As Phil and Ethics Textbook

WJEC/Eduqas
Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS

Philosophy of Religion
and Religion and Ethics
Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching,
learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and
tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams.
● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust
● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with
the information
● A skills-based pathway of learning helps you make links between the specification
content and the final exam
W EC/Eduqas Re g ous Stud es for A Leve Year 1 & AS

● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout
Ph osophy of Re g on and Re g on and Eth cs

● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key
facts within each topic
● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective:
AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of
knowledge and understanding
AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation
● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both
specification content and the issues that are raised
● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student
answers and examiner commentaries
WJEC/Eduqas
About the authors:
Religious Studies
Karl Lawson is an experienced teacher of Religious Studies, having taught for over twenty-five years in schools in
both England and Wales. He is an experienced examiner with over twenty years of experience at GCSE and A Level
and is a senior examiner for a major awarding body.
for A Level Year 1 & AS
Richard Gray has studied at The University of Sheffield where he won the Epworth Prize, before taking up a British
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds.
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies.
He has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently a freelance writer and examiner.
He is author of several books and articles for A Level Religious Studies.
Richard Gray
WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas
Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS
Buddhism Christianity Judaism Islam H ndu sm

ISBN 978-1-908682-99-4 Richard Gray
Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching,
learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and
tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams.
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Buddhism
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Christianity
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Judaism
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Islam
● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust
● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with
the information the information the information the information the information
Karl Lawson
● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification
content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam
● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout
● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key
facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic
Karl Lawson
● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective:
AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of
knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding
AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation
● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both
specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised
● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student
answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries
WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas W

About the author:
Religious Studies
About the author:
WJEC/Eduqas About the author:
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey has taught Religious Studies for 28 years, specialising in Judaism. She has been Head of
Religious Studies
About the author:
Religious Studies
About the author:
Huw Dylan Jones For has been a Head of RE for over 30 years as well as an Assistant Head. He is currently
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. Department for 22 years. During her career she has undertaken a variety of roles including that of Advisory Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. Principal Examiner for the AS Level Eastern Religions specification for a major awarding body.
Religious Studies
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He Teacher for RE in Mid Glamorgan, training NQTs and providing INSET provision for teachers of RE and non- Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He Richard Gray has studied at The University of Sheffield where he won the Epworth Prize, before taking up a British
has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently freelance writer and examiner. He is
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS specialists.
Richard Gray has studied at The University of Sheffield where he won the Epworth Prize, before taking up a British for A Level Year 1 & AS has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently freelance writer and examiner. He is
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies. for A Level Year 1 & AS Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds.
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He
Judaism
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently freelance writer and examiner. He is
Islam Hinduism
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies
Buddhism Edited by Richard Gray

Christianity
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies.
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey
Gwynn ap Gwilym
WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE
Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music
This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards, This comprehensive textbook is written by the experienced examiner Jan Richards,
and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts and is a highly practical guide providing support, advice and guidance for all parts
of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable of the Music GCSE. A colourful and accessible visual style and a wealth of invaluable
advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your advice will support you throughout the GCSE course, and help you prepare for your
performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing. performing assessment and non-exam assessment for composing.
ISBN 978-1-908682-92-5 ISBN 978-1-908682-92-5 ISBN 978-1-908682-92-5 ISBN 978-1-908682-92-5 ISBN 978-1-908682-92-5
● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust
● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and ● An attractive and engaging layout helps you engage with core knowledge and
key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts
Richard Gray
key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts
Richard Gray
● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble,
Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music
WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music
● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising
● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills
and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic
Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme
Gwynn ap Gwilym
Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical a
notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification
About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author:
9 781908 682994
Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three
secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing
Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and
student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body.
WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE
Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music
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Chemistry
WJEC/Eduqas
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for AS Level
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David Ballardand Ethics
Rhodri Thomas
Richard Gray
Karl Lawson
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Contents
About this book
Philosophy of Religion Religion and Ethics
Theme 1: Arguments for the Theme 1: Ethical thought 108
existence of God – inductive 6 A: Divine command theory 108
A: Inductive arguments – cosmological 6 B: Virtue theory 118
B: Inductive arguments – teleological 16 C: Ethical egoism 129
C: Challenges to inductive arguments 24
Theme 2: Aquinas’ Natural Law –
Theme 2: Arguments for the a religious approach to ethics 140
existence of God – deductive 32 A: Thomas Aquinas’ Natural Law: laws
A: Deductive arguments – origins of the and precepts as the basis of morality 140
ontological argument 32 B: Aquinas’ Natural Law: the role of
B: Deductive arguments – developments virtues and goods in supporting
of the ontological argument 40 moral behaviour 148
C: Challenges to the ontological argument 50 C: Aquinas’ Natural Law: application
of the theory 159
Theme 3: Challenges to religious
belief (part 1) – the problem of Theme 3: Situation Ethics –
evil and suffering 56 a religious approach to ethics 172
A: Joseph Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: his
A: The problem of evil and suffering 56
rejection of other forms of ethics and
B: Religious responses to the problem of his acceptance of agape as the
evil: Augustinian type theodicy 65 basis of morality 172
C: Religious responses to the problem of B: Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: the
evil: Irenaean type theodicy 73 principles as a means of assessing morality 183
Theme 4: Religious experience C: Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: application
of the theory 191
(part 1) 80
A: The nature of religious experience 80 Theme 4: Utilitarianism –
B: Mystical experience 92 a non-religious approach
C: Challenges to the objectivity and to ethics 200
authenticity of religious experience 99 A: Classical Utilitarianism – Jeremy
Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism:
happiness as the basis of morality 200
B: John Stuart Mill’s development of
Utilitarianism: types of pleasure, the
harm principle and the use of rules 209
C: Utilitarianism: application of the
theories (Act and Rule) 216
Questions and answers 228

Quickfire answers 239
Glossary 242
Index 246
3

About this book
With the new A Level in Religious Studies, there is a lot to cover and a lot to do
T1 Arguments for the

existence of God – inductive
in preparation for the examinations at the end of AS or the full A Level. The aim
of these books is to provide enough support for you to achieve success at AS and
This section covers AO1
content and skills A: Inductive arguments – cosmological A Level, whether as a teacher or a learner.
Specification content Imagine that you are trying to solve a
Inductive proofs; the concept of a
posteriori.
murder mystery. You know where the
crime took place, you know roughly This series of books is skills-based in its approach to learning, which means it aims
T1
when it took place and you think you
know who was at the scene of the
Key terms crime. However, you did not actually
to combine covering the content of the Specification with examination preparation
Arguments for the

A posteriori: a statement that is witness it first-hand yourself, so how
based on actual observation, evidence, can you prove what happened? How
experimental data or experience –
from the start. In other words, it aims to help you get through the course whilst at
do you solve the crime?
relates to inductive reasoning
The only way to do so is to gather
Cosmological and teleological
evidence. So, you begin your search
arguments: two examples of
for clues. After some time, you
the same time developing some important skills needed for the examinations.
inductive arguments that use the
evidence of, and within, the universe have managed to gather witness
to attempt to prove the existence of the statements, you have photographs of
God of Classical Theism the murder scene, you have examined

Empirically: using knowledge gained
the body, you have had forensics Detective
through the experiences of any of the
five senses
Inductive proof: argument
experts reporting back to you, and
finally, you are ready to reveal who the murderer was and why they committed
the crime.
To help you study, there are clearly defined sections for each of the AO1 and
AO2 areas of the Specification. These are arranged according to the Specification
constructed on evidence and/or What you have just done is to induct a judgment, based on evidence and experience
experience that puts forward a possible that has led to a possible conclusion. In philosophical terms your conclusion is
conclusion based on these reached via inductive proof
proof. Such a proof is the only type available to us in many
Posit: to put forward, or state, a fact circumstances – particularly when we were not available to gather direct proof (i.e.
or belief, usually as the basis for an
argument or conclusion
we were not present at the time of the event to empirically witness it). Equally we
cannot use pure logical reasoning to come up with a conclusion because neither the
circumstances nor the events permit this to happen.
Themes and use, as far as is possible, Specification headings to help you see that
the content has been covered, for both AS and A Level.
Inductive proofs are a posteriori because they require evidence and/or
experience for them to make sense. In the philosophy of religion, any argument
that is constructed upon evidence and/or experience is an a posteriori, inductive,
argument. In the course of your study this applies to both the cosmological and
teleological arguments for the existence of God. The former uses the evidence of
1.1 What is needed for an inductive

argument to make sense?
The AO1 content is detailed, but precise, with the benefit of providing you with
the existing universe and asks the question ‘Where did it come from?’ as the basis
for its argument. The latter looks at the structure and function of the universe and
the things within it to suggest an order and purpose that could not have occurred
references to both religious/philosophical works and to the views of scholars. The

by chance as the basis for its argument. In both cases, evidence is gathered and

conclusions are posited.
Specification content Aquinas – First Way
content and skills

Cosmological argument; Aquinas first
Three Ways – (motion or change;
cause and effect; contingency
AO2 responds to the issues raised in the Specification and provides you with ideas
Aquinas’ First Way is often referred to as ‘motion’ or ‘change’. Basically, Aquinas
said that when we observe the universe, we notice that things tend to be in a state
of change or motion. From this observation Aquinas noted that things do not do
A: Inductive arguments – cosmological
for further debate, to help you develop your own evaluation skills.
and necessity). this of their own accord but are instead ‘moved’ (or ‘changed’) by something else
(in this, Aquinas is restating what Aristotle said).
6
Inductive proofs; the concept of a murder mystery. You know where the Ways to use this book
posteriori. crimethe
In considering tookdifferent
place, you know
ways roughly
in which you may teach or learn, it was decided
that the books needed to have an inbuilt flexibility to adapt. As a result, they can be
know wholearning,
used for classroom was at the forscene of the work by individuals, as homework,
independent
Key terms crime. However, you did not actuallyof ‘flip learning’ if your school or
and, they are even suitable for the purposes
college does this. Philosophy T1 Arguments for the
basedand
Issues for analysis onevaluation
actual observation, evidence, can you prove what happened? How
This
Thissection
sectioncovers
coversAO2
AO2
You may be well aware that learning time is so valuable at A Level and so we have also
content
contentand
andskills
skills
experimental
Whether inductive arguments for God’s data or experience –
existence are persuasive do you solve the crime?
Specification content
Whether inductive arguments for
relates to inductive reasoning taken this into consideration by creating flexible features and activities, again to save
One of the key strengths of inductive arguments lies in their ability in establishing
probability – gathering evidence and suggesting the most likely conclusion
God’s existence are persuasive.

based on this evidence. Evidence-based arguments are often more persuasive
Cosmological and teleological you the time of painstaking research and preparation, either as teacher or learner.
than arguments not based on evidence. Inductive arguments are a posteriori and
synthetic as they depend on experience and/or evidence. This provides them with
credibility and makes them more likely to be persuasive. Inductive arguments

rely on experience that may be universal and testable – allowing it to be widely
used. For many people this is extremely important as it makes the argument more

understandable and accessible and, therefore, persuasive.
for clues. After some time, you Features of the books

One of the key strengths is that the argument recognises there may be more than
one correct answer – the evidence used can support more than one probable

conclusion, which is particularly useful if an individual is not entirely certain what
the conclusion should be. This means the argument can be persuasive precisely
evidence of, and within, the universeThe books

changes can be made to elements of the reasoning without undermining the have managed to gather witness
because it has flexibility. This also allows for the possibility of error that means
process (or conclusion) as a whole.

all contain the following features that appear in the margins, or are
AO2 Activity Possible lines of
statements, you have photographs of
Furthermore, inductive arguments are the basis of the vast majority of scientifically
to attempt to prove the existence of the

accepted theories and these have a wide appeal in the 21st-century world, such
argument
highlighted in the main body of the text, in order to support teaching and learning.
that people readily accept such theories as valid precisely because of the inductive Listed below are some conclusions
and evidence-based approaches that led to these theories being formed. This that could be drawn from the AO2

means that any philosophical or theological reasoning that mirrors the work of
science must surely have a similar claim to both validity and persuasiveness –
unlike any reasoning that has not been based on such foundations.
reasoning in the accompanying text:
1. Inductive reasoning is the most
Key terms theof technical, religious and philosophicalDetective

words or phrases
useful form of reasoning when
body, you have had forensics

However, some may argue that they are not persuasive – often for the same attempting to determine the

reasons as others would claim them to be. For instance, one of the significant existence of God.
weaknesses of inductive arguments is that they can be accused of having limited 2. Any form of argument based on
effectiveness as ‘undeniable proofs’. Their very flexibility means that they could be
experts reporting back to you, and

empirical evidence is more likely to
Philosophy T1experiences
Argumentsoffor the
considered as weak arguments and, because of this, not persuasive.
through the any of the

persuade people because it can be
It is also true to state that inductive arguments can be readily challenged if seen to make sense.
alternative evidence, that is equally as likely to be true, is provided – thereby
Key fiterms
3. Any form of argument that cannot
five existence
senses of God – inductive nally, you are ready to reveal who the murderer was and why they committed
undermining the persuasiveness of the argument. An extension to this is that it
is also equally possible to accept all of the evidence but to deny the conclusion
without contradiction. If this is accepted then it suggests that there can be no
provide a definite conclusion is too
flimsy to persuade anyone.
4. Flexibility in arguments
persuasiveness in the argument as this limits its effectiveness, particularly in
the crime. the ‘third party’ that

tion
demonstrates that they are
Efficient cause:
terms of attempting to establish the existence of a divine being with specific
responsive to criticism and
This
Thissection Inductive
section covers
covers proof:AO2
AO2argument
characteristics (e.g. God of Classical Theism as the designer of the universe).
therefore strong arguments;
Perhaps most important to consider is that the premises, whilst supporting making them more persuasive.
the conclusion, do not make it definite – for many, this means that inductive
constructed on evidence and/or moves What

potentiality
arguments are not persuasive enough to support a basis for religious belief.
you have to actuality
just done is to induct a judgment, based on evidence and experience
Consider each of the conclusions
content
content and
andskills
skills
drawn above and collect evidence and
examples to support each argument
from the AO1 and AO2 material
studied in this section. Select one
conclusion that you think is most
convincing and explain why it is so.
Specificonclusion based on these reached via inductive proof. Such a proof is theto
only type available to
keyus in many
Now contrast this with the weakest
cation content Quickfire questions simple, straightforward questions

conclusion in the list, justifying
your argument with clear reasoning
and evidence.
help consolidate
Whether Posit: to put forward,
inductive arguments circumstances – particularly when we were not
for a fact facts about what is being digested in reading through the information
or state, available
13 to gather direct proof (i.e.
blishing or belief, usually
God’s existence as the basis for an
are persuasive. we were not present at the time of the event to empirically witness it). Equally we
n argument or conclusion cannot use pure logical reasoning to come up with a conclusion because neither the
1.2 Who was the Unmoved
circumstances nor theMover
events permit this to happen.
sive
according to Aquinas’?
ri and Inductive proofs are a posteriori because they require evidence and/or
em with experience
Key quotes for them
either from to make
religious sense. In the philosophy
and philosophical works and/or of religion, anyofargument
the works
ents scholars that is constructed upon evidence and/or experience is an a posteriori, inductive,
widely argument. In the course of your study this applies to both the cosmological and
nt more Key quote
Naturethe existingwhich
therefore universe
hasand asks
been the question
corrupted, ‘Where
is called didfor
evil, it come from?’ as the basis
assuredly
ore than 1.1 What is needed for an inductive for its argument. The latter looks at the structure and function of the universe and
argument to make sense?
when incorrupt it is good; but even when corrupt, so far as it is nature it is
ble the things within it to suggest an order and purpose that could not have occurred
good, so far as it is corrupted it is evil. (Augustine)
in what by chance as the basis for its argument. In both cases, evidence is gathered and
4
cisely conclusions are posited.
eans
the Specification content
9781908682994 AS RE PHILOSOPHY_001-248.indd 4
Aquinas – First Way 20/10/2016 12:51
Study tips advice on how to study, prepare for the examination and answer
questions
Study tip
Whilst you do not need to be able go into great detail regarding Craig’s concepts
of infinity, you should be able to show that you understand how his Kalam
argument is put together, along with the basic differences (as explained in key
terms) of potential and actual infinities.
AO1 Activities that serve the purpose of focusing on identification, presentation

and explanation, and developing the skills of knowledge and understanding
required for the examination
AO1 Activity Thinking point

