Climate Change: Strategies For Mitigation and Adaptation: Graphical Abstract

REVIEW
Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation

Fang Wang,1,2,65,* Jean Damascene Harindintwali,1,2 Ke Wei,3,65 Yuli Shan,4 Zhifu Mi,5,65 Mark John Costello,6 Sabine Grunwald,7,65 Zhaozhong Feng,8
Faming Wang,2,9,65 Yuming Guo,10 Xing Wu,11,65 Prashant Kumar,12,61 Matthias Kästner,13 Xiaojuan Feng,14 Shichang Kang,15 Zhu Liu,16 Yuhao Fu,1,2
Wei Zhao,17 Chaojun Ouyang,18 Jianlin Shen,19 Haijun Wang,20 Scott X. Chang,21 Daniel L. Evans,22 Rong Wang,23 Chunwu Zhu,1,2 Leilei Xiang,1,2
Jörg Rinklebe,24 Miaomiao Du,25 Lei Huang,26 Zhaohai Bai,2,27 Sheng Li,2,28 Rattan Lal,29 Martin Elsner,30 Jean-Pierre Wigneron,31 Fabio Florindo,32,62
Xin Jiang,1,2 Sabry M. Shaheen,24,63 Xinyue Zhong,33 Roland Bol,34,64 Gustavo M. Vasques,35 Xianfeng Li,2,36 Sebastian Pfautsch,37 Mingyi Wang,38
Xiao He,39 Evgenios Agathokleous,40 Huibin Du,41 Hong Yan,42 Fredrick Orori Kengara,43 Ferdi Brahushi,44 Xi-En Long,38 Paulo Pereira,45 Yong Sik Ok,46
Matthias C. Rillig,47 Erik Jeppesen,48,49,50,* Damià Barceló,51 Xiaoyuan Yan,1,2 Nianzhi Jiao,52,* Buxing Han,2 Andreas Schäffer,53 Jing M. Chen,54,*
Geoscience
Yongguan Zhu,2,11,55 Hai Cheng,56 Wulf Amelung,34,57,* Christoph Spötl,58 Jiankang Zhu,59 and James M. Tiedje60,*
*Correspondence: wangfang@issas.ac.cn(F.W.); ej@ecos.au.dk(E.J.); jiao@xmu.edu.cn(N.J.); jing.chen@utoronto.ca(J.C.); wulf.amelung@uni-bonn.de(W.A.); tiedjej@msu.edu(J.T.)
Received: May 14, 2023; Accepted: June 16, 2023; Published Online: June 23, 2023; https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100015
© 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
PUBLIC SUMMARY
■ Climate change is accelerated by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and its effects are increasingly felt globally.
■ Transitioning to renewable energy sources and enhancing carbon sinks are crucial steps in mitigating climate change.
■ Adaptation to climate change requires a combination of strategies that foster resilience in local communities and ecosystems.
■ Carbon quantification, modeling, and pricing are key areas that need to be further developed to address climate change.
■ This review discusses the current status and prospects of global climate change, focusing on mitigation and adaptation strategies.
The Innovation Geoscience 1(1): 100015, June 26, 2023 61

REVIEW
Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation

Fang Wang,1,2,65,* Jean Damascene Harindintwali,1,2 Ke Wei,3,65 Yuli Shan,4 Zhifu Mi,5,65 Mark John Costello,6 Sabine Grunwald,7,65 Zhaozhong Feng,8
Faming Wang,2,9,65 Yuming Guo,10 Xing Wu,11,65 Prashant Kumar,12,61 Matthias Kästner,13 Xiaojuan Feng,14 Shichang Kang,15 Zhu Liu,16 Yuhao Fu,1,2
Wei Zhao,17 Chaojun Ouyang,18 Jianlin Shen,19 Haijun Wang,20 Scott X. Chang,21 Daniel L. Evans,22 Rong Wang,23 Chunwu Zhu,1,2 Leilei Xiang,1,2
Jörg Rinklebe,24 Miaomiao Du,25 Lei Huang,26 Zhaohai Bai,2,27 Sheng Li,2,28 Rattan Lal,29 Martin Elsner,30 Jean-Pierre Wigneron,31 Fabio Florindo,32,62
Xin Jiang,1,2 Sabry M. Shaheen,24,63 Xinyue Zhong,33 Roland Bol,34,64 Gustavo M. Vasques,35 Xianfeng Li,2,36 Sebastian Pfautsch,37 Mingyi Wang,38
Xiao He,39 Evgenios Agathokleous,40 Huibin Du,41 Hong Yan,42 Fredrick Orori Kengara,43 Ferdi Brahushi,44 Xi-En Long,38 Paulo Pereira,45 Yong Sik Ok,46
Matthias C. Rillig,47 Erik Jeppesen,48,49,50,* Damià Barceló,51 Xiaoyuan Yan,1,2 Nianzhi Jiao,52,* Buxing Han,2 Andreas Schäffer,53 Jing M. Chen,54,*
Yongguan Zhu,2,11,55 Hai Cheng,56 Wulf Amelung,34,57,* Christoph Spötl,58 Jiankang Zhu,59 and James M. Tiedje60,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
2
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3
Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
4
School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
5
The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, London WC1E 7HB, UK
6
Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bobo 8049, Norway
7
Soil, Water and Ecosystem Sciences Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110290, USA
8
Key Laboratory of ECSS-CMA, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
9
Research Station for Tropical Coastal Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
10
Climate, Air Quality Research Unit, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne VIC 3004, Australia
11
State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
12
GCARE, School of Sustainability, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
13
Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig 04318, Germany
14
State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
15
State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Science, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
16
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
17
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
18
Key Laboratory of Mountain Hazards and Surface Process, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
19
Key Laboratory for Agro-Ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
20
Institute for Ecological Research and Pollution Control of Plateau Lakes, School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650504, China
21
Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Alberta T6G 2E3, Canada
22
School of Water, Energy, and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
23
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
24
University of Wuppertal, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Wuppertal 42285, Germany
25
Institute for Environmental Research, RWTH Aachen University, Kackertstraße 10, Aachen 52072, Germany
26
International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China
27
KLAWR, Hebei Key Laboratory of Soil Ecology, Center for Agricultural Resources Research, Institute of Genetic and Developmental Biology, CAS, Shijiazhuang 050021, China
28
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
29
CFAES Rattan Lal Center for Carbon Management and Sequestration, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
30
Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Natural Sciences, Institute of Hydrochemistry, Garching 85748, Germany
31
INRAE, UMR1391 ISPA, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
32
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome 00143, Italy
33
Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing of Gansu Province, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
34
Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, Agrosphere (IBG-3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, Jülich 52425, Germany
35
Embrapa Solos, Rio de Janeiro 22460-000, Brazil
36
Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
37
Urban Transformations Research Centre, Western Sydney University, NSW 2751, Australia
38
School of Geographic Sciences, Nantong University, Nantong 226007, China
39
Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
40
Research Center for Global Changes and Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration & Mitigation, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
41
College of Management and Economy, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
42
State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an 710061, China
43
School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Bomet University College, Bomet 701–20400, Kenya
44
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana 1029, Albania
45
Environmental Management Laboratory, Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius LT-08303, Lithuania
46
APRU Sustainable Waste Management Program and Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
47
Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology, Berlin 14195, Germany
48
Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Silkeborg, Denmark
49
Sino-Danish Centre for Education and Research, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
50
Limnology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences and EKOSAM, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Türkiye
51
IDAEA-CSIC, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, Barcelona 08034 , Spain
52
State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Innovative Research Center for Carbon Neutralization, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361101, China
53
Institute for Environmental Research, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52074, Germany
54
Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G3, Canada
55
Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
56
Institute of Global Environmental Change, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710054, China
57
Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Soil Science and Soil Ecology, University of Bonn, Bonn 53115, Germany
62 The Innovation Geoscience 1(1): 100015, June 26, 2023 www.the-innovation.org/geoscience

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58
Institute of Geology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
59
Institute of Advanced Biotechnology and School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
60
Center for Microbial Ecology, Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, MI 48824, USA
61
Institute for Sustainability, University of Surrey, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
62
Institute for Climate Change Solutions, Via Sorchio snc, Frontone 61040, Italy
63
King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment, and Arid Land Agriculture, Department of Arid Land Agriculture, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
64
School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, Wales, UK
65
These authors contributed equally
*Correspondence: wangfang@issas.ac.cn(F.W.); ej@ecos.au.dk(E.J.); jiao@xmu.edu.cn(N.J.); jing.chen@utoronto.ca(J.C.); wulf.amelung@uni-bonn.de(W.A.); tiedjej@msu.edu(J.T.)
Geoscience
Received: May 14, 2023; Accepted: June 16, 2023; Published Online: June 23, 2023; https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100015
© 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Citation: Wang F., Harindintwali J.-D., Wei K., et al., (2023). Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation. The Innovation Geoscience 1(1), 100015.
The sustainability of life on Earth is under increasing threat due to human- protect coastal communities from rising sea levels or developing drought-
induced climate change. This perilous change in the Earth's climate is resistant crops to combat water scarcity. To prepare for extreme weather
caused by increases in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the events, we may take advantage of using artificial intelligence (AI), high-reso-
atmosphere, primarily due to emissions associated with burning fossil lution monitoring and simulation, and satellite-based remote sensing to
fuels. Over the next two to three decades, the effects of climate change, develop Earth system and climate models based on current and historical
such as heatwaves, wildfires, droughts, storms, and floods, are expected to data and records that can reveal the frequency and severity of these
worsen, posing greater risks to human health and global stability. These events,14,15 These models may be used to predict when and where future
trends call for the implementation of mitigation and adaptation strategies. extreme weather events will occur, as well as to predict the magnitude of
Pollution and environmental degradation exacerbate existing problems and their impact,14 and thus, also to protect people and nature in high-risk areas,
make people and nature more susceptible to the effects of climate change. provided that respective warning systems are in place. Crucially, adapting to
In this review, we examine the current state of global climate change from the effects of climate change entails raising people’s awareness of how to
different perspectives. We summarize evidence of climate change in Earth’s cope with these effects, increasing their ability to respond, and reducing their
spheres, discuss emission pathways and drivers of climate change, and overall risk and vulnerability,16 Also crucial is the collaboration of citizens,
analyze the impact of climate change on environmental and human health. researchers, and policymakers on specific climate change adaptation
We also explore strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation measures to be taken at different levels.17,18
and highlight key challenges for reversing and adapting to global climate Decisive action to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions is another recur-
change. ring demand of this era because, without strong decisive action, global
warming and changing climate patterns will only intensify. As outlined in the
Paris Agreement signed by a large majority of countries, GHG emissions
INTRODUCTION must peak by 2025 at the latest and fall by 43% by 2030, and carbon neutral-
Climate change and environmental destruction are interconnected threats ity needs to be achieved by 2050 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C by the end
to the future of our planet.1 These have arisen because, among others, the of this century.3,19 This requires an urgent and unprecedented transition from
growing global population is preoccupied with the current race for develop- the current carbon-based energy to low-carbon energy. Even though clean
ment, often overlooking the drastic changes in natural systems and their and renewable energy sources are expanding rapidly, the world is not on
associated consequences.2 In fact, since the Industrial Revolution, natural track to meet its Paris Agreement climate goals.20,21 Despite longstanding
resource extraction and the use of fossil fuels have been the backbone of promises to drastically cut GHG emissions, it is becoming increasingly diffi-
global economic systems, and urbanization, intensification of agriculture, and cult to transition burgeoning societies to carbon neutrality while driving
other land-use changes have prevailed over forestation, leading to economic development.22 Ways to mitigate climate change that are compati-
widespread environmental change.3 Notably, burning fossil fuels for trans- ble with long-term sustainable development goals have been proposed.
portation, electricity, and heating has increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- These include, in particular, transforming and integrating food, water, and
sions and affected global temperature and precipitation patterns.4 The aver- energy systems, protecting and developing carbon sinks, and promoting
age global temperature in 2022 was about 0.86 °C higher than the 20th- carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, use, and storage.3,23 Mitigating climate change
century average (13.9 °C) .5 This was the 46th year in a row (since 1977) that also requires changes in human behavior, lifestyle, and food preferences.24
global temperatures have exceeded the 20th-century average. Moreover, the With climate change posing a threat to all, it is more urgent than ever that the
precipitation pattern has changed globally. Climate change is now a pressing global community come together to take stronger action to avoid dangerous
concern, and its effects are manifesting around the world in the form of climate change.
severe weather events and related disasters, including forest fires in Australia In this review, we provide a broad overview of the current state of climate
and the United States,6,7 accelerated melting of high-latitude ice sheets, and change in global ecosystems and strategies that have been developed for
sea-level rise,8 alterations of river flow regimes,9 extreme rainfall in China,10 climate change adaptation and mitigation. First, a brief account of the drivers
droughts in South Africa,11 and the extinction of species,12 as well as the of climate change is presented, focusing mainly on the contribution of human
emerging and transmission of infectious diseases,13 to name a few. Because activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and land use change. Then, we
climate change threatens humans and the environment, it is crucial to find discuss studies of evidence of climate change in different spheres of the
ways to adapt to and mitigate its effects before it becomes irreversible. Earth and its impact on biodiversity, the environment, and human health.
There is a growing consensus among experts that climate change adapta- Moreover, we address recent developments in climate change adaptation
tion strategies are essential alongside mitigation strategies to address the and mitigation strategies, mostly those that are in line with sustainable socio-
challenges of global warming. This is because even if all anthropogenic economic development. Finally, we provide insight into simulation modeling
emissions were abruptly stopped, the climate would still change. Since it will to assess future climate scenarios and the prospects and challenges of
take decades for climate change mitigation efforts to have a noticeable adapting to and reversing global warming.
impact on rising temperatures, it is imperative to transform global systems to
adapt to the changes that are already occurring and will persist in the fore- DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
seeable future. This may require developing and adopting strategies across Climate change has been a natural occurrence throughout Earth's history,
all global development systems to adapt and build resilience to climate with fluctuations in temperature and atmospheric composition occurring over
change. These strategies include, for example, building coastal sea walls to millions of years.25 Natural factors such as volcanic activity, changes in solar

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Figure 1. Schematic representation of the global mean energy balance process associated with the natural (left) and human-enhanced (right) greenhouse effect, with bright
yellow indicating incoming solar shortwave radiation and red representing outgoing terrestrial longwave radiation.
radiation, and variations in Earth's orbit and tilt have all played a role in these trend of continuous growth without any global emissions peak in sight. If the
changes. However, human activities during the past two centuries have current emission growth rate continues, the 1.5 °C budget, which is crucial for
greatly contributed to climate change by affecting Earth's surface albedo mitigating the most severe consequences of climate change, will likely be
(reflectivity) and changing the amount of heat the planet absorbs (Fig. 1).26 exhausted within 7.1 years (67% probability). The top five emitters, including
One of the primary ways that human activities have affected Earth's surface China, the United States, the European Union, India, and Russia, collectively
albedo is through land use changes such as deforestation and urbanization. account for 65% of global emissions, with emissions of 11.1, 4.98, 2.75, 2.65,
Trees and other vegetation absorb sunlight and reflect less of it into space and 1.87 GtCO2, respectively. Moreover, while representing smaller emission
than bare ground or urban surfaces, which increases the amount of heat volumes, emerging economies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America experienced
absorbed by the planet. More importantly, human activities such as burning emission growth rates surpassing the global average between 2010 and
fossil fuels for energy release large amounts of CO2. Meanwhile, human 2018, emphasizing the critical role these economies play in global climate
activities produce a significant quantity of GHGs such as methane (CH4), mitigation policies.30 Therefore, a comprehensive, multi-scale approach is
nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlo- imperative for addressing the intricate landscape of global emissions and
rofluorocarbons (HCFCs) into the atmosphere.27 These gases trap outgoing devising effective mitigation strategies tailored to each region's unique
longwave radiation from the Earth that would otherwise be emitted into circumstances and challenges to limit global temperature increases to well
space, leading to a warming effect on the planet. This section discusses below 1.5 °C.
emissions as the main drivers of climate change and provides a brief
overview of climate change in the Earth's history. Historical overview of climate change
The widespread recognition of the Anthropocene concept 33-35 reflects the
Global emission accounts at multiple scales fact that human activities are now the predominant factor influencing Earth's
The increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations is a major concern for the climate and that the fate of all ecosystems depends on the mercy of
planet. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other human activities humans.36,37 This, in turn, strongly affects the future of humanity.
have contributed to this increase (Fig. 2). As of 2022, the atmospheric CO2 Throughout Earth's history, the climate has changed due to a variety of
concentration has reached 417.2 ppm, which is 51% higher than pre-indus- factors (Fig. 2),38 including changes in solar irradiance,39-41 movements of
trial levels, and is rising at a rate of 5.2 ± 0.02 GtC yr−1.28 Fossil fuels remain tectonic plates,42-44 magmatic activity 45,46 from the extent of the sporadic
the primary source of anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere, with Pinatubo eruption of 1991 to the eruption of the Siberian Traps 252 million
emissions continuing to rise. In 2020, the global COVID-19 pandemic resulted years ago, changing Earth’s orbital parameters,47-49 continental collisions and
in a record decline in carbon emissions, which fell by 5.4% (1.9 GtCO2) uplift of mountains and plateaus,50,51 changes of ocean currents and gate-
compared to the previous year. This decline was short-lived, however, as ways,48,49,52 and changes in atmospheric composition.53-55 In Earth’s history,
2021 saw a rapid rebound to pre-pandemic emission levels.29 Consequently, variations in the atmospheric composition were caused by the chemical
by 2022, global emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement produc- weathering of rocks, which consumes atmospheric CO2. For example, atmo-
tion reached 36.1 ± 0.3 GtCO2, indicating a resumption of the pre-pandemic spheric CO2 gradually declined over the last 50 Myr at a long-term rate of

