable. Eg.,

▪ Zero correlation (non-existing correlation): There is

absolutely no relationship between the two variables
in either the positive or negative direction. Eg.,
Correlational Study continue ...
Correlational Study continue ...

Correlation is not the same as causation !!

• Correlation helps us to discover relationships and

make predictions. It does not show causation (a
cause-and-effect connection).
• Strength(s)
• Can test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest
new hypotheses.

• Weakness(es)
• Cannot establish causal relationships between
variables.
Let’s

Here
Overview Continue ...
3). EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
▪ In an experiment, the researcher makes a change in
one variable and then observes the effect of that
change on another variable, while holding all other
factors constant.

▪ The variable that is changed, or manipulated by the

experimenter is called the independent variable.

▪ The variable that is observed or measured following

this manipulation is called the dependent variable.

▪ The variable, the influence of which is controlled or

held constant is called extraneous variable.
 Experimental research (conti…)

• For example, an experiment is titled, “The effect of special

reading class on children’s reading skills”.
• IV: Special reading class
• DV: Children’s reading skills.

• Tease out the IVs and DVs in the following.

1) The effect of daily walking program on elderly people’s lung
capacity.
2) A researcher wants to find out if the ingestion of coffee
influences the recall of statistical formulae among level 200
students.
 Selecting Human Participants for
(Experimental) Research

• Population: This is the entire group about which the

researcher wants to draw conclusions.
• Sample: A subset of the population chosen by the researcher
for the study.
Experimental research (conti…)
 Experimental research (conti…)

• Experimental and control groups:

• The control group: comprise individuals who are randomly
assigned to a group but do not receive the treatment.
– The measures taken from the control group are then
compared to those in the experimental group to determine
if the treatment had an effect.
• The experimental group: comprise individuals who are
randomly assigned to the group and then receive the
treatment.
– The scores of these participants are compared to those in
the control group to determine if the treatment had an
effect.
– Control for experimenter effects (double-blind)
 Experimental research (conti…)

• Advantages
– allows researcher to control the research
– permits researcher to identify cause and effect

• Disadvantages
– situation is artificial and can not be always
generalised to the real world
– sometimes difficult to avoid experimenter
effects
 Analysing the data
• Descriptive Statistics
– Measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode)
– Measures of variability (standard deviation,
variance)
• Inferential Statistics: t-test, ANOVA
• Meta-analysis
Qualitative Research
 What is Qualitative Research?
• A type of research methodology that produces descriptive
data, with little emphasis given to numerical quantitative
measures (APA, 2016).
• Methods that use language, rather than numbers, and an
interpretative, naturalistic approach (Biggerstaff, 2012).
– Qualitative researchers work in the ‘real’ world of lived
experience, often in natural setting rather than a laboratory based
experimental approach.
• Qualitative researchers try to make sense of social
phenomena and the meanings people bring to them.
• Qualitative research aims at providing an in-depth
and interpreted understanding of the social world of
research participants.
– The research attempts to learn about participants’ social
and material circumstances, their experiences,
perspectives, and histories.
• Samples are typically small in scale and purposively
selected on the basis of salient criteria.

Slide 41
Ethical Considerations in
Psychological Research

College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2014/2015 – 2016/2017
 Meaning of Ethics

▪ Rules that govern the conduct of professional

bodies.

▪ Code of conduct or moral principles.

▪ What guides the conduct of research in

psychology.

▪ But why ethics in psychological research?

 Importance of Ethics in Research

i. Serve as a guide for psychologists who conduct

research.

ii. Ensures that the rights of research participants are

respected.

iii. Protects participants from harm.

iv. Enhances the trust in psychologists.