Why do you think the idea of an ‘efficient cause’ is so important to the
arguments of both Aristotle and Aquinas? Explain your answer using evidence
and examples from what you have read.
AO2 Activities that serve the purpose of focusing on conclusions, as a basis for
thinking about the issues, developing critical analysis and the evaluation skills
required for the examination
AO2 Activity Possible lines of argument

Listed below are some conclusions that could be drawn from the AO2
Philosophy T3 Challenges to religious
belief – the problem of evil and suffering
Glossary of all the key terms for quick reference. AO1 Developing skills
It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It
Key skills
Knowledge involves:
is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and Selection of a range of (thorough)
used for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO1. accurate and relevant information
Specific feature: Developing skills

Assessment objective 1 (AO1) involves demonstrating knowledge and that is directly related to the specific
demands of the question.
understanding. The terms ‘knowledge’ and ‘understanding’ are obvious but it is
crucial to be familiar with how certain skills demonstrate these terms, and also, This means you choose the correct
how the performance of these skills is measured (see generic band descriptors information relevant to the question
Band 5 for AS AO1). set NOT the topic area. You will
have to think and focus on selecting
This section is very much a focus on ‘what to do’ with the content and the issues
key information and NOT writing
Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been written everything you know about the topic
in response to a question requiring an examination of how suffering is caused area.
by the different types of evil and why this is a problem for religious believers.
Understanding involves:
that are raised. They occur at the end of each section, giving 12 AO1 examples and
It is obviously a below average answer and so would be about band 2. It will
be useful, initially, to consider what is missing from the answer and what is Explanation that is extensive,
inaccurate. The accompanying list gives you some possible observations to demonstrating depth and/or breadth
with excellent use of evidence and
assist you. Be aware, as not all points may be relevant! In analysing the answer’s
12 AO2 examination-focused activities.

examples including (where appropriate)
weaknesses, in a group, choose five points from the list that you would use to thorough and accurate supporting use
improve the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out your additions, of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
each one in a clear paragraph, remembering the principles of explaining with specialist language.
evidence and/or examples. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try
This means that you demonstrate that
The Developing skills are arranged progressively, so as to provide initial support for
to negotiate as a group and prioritise the most important things to add. you understand something by being
able to illustrate and expand your
Answer points through examples/supporting
evidence in a personal way and NOT
you at first, and then gradually encourage you to have more independence.
Suffering is a big problem not just for religious believers – it affects everybody at
repeat chunks from a textbook (known
some point during their lives. Suffering is what happens as a result of evil, although as rote learning).
some types of suffering are needed in order to improve a person’s life – e.g. the type
of suffering that is caused when a baby has an injection – it hurts but the result is Further application of skills:
that the baby is then protected from diseases. Go through the topic areas in this
However, suffering is linked to evil when the type of suffering produced does not section and create some bullet lists
AO1 and AO2 answers and commentaries

of key points from key areas. For
seem to have any positive effect – such as when a person is murdered or when a
each one, provide further elaboration
house is destroyed by a bad storm. and explanation through the use of
Lots of people suffered during the Holocaust, which was a terrible event caused by evidence and examples.
Hitler and the Nazis during the 1930s and 1940s. As a result 6 million Jewish people
lost their lives. Lots of other people lost their lives as well during this time because
they disagreed with the Nazis. This type of suffering was caused by human beings
The final section has a selection of answers and commentaries as a framework and so is called moral evil.
AO1 Developing skills

Natural evil is when something other than humans causes evil. A famous example of
this is the Boxing Day tsunami in 2004 when thousands of people suffered because
for judging what an effective and ineffective response may be. The comments
of this terrible event.
Observations
highlight some common mistakes and also examples of good practice so that all
■
An introduction is needed to define the different types of evil. ■
Needs to explain how each of the characteristics of the God
It is now time to reflect upon the informa

■
Needs to explain why evil causes suffering and how this is of Classical Theism should cancel out the existence of evil.
problematic for religious believers. ■
Explain how the specific types of evil produce suffering and
Explain the concept of the God of Classical Theism. how this occurs.
involved in teaching and learning can reflect upon how to approach examination
■
Show how the existence of evil undermines the concept of
is also important to consider how what yo

Include a reference from sacred writings to show why evil is
■
■
a problem for religious believers. the God of Classical Theism.
Needs to explain about the types of evil and how they

■
Specific examples of evil should be fully explained to
answers.
■
produce suffering. demonstrate how they produce suffering.

■
used for examination-style answers by pra

Makes use of accurate terminology in relation to the
classical and modern problems of evil.
■
Needs a summary at the end that relates to the question.
61
Richard Gray Assessment objective 1 (AO1) involves de

understanding. The terms ‘knowledge’ an
Series Editor crucial to be familiar with how certain ski
2016 how the performance of these skills is me
Band 5 for AS AO1).
Your new task is this: below is a below

in response to a question requiring an ex
by the different types of evil 5 and why th
It is obviously a below average answer a
be useful, initially, to consider what is m
9781908682994 AS RE PHILOSOPHY_001-248.indd 5 inaccurate. The accompanying list gives
20/10/2016 12:51
content and skills A: Inductive arguments – cosmological
Inductive proofs; the concept of a murder mystery. You know where the
posteriori. crime took place, you know roughly
know who was at the scene of the
Key terms crime. However, you did not actually
based on actual observation, evidence, can you prove what happened? How
experimental data or experience – do you solve the crime?
Cosmological and teleological
for clues. After some time, you
evidence of, and within, the universe have managed to gather witness
to attempt to prove the existence of the statements, you have photographs of
the body, you have had forensics Searching for clues
through the experiences of any of the experts reporting back to you, and
five senses finally, you are ready to reveal who the murderer was and why they committed
the crime.
Inductive proof: argument
constructed on evidence and/or What you have just done is to induct a judgment, based on evidence and experience
conclusion based on these reached via inductive proof. Such a proof is the only type available to us in many
Posit: to put forward, or state, a fact circumstances – particularly when we were not available to gather direct proof (i.e.
or belief, usually as the basis for an we were not present at the time of the event to empirically witness it). Equally we
argument or conclusion cannot use pure logical reasoning to come up with a conclusion because neither the
circumstances nor the events permit this to happen.
Inductive proofs are a posteriori because they require evidence and/or
experience for them to make sense. In the philosophy of religion, any argument
that is constructed upon evidence and/or experience is an a posteriori, inductive,
argument. In the course of your study this applies to both the cosmological and
the existing universe and asks the question ‘Where did it come from?’ as the basis
1.1 What is needed for an inductive for its argument. The latter looks at the structure and function of the universe and
argument to make sense? the things within it to suggest an order and purpose that could not have occurred
by chance as the basis for its argument. In both cases, evidence is gathered and
conclusions are posited.
Specification content Aquinas – First Way

Cosmological argument; Aquinas first Aquinas’ First Way is often referred to as ‘motion’ or ‘change’. Basically, Aquinas
Three Ways – (motion or change; said that when we observe the universe, we notice that things tend to be in a state
cause and effect; contingency of change or motion. From this observation Aquinas noted that things do not do
and necessity). this of their own accord but are instead ‘moved’ (or ‘changed’) by something else
(in this, Aquinas is restating what Aristotle said).

Philosophy T1 Arguments for the
Key quote
It is certain, and evident to our senses, that in the world some things are in
motion. Now whatever is in motion is put in motion by another, for nothing can
be in motion except it is in potentiality to that towards which it is in motion;
whereas a thing moves inasmuch as it is in act. For motion is nothing else
than the reduction of something from potentiality to actuality. But nothing can
be reduced from potentiality to actuality, except by something in a state of
actuality. (Aquinas, Summa Theologica)
Aquinas said that if we looked back down this sequence of movements/changes,

we would have to eventually come to something that started the whole sequence
off. Now, as all things in the universe (that are observable) are either moving
or movers, we need to find a point that started these things – and that means,
necessarily, looking outside of the universe – i.e. to something which has not 1.2 Who was the Unmoved Mover
been moved by anything else and is in fact incapable of being moved/changed by according to Aquinas’?
anything else but is responsible for initiating the whole sequence of movement/
change.
Aristotle named this the Prime Mover, and Aquinas developed this into the
‘Unmoved Mover’ – ‘that which all men call God’.
To illustrate this point further, Aquinas builds on Aristotle’s examples and
explanations. Aristotle speaks of things moving from a state of ‘potentiality’
(i.e. something that it has a possibility of moving/changing into) towards a state Key terms
of ‘actuality’ (where it actually achieves or reaches its potential). Actuality: when something is in its
fully realised state
However, both Aristotle and Aquinas noted that this change could only happen if
something that already possessed a state of actuality acted on that which was in its Efficient cause: the ‘third party’ that
state of potentiality. This third party is known as the ‘efficient cause’. moves potentiality to actuality
Aristotle used the example of a block of marble (potential) becoming a statue Potentiality: the ability to be able to
(actual) but only when acted upon by the sculptor (efficient cause). become something else
Potential Efficient cause Actual

WJEC / Eduqas Religious Studies for
A Level Year 1 and AS Philosophy and Ethics
Aquinas uses the example of wood becoming hot in order to illustrate this point:
Key quote
Thus that which is actually hot, as fire, makes wood, which is potentially hot,
to be actually hot, and thereby moves and changes it. Now it is not possible
that the same thing should be at once in actuality and potentiality in the
1.3 What example was given by:
i. Aristotle same respect, but only in different respects. For what is actually hot cannot
ii. Aquinas simultaneously be potentially hot; but it is simultaneously potentially cold. It
to explain how things with potential is therefore impossible that in the same respect and in the same way a thing
become actual? should be both mover and moved, i.e. that it should move itself. (Aquinas)
In this, Aquinas is stating that the fire that makes wood hot must already have the
1.4 Where do we find an order of efficient
property of hotness within itself in order, in turn, to make the wood hot. Were it
causes? to have any other state (e.g. coldness) within itself then it would be impossible to
make the wood hot.
Key quote AO1 Activity

The second way is from the nature Why do you think the idea of an ‘efficient cause’ is so important to the
of the efficient cause. In the world arguments of both Aristotle and Aquinas? Explain your answer using evidence
of sense we find there is an order and examples from what you have read.
of efficient causes. There is no
case known (neither is it, indeed, Study tip
possible) in which a thing is found
to be the efficient cause of itself; for When explaining the idea of motion in an essay it is worth remembering that
the idea of motion does not necessarily mean movement in terms of velocity
so it would be prior to itself, which
or direction; it can also mean the motion that an object has as it changes its
is impossible. (Aquinas)
state (e.g. H2O molecules are in motion when heated and change from water to
steam).
Aquinas – Second Way

Key quote
Now in efficient causes it is not possible to go on to infinity, because in all
efficient causes following in order, the first is the cause of the intermediate
cause, and the intermediate is the cause of the ultimate cause, whether the
intermediate cause be several, or only one. Now to take away the cause is to
take away the effect. Therefore, if there be no first cause among efficient causes,
there will be no ultimate, nor any intermediate cause. (Aquinas)
Key quote Aquinas’ second way deals with the concept of cause and effect. Everything
But if in efficient causes it is observable in nature is subject to this law, according to Aquinas, although the
possible to go on to infinity, there idea that this chain of cause and effect could be traced back infinitely is seen as
will be no first efficient cause, impossible by him. This then leads to the question: ‘What was the first cause?’ and,
neither will there be an ultimate for Aquinas, the answer is ‘God’.
effect, nor any intermediate efficient Aquinas states here, not only the idea that cause and effect is a simple, undeniable,
causes; all of which is plainly false. law of the universe but also that it is impossible for anything within the universe to
Therefore it is necessary to admit cause itself. (It would be like you being your own parent – you cannot exist before
a first efficient cause, to which you exist – you need something else to bring you into existence.)
everyone gives the name of God.
(Aquinas)

If you imagine a line of dominoes, the first (efficient cause) is the one that causes
the second (intermediate cause) one to fall, which in turn causes the third
1.5 Why does Aquinas claim that the first
(ultimate cause) one to fall. However, the third one would not have fallen, had efficient cause is God?
the first one not have hit the second one. Aquinas’ idea of efficient cause followed
by intermediate cause and ending at ultimate cause can seem confusing at first,
but, by using the domino analogy (see diagram) it gives a suitable visual expression
of the philosophical idea.
Key terms
Contingent: anything that depends
Line of dominoes falling demonstrating on something else (in the case of a
the sequence of cause and effect contingent being – it is contingent
upon another being for its existence,
Study tip e.g. a child is contingent upon
its parent)
It is worth remembering that, as Ed Miller pointed out in his Questions that
Matter, when Aquinas is arguing against an infinite series of causes and effects Intermediate cause: this refers to a
he is not thinking of a temporal series, or one that stretches infinitely backwards cause that relies on something else to
in time, but rather a hierarchical series, or one that extends infinitely upwards in have triggered it (remember the 2nd
domino in the line!)
being. This would therefore be based on an assumption that all things have their
source in an ultimate cause (or, in Aquinas’s words: ‘God’). This idea also closely Necessary being: Aquinas’
relates to the ideas of both Plato and Aristotle. contention that a non-contingent being
is necessary for contingent beings to
exist. It is this necessary being that is
Aquinas – Third Way the source of all existence for all other
contingent beings
Aquinas’ third way deals with the concept of contingency and necessity. Again,
Aquinas notes that everything that exists has the possibility of not existing (i.e. Ultimate cause: in the sense of
Aquinas’ writings, this is the end
it is contingent) and draws the conclusion that if this was true of everything
cause in the sequence that could not
in existence then nothing would ever have come into existence. This is because have occurred had there not been
in order for contingent beings to exist, there has to be a non-contingent (i.e. preceding efficient and intermediate
necessary) being that brought everything else into existence. For Aquinas, this causes (think about this as the
necessary being is ‘God’. penultimate domino in the line to fall)
Key quote
The third way is taken from possibility and necessity, and runs thus. We find
in nature things that are possible to be and not to be, since they are found to
be generated, and to corrupt, and consequently, they are possible to be and not
to be. But it is impossible for these always to exist, for that which is possible 1.6 What has the possibility of not
not to be at some time is not. Therefore, if everything is possible not to be, existing?
then at one time there could have been nothing in existence …. it would have
been impossible for anything to have begun to exist; and thus even now nothing
would be in existence … which is absurd. (Aquinas)
Aquinas states that all things in nature are limited in their existence. They all have
beginnings and endings. Following this idea to its logical conclusion Aquinas notes
that this means at one point in history nothing existed and that, even now, nothing
would exist – which is plainly not the case.