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Geoscience
Figure 2. Evolution of atmospheric CO2 over the past 800,000 years (800 kyr), major climate change drivers, and greenhouse effect Atmospheric CO2 based on data from air
trapped in polar ice and direct air measurements collected at the Mauna Loa Observatory (https://keelingcurve.ucsd.edu).31,32 The dark and light blue bands in the graph repre-
sent interglacial and glacial periods, respectively. The right panel represents the evolution of carbon dioxide over the past 50,000 years (50 kyr). Data for the recent 8,000 years
are shown in red.
about 16 ppm Myr–1.53 Weathering of continental flood basalts is considered very low.82
to have triggered the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth glaciations.54 A recent Over the past half-century, there has been significant progress in analyz-
study55 also shows that Earth’s climate may be stabilized over millennia by ing the causes of climate change, i.e., assessing the relative contributions of
the solubilization of atmospheric carbon dioxide as minerals weather. Mean- multiple causal factors to an observed change in climate variables (e.g.,
while, volcanoes have emitted large amounts of carbon dioxide throughout global surface temperature or a climate event), thanks to advances in climate
Earth’s history.56-58 The accumulation of CO2 has been considered the main modeling and the use of supercomputers. In the 1960s, Syukuro Manabe
cause of the end of Snowball Earth.59 demonstrated through his research that the increased levels of carbon diox-
Various feedback processes modulate the amplitude of climate change,60 ide in the Earth's atmosphere led to a rise in temperatures near the surface.83
such as sea ice-albedo feedbacks,61,62 snow and ice-albedo feedbacks,63,64 He also developed early mathematical models of the planet's climate, which
water vapor feedbacks,65,66 feedbacks due to CH4 and CO2 in permafrost,67,68 helped to understand how the Earth's climate system works. Klaus Hassel-
feedbacks due to wildfires,69-71 and vegetation-climate feedbacks.60,72 It mann built on Manabe's work and created a model that linked weather and
should be noted that most of the feedback is positive, amplifying small climate.84 Manabe and Hasselmann were awarded the 2021 Nobel Prize in
warming into strong warming and, conversely, amplifying the cooling. Physics for their contributions to advancing our understanding of how the
For most of the Earth's history, however, climate change occurred rela- Earth's climate system works and how it changes over time.85 Climate attri-
tively slowly, taking millions of years or more to produce a measurable signal bution shows that we cannot reproduce the global warming trend of the past
on a geological time scale. Even some of the most extreme climate change 170 years if we consider only natural drivers.86 Progress in this field has led to
events in Earth's history, which are considered abrupt events in deep time, six versions of climate change assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel
have been much slower than the global warming we are currently experienc- on Climate Change (IPCC), which have been the basis for global climate
ing. For example, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) action and policy adjustment.
about 55.8 million years ago, when global temperature increased by 4-7 ℃
within 3000-20,000 years,73-75 atmospheric CO2 increased from 900 ppm to CLIMATE CHANGE EVIDENCE IN EARTH’S SPHERES
about 2,000 ppm,74,76 with an average annual increase of 0.04-0.42 ppm. In Atmosphere
contrast, the CO2 concentration has increased from 280 ppm to about 420 Natural and anthropogenic emissions determine the composition of the
ppm from 1860 to the present, and the growth rate has reached about 2.5 atmosphere, and the basic structure of the Earth-atmosphere climate system
ppm per year since 2000, much faster than during the PETM event. accounts for the coupling between the atmosphere and climate change.
Climate change may also be superimposed by processes within the Apart from the variable amounts of water vapor, more than 99.9% of the other
climate system,38 such as changes in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere consist of nitrogen, oxygen, and chemi-
(ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole, Pacific Decadal Variability, Atlantic Meridional cally inert noble gases.87 Most of these gases have been at nearly constant
Mode, Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability, and Northern Annular Mode. Climate levels for the past billion years. The remaining atmospheric constituents,
evolution can also be interrupted by sporadic events, such as the meteorite representing less than 0.1% of the atmospheric molecules, including CO2 and
impact 66 million years ago that ended the age of the dinosaurs, or the melt- CH4, influence several crucial atmospheric processes.88
water flood that triggered the Younger Dryas cooling event around 12,800 yr Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have increased GHGs,
BP.77-79 Observations show that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circula- reaching values of 410 ppm for CO2, 1866 ppb for CH4, and 332 ppb for N2O
tion (AMO) has weakened since the 2000s and may continue to decline in the in 2019.86 CO2, the chemical feedstock for photosynthesis, is an important
21st century;80,81 the likelihood of this leading to abrupt climate variability is factor in the Earth’s radiation balance. In the period 1850-2019, a total of

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2390 ± 240 GtCO2 of anthropogenic CO2 was emitted. Gases and particulate ing. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect the decom-
matter released into the atmosphere are transported by winds. Their radia- position rates of SOC and the formation of SIC. Warming and increasing soil
tive absorption influences the atmosphere’s temperature structure and moisture content can lead to an increase in soil respiration rates by enhanc-
climate.89 The 0.6 ℃ increase in global surface air temperature during the 20th ing microbial activity and increasing SOC decomposition rates.107 This consti-
century has been predominantly attributed to the increasing atmospheric tutes a positive carbon-climate feedback loop that could also exacerbate
concentration of GHG, which has also led to substantial changes in the global warming. However, excessive soil moisture resulting from heavy rain-
mesosphere, thermosphere, and ionosphere, including thermal contraction of fall can limit oxygen availability in the soil, leading to anaerobic conditions
these layers.86 Based on current measurements of climate-sensitivity, an that reduce the soil respiration rate.108 Permafrost soils retain an additional
increase in atmospheric CO2 results in a temperature increases of ~1 ℃ per 1,460-1,600 Pg C, and permafrost regions are highly vulnerable to warming
100 ppm CO2. and predicted to experience greater temperature increases than other regions
The stratospheric ozone layer is a region of the Earth's atmosphere that due to climate change.109 The thawing of permafrost could release massive
contains high concentrations of ozone.90 This layer plays a vital role in amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, further exacerbating climate change.
protecting life on Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from It has been estimated that warming will result in a sustained 30 ± 4% increase
the sun. The ozone layer absorbs most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radia- in CO2 efflux through the whole-soil profile and could induce a loss of 190 Pg
tion, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface and causing damage to of soil carbon in the upper 1 m over the 21st century.110 In contrast, warming
organisms. However, since the 1970s, scientists have observed a significant is also reported to enhance SOC by increasing plant-derived carbon accumu-
decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere.91,92 This depletion was lation.111
primarily caused by human-made chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons The uncertainty about the effects of warming on soil carbon stocks, there-
(CFCs), which were widely used as refrigerants, solvents, and propellants in fore, arises from the balance between the climate-driven increases in plant-
aerosol cans. When released into the atmosphere, CFCs rise to the strato- derived carbon and soil organic carbon decomposition. Moreover, the
sphere, where they are broken down by ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlo- temperature response of soil carbon is temporally and spatially heteroge-
rine atoms that react with and destroy ozone molecules.92 The depletion of neous, with substantial carbon loss due to undetectable changes.110,112 The
the stratospheric ozone layer is closely linked to climate change. Changes in effect of warming on soil carbon depends on soil depth and ecosystem type.
the amount of ozone in the stratosphere can affect atmospheric tempera- For example, carbon loss may be restricted to the topsoil in warmed subarc-
tures and circulation patterns, ocean currents, and the Earth's carbon cycle.93 tic grasslands 112 but extended to the subsoil (with ~33% ± 11% loss after 4.5
Furthermore, concentrations of tropospheric ozone, a secondary air pollutant, years of warming) in a conifer forest.113 Warming may also alter the molecu-
have increased in the Northern Hemisphere from 10 to 15 ppb in pre-indus- lar composition of soil organic matter, with microbial carbon accumulation at
trial times to ~50 ppb today, causing premature deaths and threatening food the expense of plant-derived lignin under stimulated microbial processes.114-
116
security.94 Similar to warming, the effect of drought on soil carbon storage is signifi-
In the lower atmosphere, particular matter (PM), also referred to as cant, especially in peatlands and wetlands with high soil carbon density.
aerosols, alters atmospheric visibility and affects biogeochemical cycles and Droughts in these wet ecosystems may introduce oxygen into the anoxic
meteorology. Ice cores show increases in aerosols across the Northern soils and stimulate the microbial decomposition of organic carbon.117 In other
Hemisphere since 1700, and reductions since the late 20th century.86 PM10 is ecosystems, drought and warming result in variable responses of soil organic
one of the most important air pollutants, representing a major component of matter decomposition rates to changes in soil temperature and moisture
smog and threatening all forms of life. In the last two decades, a 22% reduc- conditions.118-120 Therefore, the degradation of wetlands caused by climate
tion in global PM10 levels has occurred, contributed mostly by developed change is well reflected in the records of carbon accumulation in soil profiles.
countries.95 Climate change has noteworthy effects on reactive gases present Soil nutrient cycling. Climate change has a significant effect on soil nutri-
in the atmosphere, such as reactive nitrogen, ozone, and aerosols.96 These ent cycling. Warming, elevated atmospheric CO2, and nitrogen (N) deposition
reactive gases have an impact on the air quality and can cause various envi- are reported to enhance vegetation growth and increase gross primary
ronmental problems.97 The alteration in temperature and precipitation productivity, leading to higher nutrient demand, especially for phosphorus
patterns as a result of climate change influences nitrogen deposition and (P).121 Although the impact of warming on P cycling remains controversial, it
uptake by plants, as well as ozone formation.98 Additionally, changes in atmo- is widely accepted that P availability may not meet plants’ increasing
spheric circulation patterns lead to changes in the transport and distribution demands.122 Other rock-derived nutrients, such as calcium, also become an
of reactive nitrogen compounds and ozone.99 Light-absorbing aerosols heat increasingly scarce resource during vegetation succession (e.g., in central
the atmosphere while cooling the Earth’s surface, and the atmospheric heat- African forests123). It remains to be examined if climate change-induced
ing caused by particulate absorption also affects local cloud formation and vegetation growth may also exacerbate the limitation of these nutrients. By
precipitation.100 Although the interactions among aerosols, clouds, and radia- comparison, N can be fixed biologically, relieving N limitation.124 Noteworthy,
tion are subject to large uncertainties, the cooling effect on the climate the degree of carbon loss by temperature increase depends on the availabil-
system, including the carbon and water cycles caused by changes in solar ity of nutrients, particularly of N and P,125,126 thus resulting in complex feed-
radiation could offset some of the effects of increasing GHGs (Fig. 3). Climate back loops. However, higher precipitation can increase the risk of N loss
change is also a factor increasing the long-range transport of persistent through denitrification, leaching, and runoff. Denitrification is particularly
organic pollutants from urban/industrial and agricultural source regions in the important under wet conditions caused by flooding or permafrost thawing
mid-latitudes in the atmosphere and deposition in e.g., polar environments.101 and can result in the release of N2O.127 As a potent GHG with a global warm-
ing potential of 300 times that of CO2 on a 100-year timescale,128 increased
Pedosphere N2O emissions will lead to further feedback on climate change, exacerbating
Soil carbon cycling. Soils play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, the already dire situation.129 Flooding-induced runoff of nutrients and soil, in
storing up to 2,500 Pg [1 Pg (petagram) = 1 billion metric tons] of carbon in turn, may enhance the eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and reduce
organic (1,550 Pg) and inorganic (950 Pg) forms.102,103 Soil organic carbon drinking water quality (Fig. 3).130,131
(SOC) is the largest terrestrial carbon pool and is mainly composed of Climate change has also consequences for the fate and effects of environ-
decomposed plant and animal residues.104 On the other hand, soil inorganic mental pollutants in the environment. Not only will rising temperature lead to
carbon (SIC) refers to carbon present in the form of minerals such as calcium enhanced concentrations in the atmosphere (see Subsection 3.1) but the
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and calcium-magnesium carbonate.105 increasing frequency of extreme weather events remobilizes contaminants by
Both SIC and SOC interact with climate in complex ways. One of the primary run-off from topsoil contaminated with pesticides in agricultural fields and
effects of climate change on SIC is the alteration of soil pH.106 from river sediments during flooding events.132 Exposure to organisms with
Increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations can lead to the dissolution of these bioactive substances will impact biodiversity 133 and promote pesticide
carbonates in soils, thereby reducing the soil pH.105 This process can lead to resistance.134
the release of CO2 into the atmosphere and further exacerbate global warm- Soil diversity. Soil fauna, microorganisms, and viruses are integral

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Geoscience
Figure 3. Evidence of global climate change and its effects on the environment.
elements of the soil biota and play key roles in many ecosystem functions, able energy-containing substrates is needed in agricultural soils, such as
which are recognized to be sensitive to climate change.135,136 Climate change, provided by crop residue return or the application of biochar. Given that soil
directly and indirectly, shifts the geographical range of soil biota species and biota play a critical role in ecosystem functions, the potential consequences
affects their diversity and abundance through several interrelated factors, of biomass and diversity loss, composition shift, and local extinction are
such as temperature, moisture, soil physical and chemical properties, and enormous.
plant input.137,138 Although responses of various soil biota to climate change
differ, there is consensus that climate change is causing changes in soil biota Hydrosphere
community density, diversity loss, and extensive habitat shift, as soil biota are Global warming may affect the hydrosphere through the melting of
subjected to heat or moisture stress, with the tendency to migrate to high glaciers, inducing droughts and floods, partially desiccated river beds, and
latitudes and high elevations along with plants (Fig. 3).139 In addition, soil rising sea levels,141 resulting in a series of cascading problems threatening
microorganisms need both energy and carbon for growth and to maintain global sustainable development, ecosystems, and biodiversity.142 As such, the
their activities for soil functions.140 Therefore, a minimal amount of consum- climate change crisis is also a water crisis, and climate change affects global