 Some Specific Ethical Considerations in Psychological
Research Involving Human Participants

1. Informed consent

2. Protection from harm

3. Participants’ right to privacy

4. Assurance of complete voluntary participation

5. Avoidance of deception

6. Anonymity of participants responses

 READ ON THE FOLLOWING:

1]. Theoretical and practical reasons for

using animals in psychological
research
2]. Placebo and placebo effect
3] Nocebo and nocebo effect
Session 4]. Methods of controlling for extraneous
Assignment variables in psychological experiment
5]. Ethical provisions or concerns for
using animals in psychological
research
6]. Reporting psychological research
(APA format for report writing)
 Session Assignment: Group Work
I

In small groups, review and discuss the following:

▪ Discuss examples of non-scientific methods of

acquiring knowledge

▪ Discuss characteristics and assumptions of science

I thank you
for your attention ▪ Questions?
▪ Comments?
▪ Concerns?

✓ Announcements
Sample Questions
Sample Questions
Sample Questions
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to
General Psychology

▪ Prof. Kwaku Oppong Asante

Email: koppongasante@ug.edu.gh

▪ Dr. Joana Larry-Afutu

Email: jolarry-afutu@ug.edu.gh

▪ Dr. Emmanuel Nii-Boye Quarshie

Email: enquarshie@ug.edu.gh
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to
General Psychology

Topic 4
Human Development
Across the Lifespan
 1) Defining Human Development

2) Why Study Human Development?

3) Domains of Human Development:

Lecture Outline i]. Physical domain

and ii]. Cognitive domain
Objectives iii]. Socio-emotional or
Psychosocial domain
 Defining Human Development

• Human development (Developmental

Psychology) is the study of the changes
that occur in people as they get older
(Morris, 1993).
−It is the study of how people change over time,
from birth through old age.
• Development is a pattern of change that begins
at conception and continues through the life
span (Santrock, 2001).
Development across the life span
 Why Study (the Psychology of)
Human Development?
• Curiosity: Studies in human development is
interesting in its own field. This makes individuals to
venture into this field of study to satisfy their
curiosity as to how we change with age.

• Altruistic interest: Knowledge of the human

development can be applied in every area to lead to
a better life throughout their lifespan
Why Study Human Development?
(conti…)
• Personal benefit: Most people get married and often raise
children thereby giving them a better understanding of
children and adolescent. To a great extent, it makes them
appreciate the problems and potential of children.

• Prevention & Treatment: Our understanding of the

developmental process, will enable us to learn how
abnormal or atypical development such as disabilities,
mental retardation occurs and how to create some
treatment programmes that will remedy such deficiencies
 Domains of Human Development

• Developmental changes occur in 3 major domains:

Physical
Domain

Psychosocial /
Social-emotional
Domain
Cognitive
Domain
We will focus on:
Human
Development

Psychosocial / Socio-
Physical Cognitive
emotional

Developmental
Periods Piaget’s Cognitive Erickson’s Psychosocial
(8 periods proposed Stages (4) Stages (8)
by Laura E. Berk)
 1]. Physical Development

• These are changes that occur in the body.

They can either be internal or external and
can find expression in height, broken voice (in
boys), pubic hairs, enlargement of hips (girls).
The external ones include building of
muscles, glands, reproductive system, etc.
Physical changes across the life
span
 Physical Development (conti...)

Eight major periods of human development (Berk, 2017)

1) Prenatal
2) Infancy and Toddlerhood
3) Early Childhood
4) Middle Childhood
5) Adolescence
6) Early Adulthood
7) Middle Adulthood
8) Late Adulthood
 1). Prenatal Period
Approximate age → Conception to birth
Fertilization
Conception to Birth
 Conception
A sperm with its
tail thrashing,
burrowing into
an ovum.

15/12/2023 16
 First Month

15/12/2023 17
Three Months
4 months
 Physical Development (conti...)

Eight major periods of human development (Berk, 2017)

1) Prenatal
2) Infancy and Toddlerhood
3) Early Childhood
4) Middle Childhood
5) Adolescence
6) Early Adulthood
7) Middle Adulthood
8) Late Adulthood
2). Infancy and Toddlerhood

• Birth – 2 years
3). Early Childhood
(2 → 6 years)
4). Middle and Late Childhood
(6 → 11 years)
5). Adolescence
(11 → 18 years)
6). Early Adulthood
(18 → 40 years)
7). Middle Adulthood
(40 → 65 years)
 8).