A way of thinking of this idea is to consider the relationship of the parent and the
child. Without the existence of the parent, the child cannot come into existence.
Or, to put it another way, the child is contingent on the parent for its existence.
Key quote
Therefore, not all beings are merely possible, but there must exist something
the existence of which is necessary. But every necessary thing either has its
necessity caused by another, or not. Now it is impossible to go on to infinity in
necessary things which have their necessity caused by another, as has been
already proved in regard to efficient causes. Therefore we cannot but postulate
the existence of some being having of itself its own necessity, and not receiving
it from another, but rather causing in others their necessity. This all men speak
of as God. (Aquinas)
Aquinas states that the only possible solution to this dilemma is that something
1.7 What is meant by necessary
existence?
must exist that is unlike everything else in existence – in that it has no beginning
and no end, in other words, it has necessary existence. This necessary existence
is needed to bring about the existence of everything else. For Aquinas this being
was ‘God’.
AO1 Activity
After reading the section on Aquinas’ Three Ways, close the book and write
down what you consider the main point of each way was.
Specification content The Kalam cosmological argument

The Kalam cosmological argument From the Arabic word ‘to argue or discuss’, the Kalam cosmological argument can
with reference to William Lane Craig trace its origins to the work of Islamic scholars in the 9th and 11th centuries of the
(rejection of actual infinities and Common Era. It has been modernised and championed by Christian apologist
concept of a personal creator). William Lane Craig.
In 1993 Craig stipulated his argument thus:
1. Everything that begins to exist has a cause of its existence.
2. The universe began to exist.
1.8 What did Craig state was true for 3. Therefore, the universe has a cause of its existence.
everything that begins to exist?
4. Since no scientific explanation (in terms of physical laws) can provide a causal
account of the origin of the universe, the cause must be personal (explanation
is given in terms of a personal agent).
Key terms
This is a (relatively) straightforward and easy to follow argument. However, in
Actual infinite: something that is
actually infi nite in extent or in extent
order to answer challenges to the idea that the universe might be considered
of the operations performed – it literally infinite, Craig developed the following defence to his second point:
has no beginning and no end i. An actual infinite cannot exist.
Apologist: an individual who writes ii. A beginningless temporal series of events is an actual infinite
or speaks in defence of a particular iii. Therefore, a beginningless temporal series of events cannot exist.
cause or belief
In order to explain this, an example of a library is often referred to: imagine a
Temporal: things relating to time library with an actually infinite number of books. Suppose that the library also
contains an infinite number of red and an infinite number of black books, so that
for every red book there is a black book, and vice versa. It follows that the library
contains as many red books as the total books in its collection, and as many red
books as red and black books combined. But this is absurd; in reality the subset
(i.e. red or black) cannot be equivalent to the entire set (i.e. red and black). Hence,
actual infinites cannot exist in reality.
10

However, critics point out that this is ignoring the fact that there are two types of
infinity recognised in standard mathematics – ‘actual’ and ‘potential’. Craig only
refers to the impossibility of the first, not the second in his initial argument. Craig
responded by recognising that if an actual infinite was impossible, a potential
infinite confirmed the fact that the universe had a beginning. This forms the
second part of his argument.
Craig’s Kalam argument is often seen as very confusing, not least because it
depends on an understanding of the concepts of infinity that are, in themselves,
difficult to grasp. However, in its simplest form it is straightforward and appealing
– to such a degree that it has had significant influence in the rational theistic
defence against atheistic arguments – especially in the fundamentalist Christian
churches of America. Is it possible to have an infinite
number of red and black books?
AO1 Activity
Summary diagram to complete: select the five most important ideas as
1.9 What is meant by infinity?
presented by Aquinas and Craig and explain why they are important to our
understanding of the cosmological argument.
Summary 1.10 Which movement within Christianity

has been particularly supportive of
The Kalam cosmological argument bases itself on the impossibility of the universe Craig’s argument?
being infinite. Once this is agreed, then it is reasonable to ask ‘How did it start?’
Craig’s version posits the requirement for a personal creator.
Key term
Key quote Potential infinite: the potential
infi nite is something that could
I think that it can be plausibly argued that the cause of the universe must be continue on, were effort to be applied.
a personal Creator. For how else could a temporal effect arise from an eternal E.g. it would be possible to always
cause? If the cause were simply a mechanically operating set of necessary and continue a number line if we wanted
sufficient conditions existing from eternity, then why would not the effect also to, or we could always come up with a
exist from eternity? For example, if the cause of water’s being frozen is the bigger number
temperature’s being below zero degrees, then if the temperature were below zero
degrees from eternity, then any water present would be frozen from eternity.
The only way to have an eternal cause but a temporal effect would seem to be if
the cause is a personal agent who freely chooses to create an effect in time. For
example, a man sitting from eternity may will to stand up; hence, a temporal
effect may arise from an eternally existing agent. Indeed, the agent may will
from eternity to create a temporal effect, so that no change in the agent need be
conceived. Thus, we are brought not merely to the first cause of the universe,
but to its personal Creator. (Craig)
Study tip
Whilst you do not need to be able go into great detail regarding Craig’s concepts
of infinity, you should be able to show that you understand how his Kalam
argument is put together, along with the basic differences (as explained in key
terms) of potential and actual infinities.
11

Key skills AO1 Developing skills

Knowledge involves: It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It
Selection of a range of (thorough) is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and
accurate and relevant information used for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO1.
that is directly related to the specific Assessment objective 1 (AO1) involves demonstrating knowledge and
This means you choose the correct crucial to be familiar with how certain skills demonstrate these terms, and also,
information relevant to the question how the performance of these skills is measured (see generic band descriptors
set NOT the topic area. You will Band 5 for AS AO1).
key information and NOT writing Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
everything you know about the topic depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good,
area. satisfactory, basic/limited to very limited.
Understanding involves: For starters, try using the framework / writing frame provided to help you in
practising these skills to answer the question below.
Explanation that is extensive,
demonstrating depth and/or breadth As the units in each section of the book develop, the amount of support will be
with excellent use of evidence and reduced gradually in order to encourage your independence and the perfecting
examples including (where appropriate) of your AO1 skills.
thorough and accurate supporting use
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
specialist language.
This means that you demonstrate that EXAM PRACTICE: A WRITING FRAME
you understand something by being
points through examples/supporting
A focus on explaining how Aquinas demonstrates
evidence in a personal way and NOT the need for a first cause of the universe.
repeat chunks from a text book (known
as rote learning). Aquinas’ first three of his Five Ways, form part of the cosmological argument for
Further application of skills: the existence of God.
The first of these ways was that of ‘motion’ or ‘change’ and is based on …
Go through the topic areas in this
section and create some bullet lists
of key points from key areas. For Aquinas developed the ideas of Aristotle who spoke of …
and explanation through the use of Aristotle’s example to illustrate his ideas of potential moving to actual was …
evidence and examples.
Aquinas used his own example which was …
These ideas clearly show that the universe …

Study tip
One of the most common errors made The Second Way deals with the chain of cause and effect which can be observed …
in examinations is by candidates who
see a key word in a title of an essay and Aquinas stated that infinite regress was impossible because …
write everything they know about it.
Successful candidates avoid this and An example to explain this further could be …
only use the information that is directly
relevant to the question. Aquinas’ Third Way dealt with …
This was important because it shows …
An example to illustrate this is …
In summary …
12

Issues for analysis and evaluation This

Thissection
sectioncovers
content
contentand
coversAO2
andskills
skills
AO2
Whether inductive arguments for God’s Specification content

existence are persuasive Whether inductive arguments for
One of the key strengths of inductive arguments lies in their ability in establishing God’s existence are persuasive.
probability – gathering evidence and suggesting the most likely conclusion
based on this evidence. Evidence-based arguments are often more persuasive
than arguments not based on evidence. Inductive arguments are a posteriori
and synthetic (true in relation to how they relate to the world) as they depend
on experience and/or evidence. This provides them with credibility and makes
them more likely to be persuasive. Inductive arguments rely on experience that
may be universal and testable – allowing it to be widely used. For many people
this is extremely important as it makes the argument more understandable and
accessible and, therefore, persuasive.
One of the key strengths is that the argument recognises there may be more than
one correct answer – the evidence used can support more than one probable
conclusion, which is particularly useful if an individual is not entirely certain what
the conclusion should be. This means the argument can be persuasive precisely
because it has flexibility. This also allows for the possibility of error that means
changes can be made to elements of the reasoning without undermining the
process (or conclusion) as a whole. AO2 Activity Possible lines of
Furthermore, inductive arguments are the basis of the vast majority of scientifically
argument
accepted theories and these have a wide appeal in the 21st-century world, such Listed below are some conclusions
that people readily accept such theories as valid precisely because of the inductive that could be drawn from the AO2
and evidence-based approaches that led to these theories being formed. This reasoning in the accompanying text:
means that any philosophical or theological reasoning that mirrors the work of 1. Inductive reasoning is the most
science must surely have a similar claim to both validity and persuasiveness – useful form of reasoning when
unlike any reasoning that has not been based on such foundations. attempting to determine the
However, some may argue that they are not persuasive – often for the same existence of God.
reasons as others would claim them to be. For instance, one of the significant 2. Any form of argument based on
weaknesses of inductive arguments is that they can be accused of having limited empirical evidence is more likely to
effectiveness as ‘undeniable proofs’. Their very flexibility means that they could be persuade people because it can be
considered as weak arguments and, because of this, not persuasive. seen to make sense.
It is also true to state that inductive arguments can be readily challenged if 3. Any form of argument that cannot
alternative evidence, that is equally as likely to be true, is provided – thereby provide a definite conclusion is too
undermining the persuasiveness of the argument. An extension to this is that it flimsy to persuade anyone.
is also equally possible to accept all of the evidence but to deny the conclusion
4. Flexibility in arguments
without contradiction. If this is accepted then it suggests that there can be no
demonstrates that they are
persuasiveness in the argument as this limits its effectiveness, particularly in
responsive to criticism and
terms of attempting to establish the existence of a divine being with specific
therefore strong arguments;
characteristics (e.g. God of Classical Theism as the designer of the universe).
making them more persuasive.
Perhaps most important to consider is that the premises, whilst supporting
the conclusion, do not make it definite – for many, this means that inductive
arguments are not persuasive enough to support a basis for religious belief.
and evidence.
13

Specification content The extent to which the Kalam cosmological

The extent to which the Kalam argument is convincing
cosmological argument is convincing.
The Kalam cosmological argument as portrayed by William Lane Craig would seem
to benefit from being written in the modern scientific age. Craig has the advantage
over Aquinas et al., because he has access to contemporary scientific information
about the universe: big bang theory, cosmological background radiation, etc. These
all provide straightforward, scientifically valid evidence that the universe is finite
and thus had a beginning. Indeed, the contemporary views of the universe all agree
that there was a starting point – this provides an extremely useful groundswell
of opinion for any argument attempting to demonstrate that a beginning of the
universe is required.
In a sense, this renders the need for Craig to prove the universe as finite as
meaningless. Why argue for something which is supported by the vast majority
of the rational and scientific world. The fact that the universe had a point at which
it began appears not be in dispute. In fact, not only is it not apparently in dispute,
it is readily accepted, almost as scientific fact rather than theory. The concept that
all things in our experience – including the universe itself, have beginnings, lends
itself nicely to the first part of Craig’s argument. Craig’s work here, it would seem,
is done – the Kalam cosmological argument for God’s existence appears to be
entirely convincing. However, things are not quite as simple as they at first seem!
Craig’s argument moves from demonstrating that the universe had a beginning to
the suggestion that this beginning had a cause, external to the universe – which
Craig eventually asserts as being God. It is at this point of the argument that the
empirical support thus far enjoyed, is no longer available. The question of how
AO2 Activity Possible lines convincing the argument is now rests on how far the individual is willing to accept
of argument the next steps in Craig’s argument.
Listed below are some conclusions Effectively, Craig suggests that the cause of the universe must be through the
that could be drawn from the AO2 deliberate choice of a personal being as the physical laws of the universe that cause
reasoning in the accompanying text: everything within the universe to work did not themselves exist until the universe
1. Scientific points of view support did. This logically means that the cause of the universe could not be explained in
the Kalam argument and terms of physical laws. The only viable other explanation for Craig is that the cause
strengthen it. is personal. For Craig, the only viable personal agent capable of existing outside of
the universe and having the will, power and ability to create the universe is God.
2. The Kalam argument is only as
convincing as the individual’s prior For the theist, there is much that is attractive about this argument. It involves
belief (or non-belief) in God. modern cosmology, appears entirely rational and fits in with traditional theistic
interpretations regarding creation. In this sense it is a convincing argument.
3. The denial of infinity, if rejected,
completely undermines the Kalam For those not predisposed to the position of the theist, however, the argument does
argument. not have the same power to convince. One of the key elements of the argument
that is often cited is that Craig states, quite categorically, that infinity is impossible.
4. The conclusion of a personal Later in the argument he refers to a personal creator that is infinite. As an
creator is based on a false argument, this is self-contradictory and is one of the key reasons for non-theists to
dichotomy. reject the Kalam cosmological argument for God’s existence as unconvincing.
and evidence.
14

AO2 Developing skills Key skills

It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It Analysis involves identifying issues
is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and raised by the materials in the AO1,
together with those identified in the
used for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO2.
AO2 section, and presents sustained
Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The terms and clear views, either of scholars or
may be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills from a personal perspective ready for
demonstrate these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills is evaluation.
measured (see generic band descriptors Band 5 for AS AO2). This means that it picks out key things
Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor to debate and the lines of argument
depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good, presented by others or a personal point
of view.
satisfactory, basic/limited to very limited.
For starters, try using the framework / writing frame provided to help you in Evaluation involves considering the
various implications of the issues raised
based upon the evidence gleaned from
As the units in each section of the book develop, the amount of support will be analysis and provides an extensive
reduced gradually in order to encourage your independence and the perfecting detailed argument with a clear
of your AO2 skills. conclusion.
This means that the answer weighs
Have a go at answering this question by using the writing frame below. up the various and different lines of
argument analysed through individual
commentary and response and arrives
at a conclusion through a clear process
EXAM PRACTICE: A WRITING FRAME of reasoning.
A focus on evaluating how far the Kalam cosmological

argument convinvingly demonstrates that God exists. Study tip
Always point out the relative
The issue for debate here is … strengths and weaknesses of the
Kalam argument, as identified in your
There are different ways of looking at this and many key questions to ask such notes. Consider why these might be
considered so, using relevant examples
as …
and/or evidence and then give your
own reasoned opinion based upon
The Kalam cosmological argument is an inductive proof and as such has both what you have chosen to write about.
strengths and shortcomings. In order to determine the extent to which this
argument proves a convincing argument for God’s existence, it is necessary to
consider each of those strengths and shortcomings in turn …
In light of these considerations, it could be argued that …
Nevertheless, it is my view that …
and I base this argument on the following reasons …
15


content and skills B: Inductive arguments – teleological
St Thomas Aquinas’ Fifth Way – Aquinas – Fifth Way
concept of governance; archer and Aquinas teleological argument can be found in the fifth of his ‘Five Ways’ in the
arrow analogy. Summa Theologica. Here Aquinas states that something that lacks intelligence
cannot move towards fulfilling a useful end, unless something with intelligence has
moved it.
Imagine, for example, that you need to
write your essay with a pen. The pen itself is
1.11 Why did Aquinas believe it was
necessary to suggest a guiding non-intelligent and cannot (however much
intelligence behind the natural you may wish it!) write your essay for you.
workings of the universe? The only way that it will do this is if you (as
an intelligent being) pick up the pen; hold it
in a way that is appropriate for writing and
Key quote then apply it to the paper, moving it to make
The Fifth Way is taken from the the shapes (i.e. writing) that are required to
governance of the world. We see that communicate your ideas.
things which lack knowledge, such Aquinas’ own example was that of the arrow
as natural bodies, act for an end, and the archer – archery was a frequent
and this is evident from their acting pastime in his day, either as a sport or as
always, or nearly always, in the a way of killing other people in war, and
same way, so as to obtain the best therefore his analogy would have made
result. Hence it is plain that they sense to his audience.
achieve their end, not fortuitously, Aquinas stated that the arrow, by itself,
but designedly. cannot reach the target. It needs to be fired
by the archer in order for this to happen. He
Now whatever lacks knowledge relates this to the workings of the universe
cannot move towards an end, stating that everything in the universe
unless it be directed by some follows natural laws, even if they possess no
being endowed with knowledge and intelligence (i.e. the regular movement of
intelligence; as the arrow is directed the stars in the sky – for which in Aquinas’
by the archer. Therefore, some time people had no rational ‘scientific’
explanation).
intelligent being exists by whom all
natural things are directed to their The fact that these things also tend to follow
end; and this being we call God. these laws and, in doing so, fulfil some
(Aquinas) purpose or end goal (their ‘telos’) yet don’t
Aquinas’ 5th Way uses the example
have the ability to ‘think’ for themselves,
of the arrow and the archer
suggests that (as with the arrow) they have
been ‘directed’ by something else. For Aquinas, the only possible explanation was
that this guiding intelligence was God.
Paley’s watchmaker – analogy of
Paley’s watchmaker – analogy of complex
complex design. design
William Paley, Archdeacon of Carlisle, is widely credited with proposing the design
argument in its popular modern form. He proposed his version in his Natural
Key term Theology which was published at the beginning of the nineteenth century. His basic
Telos: the term can have a number argument follows that, were we to discover a stone whilst out walking, we may
of meanings but generally refers to enquire how it came to be and, through a consideration of natural events, might
the ‘end’ (as in fi nal destination);
come to a conclusion of how it was formed. However, were we to discover a watch,
‘goal’ or ‘purpose’ of something – the
term is frequently found in Aristotle’s we would not come to the same conclusions. Paley was interested in pointing out
philosophy why this was the case.
16