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water resources in complex ways.141 Therefore, it is essential to consider the scenario where temperatures will increase by 2-4 ℃, 10%-13% of species
water management when drafting climate policies and strategies and ensure in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems will be at high risk of extinction, and
water security and resilience for humans and ecosystems.143 ecosystem structures will be transformed by 15%-35%.150
Climate change significantly impacts the complex water cycle system Water has hydro- and biophysical characteristics and socio-political and
(Fig. 3). Firstly, climate change exacerbates evaporation rates. The globe is cultural dimensions.143 More than 2 billion people live in countries with severe
experiencing smaller ice coverage, and the average annual global lake evapo- water shortages, which will affect food supplies as agriculture accounts for
ration rate is expected to increase by 16% by 2100.144 Also, accelerated vege- 60% to 70% of the water used by humans.150 The rise of sea levels associ-
tation transpiration may lead to water stress and reduced photosynthesis and ated with global climate change is a significant social effect that will have a
growth.145 Moreover, global land evapotranspiration has increased substan- disproportionate impact on coastal and low-lying areas.168 In addition, the
tially, resulting in a decrease in terrestrial water storage, which causes impact of climate change will have a greater effect on disadvantaged
droughts in many regions of the globe.146 By the late 21st century, it is communities in less developed regions, resulting in a lack of access to food
projected that 67% of the land area (excluding Greenland, Antarctica, and and water, as well as the deterioration and disappearance of habitats.143,169
mountain glaciers) will experience a decline in water reserves.146 Secondly, This will lead to an increase in food and water insecurity, as well as a loss of
climate change could alter precipitation patterns. For example, according to biodiversity. The most vulnerable groups, such as women and children, will
Piao et al.,147 the precipitation disparity between different regions in China has be the most affected by these changes. In addition, the degradation of natu-
become even more apparent. While the wetter southern areas have ral resources will exacerbate poverty and inequality in these areas. However,
witnessed a rise in rainfall, the northern territories, which are already rela- current climate solutions often ignore issues of injustice and fail to address
tively dry, have experienced a decrease of 12% in precipitation since 1960.147 the urgent need for targeted action in the right places.169 To improve water
Therefore, dry places are drier due to the combined effects of lower precipita- adaptation efforts, a reorientation towards a justice- and rights-based frame-
tion and higher evapotranspiration.147,148 On the other hand, increased atmo- work is necessary.143
spheric water vapor in the wetter region can give rise to more intense precipi- In summary, climate change and water are closely interconnected. The
tation events,149 intensifying extreme hydrological events such as more solution to climate change requires integration and interplay coordination
frequent storms and floods.142,150 Water-related natural disasters have been across all aspects of hydrology, ecosystems, and sustainable development.
the most common natural disasters over the past 50 years, accounting for To address climate change effectively, we need to restore aquatic ecosys-
70% of all related deaths.151 Thirdly, climate change can impact surface water tems, improve water management to mitigate the risks of climate change,
runoff. Reduced runoff can occur due to factors such as decreased precipita- enhance early warning systems for water-related disasters, develop new
tion, increased evapotranspiration, and excessive water consumption by agricultural systems that reduce water usage, and create a more equitable
humans and agriculture.152 Also, dry soil moisture can cause a stronger and social distribution system that meets the needs of everyone. Climate solu-
faster reduction in runoff than evapotranspiration.152 However, climate tions must prioritize water and consider those facing water insecurity, taking
change can also lead to increased surface water runoff and flood risk in into account local contexts and ensuring that all voices are heard.169
some regions, due to increased rainfall during rainy seasons and glacier
meltwater caused by rising temperatures.142,153-156 Finally, the primary source Biosphere
of groundwater recharge is infiltration, and the quantity and quality of The biosphere is severely impacted by climate change (Fig. 3). Two of the
groundwater can differ due to changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, most widely discussed changes in the biosphere are shifts of biomes
and surface runoff caused by climate change.155,157,158 In addition, land use towards the pole regions or higher elevations 170,171 and changes in plant,
and urbanization are among the most immediate factors that change the microbial, and animal phenology.170,172 The shifts of plant species towards the
groundwater response to climate change by polluting and depleting ground- pole or higher elevation are especially pronounced as the cold regions or high
water resources.155,157 elevations become warmer and more suitable for their growth, with changes
Climate change and water affect the environment and ecosystems in in plant productivity, mortality, recruitment, and greenness starting along the
several ways. In the ocean, rising temperatures and carbon dioxide concen- climatic margins of the concerned biome.171,173 As a result of climate change,
trations are causing ocean water to decrease in pH.159 The heat exacerbates the forest biome, for example, expands its range or simply shifts its distribu-
pressures on oceanic ecosystems from declining local water quality and tion towards the pole or higher elevation as the lower latitude or elevation
overexploitation of key species.159 The reproduction of maritime animals regions become too hot or dry for tree growth.174 In the northern hemisphere,
depends on the seawater temperature, and species such as reef corals are evergreen forests are expanding into areas currently occupied by tundra,
increasingly approaching the point of functional collapse.159,160 Changes in the while grasslands or temperate forests are replacing evergreen forests at the
marine environment are related to both terrestrial and freshwater environ- southern edge of the boreal forest biome.175 The species that expand their
ments. Harmful algal blooms can occur in freshwater and marine environ- range are more responsive to climate change and more mobile. On the other
ments,161 threatening ecosystems through factors such as changes in hand, species that are less responsive to climate change or mobile or have
temperature and seasonal rainfall.162 Warmer ocean temperatures can also slower rates of niche divergence may shrink their geographical distribution as
contribute to exacerbating extreme weather events on land, such as more they are outcompeted by other species that expand their range.170,176 Range
frequent typhoons.148 Hydrological extreme events will also change the shifts can lead to the loss of some species in certain areas and the arrival of
migration and transformation of pollutants and water dilution capacity, new species in others.
affecting the hydrological cycle and water environment.150 According to Plants and animals with an annual cycle in response to changes in
projections, the average intensity of lake heatwaves [defined relative to the temperature will alter their phenology in response to climate change. Pheno-
historical period (1970 to 1999)] will increase from 3.7 ± 0.1 ℃ to 5.4 ± 0.8 ℃ logical changes could include changes in the timing of flowering or leaf
by 2099 under the scenario of elevated greenhouse gas emissions.163 Their senescence of plants and the mating, breeding, and spawning or hibernation
average duration will dramatically increase from 7.7 ± 0.4 to 95.5 ± 35.3 days. time of animals.170 These changes are linked to altered temperature, precipi-
Also, fish diversity in freshwater decreases with higher temperatures and tation, and other climate variables. Phenological changes are widely recorded
lower precipitation.164 Moreover, more than 16% of wetlands will be at risk of and are one of the most visible and sensitive responses of natural ecosys-
disappearing, endangering countless species.165 Additionally, global warming tems to climate change.177 The documentation of plant phenology dates back
has dramatically impacted the cryosphere, accelerating the retreat of glaciers thousands of years.172 Earlier leafing out of plants and delays in autumn color
and reducing the number of days and depth of snow cover.150 On land, change and leaf fall of deciduous plants have been widely reported.170,178,179
precipitation, and vegetation transpiration influences plant growth productiv- For example, the greening of temperate forests in Europe has started 8 to 15
ity, causing reductions in phytocoenosium.145,166 Temperature, moisture avail- days earlier since the 1950s.180 Piao et al. 172 provide a comprehensive review
ability, and precipitation are the main variables affecting wildfires.167 The area of the evidence for climate change to alter plant phenology based on in situ
affected by wildfires is projected to increase by 35%-40%, significantly reduc- and satellite observations and discuss the factors and mechanisms driving
ing forests by 50% worldwide by the end of the century.150 Generally, under plant phenological changes. They show that phenological changes are

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affected to a greater extent in China than in North America, with Europe significant loss of life. Populations in High-Mountain Asia are most exposed
falling between those two regions.172 There has also been widespread vege- to impacts from GLOFs, with nearly 1 million people living within 10 km of
tation greening since the 1980s primarily due to the CO2 fertilization effect.181 such glacier lakes.209
Climate change-induced changes in biome shifts, vegetation density, and Secondly, cryosphere shrinking can cause changes in runoff and water
phenology have implications for increasing vegetation activity and the uptake supply. Glacier-fed basins' runoff will peak before or around the middle of the
of carbon dioxide,175,182 providing negative feedback on climate change. Other 21st century in High-Mountain Asia, the European Alps, Western Canada, and
evidence of climate change reflected in the biosphere includes the die-off of the USA, affecting downstream water resources and ecosystems.210 In addi-
plants and animals due to climate change-induced stresses such as heat tion, glacier decline and permafrost degradation can accelerate the release of
waves, drought, fire, or outbreak of insects and diseases.183-186 In some areas,
Geoscience
long-stored legacy pollutants (persistent organic pollutants, particularly poly-
climate change lengthens the growing season and increases the tempera- chlorinated biphenyls, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, polycyclic aromatic
ture in both the dormant and growing seasons, favoring the reproduction and hydrocarbons, and heavy metals), with potential risks on ecology and human
spread of pests and diseases. For example, the outbreak of pine beetles in systems.211 Cryosphere changes also pose challenges for terrestrial ecosys-
North America has been linked to higher temperatures, as the beetles can tems. On the one hand, snow cover, and glacier changes have altered soil
survive in areas where cold winter temperatures previously kept their popula- moisture in river catchments, providing new conditions for survival and adap-
tions in check.187 Climate change-induced changes in precipitation patterns tation for many plants and animal species, increasing plant productivity, and
impact the distribution and abundance of insects and diseases that rely on expanding species habitats.212-215 On the other hand, the rapid shrinking of the
moisture.188 Such changes undoubtedly affect various ecosystems' biodiver- cryosphere has led to the loss or disappearance of habitats that depend on
sity and community.176 snow and ice cover, reducing species richness and habitat migration
upward.216-218
Cryosphere The cryosphere provides humans with essential recreational and cultural
The cryosphere is integral to the Earth’s climate system, including glaciers, services.219 The shortening of snow cover duration and the decrease in snow-
ice sheets, snow cover, permafrost, sea ice, ice shelf, etc. Over the past few fall have affected the development of skiing and winter tourism and caused
decades, the cryosphere has experienced significant and widespread shrink- great economic losses.220,221 Cryospheric changes also impact cultural values
ing in response to global warming.189,190 and human well-being.222 Humans pursue cryospheric aesthetics and reli-
Glaciers worldwide have been shrinking since the second half of the 19th gious beliefs. For example, the loss of glaciers could threaten the local ethnic
century.38 Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the mass loss rate of identity and be viewed as the result of a failure to show respect to sacred
glaciers worldwide was 170 ± 80 Gt yr–1 from 1971 through 2019 and 240 ± beings, leading to environmental degradation and the decline of natural and
40 Gt yr–1 during 2006-2019.38 Glacier mass loss has increased significantly social orders.223,224
in the past few decades due to global warming, influencing river systems by
altering discharge timing, quantity, and quality (Fig. 3).38 Between 2006 and Impact of climate change on the fate and effects of environmental pollu-
2015, the Greenland Ice Sheet lost mass at a mean rate of 278 ± 11 Gt yr–1 tants
while the Antarctic Ice Sheet lost mass at a rate of 155 ± 19 Gt yr–1 which is Climate change, particularly global increased temperatures, will alter
equivalent to 0.77 ± 0.03 mm yr–1 and 0.43 ± 0.05 mm yr–1 of global sea level Earth's physical, chemical, and biological processes, thus influencing the
rise, respectively.191,192 profile and transformation patterns of environmental pollutants in the differ-
The monthly snow cover extent (SCE) in the Northern Hemisphere has ent environmental media.225 Higher temperatures, thawing of permafrost
experienced a declining trend for all seasons during 1981-2018, especially in soils, rising sea levels, shrinking ice cover, changing patterns of precipitation,
November, December, March, and May. The reduction rate of SCE was more etc., could impact the deposition, dispersion, and in some cases effects of
pollutants on environmental organisms and human beings.226 Specifically,
than 50×103 km2 yr−1.193 At the same time, snow depth has shown a negative
rising temperatures can lead to higher water vapor pressure and may cause
trend, and snowmelt advanced in spring.194 Permafrost temperatures
certain pollutants to evaporate more easily and enter the atmosphere, where
increased by 0.29 ± 0.12 ℃ from 2007 through 2016, reaching the highest
they can be transported globally.227 Extreme weather events can cause signif-
level since the 1980s.195 Soil temperatures near the depth of 30 cm below the
icant environmental damage by re-mobilizing pollutants previously contained
surface have significantly increased in permafrost regions over the last 30-40
in sediments and permafrost.101,228,229 A warmer climate increases crop losses
years.189,190 The active layer thickness has generally increased in high-eleva-
by pests, and extensive pesticide applications expend pesticide resistance,
tion areas since the mid-1990s in Europe and Asia 196-199 and in the early 21st
thereby threatening global food security.134,230 Increasing pollutant load exac-
century across the European and Russian Arctic.200,201
erbated by climate change may directly threaten human and environmental
Monthly sea-ice extent and area in the Arctic have declined since 1979,
health, as well as planetary safety.231 Dramatic climatic change is the grave
with most of the decline occurring after 2000.189,190 Compared with the period
consequence of excessive consumption of materials and energy; it also
of 1979-1988, the monthly mean Arctic sea-ice area decreased by 2 million
amplifies hazardous pollutants.232 Sustainable management of chemical
km2 from August through October between 2010-2019, and the greatest
substances and material cycles, involving greater resource efficiency, suffi-
reduction was observed in late summer-early autumn.190 In addition, sea-ice ciency, and consistency, can slow and reduce contaminant fluxes regionally
thickness and volume are decreasing. First-year sea ice has become domi- and globally under climate change scenarios.225 Therefore, we recommend
nant, while multi-year ice is diminishing or almost disappearing.202 In recent that an international framework, endorsed by many governments and global
years, there has also been a discernible decrease in the monthly extent and health agencies, be established to effectively manage these substances,
area of sea ice in the Southern Ocean, which is thought to be linked to vari- avoiding potential pollutants.
ous environmental factors, including rising temperatures and alterations in
wind patterns.203 According to some studies, the rate of decline in sea-ice Impact of climate change on public and environmental health
extent in the Southern Ocean may be even more rapid than in the Arctic.204 Climate change has emerged as a significant threat to global public
Rapid changes in the cryosphere have significant impacts on natural health.233 Extreme weather events, including heatwaves, wildfires, hurricanes,
hazards, hydrology and water resources, ecosystems, and human livelihoods. droughts, and floods, have led to a series of adverse health impacts from
Firstly, glacier retreat and permafrost degradation reduce the slope and rock excess mortality234,235 and morbidity236,237 to negative birth outcomes238,239 and
stabilities, leading to a higher frequency of landslides and related infrastruc- mental health issues.240,241
ture destructions.205-207 An increase in wet-snow conditions causes an One of climate change's most immediate impacts is the increase in
increasing trend in avalanches in the western Indian Himalayas and temperature extremes. Specifically, a multicity study in China indicated that
Europe.189,208 Glacier and snow cover melt-related floods have increased in heatwaves increased risks of non-accidental mortality, with 0-10 day lags
recent decades. The increase in the number and area of glacier lakes has led exhibiting pronounced effects.242 Heatwaves cause heat stroke and dehydra-
to more abundant glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) that can result in tion, exacerbating existing health conditions such as cardiorespiratory

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diseases.243 A 1 °C temperature rise was associated with a significant

increase in morbidity due to arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, and coronary heart
disease.244 Notably, compared to morbidity, cardiorespiratory mortality
appeared to be more vulnerable to heat waves.242,245 Furthermore, heat waves
have been linked to adverse birth outcomes. During 2010-2020, heatwave
exposure in China caused an average of 13,262 preterm births annually, of
which 25.8% were attributed to anthropogenic climate change. This conse-
quently leads to substantial human capital losses exceeding $1 billion.246 The
mental health impact of heat waves cannot be ignored either. A recent meta-
analysis showed that for every 1 °C rise in temperature, there was a 2.2%
increase in mental health-related mortality and a 0.9% increase in mental
health-related morbidity.236
Due to increasing dryness and rising temperatures, more frequent wildfires
will likely occur worldwide. In addition to the direct health effects such as
burns, injuries, or death caused by flames or radiant heat,247 wildfire smoke is
a risk factor for various health outcomes, contributing to significant eleva-
tions of air pollutants.248 A global study found that for every 10 μg/m3
increase in wildfire-related PM2.5 exposure, there was a 1.9, 1.7, and 1.9 Figure 4. The consequences of protecting and not protecting biodiversity from
higher risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality, human impacts with and without mitigation of anthropogenic climate change The
diagram outlines four scenarios of successful and unsuccessful conservation of biodi-
respectively.249 Moreover, exposure to wildfires was associated with adverse versity and mitigation of climate change. See Costello265 for details of extinction esti-
birth outcomes, including preterm birth and low birth weight.250 Residents mates.
affected by wildfires may also experience enhanced risk for mental condi-
attributed to climate change are of two endemic species. The extinction of
tions, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and insom-
nia, due to traumatic experiences, property loss, and displacement.251 The the golden toad and the Bramble Cays mouse was attributed to global warm-
psychological consequences of wildfire events can persist for years, as ing and sea-level rise on their mountaintop and low-lying island habitats,
observed in some cases.252 respectively.265
Climate change has been linked to severe storms, cyclones, and heavy rain Considering the numerous papers claiming actual or predicting climate-
events that lead to flooding. According to a study by Dosa et al.,253 in Florida, related extinctions, it seems surprising that only two species may have gone
there was an increased odds ratio of mortality at 1.12 within 30 days post- extinct due to climate change. This is because some studies only record local
exposure to Hurricane Irma, with a higher odds ratio of 1.18 observed in long- extinctions which should be called extirpations because the species still live
stay residents. Watkins et al.254 suggest that the elevated exposure to phtha- elsewhere, and/or may have moved elsewhere. Others report “extinction risk”
lates due to hurricanes, coupled with extensive infrastructure damage, limited which is difficult to quantify. Furthermore, such studies often omit to count
access to basic necessities (e.g., food and water), and prolonged loss of elec- species that have shifted their range into their study area. Species richness is
tricity and communication services, may heighten the risk of adverse birth generally increasing in higher latitudes and decreasing in low latitudes.
outcomes among susceptible pregnant women. Furthermore, Schwartz et Because higher species richness has been conventionally considered better
al.255 found that the co-occurrence of individual and structural damage than low species richness, the increasing diversity in mid and high latitudes
resulting from Hurricane Sandy was significantly associated with the long- may be considered as a positive effect of climate change. However, from a
term persistence of PTSD symptoms. Hurricane-related PTSD symptoms human perspective these geographically variable, climate change-induced,
can promote the risk of cardiovascular disease among older adults accord- environmental changes can lead to a loss of traditional natural wildlife
ing to Lenane et al.256 resources and impacts on agriculture and aquaculture.266 Changes to biodi-
Females, children, adolescents, the elderly, and socio-economically disad- versity are not limited to shifts in species distributions but include changing
vantaged individuals are all vulnerable to the health impacts of climate abundance, ecological interactions, and maximum body size in ectotherms
change.257,258 Children are more susceptible to heat-related and infectious such as fish, mollusks, and crustaceans of commercial importance.267,268
diseases, while the elderly are particularly vulnerable to temperature extremes Thus, the challenge for climate change and biodiversity is that people must
and air pollution.243 Additionally, they experienced 3.1 billion additional person- adapt how they use the natural resources which are part of biodiversity.269,270
days of heatwave exposure and 626 million additional person-days of heat- This requires planning, including changes to farming practices and fishing
wave exposure in 2020 compared to the 1986-2005 baseline average.259 quota, but also the adaptation of markets, diet, and associated
Residents living in tropical and subtropical climate zones were found to be infrastructure.271,272
more vulnerable to heat-related mortality and morbidity.236 In Brazil, individu- By far, the greatest threats to biodiversity are not climate change, but the
als living in less developed cities were more likely to experience hospitaliza- well-known over-exploitation of wildlife through hunting and fishing, destruc-
tions related to temperature variability.260 tion of habitats through deforestation, mining, seabed dredging and trawling,
In summary, climate change poses challenges to global public and envi- freshwater abstraction, river barriers, fishery bycatch, and invasive species on
ronmental health. Addressing the health impacts of climate change requires a islands.272-275 The extinction risk for freshwater biodiversity is already 3 and 10
multi-dimensional approach that includes reducing GHG emissions, improv- times higher than for terrestrial and marine species, respectively,276 and 130
ing public health infrastructures, proposing adaptation strategies, and times higher from present threats than posed by climate change.277 Climate
promoting sustainable development. It is crucial to prioritize the health and change effects, including chronic warming, heatwaves, floods, droughts, and
well-being of all individuals and communities worldwide in the pursuit of miti- storms, compound biodiversity pressures. Without addressing these causes
gating the impacts of climate change. of biodiversity loss, extinction rates will increase regardless of climate
change. Thus, governments and local communities must work together to
Climate change, biodiversity, and reducing extinction risks restore and protect biodiversity and build natural resource resilience to
Climate change has been driving shifts in the distributions of species for climate change. Already, 30% of assessed species are threatened with
decades, including thousands of marine species at a global scale.261-263 This extinction, and without mitigation of climate change through reducing GHG
shows that many species are adapting to climate change by moving where emissions, over 40% are threatened as reviewed by Costello (Fig. 4).265
they live. The changing environments may allow some species to expand Restoring, protecting, and sustainable use of the environment to maintain
their geographic range. However, where species such as endemic species biodiversity, are a prerequisite to mitigating the added effects of climate
restricted to isolated mountain tops and islands cannot shift their distribution, change on biodiversity.278 Without a change from people living ‘ on’ to ‘ with’
their extinction risk is increased.264 Indeed, the only two species extinctions nature, as traditionally practiced by some indigenous peoples, the resilience