Late
Adulthood

(65 years → Death)

Death and Dying

THE END OF LIFE

Death and Dying (continued...)

• Older people tend to be less frightened by death

than are younger adults. Highly religious people
experience least fear of death than nonreligious
individuals.
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1974) - Five distinct stages
of dying:
1) Denial
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression
5) Acceptance
2]. Cognitive
Development
in Humans
 2]. Cognitive Development

These are natural processes relating to

thinking, memory, perception, problem solving,
language, reasoning and creativity. They are
closely related to physical growth. The ability to
speak depends on the physical development of
the mouth and the brain.
Jean Piaget
 I). SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
(BIRTH - 2 YEARS)

• At birth the child‘s mind => ‘tabula rasa’

• Before 6 months => ‘out of sight, out of mind’.

• By 6-9 months => ‘Object permanence’.

• By 2 years => Develops telegraphic speech.

 II). PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
(2-7 YEARS)

•He called this stage pre-operational

because the children cannot perform
what Piaget called operations (i.e.,
mental manipulation of reality).
• Conservation photo here
 III). CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
(7-11 YEARS)

• Can reason with only concrete problems.

• Can decentre.
• Can make transitive inferences.
• Can understand and participate in play with
rules.
• No sense of multifactoral causes to situations.
• Can understand principles of conservation.
 IV). FORMAL OPERATIONS
(11-15 YRS +)

• Here, systematic and reasonably well

integrated thought processes develop.

• Research shows that many adults never reach

this level of thinking.

▪ Logical thinking
▪ Combinational thinking
▪ Reflective thinking
In summary:
 3). Psychosocial
(socio-emotional) Development
Erik Erikson
There are 8
• Family members, significant others, the society at
large contributes a lot to the transition of these
stages.
• If the challenges are successfully handled, virtues
or psychosocial strengths result.
• If not well resolved, a maladaptation (excess of
the positive) or a malignancy (excess of the
negative) may develop.
 Stage I: TRUST VS. MISTRUST
(Birth - 18months)

• Over-protective family => maladaptation

of sensory distortion (i.e., too much
trust).

• Inadequate care by family => Mistrust

• Healthy resolution => virtue of hope

 Stage II: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME and
DOUBT (18months – 3yrs)

• Too much chance to explore the

environment => Maladaptation of
impulsiveness.
• Ridiculed or overprotected from exercising
their independence => Malignancy of
compulsiveness (an excess of shame and
doubt).
• Healthy resolution => Will power.
 Stage III:
INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3 - 5yrs)

• Excess of initiative => maladaption of

ruthlessness.
• If severely punished, prevented to play or
discouraged from asking questions => sense of
guilt.
• Excess of guilt => malignancy of inhibition.
• If assisted to undertake goal-directed
behaviours => virtue of courage
 Stage IV:
INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY
(6 - 12yrs)
• Conflict: Fear of not being able to do enough or
to be as good as peers.
• Parents who discourage => inferiority complex.
• Maladaptation (i.e. an excess of industry) =>
narrow virtuosity.
• Malignancy or excess inferiority => inertia.
• Healthy resolution => competence.
 Stage V:
IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(12 - 18yrs)

• Turbulent stage.

• Sense of confusion result when the individual fails

to reach any clarity about his/her roles in life.

• Maladaptation => fanaticism.

• Malignancy => repudiation.

• Healthy resolution => virtue of fidelity.

 Stage VI:
INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
(18-30yrs)

• Period of courtship leading to family life.

• Maladaptation (excess of intimacy) =>

promiscuity.

• Malignancy (an excess of isolation) =>

exclusion.

• Healthy resolution=> love.

 Stage VII:
GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
(30s-40s)

• Individuals aim at establishing and guiding the

next generation.
• Failure to establish the sense of caring for
others => self-absorption.
• Maladaptation => overextension.
• Malignancy or excess of stagnation =>
rejectivity.
• Healthy resolution => virtue of care.
 Stage VIII:
INTEGRITY Vs. DESPAIR (55yrs+)

• This is a result or a culmination of the preceding

7 stages.