The watch in the 1800s would have
comprised a watch-face with numerals
on it, with ‘hands’ that pointed towards
the time. The inner workings of the
watch would reveal a very complicated
system of cogs, springs and gears
which enabled those hands to move in
such a way as to measure the passage
of time. The very complexity of these
mechanisms would point towards the
conclusion that this watch had been
designed by a being of intelligence and
was not the result of random chance.
Paley states that we could draw this
conclusion even if we were unaware
of the purpose of the watch; if the
watch went wrong or even if we didn’t
understand what some of the parts of
the watch actually did. In summary, the
watch, with all its complexities, needs
an intelligent watchmaker, to explain
how it came into being.
Paley then widens his argument and
states that the universe in which we Workings of a watch
live (and using the natural world as
evidence), is likewise complex and therefore too infers a designer, in much the
same way as we inferred a designer for the watch. Paley spends a large amount of
time detailing the workings of the eye – from the way that it perceives objects, to
the function of the ‘secretions’ that keep the eyeball moving as well as the eyelids
that protect the eye. He suggests that the incredible complexity of this unit within
the human body alone is evidence for a designing intelligence. Again, as the watch
needed the intelligent watchmaker, so too does the universe need an intelligent
universe-‘maker’.
Paley’s account runs as follows:
‘In crossing a heath, suppose I pitched my foot against a stone, and were asked how
the stone came to be there, I might possibly answer, that, for any thing I knew to
the contrary, it had lain there for ever: nor would it perhaps be very easy to shew
1.12 How did Paley compare the stone and
the absurdity of this answer. But suppose I had found a watch upon the ground,
watch?
and it should be enquired how the watch happened to be in that place, I should
hardly think of the answer which I had before given, that, for any thing I knew, the
watch might have always been there. Yet why should not this answer serve for the
watch as well as for the stone? …when we come to inspect the watch, we perceive
(what we could not discover in the stone) that its several parts are framed and put
together for a purpose, e.g. that they are so formed and adjusted as to produce
motion, and that motion so regulated as to point out the hour of the day; that, if
the several parts had been differently shaped from what they are, of a different size
from what they are, or placed after any other manner, or in any other order, than
that in which they are placed, either no motion at all would have been carried on
in the machine, or none which would have answered the use that is now served by
it … the inference, we think, is inevitable, that the watch must have had a maker:
that there must have existed, at some time and at some place or other, an artificer
or artificers who formed it for the purpose which we find it actually to answer;
17

who comprehended its construction, and designed its use … every manifestation
of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature; with the
difference, on the side of nature, of being greater and more, and that in a degree
which exceeds all computation.’
AO1 Activity
Create a timeline flow chart that shows the order in which Aquinas, Paley
and Tennant wrote. You should include key information about each of their
arguments in this flow chart.
This will help in selecting the key, relevant information for an answer to a
question that expects a knowledge and understanding of the development of
the teleological argument.
Key terms Study tip

Anthropic: related to being human
Candidates frequently retell Paley’s analogy without providing the final
Natural world: the world of nature, conclusion that the universe’s designer (God) is analogous to the watchmaker.
comprising of all objects, organic and As this is the whole point of Paley’s argument, ensure that you do not make the
inorganic same mistake!
Specification content Tennant’s anthropic and aesthetic arguments

Tennant’s anthropic and aesthetic Whilst not using the specific term ‘anthropic principle’, in his 1928 work
arguments – the universe specifically Philosophical Theology, Frederick Tennant developed a set of evidences that are
designed for intelligent human life. widely recognised as anthropic principles today. The evidence included beliefs
such as:
■
The very fact that the natural world in which we live provides precisely the
1.13 What were Tennant’s three pieces things that are necessary for life to be sustained.
of evidence to support his anthropic ■
The fact that the natural world in which we live can not only be observed but
principle?
holds itself up for rational analysis from which we can deduce its workings.
■
The fact that the process of evolution, through natural selection, has led to the
development of intelligent human life – to the degree that that intelligent life
Key quote can observe and analyse the universe that it exists in.
The aesthetic argument for theism
becomes more persuasive when it
renounces all claims to proof and
appeals to a logical probability. And Tennant stated that
it becomes stronger when it takes the theory of evolution
as the most significant fact … the supported the idea of
saturation of Nature with beauty … an intelligent designer
God reveals himself in many ways;
and some men enter His Temple by
the Gate Beautiful. (Tennant)
18

Tennant’s aesthetic argument relates to the natural appreciation that human
beings have for things that are considered to be ‘beautiful’ and asks why we have Key term
such an appreciation as part of our nature. When looking at the rest of the natural Aesthetic: related to the concept and
world there appears to be no other species that reacts to its surroundings in this appreciation of beauty
way. In fact, this can also be extended to the appreciation that humans have for
music, art, poetry and other forms of literature as well as an appreciation for things
like fashion, cosmetics and other such things that are said to enhance human
beauty.
If a purely rational approach is taken towards human beings as a species, then only
those things that are necessary for our survival are necessary for us to have in the
world around us. Our understanding of the natural world informs us that living
organisms operate on a ‘survival of the fittest’ mechanism and anything that does
not aid evolution is quickly rejected by a species as it develops through time. Why
then do we, as human beings, have an appreciation of beauty? Why are aesthetics
1.14 Why did Tennant consider that an
so important to us? appreciation of beauty led to the
Tennant’s response was to claim that this appreciation was a direct result of a conclusion that the designer of the
benevolent God. Having designed the world so that it led to the development of world was benevolent?
intelligent human life (see anthropic principle), God not only wanted his creation
to live in the world, but also to enjoy living in it. Beauty and its appreciation were
not necessary for humans to survive. For Tennant, the existence of beauty in the
world was its own evidence for God’s existence and led, by way of revelation, to the
enquiring minds discovering the fact of God’s existence for themselves.
AO1 Activity
Research further the ideas around Tennant’s anthropic principle and aesthetic
argument. This will help you to be aware of how he constructed his argument
within the context of his Philosophical Theology. Specific knowledge and
details gleaned from this will serve to fuel evidence and examples for both a
demonstration of knowledge and understanding (AO1) but also to help sustain
an argument (AO2).
19


everything you know about the Your new task is this: from the list of ten key points below, choose six that
topic area. you feel are the most important in answering the question above the list. Put
your points in order in priority explaining why they are the six most important
aspects to mention from that topic. This skill of prioritising and selecting
Explanation that is extensive, appropriate material will help you in answering examination questions for AO1.
demonstrating depth and/or breadth
with excellent use of evidence and A focus on explaining the teleological argument for God’s existence.
thorough and accurate supporting use 1. The teleological argument was famously put forward by Aquinas, a
medieval scholar who wanted to show how evidence in the world could
point to God’s existence.
you understand something by being 2. The archer is needed to direct the arrow towards the target in the same
able to illustrate and expand your way that a guiding intelligence is required to direct natural bodies to
points through examples/supporting their end.
3. The existence of a complex universe seems to suggest that it did not occur
as rote learning).
by chance but was instead the result of deliberate design.
Further application of skills:
Once you have made your choices
4. Design infers a designer and, by a process of inductive reasoning, it is
and selected your information, possible to suggest that God is the designer of the universe.
compare them with another student.
See if together you can decide on six 5. William Paley was the Archdeacon of Carlisle who wrote ‘Natural Theology’
and their correct order, this time, in to prove that God existed.
sequence for answering a question.
6. Paley’s watchmaker analogy is a very well-known analogy that can be
easily understood as an effective way of proving that the universe has a
designer.
7. Paley explained that if you imagined walking across a heath, you may kick
a stone but never question where it came from. However, if you kicked a
watch whilst on the heath you might reasonably expect to ask where it
had come from.
8. The anthropic principle is an effective way of demonstrating that modern

understandings of the world, including the theory of evolution and the
thickness of the ozone layer, are clear proofs for the existence of God.
9. Tennant’s anthropic principle makes use of a series of evidences that point

towards the idea that the universe has been deliberately designed for the
development of intelligent human life.
10. The aesthetic argument is clear evidence that there exists a

benevolent designer.
20

Issues for analysis and evaluation This section covers AO2

content and skills
Whether cosmological arguments for God’s Specification content
existence are persuasive in the 21st century Whether cosmological arguments for
The 21st century is home to the modern scientific age. With computing technology God’s existence are persuasive in the
and the communication of the Internet, human beings have been able to 21st century.
share information like never before. In doing so, we have access to all sorts of
information about ourselves, and the universe in which we live. This includes
ideas such as the big bang theory, oscillating universe, multi-verses and quantum
mechanics. These ideas are fascinating and, for many, persuasive, in terms of
providing an answer to the age old question of ‘How did the universe begin?’.
Equally, detractors of traditional theistic arguments such as the cosmological
argument, considerably undermine its claims to persuasiveness by pointing out
that the arguments of Aquinas are flawed by an incorrect understanding of agreed
scientific principle. Newton’s First Law of Motion, for example, points out that the
idea that nothing can move itself unless moved by another ignores the principle
of inertia and is therefore wrong – things can move themselves – Anthony Kenny
famously declared this observation as ‘wrecking the First Way’.
With all this in mind, it would seem that the cosmological arguments, first put
forward over two and a half thousand years ago by Ancient Greek philosophers,
AO2 Activity Possible lines
and then developed by medieval Christian monks, have little relevance in today’s
of argument
scientific world. As such, they would also be considered to lack any power to Listed below are some conclusions
persuade people. that could be drawn from the AO2
However, it should be borne in mind that the cosmological argument is based on reasoning in the accompanying text:
the fact that there is a universe. This is an a posteriori observation – i.e. a scientific 1. Arguments that were not formed
method. In which case, the fundamentals of the argument are based on the same in the scientific age have little
assumptions as that of scientific theories. This would seem to suggest that the value in the 21st century.
cosmological arguments are persuasive in the 21st century. 2. The use of scientific principles in
We should also consider the fact that, whilst science can quite effectively constructing arguments makes
explain how the universe works, the way in which it does (and therefore how them more persuasive.
it started), what it can’t do is answer the question of why the universe started. 3. People in the 21st century are
The cosmological argument can. In fact, Craig’s Kalam argument convincingly more discerning in what they
demonstrates that the universe was the result of a deliberate choice from a accept as truth than people who
personal creator. lived in the past.
The cosmological arguments are clearly based on cause and effect arguments; and 4. 21st-century science has not
so is science. For this reason alone, they should not be discounted. For the religious answered all questions about
believer, the additional faith dimension provides the important element of hope the existence of the universe
and comfort, rather than just cold, hard scientific fact. The 21st century, with all and therefore other points of
of its modern-day wonders, still has room in it to accept that the cosmological view, such as the cosmological
arguments for God’s existence are still persuasive. argument, should be considered
equally valid.
and evidence.
21

Specification content The effectiveness of the teleological argument

The effectiveness of the teleological for God’s existence
argument for God’s existence.
When Plato spoke of a ‘craftsman’ over two and half thousand years ago, it makes
us wonder why he would come to such a conclusion when considering why the
world in which we live is the way that it is. This guiding intelligence that fashioned
pre-existent matter into the world of the senses laid the foundations for the
development of the idea through Judeo-Christian thought, culminating in the
religious assertion that the world in which we live is the result of a divine designer.
The effectiveness of the argument is said to be in its a posteriori, inductive form.
Based on evidence of design obvious to the casual observer, the sheer complexity
of our universe with its many life forms and complex, inter-connected systems
that support life on the planet point clearly towards deliberate design from some
almighty mind.
The analogical evidence provided by Paley is effective in pointing out that, just
like a complex machine, our complex universe could not be the result of chance.
It was down to an intelligent designing creator. These points all demonstrate how
effective the teleological argument is for God’s existence.
Furthermore, the contribution of Tennant, with both his anthropic and aesthetic
arguments, surely proves beyond reasonable doubt that this is a universe
deliberately designed for intelligent human life. We live in a world that provides
AO2 Activity Possible lines everything we need – not only for our survival, but also for our enjoyment.
of argument
However, when the argument is looked at more closely, the superficial convenience
Listed below are some conclusions of the points made by Aquinas, Paley and Tennant, all start to show signs of
that could be drawn from the AO2 weakness.
reasoning in the accompanying text: The use of analogy is suspect at best as no human machine can ever adequately
1. The complexities of the universe compare to the complex universe which we inhabit. Therefore how could we put
are far more effectively explained forward the idea of an intelligent designer based purely on this? The similarities
if one accepts that they have been between the machine and the universe are too few.
deliberately designed, rather than Even if we did accept the analogy as valid – what about the times when things go
being the result of random chance. wrong in the universe? Is the designer therefore inept? Or, as is the case for many
2. Accepting the existence of a machines, is it the case that there was more than one designer? Did they leave
designer of the universe poses when they had finished putting our universe together? How do we even know that
more difficulties than it solves. this is a good universe? What have we got to compare it to?
3. A prior commitment to a religious There are those that suggest it is an arrogant claim to make to assume that we
faith is required if you are to are able to identify the cause of the complexities of the universe that we live in by
accept the existence of a divine asserting a divine designer that fits into the theistic model of religion. Proposing
designer. such an idea and asking others to accept it as a truism flies in the face of the
4. The teleological argument is too evidence of the scientific age – modern-day evolutionary scientists such as Richard
flawed to ever be accepted as Dawkins point out that to hold such a view of a divine designer is ‘unhelpful’,
an effective argument for God’s ‘childish’ and ‘superstitious nonsense’ – in that it prevents people from properly
existence. engaging with a ‘grown-up’ view of the world as a place governed by the laws of
Consider each of the conclusions nature not the laws of some god.
drawn above and collect evidence and Despite the initial attractiveness of the teleological argument, the criticisms of it are
examples to support each argument simply too devastating and too wide ranging to ever accept that it is an effective
from the AO1 and AO2 material argument for God’s existence.
and evidence.
22


raised by the materials in the AO1,
is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and
used for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO2. AO2 section, and presents sustained
Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The and clear views, either of scholars or
terms may be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills from a personal perspective ready for
Obviously an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor to debate and the lines of argument
presented by others or a personal point
depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good,
of view.
Evaluation involves considering the
Your task is this: from the list of the 10 key points below, select six that are various implications of the issues raised
relevant to the evaluation task below. Put your selection into an order that you
analysis and provides an extensive
would use to address the task set. In explaining why you have chosen these six detailed argument with a clear
to answer the task, you will find that you are developing a process of reasoning conclusion.
within an answer.
up the various and different lines of
A focus on evaluating the effectiveness of the teleological argument. argument analysed through individual
1. The teleological argument is an a posteriori, inductive proof. at a conclusion through a clear process
of reasoning.
2. Aquinas Fifth Way is based on the governance of the world
3. Paley’s watchmaker analogy is too simplistic to be effective.
4. Inductive arguments only offer possibilities not conclusive proofs.
5. The watchmaker analogy was written after Hume’s criticism of human

analogies to describe things beyond our experience.
6. The anthropic principle is developed by contemporary scientists who use

their scientific knowledge to offer an effective defence of the teleological
argument.
7. It is our interpretation of patterns in the workings of the universe that

makes us see design – in other words, design is only apparent not real.
8. The design argument is an ancient argument.
9. If a complex machine requires an intelligent designer then surely it

is entirely rational to suggest that a complex universe also implies an
intelligent designer.
10. The presence of beauty in the world is a subjective matter more aligned to
natural selection than to the generosity of a benevolent designer.
Once you have made your choices, compare them with another student. See
if together you can decide on the six key points that would be the most useful
in constructing an evaluation to the question about the effectiveness of the
teleological argument.
23


content and skills C: Challenges to inductive arguments
Introduction: Challenges to the cosmological

argument
Having existed for over 2,500 years, the cosmological argument has attracted
not only supporters but also those who wish to show its shortcomings. Scientific
developments, particularly in the last 100 years, have taken our conventional
understanding of a cause and effect universe and turned it upon its head. Quantum
physics, chaos theory and similar radical progressions in our understanding of the
workings of the universe have all had a role to play in diminishing the claims made
by supporters of the cosmological argument, even though they are not always
wholly successful. Indeed, some scientific theories, including most notably the big
bang theory, have even been used to support parts of the cosmological argument –
not least in demonstrating the concept that the universe had a starting point.
Specification content David Hume