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Table 1. Examples of “Nature-based solutions” (NBS) that aid adaptation to, and mitigate against the effects of, climate change, while restoring and protecting biodiversity.
Actions Terrestrial Freshwater Marine

Protect native forests, bush, and Stop pollution and sedimentation into
Protect Ban seabed trawling and dredging
grasslands streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes
biodiversity
Control the introduction and spread of invasive species and pests
Reconnect Restrict fragmentation of habitats by coastal

Use riverbank and hedgerow corridors to connect protected native habitats
habitats and development and seabed trawling and dredging
Geoscience
populations Reduce habitat and species loss outside protected areas to add species dispersal (corridors)
Living with Environmentally sustainable aquaculture,
Environmentally sustainable agriculture, tourism, and other land and freshwater use
nature fisheries, tourism
Restoration Rehabilitate old mines, quarries, and Stabilize riverbanks. Remove weirs and Ban removal of marine life and habitat fishing
and recovery industrial lands artificial barriers to fish migration in selected areas to allow passive recovery of
habitats, natural population structure, and food
Rewilding Reintroduce extirpated native species webs
Reduce
Plant forests and control grazing to enable uplands to absorb rainfall and reduce Protect sand-dune systems from erosion due
erosion, soil
flash floods to human and farm animal trampling
loss,
Control Set aside land for salt marshes and mangroves to buffer against river and seawater flooding; Link estuarine and upriver protected
flooding areas to provide more wildlife habitat and absorb storm surges and floods
Concentrate development to more cost-
Urban Limit upland development to protect Ban construction in areas at risk of sea level
efficiently manage transport and waste
development the freshwater quality rise and associated storm surges
management infrastructure
Limit seabed disturbance by trawling and
Reforestation (especially mangroves); Repair and expand wetlands to capture
Greenhouse dredging that releases CO2 and CH4. Eliminate
Revegetation; Fewer farm mammals and deposit carbon in soils.
gas mitigation harmful fishery subsidies.
Reduce the use of fossil fuels and reapply subsidies to renewable energy sources
Allow biodiversity to flourish and capture CO2 from the air and sequester it in biomass, soils, and sediments
Carbon
sequestration Manage forestry to maximize biomass
Reduce nutrient input from land and cities to restore ecosystem complexity
and ecosystem complexity.
Social Communicate information on the benefits of adaptation measures to the public
Political and Provide leadership and governance of mitigation and adaptation measures, through regulations and economic incentives that guide
economic the transition to a low carbon emission economy
Rapidly release and explain monitoring data to society so that the public and policymakers are informed of trends in biodiversity and
related factors, including climate variables, extreme weather-related events, threatened and invasive species, natural habitats, and
their relationships
Scientific
Conduct research to improve understanding of cause-effect relationships regarding environmental factors and biodiversity trends,
including in nature conservation, forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and food production sectors, and improve projections of
consequences of management action and inaction
of biodiversity and associated natural resources to climate change will be of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Additionally, efforts
compromised.265 While the effects of climate change vary geographically, and to restore and enhance natural carbon sinks can help to sequester carbon
some biodiversity richspots may have been climate refugia in the past, they and mitigate climate change impacts. For example, reforestation projects can
will all, terrestrial, freshwater, and marine, be affected to some extent.279 help to reestablish forests that have been lost due to deforestation or land-
One solution to reverse this loss of resilience is “nature-based solutions use change, while wetland restoration can help to enhance carbon seques-
(NBS)” which benefit biodiversity and ecosystem services and boost tration in coastal ecosystems. In agricultural systems, any efforts to increase
resilience to the effects of climate change (Table 1).274 These may be yields and carbon return as well as measures to reduce carbon losses can
achieved through passive restoration and rewilding when species are already also contribute significantly to climate change mitigation.280 Overall, the
present in the area and their populations can recover after the cessation of protection and intelligent utilization of natural carbon-sink resources are criti-
human impacts. This is especially effective in the ocean through Marine cal in mitigating the impact of climate change, and efforts to restore and
Protected Areas, but in some situations, and frequently on land and in fresh- enhance these ecosystems must remain a priority for sustainable develop-
waters active restoration efforts are needed to regenerate biodiversity ment.3
(Table 1). About a fifth of all terrestrial organic carbon globally is stored in organic
soils,281 despite them covering only 3% of the land surface.282 There are differ-
OPTIONS FOR MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE ent kinds of organic soils, such as bogs, which are fed by rainwater, fens,
Nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation which are fed by groundwater; and the so-called Folic Histosols with large
Protection of natural carbon-sink resources. Protection and utilization of organic surface layers that accumulated mainly due to cold climatic condi-
natural carbon-sink resources are critical strategies to mitigate the impact of tions.283 Naturally, these soils sequester annually about 0.1 Pg C.284 Due to the
climate change.3 Natural carbon sinks are ecosystems that trap and store lack of mineral matter, all these soils are very vulnerable to land-use change,
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, such as forests, wetlands, and oceans particularly when it involves drainage. Between 1850 and 2015, ca. 50 Mha of
(Fig. 5). By protecting these carbon sinks from human-induced activities such bogs and fens were drained, half of it for agriculture, which released about 80
as deforestation, land-use change, and drainage, we can prevent the release Pg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).285 This carbon loss, however, can be

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significantly reduced if not even reversed when such ecosystems are rewet- reducing GHG emissions from crop production is vital for mitigating climate
ted286 and restoration of organic soils matches up with a carbon sequestra- change.
tion potential of 0.1-1.3 Pg C yr−1.287 Soil carbon sequestration. Organic material (OM) amendment in soils is a
The current net flux of carbon from the atmosphere to terrestrial ecosys- common practice that has been shown to improve soil quality and crop yield
tems is 3.1 Pg yr−1, which is about 30 % of the total CO2 flux by fossil fuel by increasing soil organic carbon (SOC). For instance, the SOC stocks of
combustion.28 Hence, natural-based carbon solutions can contribute signifi- croplands in China could be further increased by more than 25.0 Tg C yr−1 or
cantly to climate change mitigation, but cannot be the sole solution. Utilizing 0.63% yr−1 with OM input.304 Yet, simply adding OM (e.g., straw remains or
renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power can animal dung) only increases the organic carbon content of the treated crop-
replace fossil fuels that emit CO2 into the atmosphere, while the use of ping fields, not the whole regions, because OM is still missing elsewhere.280
carbon capture and storage technologies will additionally help to reduce the This may be a different story if mulches are placed on cropping fields, such
amount of carbon released into the atmosphere from industrial processes. as from green clover in rotations, significantly improving SOC.305 Biochar
Afforestation and forest ecosystem restoration. Limiting global warm- addition in soils has also been advocated as a viable alternative strategy for
ing to the 2 °C threshold set by the Paris Climate Agreement requires both boosting SOC stocks due to its resistance to microbial degradations. Accord-
reducing emissions and removing GHGs from the atmosphere.288,289 There- ing to a paddy field experiment by Liu et al.,306 both straw and biochar addi-
fore, terrestrial ecosystems play a critical role in climate change mitigation tions were found to increase the topsoil SOC potentially. Additionally, it was
alongside the large reductions needed in fossil fuel consumption. As indi- found that the biochar treatment sequestered 2.6-fold more SOC than the
cated above, over the past ten years, terrestrial ecosystems have removed straw treatment after six years, even though the carbon application rates of
~30% of human carbon emissions each year,28, and forests account for most straw and straw-derived biochar were the same. This suggests that biochar
of this uptake.290,291 Afforestation and reforestation, key approaches in natural addition in the soil may be more effective for sequestering carbon in paddy
climate solutions (NCSs), have been focused on for decades as potential fields than straw.307 Furthermore, the integration of biomass pyrolysis and
major contributors to climate change mitigation.290,292,293 With a potential electricity generation systems with biochar amendment can achieve carbon-
annual climate mitigation contribution of up to 7 Pg CO2e by 2030 at a carbon neutral in staple crop production by reducing emissions through soil carbon
price of $100 per Mg CO2e, afforestation, and reforestation are among the sequestration and CO2 emission mitigation because the electricity generated
most cost-effective and viable NCSs for mitigating climate change.294 by bio-energy from pyrolysis displaces traditional emissions from fossil
However, while forest-based strategies are currently the widely accepted and fuels.308 However, a certain flux of energy-containing carbon input from
practiced methods for carbon sequestration, recent studies have indicated plants (litter or crop residue return) is always needed to keep microbial soil
possible limits and climate-driven risks to the climate mitigation potential of functions active.140
afforestation.294,295 Moreover, Fleischman et al. 296 highlighted ten pitfalls and Typically, reduced tillage or no-tillage can increase SOC sequestration in
misperceptions when large-scale afforestation campaigns fail to acknowl- the upper soil layers (0-15 or 0-20 cm). For instance, no-tillage improved SOC
edge the social and ecological complexities of the landscapes they aim to storage by 5.85 Mg ha−1 after 11 years in a crop residue-retained farming
transform. Thus, when planning and implementing afforestation activities, the system.309 This fits well into the average magnitude reviewed by Six et al.310
expense, risk, and damage to ecosystems and humans due to poor designs that approximately 325 kg SOC per ha that can be annually sequestered by
and hasty implementation should be fully recognized and mitigated.295,296 no-till agriculture to a depth of 20 cm. Uncertainties derive, however, from
Although terrestrial ecosystems are essential for carbon sequestration, increasing N2O emissions310 in selected observations of topsoils. SOC stocks
approximately one-quarter of post-industrial GHG emissions have come in subsoils with conventional tillage were found to be higher than those under
from ecosystem degradation.293 As a result, efforts to describe and quantify no-till management in the early years of adoption, but the initial carbon loss
the potential contribution of ecosystem restoration to climate change mitiga- in the short term can be offset in the long-term run.311
tion have gained significant traction in climate policy discourse in many Crop rotations with higher intensity and more aboveground biomass tend
countries.288,289 According to Strassburg et al.297, restoring 15% of converted to enhance SOC stocks and reduce GHG emissions without sacrificing
lands in priority areas at a global scale could prevent 60% of anticipated yields.312 Specific options such as planting deep-rooting cultivars, can leave
extinctions and sequester 299 gigatonnes of CO2. This amount is equivalent suberin-rich root carbon in the soil after crop harvest.287
to 30% of the total CO2 increase in the atmosphere since the Industrial Revo- N2O emission reduction. Reducing nitrogen fertilizer application rate is
lution or 14% of total emissions. Although reforestation is still one of the most vital for mitigating N2O emissions from cropping soils.313 Emission reduc-
commonly used restoration measures, ecosystem restoration refers to more tions can be achieved through regional nitrogen fertilizer optimization tech-
than reforestation or forest restoration. Many non-forest ecosystems, such niques based on the trade-off between economic risk and environmental
as grassland and wetland, also provide great restoration potential for climate benefit.314 Mitigating N2O emissions can also benefit from precision field
mitigation.288,297 However, the implementation of restoration activities for management, such as soil pH adjustment, OM input, and decision support
biodiversity and carbon sequestration could face severe feasibility constraints tools.315 Two-thirds of the mitigation potential for N2O emissions could be
and must also be aware of the risks of overstating the climate benefits achieved on one-fifth of croplands in the world, mainly located in humid
induced by ecosystem restoration, which may undermine mitigation efforts subtropical climates and across Gleysols and Acrisols.316 Nitrification
and distract from the core task of reducing carbon emissions from energy inhibitors, such as N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) and 2-(N-3,4-
and industry sectors.298 Moreover, shifting restoration practices from ecologi- dimethylpyrazole) succinic acid (DMPSA) effectively reduce N2O emissions
cally centered actions to a synergy across climatic and social dimensions is and do not harm crop yields.317,318 Reducing N2O emissions can also be
critical for sustainable ecosystem restoration.299 Therefore, long-term poli- accomplished through other means, such as increasing the activity of N2O-
cies, monitoring frameworks, and standardized protocols for fully consider- reducing organisms or N2O-consuming microbes in soils through bioaug-
ing the benefits, costs, and risks of ecosystem restoration are urgently mentation or biostimulation.319,320 Furthermore, research has shown that
needed to realize the co-benefits of ecosystem restoration and climate miti- arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can reduce N2O emissions by promoting the
gation.300 growth of plants that have a high affinity for nitrogen uptake.321 These plants
Potential and challenges of soil carbon sequestration to mitigate can take up excess nitrogen from the soil, thereby reducing the availability of
climate change. Crop production is one of agriculture's predominant sources nitrogen for microbial processes that produce N2O. Overall, enhancing these
of CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions.301 However, croplands can become carbon microbial processes has the potential to reduce N2O emissions from agricul-
sinks through soil carbon accumulation if they are managed purposefully and ture while also improving soil health and productivity.
properly. Globally, annual land-based emissions of N2O and CH4 are approxi- CH4 emission reduction. Besides the reduction of losses during biogas
mately 17.0 Tg N yr−1 (7.96 Pg CO2-eq yr−1) 302 and 550-594 Tg CH4 yr−1 (13.7- production, intermittent irrigation or mid-season drainage is another impor-
14.8 Pg CO2-eq yr−1) 303, respectively. Flooded paddy soils are an important tant option for mitigating CH4 emissions from paddy fields, as it is a result of
source of global CH4 emissions, accounting for 15%-20% of global anthro- inhibiting its production and increasing oxidation.322 The plantation of suit-
pogenic CH4 emissions. Thus, enhancing soil carbon sequestration and able rice varieties could achieve CH4 emission mitigation without negatively

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Geoscience
Figure 5. Nature- and technology-based solutions for climate change mitigation.
affecting crop yield. For example, high-yield transgenic rice with limited Organic farming technologies are helpful for agriculture systems to adapt
aerenchyma could reduce CH4 emissions by up to 60%.323 Applying biochar in to climate change. Increasing temporal plant diversity through crop rotation
paddy fields also reduced CH4 emissions by up to 50% by improving soil diversification as a form of organic farming helps enhance the resilience of
aeration conditions.324 Removal of rice straw, composting rice straw and the agriculture system to warmer, drier climates. Renwick et al.333 show that
manure, and applying sulfate-containing fertilizer are also considered poten- diversifying maize-soybean rotations with small grain cereals and cover
tial options to reduce CH4 emissions in paddy fields.325 Reducing CH4 emis- crops mitigated maize water stress at the leaf and canopy scales and
sions from paddy fields could be also achieved by the application of micro- reduced yield losses to drought by 17.1±6.1%. Herbaceous cover favors
bial CH4 emission inhibitors326-328 as well as through fertilization for enhanc- species richness and the abundance of insectivorous species whose popula-
ing CH4 anaerobic oxidation.329 tions are declining due to climate change.334
Adopting and developing organic farming. The global food system is also Organic farming technologies can potentially reduce global agricultural
a major source of GHG emissions, emitting ~30% of the global total. The food GHG emissions by increasing SOC.331,335,336 Reducing the intensity of tillage,
system's emissions under business as usual are projected to reach 1356 Gt such as inter-row loosening, inter-row cutting, and shallow inversion tillage
CO2e between 2020 and 2100, which is projected to exceed the 1.5 °C limit showed increased soil C stocks, minimal reductions in yield (~5.5%), and non-
between 2051 and 2063 and prevent the achievement of the 1.5 °C and 2 °C significant increases in weed incidence337 since any form of tillage may result
target even if fossil fuel emissions were immediately stopped.330 In the five in the redistribution of carbon gains to deeper depths and mineralization of
strategies for mitigation of the global food system GHG emissions.330 organic labile carbon fractions. Zani et al.338 reported that integrated crop-livestock
farming can play an important role since it aims to supply high-quality food systems (ICL) increasing proportions of grass-clover leys compared with
with a positive response to the climate change crisis using a sustainable short non-grazed ley periods in crop rotations can play an important role in
production approach,331,332 including implementation of an extended rotation, achieving a net carbon benefit. It is still a matter of debate whether organic
cover of herbaceous plants, reduced tillage or no-tillage, return of plant and systems have the potential to act as carbon sinks due to the influence of
animal residues as organic fertilizers, and limiting any synthetic input sources numerous specific factors on carbon decomposition and sequestration.
(chemical fertilizers and pesticides). Organic farming could provide a clue to These factors include soil type, plant type, and the properties of the organic
solve the problem of climate change, as a climate-friendly way to economi- amendment. The impact of these factors on carbon sequestration is complex
cally use resources. and requires further research to gain a better understanding.