• Reflecting on the past and either piecing

together a positive review (ego integrity) or
concluding that one’s life has not been well
spent (despair).
Summary
 Now let’s recap:
Human
Development

Psychosocial / Socio-
Physical Cognitive
emotional

Developmental
Periods Piaget’s Cognitive Erickson’s Psychosocial
(8 periods proposed Stages (4) Stages (8)
by Laura E. Berk)
 1) Nature–nurture debate about
human development.
2) Critique of Kübler-Ross’ theory of
dying.
3) Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development.
Further reading 4) Critique of Piaget’s cognitive
theory.
5) Critique of Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory.
6) Sigmund Freud’s 5 stages of
Psychosexual development.
I thank you
for your attention ▪ Questions?
▪ Comments?
▪ Concerns?

✓ Announcements
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to
General Psychology

 Prof. Kwaku Oppong Asante

Email: koppongasante@ug.edu.gh
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to General Psychology

Topic 5
Psychology and Health
 1. What are Health, Illness, &
Diseases?
2. What is Health Psychology?
3. Global and national burden of
disease
4. Defining health behaviours

Lecture Outline 5. The major health behaviours

and 6. The role of health behaviours
Objectives in health
7. Areas of focus in health
psychology
8. Paradigms of illness
 Topic Goals

To encourage thinking about health and

illness from a number of perspectives,
including:
1. Scientist/researcher
2. Patient
3. Caregiver
4. Health professional
 How would you describe your
general, overall health?

• I am in excellent health.
• I am in good health.
• I am in average health.
• I am in poor health.
 What is health?
• “The absence of disease, disorder and injury.”
(The Cornell Illustrated Encyclopedia of Health,
2002)

• "Health is a state of complete physical,

mental and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity.” (WHO,
2004)
 Illness & Disease
 Disease is a diagnosable biological
dysfunction or infection. There is always an
underlying pathology.

 Illness is an individual’s unique experience of

their symptoms (pain and suffering). This is
what the patient brings to the medical doctor.
Example, stomach pain.
 Illness & Disease

Disease Illness
 Bio-physiological  The experience of being
phenomena that manifest sick or diseased
themselves as changes in
and malfunctions of the  is a social psychological
human body state, presumably caused
by the disease
 Physiological state
 Subjective
 Objective
 What is Health Psychology?

“A field which integrates psychological knowledge

relevant to the maintenance of health, the prevention
of illness, and the adjustment to illness” (Stroebe,
2000).
Global and National Burden of Disease
 Top 10 Global
Causes of Death
(Source: WHO, 2020)
Top 10 Causes of Death in Ghana
(WHO, 2023)
Health Behaviours
Interest in “health behaviours” is
based upon two assumptions:

1) that a significant proportion

of the mortality from the
leading causes of death is
caused by the behaviour of
individuals, and

2) that such behaviour is

modifiable (Conner &
Norman, 1996).
 "Any activity undertaken by a
person believing
himself/herself to be healthy
for the purpose of preventing
disease or detecting it at an
asymptomatic stage" (Kasl &
Cobb, 1966).

Conner and Norman (2005)

Defining “Health define it as any activity
undertaken for the purpose
Behaviour”
of preventing or detecting
disease or for improving
health and well being.
 Health-impairing behaviours
have harmful effects on health or
otherwise predispose individuals
to disease:
 smoking
 excessive alcohol consumption
 high dietary fat consumption.

Health-enhancing behaviours
convey health benefits or
otherwise protect individuals
Health Behaviour from disease:
(conti…)  exercise
 fruit and vegetable consumption
 condom use in response to the
threat of sexually transmitted
diseases.
 Smoking Alcohol Use

Exercise
The 4 MAJOR
Health
Behaviours

Diet
 Research evidence suggests
that certain lifestyles are
strongly associated with
reduced morbidity and
mortality:
 not smoking (no safe levels),
 no alcohol intake (no safe
levels),
 sleeping 7-8 hours per night,
 exercising regularly,
The role of health  maintaining desirable body
behaviours in health weight,
 avoiding processed snacks,
 eating breakfast regularly
Alcohol has no
safe levels!