David Hume – empirical objections The empirical philosopher David Hume was uncomfortable with the reasoning
and critique of causes (cosmological). behind the cosmological argument, specifically in terms of the arguments it
presented in relation to causes. Hume had four major challenges:
Just because we observe cause and effect IN the universe does not mean that this
Key terms
■
rule applies to the universe itself! (Russell used the example ‘Just because every
Fallacy of composition:
human has a mother does not mean the whole of humanity has a mother’.) This
philosophical notion that what is true
of the parts is not necessarily true of is often called the ‘fallacy of composition’.
the whole (i.e. atoms are colourless but ■
Whilst we can talk about things that we have experience of with some certainty,
this does not mean that a cat, which is we have no experience of creating a universe and therefore cannot talk
made of atoms, is colourless) meaningfully about that.
God of Classical Theism: the God ■
There is not enough evidence to say whether the universe had a cause and
that is generally associated with the definitely not enough to make any conclusion as to what the cause might have
Western monotheistic religions of
been.
Christianity, Islam and Judaism
■
Even if ‘God’ could be accepted as the cause of the universe, there is no way to
determine what sort of God this would be and certainly no way of determining if
it was the God of Classical Theism.
Specification content Introduction: Challenges to teleological

David Hume – problems with argument
analogies; rejection of traditional Tracing its origins to the earliest of Western civilisation’s greatest thinkers, the
theistic claims; designer not design or teleological argument represents one of religious theists’ most stalwart
necessarily God of Classical Theism; defences. The idea that the universe is far too complex, contains purpose for all
apprentice god; plurality of gods; things within it and has produced a life-form capable of observing, analysing
absent god (teleological). and even philosophising about it and that none of these things seem likely to
have happened by chance, all seems to point towards the existence of God; or so
religious believers would like to claim. However, like the cosmological argument,
Key person this too has its detractors. The suggestions that we lack sufficient experience to
David Hume (1711–1776): Scottish make such claims about a grand design; that the analogies used do not hold up
enlightenment philosopher who, as an
to scrutiny; that if the universe is designed why does it have so many flaws? As
empiricist, demonstrated a number
of the flaws in the main theistic well as the alternative solutions proposed by scientific enquiry, all need serious
arguments for God’s existence. Most consideration.
significant work in relation to this is
his ‘Dialogues Concerning Natural
Religion’.
24

Hume criticises the use of human analogies to demonstrate the fact that the
universe is designed. He used the example of a house and an architect/builder and
said that just because we know how a house is designed/built it does not mean
that we can infer from this how the universe is designed/built. The house and the
universe are just too different to draw that point of comparison, no matter the
general resemblances that they may have in other ways. Analogies normally work 1.15 What is a fallacy of composition
on the following basis: in relation to the cosmological
argument?
a. X and Y are similar.
b. X has the characteristic Z.
c. Therefore Y has the characteristic Z.
However, to claim what is true of Y based purely on a similarity to X is only as
strong as the point at which X and Y are similar. If the similarity between them is
weak, then, the conclusion drawn by the analogy is likewise weak. Hume concludes Key quote
that, as the universe is unique, no analogy is sufficient to explain its origins.
If we see a house, Cleanthes,
This would be used to devastating effect as a criticism when, years later, Paley
we conclude, with the greatest
constructed his analogy of the watchmaker.
certainty, that it had an architect or
Any analogy made by human beings is necessarily based on the experience that builder; because this is precisely
human beings have. If we lack experience of the thing that the analogy is being that species of effect, which we have
used to ‘prove’ then how can we be certain that the analogy is sound? As human experienced to proceed from that
beings have no experience of how the universe was designed, any analogy put
species of cause. But surely you will
forward to try to prove this matter is ultimately futile.
not affirm, that the universe bears
The suggestion that the universe is comparable to some artificial construct such such a resemblance to a house, that
as a house or a machine is also rejected. The universe demonstrates greater we can with the same certainty infer
similarities to the living organisms within the natural world than it does to a static a similar cause, or that the analogy
artificial construct. ‘And does not a plant or animal, which springs from vegetation or
is here entire and perfect. The
generation, bear a stronger resemblance to the world, than does any artificial machine,
dissimilitude is so striking, that the
which arises from reason and design?’ (Hume, Dialogues)
utmost you can here pretend to is a
In his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion Hume suggests there is fallacy in guess, a conjecture, a presumption
assuming that the universe is designed just because it seems so. He makes the concerning a similar cause; and how
distinction between authentic design and apparent design. In the first case, this that pretension will be received in
would be the claim made by the classical theist – that God is responsible for the
the world, I leave you to consider.
design of the universe. However, in the latter case, what we have is an appearance
(Hume)
of design where none actually exists. Indeed, this is the point that Hume makes
through Philo, the character in the Dialogues that most commentators associate
with Hume’s own view. Philo makes reference to the Epicurean hypothesis. This
is a belief, stated by Epicurus, that the current so-called order in the universe that
exists, is nothing more than the random association of atoms that had previously
been in a chaotic state, but, through the principal nature of the universe, (which is
change) these atoms re-organise themselves infinitely, and occasionally do so in a
way that resembles order (and, thereby, design).
Even if we assume that the universe has a designer, as we have no universes to
compare this one to, how do we know that it has been designed well? It may be, 1.16 Why does Hume reject the use of
that were we able to make such a comparison, we would find that the designer analogy to prove the existence of a
of this one to be lacking in skill. Hume makes the comparison with a ship builder. divine designer?
If one saw for the first time a ship, one might assume that the shipbuilder was a
genius to have made such a thing. However, if one were to investigate further they
would find that the ship they are observing is nothing more than an imitation of
other ships and, in comparison, it’s not even that good. Neither does it take into
account the various other ships that this shipbuilder may have tried to make along
the way, in perfecting his art. Relating this to the work of a god in designing the
universe, Hume observes that there may be better universes out there; that this
25

designing god is a poor designer in comparison in relation to others and that, in
Key quote practising his art, he has produced a series of worlds and universes that have been
But allowing that we were to take ‘botched and bungled, throughout an eternity, ere this system was struck out.’ (Hume,
the operations of one part of nature Dialogues)
upon another for the foundation After referring to the ship/shipbuilder analogy, Philo suggests that, as a house or
of our judgement concerning the ship has many builders, surely it makes sense to say that there were many builders
origin of the whole (which never likewise involved in constructing the universe. In making this assertion, Hume is
can be admitted) yet why select demonstrating that the use of human analogies is a double-edged sword for those
so minute, so weak, so bounded a theists who rely on them to show the likelihood of the existence of a designing
principle as the reason and design creator God.
of animals is found to be upon this Furthermore, after a ship or house builder has completed their task they move
planet? What peculiar privilege on. Perhaps this is also true of the supposed designer of the universe? He may well
has this little agitation of the brain have left the universe to its own devices (this is very similar to the Deist position),
which we call thought, that we must or perhaps may even have died. There is no necessity for such a designer to have to
thus make it the model of the whole exist for eternity, just because that which he has designed does.
universe? Our partiality in our own
favour does indeed present it on all AO1 Activity
occasions; but sound philosophy
ought carefully to guard against so Create a one-minute news round presentation that summarises the key points
natural an illusion. (Hume) of Hume’s criticisms.
This helps with the ability to select and present the key relevant features of the
material you have read.
Study tip
Remember that Hume lived before Paley. Some candidates mistakenly state that
Hume was criticising Paley but this was not the case. Make certain you are aware
of the chronological order in which the main philosophers lived so that you do
not make the same mistake!
Study tip
Referring to criticisms of the design argument is NOT the same as evaluating
it. It is important to recognise that evaluations arise from the strengths and the
weaknesses. Criticisms on their own are AO1 material – and belong only in
part ‘a’ of your essay.
Alternative scientific explanations Big bang theory
including big bang theory and The big bang theory is often used as a ‘proof’ that it was a random action that
Darwin’s theory of evolution by caused the beginning of the universe, not God. (However, many theists suggest
natural selection. that this action was not random but caused by God.) The big bang theory can be
summarised by referring to an event that happened nearly 14 billion years ago,
when a singularity appeared. A singularity is a scientific concept referring to a point
in space-time that defies our current understanding of the laws of physics but
where infinity exists. This singularity inflated, expanded and cooled to give us the
universe we have today.
26

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by

Key person
natural selection Charles Darwin: English naturalist
In his Origin of Species, Darwin notes that it was random chance that organises who revolutionised the western world’s
life in the universe, according to the principles of evolution and natural selection. understanding of how life developed.
Natural selection works on a principle of ‘survival of the fittest’ where only the His most famous work, ‘On the Origin
strongest of a particular species survives long enough to pass on its genes to the of Species’ published in 1859, set
forward the idea that life on Earth had
next generation. In this way weak characteristics are ‘bred out’ of a species and it
developed through processes of natural
becomes stronger and more capable of surviving in its environment. selection and evolution. The theory
In other words, the reason for species being so well suited to their environment, made no mention of life developing
was not as had been previously thought, due to a benevolent designer but was as part of the work of a divine creator
because of their ability to adapt to their surroundings and to pass on the favourable and was met with varying degrees
of opposition from the religious
characteristics that allowed this adaptation to be successful.
establishment upon its publication.
This was anathema to the majority of people in the nineteenth century, who
believed that God was the Prime Mover of the universe – not chance. However,
in referring to the principle of natural selection, Darwin is stating that his notion
of chance was not a reference to things ‘just happening’ but rather that they were
happening according to a specific principle – however unpredictable it may be.
Darwin admitted that he did not know what mechanism caused these useful traits
to be passed from one generation to another but, with the discovery of DNA in the
20th century, this problem has been largely overcome.
AO1 Activity 1.17 What was the main idea behind

Darwin’s theory of natural selection?
Why do you think the challenges to the arguments are so wide-ranging?
Explain your answer using evidence and examples from what you have read.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)
27


everything you know about the Your new task is this: you need to develop each of the key points below by
topic area. adding evidence and examples to fully explain each point. The first one is done
for you. This will help you in answering examination questions for AO1 by
being able to ‘demonstrate extensive depth and/or breadth’ with ‘excellent use
Explanation that is extensive, of evidence and examples’ (Level 5 AO1 band descriptor).
with excellent use of evidence and Question focus on challenges to inductive arguments.
thorough and accurate supporting use 1. Anthony Kenny stated that the Physical principle highlighted in Newton’s
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and First Law of Motion ‘wrecks the argument of the First Way’.
This means that you demonstrate that DEVELOPMENT: This is because the principle of inertia can be used to show how
you understand something by being animals have the capacity to move themselves without being moved by another.
points through examples/supporting 2. Even if ‘God’ could be accepted as the cause of the universe, there is no
evidence in a personal way and NOT way to determine what sort of God this would be and certainly no way of
repeat chunks from a text book (known determining if it was the God of Classical Theism.
as rote learning).
Further application of skills: 3. The physical principle highlighted in Newton’s First law of Motion ‘wrecks
the argument of the First Way’.
section and create some bullet lists 4. Hume criticises the use of human analogies to demonstrate the fact that
the universe is designed.
and explanation through the use of
5. If we lack experience of the thing that the analogy is being used to ‘prove’
then how can we be certain that the analogy is sound?
6. The current so-called order in the universe that exists is nothing more
than the random association of atoms that had previously been in a
chaotic state.
7. Hume makes the comparison with a ship builder. If one saw for the first
time a ship, one might assume that the shipbuilder was a genius to have
made such a thing.
8. Hume demonstrates that the use of human analogies is a double-edged

sword for theists.
9. There is no necessity for such a designer to have to exist for eternity, just
because that which he has designed does.
10. Darwin notes that it was random chance that organises life in the
universe, according to the principles of evolution and natural selection.
11. The reason for species being so well suited to their environment was not
due to a benevolent designer according to Darwin.
28

Issues for analysis and evaluation Specification content

The effectiveness of the challenges to
The effectiveness of the challenges to the the teleological argument for
teleological argument for God’s existence God’s existence.
Hume was adamant: The teleological argument for the existence of a designing
God was at best flawed and at worst entirely ineffective. The use of human
experience to conjure up analogies relating to a cosmic entity beyond human
experience was considered implausible by Hume – there was no empirical evidence
that could conclusively point towards the existence of such a being.
The contention that design is only apparent is an effective challenge. The order that
can be seen in the universe is not evidence of intention. Therefore there is no need
to conclude that this was the action of a designer God, thereby undermining claims
for His existence. To suggest otherwise would be illogical.
The modern mind, with access to the latest scientific evidence, proves time and
again an effective challenge to the teleological argument. Based on evidence
from 19th-century scientist Charles Darwin and his work on natural selection
and evolution, the teleological argument seems not to hold up under scrutiny.
The religious point of view that the world and everything in it was the result of
a divine design is undermined by Darwin’s findings. These have been developed
over the last century with genetic research adding considerable weight to Darwin’s
original theories.
In fact, the suggestion is that this argument is more of a God of ‘gaps’ argument of argument
rather than based on empirical evidential claims. As such, it is outdated and
unnecessary in a rational scientific age. Listed below are some conclusions
However, it should be borne in mind that the teleological argument is based on that could be drawn from the AO2
observation of apparent design, order and purpose in the universe (a posteriori), reasoning in the accompanying text:
i.e. a scientific method. In which case, the fundamentals of the argument are based 1. The challenges are effective as the
on the same assumptions as that of scientific theories. Surely this proves that not all argument has no sound empirical
of the challenges to the argument are effective. basis.
Equally, scientific theories are often in need of updating or proved to be false 2. Scientifically evidenced arguments
– there have been plenty of examples over the centuries where what was once will always be more effective than
accepted as effective scientific ‘fact’ has instead been overturned as new evidence philosophical religious arguments.
has come to light. In fact, many scientists recognise the precarious position their 3. Any argument that is based on
theories are in, particularly in light of advancements in scientific understanding observation, experience and
of the universe that in themselves are not fully understood yet. Therefore, evidence should be considered
scientific evidence against the teleological argument does not necessarily prove an effective.
effective challenge. To develop this point further, contemporary scientists such as 4. Relying on scientific evidence
Polkinghorne, Behe and Davies all support the design concept. Why would they risk to challenge the teleological
their reputations as scientific professionals, were there not something to it? argument is ineffective as it
This shows that scientific evidence can be used to support as well as challenge the can also be used to support the
teleological argument. In which case, the strength of the argument may come argument.
down to a personal preference, negating the effectiveness of the challenges. Consider each of the conclusions
and evidence.
29