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So far, the available evidence suggests that the impacts of organic transport of fossil fuels can also have devastating effects.350 Burning fossil
compared to non-organic farming on soil-derived N2O and CH4 emissions are fuels emits toxic chemicals, causing harmful effects on ecosystems and
complex and context-dependent339. More research is needed to better under- human health, and generating GHGs contribute to global warming.351 Thus, it
stand the mechanisms underlying these effects and to identify best prac- is urgent to explore renewable, sustainable, and environment-friendly alterna-
tices for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture. In the conven- tive energy sources to meet future energy demands and ensure a safe and
tional cultivation (CVN) and zero-tillage (ZTL) plots (nitrogen-based inorganic clean energy system for our planet.352 Renewable energy sources, such as
fertilizers), the GWP was higher for CH4 and N2O compared with the system biomass, geothermal resources, solar, water, and wind, are natural resources
of rice intensification (SRI, organic manure as fertilizer). However, all three that can be converted into these types of clean energy. It is estimated that
cultivation strategies acted as carbon sinks, with SRI cultivation yielding the renewables will transform the global power mix through 2027, becoming the
highest sequestration values.340 Skinner et al.341 observed a 40.2% reduction largest source of electricity. Hydropower accounts for more than 90% of all
of N2O emissions per hectare for organic compared to non-organic systems. grid-scale capacity, however, it is restricted by the availability of suitable loca-
However, yield-scaled cumulated N2O emissions under silage maize were tions and multibillion-dollar capital costs. Solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind
similar between organic and non-organic systems. Cumulated CH4 uptake on account for almost 90% of all new renewable energy installations in 2022.
area scale under silage maize was modest for organic farming systems- Solar PV’s installed power capacity is poised to surpass that of coal by 2027,
biodynamic (BIODYN) and non-organic systems-solely mineral fertilization becoming the largest in the world.353 Noted that it is crucial to develop large-
(CONMIN), and high CH4 emissions for mixed farmyard manure (CONFYM). scale energy storage technologies to integrate intermittent and fluctuating
Organic farming relies strongly on the farm's resources, hence the energy renewable energy into the electricity grid.354 Several technologies could be
consumption per unit area of organic crops and farming could be lower than potential candidates for renewable energy and utility applications, including
that of non-organic agriculture. For conventional sugar beet production, an lithium (Li)-ion batteries, flow batteries, lead-acid batteries, supercapacitors,
efficiency ratio of 9.59, specific energy of 0.41 MJ kg−1, and energy productiv- flywheels, compressed air energy storage, and hydropower.
ity of 2.41 kg MJ−1 were obtained by disc harrow soil loosening on 80-ha Potential and impact of carbon capture, utilization, and storage on
farms, whereas, for organic production, the lowest energy input global change. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is a process
(25862 MJ ha−1) and specific energy (0.46 MJ kg−1) and the greatest yield that involves capturing CO2 emissions from industrial processes or power
(55.82 t ha−1), energy efficiency ratio (8.21), and energy efficiency generation, utilizing the captured CO2 for various purposes, and storing the
(22.16 kg MJ−1) were obtained using inter-row loosening on 80-ha farms.336 remaining CO2 in geological formations or other long-term storage
The carbon emission ratio to carbon inputs of the most environmentally facilities.355 CCUS is considered a critical technology for reducing greenhouse
friendly conventional farming process involving no-tillage technology is 19.75, gas emissions and mitigating climate change.356 In this process, CO2 is
whereas the ratio of the most environmentally friendly organic farming captured from emission sources such as power plants or directly from the air
process involving inter-row loosening is 4.85 with numbers close to zero that is then transported to be stored in geological sites for a long time or to
approximating a neutral carbon balance.336 Organic agricultural systems use be converted into products. By reducing CO2 emissions from fossil fuels or
organic fertilizers and eliminate synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides, recovering CO2 directly from the air, CCUS plays an important role in global
thus reducing global agricultural GHG emissions.335 warming mitigation (Fig. 5). CCUS can make significant contributions to
Whatever is grown on the field depends on food consumption, and global GHG emission reduction, and without CCUS the CO2 equivalent
changes in our global dietary patterns would significantly affect global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere cannot be controlled below 450 ppm in
mitigation potentials. As outlined by Costa et al.,342 this might shift from the 2100.357 IPCC 86 reported that CCUS can reduce CO2 emissions by 3.0-6.8
current +21.4 Pg C yr−1 to -2 Pg C yr−1, thus, turning a significant carbon billion tons per year in 2050, and in International Energy Agency (IEA)’s
source even into a carbon sink —not only by organic farming but also by sustainable development scenario, CCUS can contribute to 15% of the accu-
related other management techniques, reduced meat consumption, etc. mulated CO2 emission reduction to realize net zero emission in 2070.358 In the
Agroecosystem's Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is a good tool to evaluate and energy sector, CCUS is the only technology to realize near-zero-emission
compare the impact of conventional and organic agriculture on environ- through the utilization of fossil fuels, and coal power plants equipped with
mental sustainability. Miksa343 suggested that a reasonable crop mix within CCUS can enforce the flexibility of the whole energy supply systems.357
the crop rotation schemes may lead to the reduction of CO2 emissions and Besides, in steel and cement industries, CCUS can also contribute around
mitigation of climate change based on the LCA of the whole crop rotation. 34% and 48% to achieve net zero CO2 emissions.357 Also, when combined
Through a comprehensive LCA, Xai et al.344 showed an integrated biomass with direct air capture or bioenergy, CCUS can realize negative CO2 emis-
pyrolysis and electricity generation system coupled with commonly applied C sions, and thus, can create emission space for other technologies. Direct air
and nitrogen mitigation measures can help reduce staple crops’ life-cycle capture (DAC) may be one of the last technical solutions to capture CO2
GHG emissions from the current 666.5 to -37.9 Tg CO2e yr−1. Emission reduc- directly from the air, and this technology is still in its research and develop-
tions would be achieved primarily through carbon sequestration from biochar ment (R&D) stage and is expected to play an important role in the future.358
application to the soil, and fossil fuel displacement by bio-energy produced Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is attractive to energy
from pyrolysis. systems by providing energy and storing carbon at the same time, which is
For future research, comprehensive assessment through combing energy widely employed to balance over-budget emissions.359 Considering the cost-
efficiency, energy displacement, GHG emission capture, and carbon seques- effectiveness, BECCS is promising for its technological maturity, including
tration is necessary to develop innovation in organic farming techniques and biomass energy acquisition, CO2 capture, transport, and storage,360 commer-
to evaluate the role of organic farming on climate change.331,345,346 cial maturity,361, and a high potential for application in vast rural areas.362
However, the large-scale deployment of BECCS also raises concerns about
Technology-based solutions for climate change mitigation its impact on the environmental and ecological systems, due to its large
Developing and adopting renewable and clean energy technologies. The demand for land in growing plants,363 potential threat to biodiversity,364 soil
expansion of the world population, globalization, and rapid industrialization erosion and degradation,365 pressure on the terrestrial and freshwater
rely on exploiting and consuming fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon- systems,366 as well as the additional demand for fertilizers to reach nutrient
containing materials formed naturally in the earth's crust from the remains of balance in agricultural systems and the associated GHG emissions.367
plants and animals. The main fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas.347 Smart management of agri-food systems in the face of climate change.
When humans are powering our modern and comfortable lifestyles with To achieve ambitious mitigation targets, we need to smartly implement miti-
fossil fuels, there are significant hidden costs behind their market price.348 The gation technologies and improve the structure of agri-food systems, since it
whole supply chain of fossil fuels (extraction, transportation, and use) leads was responsible for one-third of anthropogenic GHG emissions.368 Better irri-
to various adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Extrac- gation practices to reduce CH4 emissions from rice cultivation,369 and
tion processes cause severe CH4 emissions, air and water pollution, and improved dietary management to reduce CH4 emissions from ruminant
ecological harm to the surrounding area.349 Accidents and leaks during the animals,370 need to be taken as priorities over all other measures for the

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purpose to control temperature increases smartly and quickly. This will save means that the negative effects of warming can be partly mitigated by reduc-
more space and time for other sectors and was highly recommended by the ing the nutrient input from the lake catchments.130,131 Such measures may
latest Conference of the Parties (COP) 26.371 In addition, there are large differ- also result in lower GHG release from lakes.395 Thus, supportive public poli-
ences in GHG emissions intensity between different crop products and live- cies and novel technologies, together with effective EbM measures may
stock products, expressed in the CO2e emission per kilogram of protein or enhance the resilience and stability of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems
kcal of calorie produced, with few products contributing little to total food to adapt to climate change.3,396,397
production but responsible for the majority of GHG emissions.372 These prod- Despite great progress in recent years, there are still large gaps and chal-
ucts need to be identified in the future and should be replaced by low-emis- lenges in managing terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems for climate change
Geoscience
sion intensity but high-yield products. adaptation.385,389 For example, most terrestrial EbM measures are fragmented,
A smart crop production system requires to re-design the crop production small-scaled, sector-specific, designed to respond to immediate and near-
structure towards crops with less environmental and carbon footprints. In term risks, and focused more on planning rather than implementation.388,394
addition, consideration should be given to the spatial redistribution of crops in Additionally, terrestrial and freshwater EbM measures are unequally
regions suitable for intensive management where the water supply is suffi- distributed worldwide, and gaps are partially driven by widening disparities
cient and the productivity is high.370,373 Together with new technologies to between the estimated costs of measures and the actual financial
boost crop productivity, such as genotyping, marker-assisted selection, and support.394,398 Furthermore, EbM measures are vulnerable to climate change
genome editing,374 these measures will free more land for bioenergy produc- impacts, with effectiveness declining and even reaching their limits with
tion to reduce GHG emissions or for afforestation to increase carbon seques- increasing global warming. Ecosystems that have already reached or
tration. In addition, measures to smartly enhance the efficiency of synthetic surpassed their management and adaptation limits might include some
fertilizers via modifiable chemical structures and engineered, biodegradable drylands and polar and mountain ecosystems.384,389 Therefore, in the imple-
coatings which respond to plant rhizosphere signaling molecules, could mentation of terrestrial and freshwater EbM measures, it is necessary to fully
precisely supply nutrients to crops, and thus, largely reduce ammonium (NH4) consider not only the feasibility and effectiveness of the measures but also
losses and GHG emissions during fertilizer application.375 their limiting factors and conditions to avoid maladaptation.
Smart livestock production systems could be achieved through better live-
stock production structures, such as a slight switch from monogastric to Coastline protection and combating sea level rise
ruminant animals to reduce GHG emissions, due to better food waste recy- Coastline protection and rising sea levels are important issues affecting
cling and less concentrated feed requirement of ruminant animals compared many coastal communities and ecosystems. Sea level rise projections for
to monogastric animals.376 Spatial planning of livestock production is neces- 2100 vary depending on different scenarios of GHG emissions and ice sheet
sary in a few large countries with unevenly distributed livestock production, to dynamics. According to some sources: The National Climate Assessment
close the nutrient recycling loop between crop and livestock production, and reports that the global sea level has risen by about 0.24 m since 1880 and is
to reduce the demand for synthetic fertilizers as well as related energy use projected to rise another 0.3-1.2 m by 2100. Kopp et al.399 predicted a very
and emissions.377 likely (90% probability) global sea level rise of 0.5-1.2 m under representative
Smart adjustment of the crop and livestock production structure is neces- concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5, 0.4-0.9 m under RCP 4.5, and 0.3-0.8 m
sary since GHG emissions from livestock production systems were twice that under RCP 2.6 between the years 2000 and 2100.
from crop production.368,378 Adjusting food production according to the EAT- Sea level rise can have serious impacts such as flooding, erosion, saltwa-
Lancet diet will considerably reduce GHG emissions,379 such as choices ter intrusion, habitat loss, infrastructure damage, displacement, and increased
towards more plant-based diets. New farming technologies, such as food vulnerability to storms.400,401 Therefore, it is important to take action to reduce
waste-based insect production as food for humans or feed for livestock,380,381 emissions and adapt to changing conditions.402 There are different strategies
natural gas-based microbial protein production,382 and cultured meat,383 with to protect coasts from sea level rises, such as hard engineering (e.g.,
no competition for land and demand of natural resources, also provides concrete seawalls, levees, and dikes) or soft engineering (e.g., nature-based
sound mitigation potentials. solutions, living shorelines, and beach nourishment) (Fig. 6). Recent studies
suggest that nature-based solutions can be as effective as concrete seawalls
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE at protecting against sea-level rise while providing extra benefits such as
Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem-based management habitat creation, carbon sequestration, and recreation.403-405
Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, from the tropics to the frozen land Nature-based solutions are approaches that use natural processes and
of the polar regions, are also markedly threatened by climate change.384,385 ecosystems to address environmental and social challenges such as climate
Thus, management measures are pressing and should adapt to climate change, biodiversity loss, disaster risk reduction, food security, water
change to prevent disastrous environmental and social-economic conse- management, and human well-being.406 The nature-based solutions for sea
quences.386,387 One option for significantly increasing the resilience of level rise and coastal protection include: 1) Conserving coastal wetlands:
vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems is ecosystem-based management Coastal wetlands and mangroves are periodically flooded by saltwater. They
(EbM)—an approach that manages ecosystems and their associated func- can buffer wave energy, trap sediments, reduce erosion, and provide habitat
tions to reduce a range of climate change risks to people, biodiversity, and for wildlife,407,408 2) Restoring beaches: Beaches are sandy shorelines that can
ecosystem services with multiple co-benefits (Fig. 6).388,389 As a nature- absorb wave impacts, prevent flooding, and support recreation and tourism.
based solution to climate change, EbM is increasingly being recognized by They can be restored by adding sand or vegetation to replenish eroded areas,
governments and academia as an effective measure to provide considerable 3) Creating oyster reefs: Oysters are bivalve mollusks that form reefs by
co-benefits relating to climate change adaptation and terrestrial ecosystem attaching to hard substrates. They can reduce wave height, stabilize shore-
conservation.387,390 For instance, Scheiter and Savadogo391 indicated that lines, filter water quality, and enhance fisheries, and 4) Restoring mangroves:
effective ecosystem management can mitigate vegetation shifts induced by Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow in tropical and subtropical coastal
climate change in West Africa. areas. They can protect coasts from storm surges, sequester CO2,409 prevent
In recent years, substantial progress in EbM has been observed across the saltwater intrusion, and host diverse species.410-412
world with various terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, especially These nature-based solutions can offer multiple benefits such as reducing
forests392,393 and lakes.130,131 The promising EbM measures for natural and GHG emissions,413,414 enhancing biodiversity conservation, improving human
managed forests include comprehensive conservation and restoration, opti- health and well-being, and creating jobs, and livelihood opportunities.
mal rotation strategies, diversifying tree species and compositions, and alle- However, nature-based solutions also face some challenges such as a lack
viating increased risks from diseases and wildfires.388,394 Studies of lakes have of funding, policy support, technical knowledge, and stakeholder
revealed that many of the symptoms of climate warming as similar to those engagement.415,416 For example, many developing countries lack the financial
of eutrophication occurring as a result of excessive nutrient input, which resources to implement large-scale nature-based solutions projects.417 In