• The level of alcohol

consumption that
minimises health
loss is zero!
Exercise: key Facts  Globally, 1 in 4 adults do not
meet the global recommended
[WHO, 2020]
levels of physical activity
 Up to 5 million deaths a year
could be averted if the global
population was more active
 People who are insufficiently
active have a 20% to 30%
increased risk of death compared
to people who are sufficiently
active
 More than 80% of the world's
adolescent population is
insufficiently physically active
 Physical activity has significant
health benefits for hearts, bodies
and minds
 Psychology & health

• Exercise behaviour & health

1.4 billion - are not doing enough physical exercise (WHO, 2018)
The Concept of Mental Health
The Concept of Mental Health (conti…)
Mental Illness
Mental Illness (conti…)
Mental Illness (conti…)
 Mental Health Promotion And Prevention
(WHO, 2022)
1. Promotion and prevention interventions can be designed for individuals,
specific groups or whole populations.
2. Reshaping the determinants of mental health often requires action beyond
the health sector and so promotion and prevention programmes should
involve the education, labour, justice, transport, environment, housing, and
welfare sectors.
3. Suicide prevention is a global priority (much progress can be achieved by
limiting access to means, responsible media reporting, social and emotional
learning for adolescents, early intervention, and banning highly hazardous
pesticides)
4. Promoting child and adolescent mental health is another priority and can
be achieved by policies and laws that promote and protect mental health,
supporting caregivers to provide nurturing care, implementing school-based
programmes and improving the quality of community and online
environments.
5. Promoting and protecting mental health at work is a growing area.
  In the context of national efforts to strengthen mental
health, it is vital to not only protect and promote the
mental well-being of all, but also to address the needs
of people with mental health conditions.
 This should be done through community-based
mental health care (WHO, 2022).
 Community-based mental health care should be
provided through a network of interrelated services
that comprise:
— mental health services that are integrated in general
Mental Health Care health care, typically in general hospitals and through
and Treatment (WHO, task-sharing with non-specialist care providers in
2022) primary health care;
— community mental health services that may involve
community mental health centers and teams,
psychosocial rehabilitation, peer support services and
supported living services; and
— services that deliver mental health care in social
services and non-health settings, such as child
protection, school health services, and prisons.
  Affordable, effective and feasible
strategies exist to promote, protect
and restore mental health.
 The need for action on mental health
is indisputable and urgent.
 Mental health has intrinsic and
instrumental value and is integral to
Summary Key Facts
About Mental Health our well-being.
(WHO, 2022)  Mental health is determined by a
complex interplay of individual, social
and structural stresses and
vulnerabilities.
 Questions?
 Concerns?
 Comments?
Areas of Focus in Health Psychology

• Health Promotion and Maintenance

• Prevention and Treatment of Illness

• Etiology (causes) and Correlates of Health

and Illness

• Health Policy and Health Care Service

Delivery
 Paradigms Explaining Illnesses

 Biomedical Model
 Biopsychosocial Model
 Biomedical Model
• Dominant model for the past 300 years!
• All illness can be explained on the basis of
aberrant somatic processes.
• Single-factor model – Illness is due to one
factor: a biological malfunction.

• Mind-body dualism – The mind and the body

are separate entities.

• Emphasis on illness over health.

 Biopsychosocial Model
Views health and illness as the product of a
combination of factors including:
1) biological characteristics (e.g., genetic
predisposition),
2) behavioral factors (e.g., lifestyle, stress, health
beliefs), and
3) social conditions (e.g., cultural influences,
family relationships, social support).
Biopsychosocial Model
 Advantages of the Biopsychosocial Model

1. Health is determined by both micro- and

macro-level processes (psychological and
social factors).
2. Multiple factors – a variety of factors are
involved in health and illness.
3. The mind and body are not separated when
considering matters of health and illness.
4. Emphasis on both health and illness.
I thank you
for your attention  Questions?
 Comments?
 Concerns?

 Announcements