Specification content Whether scientific explanations are more

Whether scientific explanations are persuasive than philosophical explanations for
more persuasive than philosophical
explanations for the universe’s the universe’s existence
existence. The consideration of whether scientific explanations are more persuasive than
philosophical explanations for the universe’s existence can encompass a variety
of explanations. Scientific discovery in the past century has occurred at a pace
hitherto unknown in the history of the human race. Science is based on empiricism
and rational knowledge acquired through the use of the five senses – it is easily and
widely accepted.
The quantum explanations include the idea of ‘random occurrences’ to explain
how the universe could have come into existence. The theory of quantum physics
suggests that at the sub-atomic level our traditional understanding of a cause and
effect universe is not necessarily relevant. This means that certain ‘quantum’ events
can occur without an obvious ‘cause’.
Interestingly, the widely accepted big bang theory indicates a starting point of the
universe. The acceptance from the majority of the scientific community is that
the universe definitely had a beginning, which the first parts of all cosmological
arguments always attempt to prove. This is a point of agreement between science
AO2 Activity Possible lines and philosophy. The contention then becomes ‘what caused the starting point?’ –
of argument with the scientific view being that it is unnecessary to posit a divine being, but to
look instead for another, rational, scientific explanation.
Listed below are some conclusions Developing this point further, it is true to say that Science uses evidence-based
that could be drawn from the AO2 rational thought to demonstrate how the universe began. Such thought underpins
reasoning in the accompanying text: much of the workings of contemporary society. This is at odds with the suggestion
1. Scientifically evidenced arguments of a divine being as the first cause of the universe. However, science works on
will always be more effective than assumptions that like causes produce like effects – deterministic existence of the
philosophical religious arguments. universe lends itself to the model used to determine God as the first cause for the
2. The lack of clear evidence universe.
from science undermines how It should be taken into account that as there is no definitive answer as to how
persuasive scientific explanations the universe began, then it is entirely rational to accept certain religious and
for the universe’s existence philosophical arguments as having persuasive power. For instance, scientific
are in the face of philosophical observers have not proven beyond reasonable doubt that God is not the first cause
explanations from religion. of the universe.
3. Religion relies too heavily on Scientific evidence can only talk meaningfully about time after the Big Bang – not
a God of the gaps approach the moments before. This allows for the possibility of a divine being as the cause of
to explaining the universe’s the Big Bang, thus demonstrating that philosophical explanations for the universe’s
existence – scientific explanations existence may be considered as persuasive.
are far more persuasive. Additionally, scientific explanations can often be extremely complex – and for
4. Religious explanations should be many listening to contemporary scientific conversation about sub-quantum
accepted as valid because science realities, multi-dimensional universes and other seemingly fantastical ideas,
cannot disprove them entirely. these explanations may in themselves seem so far-fetched that a common-sense
Consider each of the conclusions philosophical explanation, taking an ‘Ockham’s razor’ -type approach of not
drawn above and collect evidence and multiplying the difficulty for an explanation, seems to make more sense and could
examples to support each argument therefore be argued as being, ultimately, more persuasive – in that it can be more
from the AO1 and AO2 material easily understood.
and evidence.
30


Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The terms and clear views, either of scholars or
may be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills from a personal perspective ready for
of view.
Your next task is this: develop each of the key points below by adding various implications of the issues raised
evidence and examples to fully evaluate the argument presented in the
evaluation statement. The first one is done for you. This will help you in detailed argument with a clear
answering examination questions for AO2 by being able to ensure that conclusion.
‘sustained and clear views are given, supported by extensive, detailed reasoning
and/or evidence’ (Level 5 AO2 band descriptor).
A focus on evaluating how far scientific explanations for the commentary and response and arrives
universe’s existence are more persuasive than philosophical at a conclusion through a clear process
explanations. of reasoning.
1. Science is based on empiricism and rational knowledge acquired through
the use of the five senses – it is easily and widely accepted.
DEVELOPMENT: This is because it is possible to fully justify in a physical sense

and because rationality is the cornerstone of modern thinking in the West.
2. Science is based on empiricism and rational knowledge acquired through

the use of the five senses.
3. Quantum physics suggests that at the sub-atomic level our traditional

understanding of a cause and effect universe is not necessarily relevant.
4. The big bang theory indicates a starting point of the universe.
5. Both scientific and philosophical arguments agree that the universe had a
starting point.
6. Arguments based on empirical proofs are more likely to be persuasive.
7. Science uses evidence-based rational thought to demonstrate how the

universe began.
8. Science works on assumptions that like causes produce like effects.
9. Religious philosophy is based as much on faith as it is on reason.
10. The philosophical arguments for God as the starting point of the universe
are much older than the scientific ones.
11. Scientific evidence can only talk meaningfully about time after the
Big Bang.
31

existence of God – deductive
content and skills A: Deductive arguments – origins of the
ontological argument
Deductive proofs; the concept of
a priori. Deductive arguments
In Theme 1 we looked at the concept of inductive proofs, these are useful when
Key terms basing an argument on evidence or experience. However, not all philosophical
A priori: without or prior to evidence arguments have the luxury of drawing upon these two useful areas. Occasionally, it
or experience is necessary to argue based on no prior experience or evidence – and this is where
Deductive proof: a proof in which, the term a priori comes from. Philosophical arguments (and statements) can be
if the premises are true, then the made a priori and it is often useful to do so. This is the application of pure logical
conclusion must be true reasoning to come up with a conclusion and is known as deductive reasoning or
deductive proof.
Ontological argument: argument
for the existence of God based on the Deductive proofs are often composed of a series of premises or statements
concept of the nature of being that, when stacked together, point towards a conclusion that is usually logically
Premise: a statement or proposition inescapable. For instance, look at the following:
used to construct an argument [Premise 1] All oceans contain water.
[Premise 2] The Atlantic is an ocean.
[Conclusion] Therefore the Atlantic contains water.
Premise 1 is followed by premise 2 and these lead to a conclusion that is both
logically sound and factually accurate.
However, this is all very well and good when the premises that point towards
the conclusion are both accurate and true, but occasionally this is not the case.
However, the conclusion that is drawn is still inescapable.
[Premise 1] All birds can fly.
[Premise 2] Penguins are birds.
[Conclusion] Therefore penguins can fly.
In this case the deductive proof leads to a conclusion that, whilst logically sound,
is factually inaccurate. Why? Well the reason is that at least one of the premises
is suspect (or wrong!) In this case, the premise ‘All birds can fly’ is not factually
accurate and, because of this, the conclusion may not be accurate either.
Deductive proofs are incredibly powerful pieces of logical reasoning that, when
well constructed, are virtually impossible to disagree with. Deductive proof is
the basis for the ontological argument for the existence of God and, for its
supporters, is the most persuasive form of philosophical argument that there is
when positing the existence of a divine being.
AO1 Activity
Rodin’s The Thinker
Demonstrate your understanding of how deductive proofs are formed by
writing five sets of deductive proofs – they can be about anything you like, as
long as you follow the rules of Premise + Premise = Conclusion. Once you have
2.1 What makes deductive proof different
completed this task, share your ideas with someone else in your class and get
from inductive proof?
them to check that you have reasoned correctly.
32

Study tip
When answering questions on different types of proof, make certain that you
can clearly explain the differences between inductive and deductive proofs
by having a clear example for each. You should have an example prepared so
that you can use it as required. It is always worth checking with your teacher
that the example you have chosen is both accurate and relevant. This way you
can demonstrate at least ‘good use of evidence and examples’ (Level 4/5 AO1
response) to the examiner in response to explaining the different types of proof.
Anselm – God as the greatest possible being Specification content

In the eleventh century, monastic Anselm of Bec, later to be Archbishop of Anselm – God as the greatest possible
Canterbury as part of the Norman invasion of England, composed the Proslogion being (Proslogion 2).
(sometimes referred to by its original title Fides Quaerens Intellectum, which when
translated means ‘Faith seeking understanding’). In this book he attempts to offer a
single rational proof for the existence of God. This single argument was expressed
in a deductive form. Key term
Proslogion: a work written by
Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) Anselm, used as a meditation, but
including within it the classical form of
the ontological argument
33

For Anselm, the relationship between faith and reason differed from some of the
key thinkers that you may study elsewhere in the course. Faith for Anselm, came first.
His faith was that God existed, that God was the source of all being and the ultimate
Key terms good. Reason was employed to deepen his understanding of what his faith told him:
Faith: a strong belief or trust in ‘For I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe in order to
something or someone understand. For this also I believe, that unless I believed, I should not understand.’
Reason: the use of logic in thought (Anselm)
processes or putting forward an This leads the reader into the second chapter of his work, referred to as Proslogion 2.
argument
Opening with the reference to Psalm 14:1 he states, ‘Truly there is a God, although
the fool has said in his heart, “There is no God”.’
Anselm presents the reader with the dichotomy of his investigation – that there
Key quote
are two positions in reference to the existence of God: acceptance or denial. To the
I began to ask myself whether there modern mind this would translate as a theist versus atheist debate, but several
might be found a single argument biblical commentators do not believe that this is the case (and Anselm would have
which would require no other for its been well aware of this particular interpretation).
proof than itself alone; and alone In modern terms, an atheist is a person who denies any possibility of the existence of
would suffice to demonstrate that a being such as a god. For Anselm’s fool, it was more like a self-delusion in order to
God truly exists, and that there is live a life of injustice and corruption – ‘fooling’ oneself that God’s punishment could
a supreme good requiring nothing be avoided for such a course of action. This was a theme often repeated in the books
else, which all other things require of the Christian Old Testament. Hence the denial was not a rejection of a being called
for their existence and well-being; God but rather the rejection of having to face up to being accountable to the divine
and whatever we believe regarding judge, called God, for one’s actions in this life.
the divine Being. (Anselm) However we understand the fool, what is certain is that Anselm places him onto
the losing side of the argument. Proslogion 2 invites the reader to consider God as ‘a
being than which nothing greater can be conceived’. Whilst we need to accept that
Anselm’s definition is a little on the vague side, it states the rational position that God
is the greatest possible thing that can be thought of by the human mind.
This argument is then developed by Anselm who states that it is possible to exist in
the mind and to exist in reality but that the two ideas are not mutually inclusive (i.e.
they don’t have to both be true at the same time – just because something exists in
the mind does not mean it has to exist in reality). However, as God is considered to be
the being than which nothing greater can be conceived, then in this case, he exists in
both the mind and in reality – otherwise he is not the greatest possible being.
This is quite a confusing idea at first sight. It may be better to consider it as such:
(Premise 1) Beings exists in both the mind and in reality.
(Premise 2) God is the greatest possible being that can be thought of.
(Conclusion) In order to be the greatest thing that can be thought of, God must exist
Artist thinking of painting
in both the mind and in reality.
The conclusion would be true if you accept the idea that it is ‘greater’ (or ‘better’) to
exist in reality than in just the mind.
In essence this remains a difficult idea, and in fact, it initially seems logically weak in
terms of its premises. It certainly attracted criticism, as we shall see later.
Anselm used the example of a painter and a painting – pointing out that, before it
exists in reality, a painting needs to exist in the mind of the painter before it becomes
2.2 What was the use of reason for a reality.
according to Anselm?
AO1 Activity
You are being asked to briefly explain Anselm’s Proslogion 2 to a new student
in the class. Write down what your answer would be in 200 words. If you are
doing this a group, read out your answers. Take three examples and try to make
one final version by extracting what is the best material from each one.
34

Anselm – God has necessary existence Specification content

‘God cannot be conceived not to exist.’ Anselm starts Chapter 3 of his Proslogion Anselm – God has necessary existence
by developing his theme of God as the greatest possible being from Chapter 2. He (Proslogion 3).
widens his definition to now include the idea that once you have understood what
it means for God to be the greatest possible being, then, the next logical step is to
conclude that God has necessary existence – i.e. that God cannot be thought not to
exist.
Anselm’s reasoning goes something like this: It is possible to think of a being who
has the property of having to exist (i.e. that can be thought of as existing and not
being able not to exist). It is also possible of thinking of something that does not
have to exist. When thinking of the two, side by side, the one that cannot not exist
is clearly greater than the one that does not have to exist.
Put another way – God, if he exists, is either a being which cannot be thought of
as not existing (i.e. he is necessary) or he is a being which can be thought of as not
existing (i.e. he is contingent). If the definition we use for God (as is the case from
Proslogion 2) is that he is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ then
God’s existence must be necessary – as this is clearly greater than being contingent.
In this Anselm presents us with the idea that God’s existence is necessary and that
this is an integral part of what it means to be God – a unique feature above that of
all existent beings (i.e. necessary existence).
So, in summary, Anselm’s idea of God as having necessary existence demonstrates
that God is the greatest possible being that can be thought of, as anything which
exists is greater than anything that does not.
Therefore if God is the greatest possible thing that there is, then he must,
necessarily, exist in reality – not just as an idea. This is because otherwise anything
that existed in reality would be greater than God (if he was only an idea) but
because of our definition of God ‘as the greatest possible being’, then it follows that
he must necessarily exist.
2.3 What did Anselm mean by the term
‘necessary existence’?
AO1 Activity
Pick out five to ten key words from each aspect studied here, for Proslogion
2 and Proslogion 3. Now come up with an acronym for each to help you
remember. Test yourself with a partner. This will help you select and recall a
core set of points to develop in an answer explaining each concept.
35


everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a weak answer that has been written in
area. response to a question requiring an examination of Anselm’s ontological
argument. Using the band level descriptors you need to place this answer
in a relevant band that corresponds to the description inside that band. It is
Explanation that is extensive, obviously a weak answer and so would not be in bands 3–5. In order to do
demonstrating depth and/or breadth this it will be useful to consider what is missing from the answer and what is
inaccurate. The accompanying analysis gives you observations to assist you. In
thorough and accurate supporting use analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, think of five ways in which you
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and would improve the answer in order to make it stronger. You may have more
specialist language. than five suggestions but try to negotiate as a group and prioritise the five most
important things lacking.
able to illustrate and expand your Answer
points through examples/supporting Anselm’s ontological argument is used to prove God’s existence 1 . It is based on
the idea that God is the most amazing thing that exists in the universe 2 . Anselm
as rote learning). states that the idea of God means he exists in the mind and in reality 3 . Anyone,
even a fool, can think of God in their mind and that is important to Anselm’s
Further application of skills: argument 4 . In his Proslogion, Anselm tells the reader that God must exist in the
Go through the topic areas in this mind and in reality because reality is greater 5 . As God exists in reality and in the
section and create some bullet lists mind he is the greatest most amazing thing in the universe 6 . This is how Anselm
of key points from key areas. For proves God’s existence using the ontological argument 7 .
Analysis of the answer
1 The statement gives no details beyond stating what the argument is for. Needs
expanding and exploring.
2 This paraphrases incorrectly the central theme of Anselm’s argument.
3 An opportunity is missed here to show accurate understanding. The stages of
the argument are glossed over and summarised in such a way as to miss the
point.
4 This is poorly expressed – needs to state why it is important to the argument.
5 Misses the point – this needs to be explained more clearly as it confuses the
issue.
6 The summary is accurate in general terms, although again, poor expression leads
to a sense of confusion in the response.
7 This is just a repeat of the first sentence. It does not properly show how Anselm
proves God’s existence.
36


content and skills
The extent to which ‘a priori’ arguments for Specification content
God’s existence are persuasive The extent to which ‘a priori’
Arguments for God’s existence can be categorised into ‘a priori’ and ‘a posteriori’ arguments for God’s existence are
arguments. A priori arguments are arguments that are independent of our persuasive.
experience or any evidence that may present itself to us.
In general terms, the only thing needed for an a priori argument is an
understanding of the language in which it is expressed! In this sense, it could
be argued, that this very independence from experience means that they are
intrinsically persuasive as they are not tainted by the experience of an individual
or group, neither do they rely on evidence (which can often be found to be
unreliable).
On the other hand, in general terms, a posteriori arguments, those based on
evidence and experience, give us an empirical basis upon which we can prove,
with scientific method, how reliable a particular claim or argument may be, that
seems far more sensible to the 21st-century mind! We accept arguments about
the reliability of medicines, technology and even educational systems based on
empirical research, i.e. a posteriori research. We would not accept a priori that
any of these things could be claimed as reliable thus proving that a posteriori
arguments are more persuasive than a priori ones. AO2 Activity Possible lines
Countering this is the fact that a priori arguments tend to lead to inescapable of argument
conclusions – they state what is known and it is accepted as such. In this it could be
considered that a priori arguments are more persuasive, particularly when dealing Listed below are some conclusions
with subject matter such as the possible existence of God. that could be drawn from the AO2
However, we should bear in mind the fact that a priori deductive proofs depend
heavily on their premises in terms of providing sound arguments. If the premises 1. A priori arguments for God’s
are suspect, inaccurate or wrong then the conclusion that they lead to will existence are entirely persuasive.
inevitably also suffer from these defects. In this, the persuasiveness of an a priori 2. The persuasiveness of a priori
argument for God’s existence is considerably undermined. arguments depends on our
The ontological argument, as an a priori form, depends on the understanding of understanding of language
what it means to be God. We accept certain facts about God, purely based on the 3. Arguments for the existence of
definition of the word. In this, the assertion that God necessarily exists, because God are not persuasive unless
he is the greatest possible being that can be thought of and must possess all they are based on evidence and
perfections, including that of existence, appears to be highly persuasive. experience.
Countering this is the existence of the a posteriori arguments for God’s existence, 4. The persuasiveness of a priori
such as the cosmological and teleological forms. Both of these have enjoyed a arguments depends on your faith
lengthy existence as possible arguments for God’s existence and are used by view.
philosophers and theologians even today in the 21st century, accepting them as 5. A priori arguments are only
persuasive forms or proofs for the existence of God. persuasive when a posteriori
arguments fail.
and evidence.
37