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addition, policymakers may prioritize other issues over nature-based solu- droughts, and floods. These extreme weather conditions can cause crop fail-
tions or lack the technical knowledge to design effective policies. Moreover, ure, reduced yield, and reduced crop quality. It was estimated that every
stakeholders such as local communities or private sector actors may not be degree Celsius increase in temperature could lead to a 6% reduction in global
sufficiently engaged in the planning and implementation of nature-based wheat yields.438 Other studies have shown similar impacts on crops such as
solutions projects. Therefore, all people from different sectors must work maize, rice, and soybeans. The statistics highlight the urgency of developing
together to address these challenges. Governments should provide funding climate change adaptation strategies for plant agriculture to ensure food
and policy support for nature-based solutions while also engaging with security.
stakeholders to ensure their participation in decision-making processes. Heat tolerance is a critical agronomic trait for crops, particularly in the
Private sector actors should invest in nature-based solutions as part of their context of climate change. Rising temperatures can cause significant
corporate social responsibility strategies while also exploring business damage to crops affecting their growth and development, reducing their yield
opportunities in this field. Civil society organizations should raise awareness and quality, and exacerbating other stresses such as drought, pests, and
about the benefits of nature-based solutions and advocate for their inclusion diseases. Therefore, developing heat-tolerant crop varieties is crucial in miti-
in policy agendas. gating the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture. Crop breeding
Another important pathway of climate change adaptation is the transfor- efforts to develop heat-tolerant crop varieties focus on photosynthesis effi-
mation of the social-ecological system. In the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, for ciency, antioxidant systems, and the ability to quickly repair damages caused
instance, the sea level rises together with other factors like increased ground- by high temperatures in specific plant tissues such as leaves or reproductive
water use, hydro dam constructions, and less water in the Mekong itself have organs.439 In addition to heat tolerance, drought, and flooding are other signif-
caused salt intrusions into the delta that are a risk to rice production. icant stressors that affect plant agriculture. Drought can lead to reduced
However, land use may change – in this case, for instance, from rice to rice- yields, crop failure, and decreased crop quality by reducing the amount of
shrimp farming systems, which maintain both fertility of the soil, flexibility to water available for plant growth. Conversely, flooding can cause root suffoca-
future salt-water intrusions, and higher economic return, though also at tion, soil erosion, nutrient leaching, and damage to crops. Therefore, develop-
higher investments.418-420 In other areas, the response to climate change ing crops that are tolerant to drought and flooding is also important in adapt-
differs, as evidenced by the construction of sophisticated dams in the rela- ing to climate change. The development of climate-resilient crop varieties
tively level terrain of the Red River Delta. Hence, adaptation measures exist, should be combined with soil quality and water management practices.
but they are site-dependent, and do not only depend on the ecological but Implementing conservation agriculture and drip irrigation techniques can
also socio-economical or -political settings. significantly improve soil quality and water management practices. Conser-
vation agriculture involves minimal soil disturbance, crop rotation, and cover
Climate-smart agricultural practices and regenerative agriculture as crops to enhance soil health and reduce erosion. This technique also helps to
instruments in a carbon economy increase the soil's ability to absorb water, which can mitigate the impact of
Climate-smart practices, such as crop residue management, reduced extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall or drought. Drip irrigation is
tillage, soil amendments (e.g., biochar), and cover crops aim to sequester soil another effective method for managing water resources in agriculture. This
carbon and reduce GHG emissions. A global meta-analysis with 3,049 paired technique delivers water directly to the roots of plants slowly and steadily,
measurements found that biochar applications most effectively increased reducing water loss due to evaporation and runoff. By providing plants with
SOC (39%) followed by cover crops (6%) and conservation tillage (5%).307 the right amount of water at the right time, drip irrigation can improve crop
Meta-analyses showed that soil carbon is also improved by no-tillage and yields and reduce the risk of water stress during periods of drought.
other conservation measures,421-424 but this improvement depends on the Another strategy for crop adaptation to climate change is increasing the
sampling depth and other environmental factors.421,424 Crop yields may fertilizer use efficiency of crops. This can be achieved through plant breeding
increase when soil carbon (organic matter) increases425 and when conserva- and precision farming techniques such as variable rate fertilization that allow
tion measures are implemented under certain conditions,426 though this for more targeted and efficient use of fertilizers. Such efforts can reduce the
varies geographically.423,426,427 amount of fossil fuels required to produce fertilizers and thus help to reduce
Despite these overall trends, each country, region, and each farm have GHG emissions. In conclusion, climate change has significant impacts on
specific soil, landscape, and climate conditions, and are subject to supply, plant agriculture, and crop adaptation strategies are needed to ensure food
trade, logistics, labor, and policy chains. Farmers have their own experiences, security in the face of changing weather conditions.436 Developing crop toler-
personal interests, and world view, and may be more or less inclined to adopt ance to heat, drought, and flooding, improving soil quality and water manage-
climate-smart practices and join climate mitigation and carbon-focused ment practices, and increasing fertilizer use efficiency are some of the key
initiatives. Positive environmental co-benefits for crop and soil health and soil strategies that plant agriculture can use to adapt to climate change. Plant
security are associated with the sequestration of carbon in soils.428 Carbon breeding is traditionally a lengthy process since developing an improved crop
and environmental education as well as public and private incentives are variety often takes more than 10 years. Breeding for climate-resilient crops is
ways to sensitize unaware producers and consumers and convince unde- especially challenging because projections of future climate and weather
cided farmers to adopt climate-smart practices intended to accrue soil patterns exhibit much uncertainty.440 To meet this challenge, breeding
carbon. Before and beyond climate mitigation, the positive effects of soil programs must adopt new approaches such as genome editing and genomic
carbon (organic matter) on nutrient retention and supply,429 water selection that can significantly accelerate crop breeding.441 In addition, it is
retention,430,431 biodiversity,432 pollution control,429 and erosion control432 important to utilize the wide natural genetic diversity in landraces, wild rela-
improve soil health and security433 while increasing or sustaining crop tives, and orphan crops, many of which possess climate resilience traits that
yields434,435 with benefits for the farmer and the environment. have been lost in our main crops.442
Development of climate-resilient crops Address and plan for environmental change

Climate change significantly impacts plant agriculture and is a growing Plans for adapting and mitigating climate change-induced environmental
threat to global food security.436 More food is needed to feed a growing world problems should be combined with urgent applicable solutions/actions for
population, but there is not enough agricultural land to grow crops to produce reducing environmental pollution/degradation.443,444 Addressing global issues
the needed food.437 Increasing food production on existing farmland is a criti- related to climate change, such as the sustainable management of global
cal component of efforts to reduce deforestation and preserve forests. By warming and the induced/associated changes on soil health, air pollution,
adopting sustainable farming practices, investing in precision agriculture water, and food security, waste management, and finding alternative energy
technologies, promoting agroforestry practices, and developing new climate- sources are the major challenges of the 21st century and needed to achieve
resilient crop varieties, we can ensure a more secure food supply while the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs).445 Reducing
protecting our planet's precious natural resources. The changing climate has climate change-induced environmental pollution aligns with the zero pollu-
led to more frequent and severe weather conditions such as heatwaves, tion vision for 2050 and is urgently required to decrease the levels of pollu-

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tants in air, water, and soil to mitigate the potential ecological and human standing the economic consequences, individuals and communities can take
health hazards associated with climate change.446 These aims also meet the action to reduce their risk and adapt to the impacts of these events. In addi-
2030 key targets to reduce pollution sources. These targets include improv- tion to raising awareness, leveraging existing technologies to track extreme
ing air, water, and soil quality, aiming to reduce the number of premature weather is essential for reducing the effects of climate change (see Section
deaths caused by pollution, and reducing the release into the environment, 6.1). Real-time observations of weather patterns can help governments make
which will help strengthen the green and economic environmental growth informed decisions about disaster response efforts and infrastructure devel-
and create a healthier, socially fairer planet. opment.467 Satellite platforms are an essential tool for monitoring global
Reducing pollutants in the air is important for human health and the envi- weather patterns. These platforms provide a comprehensive view of the
Geoscience
ronment. Therefore, we urgently need to control and reduce multi-pollutant Earth's atmosphere, allowing scientists to track weather systems as they
emissions, decrease the concentrations of particulate matter in the air, regu- develop. Ground-based monitoring stations also play a critical role in observ-
late the use of small coal-fired boilers, accelerate desulfurization and de-nitri- ing local weather conditions. These stations collect data on temperature,
fication, improve the quality of the fuels, and control urban dust including the precipitation, wind speed, and other variables that are used to create accu-
release of brake and tire wear materials from traffic systems.443,447-449 rate weather forecasts. Overall, the combination of raising public awareness
Harnessing soil carbon sink capacity for adaptation and mitigation of and utilizing advanced technologies for monitoring extreme weather events is
climate change, reducing soil erosion and including it as a source for GHGs in essential in developing effective solutions to mitigate the impacts of climate
the global carbon budget, enhancing the use efficiency of agro-ecosystems change.
inputs, using global dry-lands, and restoring degraded soils are among the
most important soil-centric options for addressing global issues.450 Remedia- Urban soil for adaptation to climate change
tion of degraded soils and reducing GHG emissions from soils could be Given more than half of the population resides in cities, with this fraction
achieved via the application of organic amendments such as crop residue likely to grow to between 60% and 92% by the end of the 21st century,468 the
return and biochar.445,451,452 Those actions could contribute to the mitigation of state and functioning of soils in urban spaces are particularly important
climate change-driven negative impacts and enhance the strategy of foci.469 For millennia, soils have been deeply embedded in urban spaces and
“producing more from less”, which achieves the Sustainable Development livelihoods,470 but they now have increased importance in helping to combat
Goals or the Agenda 2030.450 Finally, coupling citizen science with advanced the intensifying impacts of climate change.471
technologies such as remote sensing and sensor networks can provide more One of the ways by which urban soils can help mitigate climate change is
accurate information about pollution and environmental degradation in near to support the growth and functioning of urban green infrastructure (UGI).
real-time.416,453-455 This approach can help researchers, policymakers, and the This refers to natural and semi-natural areas and features, including parks,
green walls and roofs, street trees, rain gardens, and other vegetated spaces
general public make informed decisions about planning for and addressing
within urban areas, contributing to the swamp cities' concept for retaining
these environmental issues.
water in the cities for irrigation purposes and cooling.472 Whilst each of these
Efficient risk management of extreme weather events UGI forms is designed to meet specific local priorities, they share a common
dependency on urban soils. UGI can help to mitigate the impacts of climate
Extreme weather events have become more frequent and severe in recent
change in multifarious ways such as capturing and storing carbon,473 provid-
years due to climate change. From hurricanes and tornadoes to floods and
ing shading to regulate microclimate,474 and ameliorating urban heat
wildfires, these disasters have caused significant damage to both human life
islands.475 More indirectly, UGI can improve air quality 476 and reduce building
and property.456 Under climate anomalies, rainfall, and extreme weather that
energy use,472 as well as foster more sustainable behavior patterns (e.g., facil-
occur only once in decades have become more common. In 2020, massive
itating greener transport options).477
floods occurred in China's Yangtze River basin, with precipitation exceeding
In addition to UGI, urban soils provide essential resources to support urban
that of the great floods in 1998, causing massive casualties and economic
agriculture. Urban food growing practices can bring about similar climate
losses.457 Only two years after a devastating flood, a rare and extremely
change mitigation benefits as UGI 478 but food cultivation within towns and
severe drought hit the entire Yangtze River Basin in 2022.458 This drought
cities can also strengthen an urban population’s resilience to the multiscalar
greatly negatively impacted various aspects of life in the region, including
threats that climate change poses to global food supply chains.479 From short-
agriculture, transportation, and energy production.459 This event highlights the
term and localized natural disasters induced by climate change to longer-
vulnerability of regions that are heavily dependent on a single river system for
term and global scales of land degradation, food-growing activities can help
their livelihoods. Similarly, floods in developed cities, such as Zhengzhou in
to supplement more traditional agriculture by spreading the risk of disruption
China and Seoul in Korea, have become more common.460,461 Due to the
to food supplies and adapting to future climate change.
dense population and facilities in large cities, flood disasters tend to cause
As well as providing a medium for plant growth, the properties of urban
great economic losses. Sponge city construction to create water retention
soils can also directly mitigate the impacts of climate change. For example, in
areas in urban construction design can assist in mitigating extreme climatic
regions experiencing increasing precipitation intensity, urban soils, and reten-
events. Meanwhile, coastal areas prone to more intense hurricanes require
tion spaces serve to reduce flood potential by infiltrating and storing water.480
rethinking vulnerabilities and risk management. In the mountainous area,
This is especially pertinent given the pervasiveness of impervious materials
more attention should be directed toward geohazards induced by rising used within the urban grey infrastructure.481
temperatures, such as snow avalanches and glacier lake outbursts. A paradox remains to be resolved which involves facilitating urbanization in
Generally, we need to effectively consider the impacts of climate change on the future that requires more land to house more people, yet more land for
engineering construction and natural disaster risk assessment.462 Consider- agricultural food production will also be required to sustain these increasing
ing and taking into account extreme events based on factor analysis is urban populations.470 Overall, adapting urban soils to climate change requires
essential for effective risk management and decision-making.463 By doing so, a multifaceted approach that addresses both structural and functional
individuals and organizations can better prepare for potential disruptions and aspects of soil health. By implementing best practices in urban soil manage-
adapt to their impacts. Secondly, prevention and control measures are ment and utilizing new technologies (such as the use of biochar as a soil
important means to protect life and property, and more space should be amendment), cities can create more resilient and sustainable urban ecosys-
reserved to allow extreme weather.464 In addition, efficient national early tems that are better equipped to withstand the challenges of a changing
warning systems are important as unexpected extreme weather becomes climate.
frequent.465 Meanwhile, for the residents, it is necessary to pay great atten-
tion to unusual weather and eco-disasters that impact the lives of people.466 Infrastructure transformation for adaptation to climate change
In short, more education is needed to raise public awareness of extreme The current state of play. The impact of climate change on the natural,
weather and related natural hazards. By understanding the link between economic, political, and social environments is broad and pronounced.
climate change and extreme weather, preparing for these events, and under- Human activities are a significant contributor to the cause of climate change;

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Figure 6. Ecosystem-based management options for the adaptation to climate change in global systems.
they have altered the natural environments in all parts of the world through tion of a whole range of services that we rely on, such as heating, lighting,
GHG emissions into the atmosphere.482 Within the built environments, vari- sanitation, and transportation and thereby hamper economic growth.491 There
ous types of green, blue, and grey infrastructures are designed and operated is a growing need to transform how infrastructure is planned, implemented,
to provide important services for human safety, health, the environment, and and managed as urbanization, digitalization, and climate change increasingly
economic development. Blue-green infrastructure refers to infrastructure impact the world. In such cases, existing built infrastructure may need to be
aiming to restore the natural water cycle, while grey infrastructure refers to retrofitted with nature-based interventions or managed differently to mitigate
human-engineered approaches to water management such as pipes, and adapt to climate change.416,492 For example, infrastructure networks built
stormwater treatment ponds, and hard surfaces. However, the United Nations with less vegetated surfaces or purely grey materials decreases evaporative
Environment Programme highlighted that engineered grey infrastructures are cooling, and on the other hand, capping of previously pervious surface leads
responsible for 79% of all GHG emissions, and account for 88% of all adapta- to increased runoff and an increased risk of flooding.493,494 Furthermore, coun-
tion costs.483 These infrastructures are also affected by the physical impacts tries during the COP26 re-affirmed their commitments to climate action,
of climate variability in numerous ways.484-486 For instance, the increased including through the submission of their revised nationally determined
frequency and intensity of hydrometeorological hazard events such as floods, contributions under the Paris Climate Agreement. Such actions advance miti-
droughts, heatwaves, and wildfires are costing lives, disrupting economies, gation and adaptation objectives set out in the agreement and can also
and setting back development progress that has taken years to establish.487 protect and enhance progress towards related targets of the Sustainable
Rübbelke & Vögele484 analyzed the consequences of climate-change-related Development Goals.483
impacts on European critical infrastructures. In particular, they examined how Future development. Climate change poses a critical threat to the devel-
the exchange of electricity between countries in Europe is threatened by opment of future infrastructure, especially in regions where poverty is preva-
climate change because of the higher risk of water supply shortages due to lent and the key assets such as urban-built infrastructure are underdevel-
more frequent drought and heat-wave incidences. Similarly, the United King- oped for meeting even the current needs let alone the needs in the future due
dom experiences a significant impact due to the natural variability of climate. to every growing urbanization.495 Due to increases in GHG concentrations,
This variability in natural environmental conditions can increase the increases in global average temperature are expected to be within the range
frequency of severe weather events, such as flooding and heat waves, lead- of 1.1 ºC to 5.4 ºC at the end of the 21st century. Changes in the future projec-
ing to increased urban infrastructure disruption.488-490 tions of precipitation and storm will vary by season and region. Some regions
Changes in long-term trends (e.g., a rise in average temperatures, precipi- may have less precipitation, some more precipitation, and some may have
tation, sea level) along with the associated natural hazards (e.g., floods, little or completely dry.496 Therefore, precipitation extremes and the associ-
droughts, heatwaves, landslides) can reduce the capacity or efficiency of ated hazards often cause infrastructure damage, agricultural losses, and
infrastructure functionality and benefits. These increases and shifts can alter deterioration of freshwater and coastal water quality. For instance, decreased
the design life of infrastructure and the effectiveness of its services. There- precipitation can lead to increased water pollution due to a drop in water
fore, failure to consider and plan for infrastructure transformation that can flows; increased air and water temperatures lead to more rapid evaporation;
cope with climate change-related challenges could lead to increased disrup- and a sea level rise could affect both the availability and quality of water