Specification content The extent to which different religious views

The extent to which different on the nature of God impact on arguments
religious views on the nature of
God impact on arguments for the for the existence of God
existence of God. According to the traditional concept of God in Classical Theism, God is omnipotent,
omniscient and omnipresent. In other words, God can do all things, knows all
things and is everywhere. This would be a view upheld by Christianity, Islam and
Judaism – often collectively known as the western or Abrahamic religions.
When considering the theistic proofs considered so far (i.e. cosmological,
teleological and ontological) it is worth reflecting on how much each of these is
based on an understanding of God’s nature as presented by these faiths.
For example, God’s omnipotence is a key feature of both cosmological and
teleological arguments which describe a being capable of creating a universe and
designing a universe respectively. Were God not attributed with this power, then
how could either of these feats be attributed to him? It must be considered vital to
these arguments that God has these abilities (creator/designer) as an essential part
of who he is considered to be.
Equally, the ontological argument describes God as possessing ‘all perfections’.
AO2 Activity Possible lines Indeed, this definition of God is the crux of the argument. Were it not so then the
of argument ontological argument would be a non-starter. The very idea of God is a God whose
nature includes the idea of these perfections as a necessary part of who he is.
Listed below are some conclusions
that could be drawn from the AO2 The question can then be asked ‘what about other considerations about the nature
reasoning in the accompanying text: of God? Would these arguments still work if God is described in any other form
– e.g. impersonal, limited to a specific sphere of nature, entirely transcendent (i.e.
1. God’s nature informs arguments
beyond our physical world and incapable of interacting with it), etc. Certainly, this
for his existence.
would seem to undermine the validity of all three arguments, as we traditionally
2. Arguments for God’s existence understand them at least.
that do not rely on specific faith
However, concepts of God beyond those recognised above do not necessarily
claims about his nature are more
entail such characteristics. In such cases, the nature of God – which might contain
persuasive than those that are
characteristics of limited power or malevolent intent – do not impede traditional
dependent on such claims.
questions regarding the existence of god in the face of the issues regarding evil and
3. Without a clear understanding suffering for instance. (Polytheistic or dualist faith traditions could be included in
of the nature of God, it would this.) Whilst the traditional theistic arguments as outlined above, do not usually
be impossible to construct an promote an understanding of the nature of God in this way, it certainly raises
argument for God’s existence. interesting questions about attempting to explain God’s nature and asks why we
4. The validity of arguments for assume the characteristics attributed to the God of Classical Theism.
God’s existence depends entirely In conclusion, traditional arguments for God’s existence tend to arise out of specific
on the religious views about the faith traditions and, as a consequence, are intimately associated with the specific
nature of God. nature of God as described in that tradition. As such, it would seem that different
5. Arguments for God’s existence religious views about the nature of God do indeed impact on arguments for the
work independently of any faith existence of God.
claims about his nature.
and evidence.
38


of view.
Your task is this: below is a weak answer that has been written in response to a various implications of the issues raised
question requiring evaluation of the extent to which ‘a priori’ arguments for God’s
existence are persuasive. Using the band level descriptors you need to place this detailed argument with a clear
answer in a relevant band that corresponds to the description inside that band. It conclusion.
is obviously a weak answer and so would not be in bands 3–5. In order to do this it
will be useful to consider what is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate.
The accompanying analysis gives you observations to assist you. In analysing the argument analysed through individual
answer’s weaknesses, in a group, think of five ways in which you would improve the commentary and response and arrives
answer in order to make it stronger. You may have more than five suggestions but at a conclusion through a clear process
try to negotiate as a group and prioritise the five most important things lacking. of reasoning.
Answer Analysis of the answer

Proving God’s existence is not an easy task. Philosophers have argued about this for 1 An introduction that does not
thousands of years 1 . properly address the question but
However, there are two main types of argument that can help prove God’s existence: instead focuses on the generic issue
inductive, a posteriori and deductive, a priori 2 . of God’s existence being proven.
The cosmological and teleological arguments are both inductive a posteriori 2 Has a basic grasp of the concepts of
arguments. The ontological argument is a priori and deductive. A posteriori a posteriori and a priori arguments.
arguments are arguments that are based on evidence so people can see what it 3 The explanation of a posteriori is
is they are arguing about and it is very difficult to argue against when you have limited, despite being accurately
evidence to support your argument 3 . linked to the cosmological and
A priori arguments do not use evidence and so because of this they are very difficult teleological arguments, the
to prove because people can always argue against you when there is no evidence to candidate does not seems to have a
support your argument. However, some people think that some ideas are so obvious proper grasp of what an a posteriori
that no evidence is needed 4 . argument is.
For instance it is a priori true that all bachelors are unmarried males and no evidence 4 A clumsy and poorly expressed
is needed to argue against that and so it is true with the idea of God, as Anselm understanding of a priori arguments.
defines him, there is no evidence needed because the word God means that he 5 A basic point that is not developed
exists 5 . sufficiently and so is poorly
Therefore in my opinion a priori arguments can be very good at showing people how expressed.
God’s existence can be proved 6 . 6 A conclusion that is not linked to the
question.
39


content and skills B: Deductive arguments – developments of
Specification content the ontological argument
Rene Descartes – concept of God as
supremely perfect being; analogies of Rene Descartes – concept of God as supremely
triangles and mountains/valleys.
perfect being; analogies of triangles and
mountains/valleys
Key quote
For Descartes, the definition of God was that God was the most perfect being – or
I clearly see that existence can no to put it another way – a being that possessed all perfections. Whilst Descartes
more be separated from the essence is a little vague on precisely what is meant by the concept of ‘perfection’, the
of God than can its having its three implication is that he means God possesses the very best form of all possible
angles equal to two right angles attributes.
be separated from the essence of When talking of the God of Classical Theism, the attributes of power, knowledge
a [rectilinear] triangle, or the idea and love, are magnified so that he is all-powerful (omnipotent); all-knowing
of a mountain from the idea of a (omniscient) and all-loving (omnibenevolent). That is to say – God possesses each
valley; and so there is not any less of those attributes in their perfect state. For Descartes, God as the supremely
repugnance to our conceiving a God perfect being possesses all perfections and he includes within this the idea of
(that is, a Being supremely perfect) existence that God possesses as an attribute. Were he not to possess the perfection
to whom existence is lacking (that is of each and every positive attribute that it were possible to possess, then God
to say, to whom a certain perfection would not be the supremely perfect being. Thus, the definition of God, for
is lacking), than to conceive of Descartes, is phrased in positive terms, unlike Anselm’s negative ‘God is that than
a mountain which has no valley. which nothing greater can be conceived’.
(Descartes)
Rene Descartes (1596–1650)
Key terms
Attribute: a descriptive characteristic
that someone or something possesses
Perfection: the complete absence
of flaws also the ultimate state of a
positive trait
40

To help us understand this concept further Descartes uses two analogies:
The idea of a triangle:
Descartes points out that to think of a triangle is to necessarily think of a shape that
has both three sides and interior angles that add up to 180°. It does not necessarily 60º
mean that this shape necessarily exists in any external reality but in order to
think about the idea of a triangle there needs to be a set of criteria that can be
understood by all and which forms part of the definition of what a triangle is.
Similarly with God: it is equally impossible to think of God unless one considers
the attribute of existence as a necessary part of the definition of what God is. In
summary – Descartes says the concept of God contains the idea of his existence 60º 60º
as a necessary perfection that he possesses in the same way that the concept of a
triangle refers to a shape with three sides and interior angles that add up to 180°.
The attributes and the idea are inextricably linked in both cases. Triangle
Mountains and valleys:

The second analogy that Descartes makes use of is the idea that one cannot think
of a mountain without thinking of the corresponding valley – for wherever there
is one there is always, by definition, the other. This analogy is used by Descartes to
reinforce the idea that it is impossible to divorce the ideas of God and the idea of
his existence:
‘….for from the fact that I cannot conceive a mountain without a valley, it does
not follow that there is any mountain or any valley in existence, but only that the
mountain and the valley, whether they exist or do not exist, cannot in any way
be separated one from the other. While from the fact that I cannot conceive God
without existence, it follows that existence is inseparable from Him, and hence that
He really exists; not that my thought can bring this to pass, or impose any necessity
on things, but, on the contrary, because the necessity which lies in the thing itself,
i.e. the necessity of the existence of God determines me to think in this way. For it
is not within my power to think of God without existence (that is of a supremely
perfect Being devoid of a supreme perfection).’
Every mountain has a valley
Descartes is stating that God alone possesses this perfection (that is, of
necessary existence) as the supremely perfect being, thereby proving that God,
necessarily, exists.
Study tip 2.4 What two analogies does Descartes

Make sure that you always answer the question set, paying particular attention make use of to help explain his
ontological argument?
to key words. This will ensure that you have the best chance of giving ‘An
extensive and relevant response which answers the specific demands of the
question set’ (L5 band descriptor AO1).
AO1 Activity
Descartes’ arguments are relatively straightforward to follow, as long as
you understand his analogies of the ideas of triangles and the link between
mountains and valleys. Summarise these ideas in two separate diagrams that
are drawn on one side of A4, this will help you to remember how they work to
support Descartes’ ontological argument.
41

Specification content Norman Malcolm – God as unlimited being:

Norman Malcolm – God as unlimited God’s existence as necessary rather than just
being: God’s existence as necessary
rather than just possible. possible
In The Philosophical Review (1960) Norman Malcolm revisited the ontological
argument and presented it in a form that responded to its previous critics and
Key quote 1
developed the argument further from that written by both Anselm and Descartes,
The doctrine that existence is a centuries earlier.
perfection is remarkably queer. It Malcolm rejects both Anselm’s argument stated in Proslogion 2 and that proposed
makes sense and is true to say that by Descartes. Malcolm sides with both Gaunilo and Kant in their objections,
my future house will be a better namely that to state that something exists either because it is greater to exist in
one if it is insulated than if it is not reality, or, because existence is a perfection and God possesses all perfections,
insulated; but what could it mean to are false arguments. You cannot merely add the concept of existence to a
say that it will be a better house if it list of qualities that something has and then claim that it therefore exists!
exists than if it does not? My future (see Key quote 1).
child will be a better man if he is However, Malcolm does sympathise with the argument that Anselm puts forward
honest than if he is not; but who in Proslogion 3, namely that he concludes (following his proof in Proslogion 2)
would understand the saying that he that because God is the greatest possible being that can be thought of, then he
will be a better man if he exists than must have necessary existence. This is, as seen earlier, a necessary consequence of
if he does not? Or who understands being the greatest possible being that can be thought of – quite simply because a
the saying that if God exists He is being that did not have necessary existence would be inferior to one that did have
more perfect than if He does not necessary existence. As both can be conceived then it is the being with necessary
exist? One might say, with some existence that is the greater – and as the greatest possible being must exist.
intelligibility, that it would be better For Malcolm, the very fact that God is the greatest possible being that can be
(for oneself or for mankind) if God thought of, necessarily means that God should equally be described as an unlimited
exists than if He does not – but that being (see Key quote 2)– that is to say, a being that has no limits – possesses all
is a different matter. (Malcolm) perfections to the greatest possible degree and, because God is considered as an
unlimited being, then for the religious believer, he is worthy of worship. Were God
not a being that was unlimited, then that would mean there were limits to some,
if not all, aspects of his being, which in turn means he is not the greatest thing that
can be thought of, would not fit our understanding of what it meant to be ‘God’
(as defined by Anselm) and therefore would not be worthy of worship. Thus, God
must of necessity by definition be an unlimited being.
The big question about God
42

Malcolm summarises how the ontological argument shows God’s existence to be
necessary thus: Key quote 2
‘If God, a being a greater than which cannot be conceived, does not exist then He What Anselm did was to give a
cannot come into existence. For if He did He would either have been caused to come demonstration that the proposition
into existence or have happened to come into existence, and in either case He would ‘God necessarily exists’ is entailed
be a limited being, which by our conception of Him He is not. Since He cannot by the proposition ‘God is a being
come into existence, if He does not exist His existence is impossible. If He does exist a greater than which cannot be
He cannot have come into existence (for the reasons given), nor can He cease to conceived’ (which is equivalent to
exist, for nothing could cause Him to cease to exist nor could it just happen that ‘God is an absolutely unlimited
He ceased to exist. So if God exists His existence is necessary. Thus God’s existence being’). (Malcolm)
is either impossible or necessary. It can be the former only if the concept of such
a being is self-contradictory or in some way logically absurd. Assuming that this is
not so, it follows that He necessarily exists.’ (Malcolm)
2.5 Under what conditions, according to
Malcolm, would God’s existence be
AO1 Activity impossible?
On small revision cards create summaries of Malcolm’s ontological argument.
Support the explanations with relevant evidence from the passage, including
quotations from Malcolm. This will help you select and recall a core set
of points to develop in an answer to explaining Malcolm’s version of the
ontological argument and ensure that you are demonstrating ‘Thorough,
accurate and relevant knowledge and understanding of religion and belief.’ (L5
band descriptor AO1)
Study tip
Make sure that you always answer the question set, paying particular attention
to key terms. This will ensure that you have the best chance of giving ‘An
extensive and relevant response which answers the specific demands of the
question set’ (L5 band descriptor AO1).
43


set NOT the topic area. You will
Band 5 for AS AO1).
everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a strong answer that has been written
area. in response to a question requiring an examination of the origins of the
ontological argument. Using the band level descriptors you can compare this
with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside those bands. It is
Explanation that is extensive, obviously a strong answer and so would not be in bands 1–3. In order to do
this, it will be useful to consider what is good about the answer and what is
accurate. The accompanying analysis gives you clues and prompts to assist you.
thorough and accurate supporting use In analysing the answer’s strengths, in a group, think of five things that make
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and this answer a good one. You may have more than five observations and indeed
specialist language. suggestions to make it a perfect answer!
you understand something by being Answer
able to illustrate and expand your The ontological argument is an a priori, deductive argument for the existence
of God. This means that it is not based on evidence or experience but rather on
a prior understanding of what is already known – i.e. what the meaning of the
as rote learning). word God entails. In this sense the definition of ‘God’ leads to the conclusion that
God exists. 1
The ontological argument, as it is recognised today, was first put forward by Anselm
Go through the topic areas in this of Canterbury in his Proslogion. In this work Anselm considers two key points.
Firstly, that God is the greatest possible being and secondly, that God has necessary
each one, provide further elaboration existence. 2
and explanation through the use of Anselm’s first proof starts with reference to the verse in the Psalms that states ‘The
evidence and examples. fool hath said in his heart there is no God’. Anselm uses this verse to demonstrate
that to state that there is no God, when one is able to assert that such a concept
exists, is indeed ‘foolish’. For Anselm the word ‘God’ is defined thus: ‘God is that
than which nothing greater can be conceived’. From this he demonstrates that God
must exist.
The argument runs thus – it is better to exist in reality than just in the mind, for
things that only exist in the mind will always be inferior to things that have an
external physical reality. As such, God – that than which nothing greater can be
conceived – already exists as an idea in the mind. However, if God truly is the
greatest possible being that can be thought of, then he must exist in reality as
well. This is because if he did not, then anything that did exist in reality would
automatically be considered to be greater than God. 3
This in turn would mean that God would not be ‘that than which nothing
greater can be conceived’ – which is a denial of the very definition of God – his
essence, or ‘ontos’, means that he exists by definition. Only can a God that exists in
reality can truly be the greatest possible thing that can be thought of. This is how
Anselm develops his argument in Proslogion 3. That is, if God exists, he must be
necessary. 4
44