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supply due to saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers and distribution linked crisis of global biodiversity losses.519-521 Natural climate solutions,
networks.488 Therefore, new/future infrastructure assets should be prioritized, involve conserving, protecting, restoring, or better managing ecosystems to
planned, designed, built, and operated to account for the climate changes that remove CO2 from the atmosphere. For example, allowing forests to regrow,
may occur over their lifetimes. Scenario modeling studies demonstrate that restoring coastal wetlands and freshwaters, and switching to restorative agri-
the effectiveness of nature-based management strategies depends on future cultural practices that support healthy soils, such as cover crop rotation.
climate conditions, such as the extent of warming, and global wind speed.497 These ecosystems reduce climate change by enhancing their ability to
For example, Wada et al.498 demonstrated that the most cost-effective meth- sequester CO2 in plants, soils, and sediments and once more become ‘ net
ods for forest restoration must consider the variation of wildfire risk and sinks’ of carbon (meaning they store more carbon than they emit). They also
Geoscience
water availability under current and future climate change scenarios. Mean- provide a wide range of other important benefits, such as cleaner air and
while, Krauss et al.499 reported that the extent to which mangroves adapt to water, natural hazard management, economic benefits, and increased biodi-
the rise in sea level through soil accretion and hence the protection of coastal versity.522 Many studies explored the important function of NBS, that is, the
communities depends on the rate of sea-level rise under future climate network of green and blue space in a city can play a key role in adapting them
change scenarios. Similarly, Langridge et al.500 identified where and to what against climate change-induced natural hazards487,493,521,523 and climate
extent nature-based interventions can protect engineered coastal defenses, resilience of urban energy systems.524,525
coastal populations, and farmland from coastal flooding and erosion in the Climate-resilient infrastructure can improve service provision reliability,
changing climate. increase asset life and protect asset returns.500 Building climate-resilient
From traditional infrastructure to climate-resilient infrastructure. infrastructure involves approaches that restore, protect, or enhance natural
Infrastructure networks are assets, interdependent, and long-lived across systems. Some examples of climate-resilient natural infrastructures include:
sectors. Decisions made now about the design, location, and operation of (1) avoiding emissions through protecting landscapes where deforestation
these assets will determine their longer-term resilience to the impacts of and land-use change are restricted; (2) restoring ecosystems, such as
climate change.501 Improving resilience in this area is important to climate drained peatlands, to enhance carbon sequestration; (3) improving degraded
adaptation and mitigation, particularly since adequate, reliable infrastructure habitats by bringing ecological diversity into landscapes dominated by singu-
underpins future development. The continued global trend towards increas- lar species; (4) improving management practices of farmed land such that
ing urbanization requires a rethink of how cities and metropolitan regions are emissions are reduced and sequestration of carbon is maximized; (5) allow-
built and operated to remain functional in the coming decades. Cities produce ing waterways to meander along their natural courses to reduce flood risk;
more than 70% of the global CO2 emissions.502 Thus, climate change-respon- and (6) better-integrating nature into urban areas and agricultural land-
sive management of urban systems is key in our efforts to reduce CO2 emis- scapes. Protection, restoration, and enhancement of natural habitats to
sions markedly.503 As the impact of climate change becomes increasingly defend infrastructures against the impacts of climate change are practical
apparent, cities worldwide recognize the need to adapt their infrastructure to and cost-effective approaches that can be and are implemented in many
mitigate its effects. This will require significant changes to complex urban regions of the world. However, decision-makers, planners, architects, and
infrastructure, which will take time and require careful planning. Retrofitting engineers need to collaborate and work together to support these efforts,
existing infrastructure will also be necessary to make it more resilient to the particularly in the area where familiarity with traditional grey-built infrastruc-
impacts of climate change. In the meantime, cities must be prepared to ture may lead to skepticism about the role of NBS and natural infrastructure.
handle the amplified stresses and shocks exerted by the environment at all Moreover, infrastructure resilient to climate change could help the achieve-
spatial scales. Ideally, changes in urban infrastructure must aim to improve ment of the goals of the Paris Agreement, while at the same time supporting
the capacity for mitigation and adaptation simultaneously to address the efforts to achieve a number of the Sustainable Development Goals and
challenges posed by climate change (Fig. 6). By doing so, cities can become enable the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduc-
more sustainable and resilient for current and future generations.504 Recent tion.525-527
research has found that expanding Urban Green Infrastructure is the most
effective tool to achieve this.505 Especially trees play a major role in reducing CARBON QUANTIFICATION, MODELING, AND PRICING
land surface temperatures of cities by up to 12 K.506 Urban trees also help to The role of space technology and remote sensing in the fight against
reduce the risk of flooding by absorbing stormwater507,508 and provide a large climate change
number of other co-benefits that assist in climate change adaptation.509 Cost-effective assessment of land-based carbon sequestration and
However, increasing surface albedo510,511 and replacing impervious with pervi- reduction of GHG emissions using remote sensor technology. Measuring
ous surfaces512 are additional proven techniques to mitigate the thermal soil carbon changes over time requires field and laboratory methods that are
impacts of overheating and associated loss of human lives in cities.513 NBS accurate, reliable, and reproducible. Some methods are established in
will play a key role in this transformative process (see Section 4.1). However, academia, industry, and the service sector, including chemical oxidation,528
in our expanding and densifying cities, these NBS must not only cope with the high-temperature combustions,529, and carbon analyzers.530 The soil bulk
existing stressors like pollution and disturbance but they must be designed to density is measured for carbon stock assessment, typically by the core
cope with the climate extremes they are designed to mitigate, including storm method,531 from undisturbed samples. Field sampling, especially for subsoil
surges, extreme temperatures, and drought.514 It thus becomes inevitable that sampling, is costly and soil carbon laboratory methods have a high cost per
holistic concepts like that of regenerative cities are implemented.515 NBS will sample.
survive and thrive in regenerative cities because these cities address Proximal soil sensing of soil reflectance in the visible (VIS, ~400-800 nm),
resilience not only at the street or precinct scale but help transform their near-infrared (NIR, ~800-2500 nm), and mid-infrared (MIR, ~2500-25,000
entire metabolism, lessen their regional impact, and reduce their contribution nm) electromagnetic wave ranges offer an alternative for traditional labora-
to global climate change.516 tory soil carbon assessment that is fast and cheap per sample.532-534 The
When embedded in infrastructure development, climate resilience can accuracy of VIS-NIR-MIR spectral carbon measurements and their applica-
protect investment returns, support business continuity, and meet regulatory bility for different soils and carbon fractions have been demonstrated in vari-
requirements.501,517 Therefore, climate-resilient infrastructure should be ous geographic regions.535-543 Open soil spectral libraries, such as Soil Spec-
planned, designed, built, and operated in a way that anticipates, prepares for, troscopy for the Greater Good,544 operationalization in the industry,545,546 and
and adapts to changing climate conditions. The future planning to design and the development of portable field instruments,547,548 have facilitated reliable
develop regenerative infrastructure should consider protecting key biodiver- soil carbon assessment.
sity regions, maintaining ecological connectivity, and considering holistic The cost reduction of soil carbon assessment and monitoring is critical for
benefits to human and environmental health.518 making carbon offset projects economically feasible and boosting the carbon
Nature-based solutions (NBS) or natural climate solutions are part of the market in the agriculture sector. VIS-NIR-MIR spectroscopy expedites and
response to limiting climate change and could also help address the inter- reduces the costs of soil carbon measurements allowing denser and more

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frequent surveys to monitor soil carbon sequestration within fields. The tran- continuously monitors Europe's atmosphere for air quality, ozone, and ultra-
sition of adopting cost-effective soil carbon sensing technology and AI spec- violet (UV) radiation.561 The Sentinel-5 and 5P missions are low Earth orbit
tral modeling in the carbon economy by aggregators and registries that oper- missions that focus on measuring a range of atmospheric gases such as
ate carbon crediting programs is still in its infancy as most carbon quantifi- carbon monoxide (CO), CH4, and N2O.562 In addition to the Sentinel missions,
cation protocols and verification standards (e.g., Verified Carbon Standard, China's FengYun and GaoFen series of satellites also play an important role
Gold Standard, South Pole, Climate Action Reserve) rely on traditional labora- in Earth observation. The FengYun-series satellites are used for weather fore-
tory-based soil carbon analytics. Few carbon aggregators (e.g., CarbonTerra) casting, climate monitoring, and environmental management.563,564 The
and registries (e.g., GHG Registry) stand out as early adopters of cost-effec- GaoFen-series satellites are used for Earth observation, including land
tive sensor-driven carbon monitoring approach for carbon crediting, surveying, mapping, and disaster monitoring.565,566 In addition, various satel-
supported by ample evidence of the high accuracy and robustness of spec- lite observations from multispectral and microwave passive and active
tral-based AI soil carbon estimates. sensors can provide global distributions of various vegetation structural
Using satellite observations and spatial analysis to mitigate and adapt parameters (leaf area index, vegetation height, biomass), providing support
to climate change. Satellite observation and space analysis technology have for the estimation of the global terrestrial ecosystem carbon budget.567,568
become increasingly important tools for observing climate change phenom- Monitoring the impact of climate on the land surface carbon sink from
ena, strengthening climate change response, and providing early warning.3 global satellite observations. In particular, satellite observations have been
These technologies allow scientists to monitor changes in the Earth's atmo- used to monitor changes in forest carbon stocks, which represent a major
sphere, oceans, and land surfaces with unprecedented accuracy and detail. component of the carbon sink on land surfaces. Global observations have
Satellites equipped with sensors that can measure temperature, precipitation, been used to monitor “greening” from optical vegetation indices such as the
sea level, vegetation cover, and other environmental variables provide data Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI),569,570 associated with the
that can be used to track changes in the Earth's climate over time. This infor- increased photosynthetic activity of vegetation. However, greening does not
mation is critical for understanding the causes and effects of climate change mean an increase in aboveground carbon stocks (AGC); for example, herba-
and developing strategies to mitigate its impacts. In addition to monitoring ceous vegetation may replace trees after fires, which is associated with an
changes in the Earth's environment, satellite observation and space analysis increase in NDVI but a decrease in AGC.571 Optical observations are therefore
technologies also play a vital role in disaster response and risk reduction. By affected by saturation effects, limiting their ability to monitor AGC, particu-
providing real-time data on weather patterns, natural disasters such as hurri- larly in dense forests, which are the largest contributors to global vegetation
canes, floods, and wildfires can be anticipated and prepared more effectively. carbon stocks.572 Radar (active microwave instruments, primarily in the L-, C-,
They also allow for rapid response efforts following disasters, enabling and X-bands) has also been used to monitor AGC, but the observed radar
rescue teams to locate survivors and assess damage quickly. With the backscatter is affected by complex structural/geometric effects of soil and
improvement toward finer-grained spatial-temporal resolution and accuracy vegetation, as well as saturation (at ~ 50-100 tons/ha).573 To date, the most
of satellite observations, new sensors, and intelligent information extraction promising results in monitoring annual AGC changes at the continental scale,
and analysis technology, the quality, and accuracy of data products are albeit at coarse spatial resolution (~25 km), have been obtained from passive
continuously improved. As a result of these advancements, data products are L-band microwave observations (~20 cm wavelength), which exhibit weak
becoming more reliable and useful for a variety of applications such as saturation effects even in dense forests. These observations, through L-band
climate modeling, natural resource management, and disaster response. The vegetation optical depth (L-VOD), could reveal the large-scale impact of
increased accuracy and precision of satellite observations also allow for climate on vegetation carbon stocks (e.g., drought mortality during El Nino
better monitoring of environmental changes over time, which is crucial for events in the tropics,574 fire in boreal regions,571, etc.) and associated recovery
understanding how human activities affect our planet. Specifically, the main of AGC (e.g., AGC recovery in Australia after 2020 fires575).
functions of earth observation and spatial analysis are reflected in three Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) observations, a remote sensing tech-
aspects: nology that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges (vari-
(1) Reducing disaster costs by acquiring near real-time data on climate able distances) to the Earth, allow to measure canopy height (as an indicator
change-related disasters. The extreme disasters caused by climate change of AGC), also have great potential to monitor the impact of climate on AGC.
are increasing. The frequency and intensity of floods,549 droughts,550 hurri- But observations are sparse (e.g., a 25 m footprint for the Global Ecosystem
canes,551 heat waves,552 and wildfires553 have increased, resulting in an Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) by the National Aeronautics and Space
increasing number of affected people and economic losses.554 Satellite Administration (NASA) space instrument),576 limiting the possibility of obtain-
observation can realize early detection and forecast of these disasters, ing frequent and global monitoring. Recently, promising new remote sensing
analyze their changes, predict their trends, and provide information on the methods have emerged to overcome the limitations of sparse LiDAR data.
extent, frequency, and intensity of disasters for their timely mitigation. These methods involve applying AI (primarily deep learning, DL) to high-reso-
(2) Early warning of long-term impacts of climate change. In addition to lution radar/optical observations (both in space and time) to monitor key
short-term extreme weather, climate change will also bring many irreversible forest features. DL model learning is based on very large datasets,
long-term impacts, which may drastically change human life. Through long- constructed from manual mapping of individual tree crowns, aerial or satel-
term observation of glacier area and mass, it was found that the accelerated lite GEDI observations of tree heights, etc. Notable recent applications include
melting of temperate glaciers, which are called the tower of water, led to the mapping (1) individual trees and their carbon stock in the Sahel (~10 billion
imbalance of water resources in arid areas555,556 as well as in river ecosys- trees),577 and Rwanda,578 (2) global forest height at 30 m and 10 m
tems and also their use in transportation. By observing changes in the thick- resolution,579 (3) canopy cover, height, and aboveground biomass maps in
ness of the ice sheet and the state of snow melt, it has been found that the Europe at high resolution.580,581
ablation of the polar ice sheet is accelerating and is predicted to lead to a
significant rise in global sea levels,557 resulting in the disappearance of small Integrated assessment models of climate change
island countries and the inundation of coastal areas. By monitoring ocean Integrated modeling approaches are profoundly important in addressing
temperatures with thermal infrared images, it has been found that the ocean global climate change impacts and adaptation and mitigation strategies.
is warming rapidly, causing irreversible damage to marine corals, mangroves, Various factors are integrated to facilitate comprehensive assessments: (1)
and other ecosystems.558,559 environmental, social, and economic data mining and harmonization, (2)
(3) Provide basic data support for the global carbon cycle. The continuous technologies (e.g., proximal sensing, remote sensing, field measurements),
accumulation of GHGs is the root cause of climate change. Sentinel-2 satel- and (3) multi-model or multi-methods. Data-driven intelligent models,
lite observations can provide global GHG concentration data, including CO2, stochastic, hybrid, and mechanistic (process-based) simulation models have
CH4, N2O, and other GHGs.560 The Sentinel-2 mission is primarily designed for been used to quantify terrestrial carbon and GHG emissions and estimate
land monitoring, whereas Sentinel-4, -5, and 5P are dedicated to atmo- uncertainties. These carbon quantities are then coupled with valuation and
spheric monitoring. The Sentinel-4 mission is a geostationary mission that economic models to assess carbon credits, carbon taxes, or other valuation

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scores (e.g., ecosystem services) that hold economic and social values in Under future climate change, elevated CO2 is associated with an increase in
voluntary or mandatory carbon markets. global surface temperature. Global surface warming includes warming of
AI and data-driven modeling of carbon sequestration and GHG emis- surface water, soil warming, air warming, and plant warming, that is, whole-
sions. Artificial intelligence and data-driven approaches to predict soil carbon ecosystem warming. Due to the logistical complexity, high-energy require-
contents, stocks, pools, sequestration, and soil processes including soil respi- ments, and expense, most free-air controlled temperature enhancement
ration and GHG emissions as well as soil health have been used widely at the experiments to date have focused on heating either soil or water, air or plant.
field, regional and global scales.582 AI is concerned with building intelligent For instance, Rich et al.598 and Noyce et al.599 used an infrared canopy warm-
entities (machines) that can compute how to act effectively and safely in a ing system combined with a soil warming system to increase the whole-
wide variety of novel situations.583 Machine learning AI refers to machines
Geoscience
ecosystem temperature in a forest and grassland. More whole-ecosystem
and systems designed to provide solutions to specific problems by learning warming experiments need to be conducted in a variety of ecosystems. In
(training) from experience supplied by data and algorithms, and then apply- addition, the magnitude of warming in these free-air controlled temperature
ing the gained knowledge to effectively solve the problems.582,583 For instance, enhancement experiments is limited and usually below 3.5 ºC.598-602 As plant
artificial neural networks (ANNs) are composed of nodes and discrete layers, responses to multiple elevated temperatures are nonlinear, higher warming
connections, and directions of data propagation,584 and thus, are well suited levels also need to be simulated using free-air controlled temperature
for training DP AI algorithms that are composed of multiple processing layers enhancement systems.
to learn representations of data with multiple levels of abstraction.584 To simulate drought conditions, rainout shelters can be constructed to
Pedometrics uses sensor technology and AI algorithms extensively for cost- intercept a certain percentage of incoming precipitation.603 These shelters can
effective and rapid sensing of soil carbon, 582 and modeling that guides be made from various materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes, wood
climate and carbon-smart agricultural management considering site-specific or metal frames, and clear plastic sheeting. The size and shape of the shelter
climatic, crop, and environmental conditions.585 A collection of AI machine will depend on the scale of the experiment and the type of plants being stud-
learning approaches for assessing soil carbon and other soil properties,586 soil ied. Roots that intercept a certain percentage of incoming precipitation can
carbon sequestration, and soil respiration to quantify GHG emissions,587 as be used to simulate drought conditions.604 This can be achieved by placing
well as digital soil quantification, are available. In a global study, Random barriers such as plastic sheets or root barriers at different depths in the soil.
Forest AI models provided superior results in estimating heterotrophic respi- These barriers will prevent some of the water from reaching the roots of the
ration when compared to 10 different mechanistic terrestrial ecosystem plants, simulating drought conditions. In addition to rainout shelters, other
simulation models.588 Data-driven AI approaches combine site-specific soil methods can also be used to simulate drought conditions such as withhold-
carbon measurements, soil proximal sensing data, remote sensing and ing water from plants or using soil with low water-holding capacity.605 These
geospatial data of topography, land use/land cover, geology, and climate to methods can be used in combination with rainout shelters for more accurate
derive information and solutions at fine spatial resolution (pixel size), and results.
temporal frequency (daily to weekly).582,589,590 Soil proximal sensors and
remote sensing technologies allow the developing digital twins of soil and Economics of climate change
terrestrial carbon evolution trending toward near-real time. Climate adaptation and mitigation through voluntary vs mandatory
To achieve a net zero carbon economy, spectral-informed AI carbon carbon markets. Carbon markets form a large and integral part of climate
modeling provides cost-effective strategies for rapid quantification of soil policy.606 The mandatory (regulated, compliance) carbon market refers to the
carbon sequestration to mitigate global climate change. These data-driven AI economy that is regulated by national and international treaties setting rules
soil and terrestrial carbon models built on data hypercubes interpreted by and targets for reducing the carbon footprint of committed countries by
machines provide distinct advantages compared to human understanding of sequestering carbon and reducing GHG emissions. The Kyoto Protocol which
ecosystem processes engrained in simulation models. The latter is an under- entered into force in 2006607 and its successors under the United Nations
taking that has been hampered by the complexity of soil ecosystems and Framework Convention on Climate Change proposed a cap and trade mech-
uncertainties in developing model algorithms and structures to accurately anism, where the cap sets the maximum allowed emissions per country and
represent the underlying variability and interactions among biogeochemical, industry sector, and the trade enables companies and countries to trade GHG
microbial, hydrological, climatic, and other ecosystem processes. In contrast, emission allowances, encouraging industries to reduce GHG emissions
data-driven AI models are simpler, more flexible, and allow the identification (‘ avoidance’) and purchase external carbon offset credits from land-based
of the main drivers of processes, such as soil carbon sequestration (‘ gray sequestered carbon through management beyond business-as-usual (‘addi-
boxes’). In addition, they benefit from the myriad of data types, formats, and tionality’). The voluntary market allows companies and individuals to volun-
resolutions they can handle to create spatially and temporally continuous tarily trade carbon credits. The private sector mainly governs this market and
digital twins of soil properties, functions, and processes, including carbon is more informal and flexible than the mandatory one, with multiple stan-
change and GHG emissions. dards, definitions, and prices for carbon credits and mechanisms for project
How to simulate climate change scenarios for the future. More than 30 monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV).608
years ago, a FACE (free-air CO2 enrichment) system was developed to mimic Both carbon markets open the opportunity for farmers to produce and sell
elevated CO2 under future climate.591 The FACE system enabled the air above carbon offset credits through projects that embrace climate-smart agricul-
open-field plots to be enriched with CO2 for the entire growing season.592 The ture. The aim is to sequester soil carbon (additionality) and reduce GHG
FACE system is used to assess the “actual” responses of plants in a future emissions (avoidance) while sustaining agricultural production and profit,
high-CO2 world.593,594 Numerous FACE experiments have already been with the latter expectedly boosted by carbon credit sales. Under the MRV
conducted on many species. This spans a wide range of plant functional framework, a well-conducted, well-documented climate-smart project is the
types, including crops, legumes, grasses, trees, shrubs, and forbs.591,595 first step to producing, approving, and selling carbon credits. A positive
However, the CO2 amplitudes in these FACE systems are higher than under carbon offset must be achieved and verified by a third-party company for
natural conditions, due to the difficulty of controlling elevated CO2 concentra- carbon credit approval and trading.609 Out of seven evaluated negative emis-
tions in turbulent air.596 The fluctuations of CO2 in the FACE system may sion technologies, SOC sequestration ranked highest with up to 5 GtCO2 yr−1
decrease plant photosynthesis, biomass, and yield, thus underestimating the along with afforestation and reforestation (0.5-5 GtCO2 yr−1) for sustainable
CO2 fertilization effect on plant growth.596 In addition, current FACE experi- carbon sequestration.610 However, the low prices of carbon credits versus the
ments mainly focus on IPCC mid-range emission scenarios that suggest a high costs of carbon/project MRV, and the commitment to permanence (for
CO2 increase of 200-350 ppm by 2100.593,597 However, in the worst-case land-based carbon storage of typically 100 years) to avoid the reversal of
scenarios (IPCC RCP8.5), these mid-range CO2 levels will be surpassed earlier carbon storage impose barriers to adopting carbon offset projects. This calls
than expected. Thus, the FACE technology must also be improved to reduce for reframing MRV standards, protocols, and governance frameworks.611 In
the range of CO2 fluctuations and simulate higher CO2 levels. time, climate-smart agriculture promotes carbon sequestration and storage,

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Figure 7. The status of carbon pricing initiatives worldwide A. Map of the geographical distribution of carbon pricing initiatives; B. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions covered
(2018) for 11 implemented Emissions Trading Systems (ETS) and 11 implemented Carbon Tax; C. Carbon price (2018) for 11 implemented Emissions Trading Systems (ETS) and
11 implemented Carbon Tax; D. Year of implementation for 11 implemented ETS and 11 implemented Carbon Tax. Data sources: Word Bank.615
while proximal and remote sensing assessments of soil and terrestrial carbon carbon tax imposes a fixed fee per unit of carbon emission.617 The carbon
reduce costs. Subsequently, profitable MRV projects improve the additional- price could be directly controlled to manipulate the reduction level of carbon
ity and avoidance of GHG emissions. Beyond carbon sequestration for emissions by disincentivizing GHG emission-intensive productions. It is a
climate change mitigation, climate-smart agriculture produces multiple co- cost-effective measure since only emitters capable of reducing emissions at
benefits ranging from soil ecosystem services to soil security, with local to a cost below the tax will choose to do so.
global positive impacts. ETS, also termed a cap-and-trade system, is a tradable-permit system for
Carbon tax and emissions trading system. Carbon pricing, as an carbon emissions. This quantity-based mechanism works by imposing a
approach to spur climate action, shifts consumption and investment patterns quota on emission permits issued to participants (i.e., enterprises, industries,
and makes contributions to economic development compatible with climate and countries), and then allowing participants to trade these permits in the
change mitigation (Fig. 7). The general idea of carbon pricing is to charge market.618 The advantage of ETS is that it can directly control the emission
emitters or to offer incentives for emission reduction.612,613 It captures the reduction level under carbon price uncertainties. Participants covered by the
external costs of carbon emissions and effectively shifts the responsibility of ETS have the flexibility of trading permits to reach the lowest cost possible for
paying for climate change damage from the public to the GHG emitters.614 themselves and society. Participants with lower emission reduction costs
There are various forms of carbon pricing instruments. Two main forms could sell their excess permits, while participants with higher emission reduc-
are carbon tax and emissions trading system (ETS). The former is a price- tion costs could buy permits to avoid emission reduction.619 Thus, ETS caps
based mechanism, while the latter is a quantity-based mechanism.616 The the total amount emitted at a level exactly equal to the number of permits

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issued. Under this mechanism, the carbon price is determined by the balance This is where education acts in climate actions.
between the demand for total emissions for the production of goods and Integrating climate change education into education systems, both
services and the available emissions permits allocated. formally and informally, is one of the most effective ways to respond to
Carbon pricing instruments have been booming around the world.620 Both climate issues, particularly in terms of mitigation and adaptation.634 Educa-
carbon pricing mechanisms have their advantages, and many studies have tion can inform the public that, as conscious consumers and responsible citi-
compared their efficiency. Weitzman’s pioneering work indicated that the zens, they have a responsibility to shift away from carbon-intensive and
relative slopes of the marginal cost and benefit functions determine which is energy-inefficient consumption patterns and lifestyles to promote sustain-
more sufficient. If the slope of the marginal cost function is greater than the ability.635 Beyond the essential role of education in individual behavior change
Geoscience
absolute value of the slope of the marginal benefit function, a price-based for mitigation, education is also an integral component of adaptive
mechanism is more efficient. Otherwise, a quantity-based mechanism is capacity.636 By equipping people with the knowledge about responding to
preferred.621 Many researchers argue that carbon tax has practical and specific climate shocks and providing skills required to make informed deci-
economic advantages due to ease of administration and price certainty,622 but sions on adjusting individual lives and social and economic systems, educa-
IT may not be socially acceptable in some countries. Nobel Prize-winning tion helps increase the general adaptation capacity by reducing vulnerability
economist Nordhaus pointed out the superiority of the price-based mecha- and increasing resilience.635,637 Furthermore, the multiplier effect of education
nism after comparing carbon pricing mechanisms from multiple angles.623 helps enhance the ‘ bottom-up’ solutions to the climate crisis that elites
The Canadian province of British Columbia has levied a carbon tax on fossil cannot deal with. Education multiplier effect implies that households and
fuels combusted for electricity, transportation, and heating since 2008.613 By communities can also benefit from climate and environmental competency
comparison, ETSs are preferred by many countries or regions as they provide and literacy. Thus, education creates an inexhaustible resource of local capa-
more certainty over emissions levels. As of 2021, there are 33 ETSs in opera- bilities and solutions because the information and knowledge gained on
tion globally. These ETSs cover carbon emissions in various sectors such as climate change mitigation and adaptation by individuals can be delivered to a
electricity, industry, aviation, and construction. The European Union Emis- wider population and future generations.634
sions Trading System (EU ETS) is the largest and oldest ETS in the world. It Climate change education is underpinned by transformations at multiple
covers more than 11,000 power stations and manufacturing plants across 31 levels, both individually and collectively.634 Therefore, it primarily focuses on
countries. The EU ETS has been in operation since 2005 and has undergone personal and collective actions' role in tackling climate issues, from behav-
several reforms to improve its efficiency, currently covering about 45% of EU ioral change to cultural and ideological shifts. Climate change education can
GHG emissions.624 China has the largest carbon market in the world, cover- equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, and sense of urgency necessary
ing more than 4 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.625 China's ETS was to take action and make an impact on their communities and societies. Indi-
launched in 2017 and initially covered only the power sector.626 However, it is vidual-level actions include adjusting consumption patterns and lifestyles
expected to expand to other sectors such as cement, steel, and aluminum. towards green and sustainable ones, such as using energy-efficient house-
Other notable ETSs include the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) in hold appliances and taking public transportation.638 At the collective level, it
the United States, which covers power plants in ten Northeastern states, and involves multilevel cooperation to ensure producers and governments take
the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which is a joint effort between California greater responsibility for addressing climate change.634
and Quebec covering multiple sectors. Merely possessing environmental knowledge and awareness does not
A new approach has also been considered, combining elements of the naturally bring about pro-environmental behavior.639 We also need to vote
price-based mechanism (e.g., carbon tax) and the quantity-based mecha- against media fake news and misinformation about climate change as well
nism (e.g., ETS). This hybrid approach uses the initial allocation of tradable as profit-driven publications, reviews, and lobbying questioning climate
permits to set quantity targets but allows extra permits to be purchased at a change. Conceptual shifts in approach to climate change education are
fixed fee.627 It improves efficiency significantly compared to quantity-based needed to facilitate behavioral change. Climate change education should
and price-based mechanisms. move beyond being based solely on cognitive and scientific knowledge and
Despite all advantages of carbon pricing, there are still drawbacks to be instead involve learners more in the emotional dimension of the issue.640,641
overcome, such as (1) the lack of LCA analyses in determining carbon prices, Instead of being limited to what people already know or do not yet know,
the full carbon footprint which includes production and transport costs is climate change education should respond to the current views and beliefs of
usually not included in the prices628 and (2) pricing carbon emissions is a the target population to create emotional connections between various expe-
relatively straightforward process compared to measuring land-based carbon riences and information about climate change, thereby triggering affect-
sequestration. While carbon pricing involves putting a price on each ton of driven behavioral change.640 This is in line with behavioral economics empha-
CO2 emitted, measuring SOC gains requires extensive and accurate sis on “nudges”, in which climate change education influences the decision-
measurement techniques, which are often challenging and expensive in case making of consumers or citizens without changing either objective payoffs or
traditional methods are used instead of cost-effective AI modeling and incentives.642
sensor-driven modeling of carbon. One concern is the avoidance of carbon The vital role that education plays in facilitating individual and collective
leakages, for example, which may result from transporting high C-rich mate- behavioral change for mitigation, as well as the improvement of the general
rials from one site to another, thus resulting in a lack of C sequestration in adaptation capacity, makes it indispensable in tackling climate issues and
other regions. And finally, soils sequester SOC likely most efficiently when worth increased attention worldwide.
previous SOC losses were large, such as in degraded arable land.280 However,
incentivizing farmers who have degraded soils the most can also lead to Climate change mitigation and lifestyle change
unfair competition, giving them an advantage over other farmers practicing Resident lifestyles have played an important role in driving global and local
sustainable agriculture. In search of a solution, Paustian et al.629 suggested GHG emissions on both the production and demand sides.643-645 Although
the use of moving averages, which consider past successes in SOC storage. production-based low-carbon strategies have been seen as the main solu-
tion to climate change mitigation, demand-side mitigation options on house-
Behavioral and cultural education to help mitigate and adapt to climate hold lifestyle changes can provide the necessary leeway to accomplish
change climate goals646,647 and to maintain UN Sustainable Development Goals
The important role that education plays in dealing with climate change has (SDGs).648 Several international bodies and countries have already incorpo-
been admitted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate rated lifestyle changes into their long-term carbon mitigation
Change since 1992,630 further emphasized by the Bonn Declaration,631 and strategies.356,644,648,649
promoted by the efforts from multiple international organizations.632 While Connecting household lifestyle change and climate change mitigation
technical and financial support undoubtedly matter to combat the changing needs knowledge from various disciplines. There are promising multi- and
climate, broader behavioral, cultural, and ideological shifts are also critical.633 trans-disciplinary frameworks that can identify and characterize the demand-

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side or lifestyle-based actions for mitigating climate change.649,650 Some consumption on the environment. In 2022, fossil fuels provided 81% of the
disciplines tend to interpret household behaviors qualitatively based on world's energy, despite the need to combat climate change, and energy-
surveys,651 literature studies,652 and expert judgment,653 for example, using related CO2 emissions continue to rise. Given that the enormous potential of
public transport instead of driving a private car for travel purposes. Other global renewable energy sources could meet global energy demand, it is still
disciplines use quantitative methodologies to assess the outcome of behav- possible to reduce emissions in the energy and transport sector and close the
ior options, which can be well connected to coupling analysis and other gap between climate change promises and actions. Additional efforts are
economic models. For example, turning the room thermostat down 1 ℃ can needed from country to country to increase the share of clean and renewable
save a certain amount of household energy use.654,655 Several systematic energy sources in the global energy mix.
conceptual frameworks have recently been developed to facilitate transdisci- Second, to effectively feed the growing population, agriculture is develop-
plinary collaboration. For instance, the well-established “Avoid-Shift-Improve” ing rapidly, and its contribution to global GHG emissions is also increasing as
framework classifies behavioral choices and captures interactions between a result of the production and use of chemical fertilizers and other agricul-
these choices.648,649,656,657 tural management practices. Agriculture currently accounts for 19-29% of
In terms of categories of behavioral options, there are four principal total GHG emissions globally, and this percentage could increase signifi-
domains: food,658-660 mobility,655,661-664 housing,665-668 and other cantly as countries seek to increase food production. If managed well,
consumption.649,669,670 Despite a large number of published studies, most however, agriculture could become one of the centers for combating climate
assessments were often carried out with a relatively narrow focus on one of change. In this regard, reductions in emissions from fertilizer and livestock
the major domains. Only very few studies considered multiple behavioral systems are necessary to achieve carbon-neutral agriculture. This calls for
options, and their approach was to discuss different types of options sepa- effective management of soils and crop-livestock production systems, recy-
rately, rather than considering the changes synergistically.651,671,672 cling the agricultural waste in agroecosystems, and improving the features of
Our review of regional studies shows that most of them mainly focused on bio/organic fertilizers. In addition, we must be aware that changes in trans-
developed countries.651,671,672 Assessments of behavioral change to reduce portation, wastewater treatment, and dietary preferences can be advanta-
household carbon emissions in developing and emerging economies are still geous for climate change mitigation.
lacking. Third, environmental degradation and pollution create new challenges in
Given the potential for laying out short-term and behavior-oriented mitiga- our quest to adapt to and mitigate climate change. The ongoing loss of
tion pathways, various choices of green consumption are incorporated into ecosystem carbon, its sequestration potential, and ecosystem services leave
and combined with other modeling frameworks to quantify their potential an unnecessary debt to future generations. In this regard, collaborative efforts
environmental impacts. Assessment approaches, such as LCA, input-output centered on our current and future demands are needed, irrespective of
(IO) analysis, and integrated assessment model (IAM), are widely used. While global political or economic tensions. In the end, addressing climate change
LCA provides an appropriate process-specific approach, it fails to capture the and environmental degradation will require sustained efforts from all sectors
system-wide impacts of climate problems.673 The IO framework of house- of the global community. A sustainable future for ourselves and future gener-
hold consumption, especially multi-regional IO, offers a solution for evaluat- ations is only possible if we collaborate and act swiftly to address the
ing the mitigation potentials throughout the supply chain.651,665,671,674 Wood et complex issues that imperil our planet and way of life.
al.674 formalized an approach that models reductions and shifts in demand
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Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation

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Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation

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diseases.243 A 1 °C temperature rise was associated with a significant

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Actions Terrestrial Freshwater Marine

Reconnect Restrict fragmentation of habitats by coastal

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Development of climate-resilient crops Address and plan for environmental change

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Intelligence-A-Modern-Approach-4th-Edition/P200000003500/9780137505135. Clim. Change 10, 1004−1009.

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