Anselm says that it is possible to think of a being who has the property of having to
exist and that it is also possible of thinking of something that does not have to exist.
When thinking of the two it is the one that cannot not exist that is greater than the
one that does not have to exist. 5
In other words, God, if he exists, he is either a being which cannot be thought of
as not existing (i.e. he is necessary) or he is a being which can be thought of as
not existing (i.e. he is contingent). If we use Anselm’s definition for God, that he is
‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ then God’s existence must be
necessary. 6
What Anselm is saying here is that if God is the greatest possible being that there is
then he must, of necessity, exist in reality and not just as a concept in the mind. This
is because otherwise anything that existed in reality would be greater than God (if
he was only an idea) but because of our definition of God ‘as the greatest possible
being’, then it follows that he must necessarily exist. 7
Completed comments
1 Good introduction that provides an explanation of the philosophical framework
upon which the ontological argument is formed.
2 Clearly outlines the two main aspects of Anselm’s ontological argument.
3 Good identification of the beginnings of the argument that demonstrates
accurate and relevant knowledge.
4 Very good use of both complex and technical language to show thorough
understanding of the ontological argument.
5 Continues to develop the argument logically and accurately.
6 Accurately explains the argument by returning to the key definition.
7 Clearly rounds off Anselm’s argument showing that they have made accurate
reference to the Proslogion in formulating their response.
45


content and skills
Issues for analysis and evaluation
The effectiveness of the ontological argument
The effectiveness of the ontological for God’s existence
argument for God’s existence. The ontological argument for God’s existence has a thousand-year history in the
annals of religious philosophy and deserves respect. As an a priori argument it is a
rational proof whose logic is inescapable when the deductive form of its premises
is accepted. For Anselm, this argument was entirely effective in confirming his own
theistic beliefs – that God’s existence was both obvious and necessary.
Theistic religions from the Abrahamic tradition, such as Christianity, Judaism and
Islam, all accept the definition of God as proposed by Anselm and therefore they
would also consider this to be an effective form of argument as it confirms their
own faith views, that God is the greatest possible being, one which nothing greater
can be thought of in the entire realm of reality.
What further demonstrates the effectiveness of the ontological argument is that
it fits contemporary forms of philosophy and logic, such as the modal systems
adopted by modern-day ontological argument philosophers, such as Malcolm.
The ontological argument, as an a priori form, depends on the understanding of
AO2 Activity Possible lines what it means to be God. We accept certain facts about God, purely based on the
of argument definition of the word. In this, the assertion that God necessarily exists, because
he is the greatest possible being that can be thought of and must possess all
Listed below are some conclusions perfections, including that of existence, shows how effective the argument is.
that could be drawn from the AO2
reasoning in the accompanying text: We should also bear in mind the fact that the ontological argument, as an a priori
argument, leads to an inescapable conclusion – i.e. that God exists. This makes it
1. The ontological argument highly effective as long as one accepts the reasoning put forward in the argument!
effectively proves God’s existence
beyond any reasonable doubt. However, not all philosophers or religious believers accept that the ontological
argument is an effective proof for God’s existence. Indeed, one of its earliest critics
2. Only later forms of the ontological was Anselm’s contemporary, Gaunilo, who rejected the idea that it was possible to
argument are acceptable, the define anything into existence.
classical form from Anselm is
entirely ineffective. Equally Immanuel Kant, centuries later, also rejected the argument, suggesting that
Descartes was misusing the word ‘exist’. It was not possible, in his view to simply
3. Using the ontological argument add the word exist to a list of perfections that something did or didn’t have –
to prove God’s existence is thereby showing the argument to be ineffective.
philosophically futile.
We should also appreciate, in line with these critiques, that whenever any of the
4. The ontological argument’s premises of an a priori argument can be shown to be weak or inaccurate, then the
effectiveness depends on your conclusion that is produced by virtue of the reasoning will also be either weak or
religious beliefs. inaccurate – this links strongly to the views put forward by Kant.
5. The effectiveness of the In conclusion, the arguments against the ontological argument are sufficiently
ontological argument is robust to undermine any reasonable claim that it is an effective argument in
undermined by modern scientific proving the existence of God.
thought.
and evidence.
46

Whether the ontological argument is more Specification content

persuasive than the cosmological/teleological Whether the ontological argument
is more persuasive than the
arguments for God’s existence cosmological/teleological arguments
God’s existence or non-existence has long been a debate for philosophers. Strong for God’s existence.
views are formed on both sides of the debate. In order to support this debate a
number of different forms of ‘proof’ have been offered. These proofs exist in both
a priori and a posteriori forms. The ontological argument is an a priori argument
for the existence of God whilst both the cosmological and teleological arguments
are a posteriori forms.
The persuasiveness of the ontological argument depends, as is so often the case,
on the willingness of the individual to accept the deductive premises upon which
it is based. If these premises are accepted – i.e. the idea that the definition of God
is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and the associated argument
that this proves God has necessary existence (otherwise God cannot be the
greatest possible thing that can be thought of) – then it is very difficult to deny the
conclusion that God necessarily exists. This would make the ontological argument
entirely persuasive.
However, if the premises are rejected – as Gaunilo, Kant and others did – then
the ontological argument fails entirely. It is never accepted because the idea of
existence following on from definition is seen as entirely fallacious and is not at all
persuasive. AO2 Activity Possible lines
The cosmological argument is based on the empirical fact that there is a universe, of argument
and poses the question ‘What started the universe?’ from which the reasoning of
philosophers such as Aquinas, Leibniz and Craig propose the answer as God.
The teleological argument starts from the philosophical observation that the reasoning in the accompanying text:
universe contains evidence of design and that things within the universe appear to
1. The ontological argument is the
work towards an end or purpose, even when there is no obvious reason for this to
most persuasive argument for the
happen. The conclusion inductively drawn by philosophers such as Aquinas, Paley
existence of God.
and Tennant, is that the reason for this is God.
2. The cosmological/teleological
Both of the latter arguments use empirical evidence. In a scientific age, empirical
arguments are the most persuasive
evidence is always valued as a starting point for any persuasive argument and
arguments for the existence of
therefore, it could be argued, that these arguments are both more persuasive than
God.
the ontological argument, in proving the existence of God.
3. Neither of the arguments are
However, both of these inductive arguments are subject to a number of criticisms,
persuasive.
not least of which is that even if all other ideas are accepted within the line of
inductive reasoning, why does the ultimate conclusion for this inductive reasoning 4. All of the arguments are equally
have to be God? To this, neither argument gives a definitive or persuasive answer. persuasive.
It then becomes a matter of preference for the type of reasoning adopted in 5. The arguments’ relative
accepting a more persuasive form of argument for the existence of God. Those persuasiveness will depend on the
preferring an experience or evidence base will no doubt prefer the inductive philosophical viewpoint of the
arguments from cosmology or design – those who prefer the logical reasoning individual.
found in the deductive form of the ontological argument will prefer this. Some Consider each of the conclusions
may therefore conclude that the relative persuasiveness of the arguments becomes drawn above and collect evidence and
a subjective matter, much like the acceptance or denial of belief in a divine being. examples to support each argument
and evidence.
47

AO2 Developing skills

Key skills It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It
Analysis involves identifying issues is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and
raised by the materials in the AO1, used for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO2.
Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The
and clear views, either of scholars or
terms may be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills
from a personal perspective ready for demonstrate these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills is
evaluation. measured (see generic band descriptors Band 5 for AS AO2).
This means that it picks out key things Obviously an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
to debate and the lines of argument depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good,
presented by others or a personal point satisfactory, basic/limited to very limited.
of view.
Evaluation involves considering the Your task is this: below is a strong answer that has been written in response
various implications of the issues raised to a question requiring evaluation of whether the ontological argument proves
based upon the evidence gleaned from the existence of God. Using the band level descriptors you can compare this
analysis and provides an extensive with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside those bands. It is
detailed argument with a clear obviously a strong answer and so would not be in bands 1–3. In order to do
conclusion.
this it will be useful to consider what is good about the answer and what is
This means that the answer weighs accurate. The accompanying analysis gives you clues and prompts to assist you.
up the various and different lines of In analysing the answer’s strengths, in a group, think of five things that make
argument analysed through individual this answer a good one. You may have more than five observations and indeed
suggestions to make it a perfect answer!
of reasoning.
Answer
In order to see whether the ontological argument proves the existence of God, it
is important to consider, firstly, what we mean by proof. Three forms of proof are
generally available to us: direct, deductive and inductive. Direct proof involves use
of one or more of the five senses, and is sometimes also referred to as ‘empirical
proof’. In terms of proving the existence of God, this is one of the more contentious
forms as claims of visions, miracles and other physical ‘proofs’ of God’s existence are
difficult to verify conclusively. 1
Deductive proof uses premises to form a conclusion – thereby offering a form of
‘logical’ or rational proof. It is this form of proof that the ontological argument is
based upon. The third type of proof is inductive and is the form utilised by the
cosmological and teleological arguments. 2
The relative success of the ontological argument, as a form of deductive proof, is
heavily dependent – as all deductive proofs are – on the acceptance of the premises.
For Anselm, these premises include the acceptance that the definition of the word
God proves beyond reasonable doubt that he exists. God is that than which nothing
greater can be conceived. It is also better to exist in reality than in the mind alone.
Therefore if God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived, it necessarily
follows that he exists not only in the mind but in reality as well. 3
This argument, at first glance, appears convincing. However, it asks us to accept
certain premises that some were unhappy to accept. For instance, the monk Gaunilo
could not accept that you could simply move from a definition to an existent reality.
He countered Anselm’s argument by stating that were he to think of a perfect
island then that must mean that that island also existed, otherwise it would not be a
perfect island! This of course is an absurd idea. It would have seemed that Gaunilo
had defeated Anselm’s argument and that the ontological argument could not prove
the existence of God. This was not the case though. 4
48

In his response to Gaunilo, Anselm pointed out that the properties of an island and
the properties of God were entirely different. For instance, an island could always be
improved upon – this was not the case with God. God was unique, and because of
this the idea of his existence as necessary only applied to him – it did not, and could
not, apply to anything else in the physical world. Therefore Anselm believed that his
ontological argument had successfully proven God’s existence. 5
Descartes developed Anselm’s ideas by explaining that the very idea of God meant
that he had to exist, in the same way that it was impossible to think about a triangle
without thinking of a three-sided shape, it was equally impossible to consider
the idea of God without equally thinking of a being that necessarily existed. This
therefore proved God’s existence. 6
Kant’s objection to Descartes was that existence could not be treated like a
predicate and so it was philosophically unsound to move from a definition where
all perfections were claimed and then to include existence as a perfection. For
Kant, existence was not a property that a thing could lack – for if that were so, it
would not exist in the first place! Existence was an integral part of something in
the real world, but it was not a defining characteristic of that thing. Therefore whilst
he accepted that it was possible to hold the idea of God, it did not follow that God
actually existed – Kant seemed to have shown that the ontological argument had
not proven God’s existence. 7
By looking at the arguments as presented above, it would seem that the ontological
argument does not prove the existence of God. 8
Completed hints
1 Introduces the topic by looking at what is meant by the idea of proof.
2 Continues outlining definitions of proof. The information is accurate.
3 Introduces the ontological argument as presented by Anselm. Deals accurately
with the information.
4 Introduces a counterpoint to the argument; makes good use of relevant
evidence.
5 Introduces a counter-argument to the counterpoint. This demonstrates effective
evaluation of the subject material.
6 Further evidence is added to support the argument by introducing a different
philosopher.
7 The counter-argument is provided by reference to Kant’s rejection of both
Anselm and Descartes’ arguments.
8 A brief conclusion that does not expand on a basic statement. Evidence is not
restated to support the conclusion being made.
49


content and skills C: Challenges to the ontological argument
Gaunilo, his reply to Anselm; his Gaunilo, his reply to Anselm
rejection of idea of a greatest possible The ontological argument as presented by Anselm, was met with criticism by his
being that can be thought of as contemporary, a monk by the name of Gaunilo of Marmoutier. In a work titled On
having separate existence outside of behalf of the fool, Gaunilo replied to Anselm’s proof by using an argument structure
our minds; his analogy of the idea known as reductio ad absurdum. He makes a claim that in the same way that
of the greatest island as a ridicule of Anselm argues it is possible to argue the existence of God through the definition of
Anselm’s logic. God ‘is that than which nothing greater can be conceived’, then it must therefore
be possible to have the idea of a perfect island and, because of this idea, then this
island must exist:
‘Now if someone should tell me that there is such an island,
I should easily understand his words, in which there is no
difficulty. But suppose that he went on to say, as if by a
logical inference: “You can no longer doubt that this island
which is more excellent than all lands exists somewhere,
since you have no doubt that it is in your understanding.
And since it is more excellent not to be in the understanding
alone, but to exist both in the understanding and in reality,
for this reason it must exist. For if it does not exist, any land
which really exists will be more excellent than it; and so the
island already understood by you to be more excellent will
not be more excellent.’
The perfect island?
If a man should try to prove to me by such reasoning that
this island truly exists, and that its existence should no
longer be doubted, either I should believe that he was jesting, or I know not which
Key terms I ought to regard as the greater fool: myself, supposing that I should allow this
proof; or him, if he should suppose that he had established with any certainty the
Intrinsic maximum: a term often
associated in the context of the existence of this island.’
ontological argument with English In other words, Gaunilo is stating that the idea of a something that can be thought
philosopher, Charles Dunbar Broad, of as existing separately outside of our minds, just because it is the greatest thing
to refer to the necessary properties of we can think of, is a logical nonsense. Just because you can define a greatest
God – in that they must all possess
possible being does not automatically lead to the fact that one actually exists –
this intrinsic maximum in order for
the defi nition of God as the greatest
and it here that he makes use of his island analogy to underline the absurdity of
possible being to be accurate Anselm’s argument.
Reductio ad absurdum: an
Critics of Gaunilo suggest that he has misunderstood the ontological argument and
argument that shows a statement to be is applying criticism incorrectly. The basic counter-argument to Gaunilo focuses on
false or absurd if its logical conclusions the idea that only God is necessary (non-contingent) and is the ground or source
were to be accepted of his own being. If this is held to be true, then Anselm’s definition is coherent.
Gaunilo’s island is a contingent object and, as such, possesses no intrinsic
maximum (that is to say, you can always add something else to it to improve it or
make it ‘more perfect’ than it already is – this is not true of the concept of a non-
2.6 Why did Gaunilo think Anselm’s contingent God. God’s perfection is a necessary part of him – the same cannot be
argument was flawed? said about islands (or any other contingent entity).
AO1 Activity
On small revision cards create a summary of the key points in Gaunilo’s
objections. Support the explanations with relevant quotes from Gaunilo. This
will enable you to demonstrate ‘Excellent use of evidence and examples’ (L5
band descriptor AO1). This ensures that you are selecting the most important
features for emphasis and clarity and supporting this with evidence, rather
than just presenting a descriptive, or simple structure, for your answer.
50

Immanuel Kant’s objection Specification content

In the 18th century, Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant put forward a criticism Immanuel Kant’s objection –
towards Descartes’ form of the ontological argument. Descartes had claimed existence is not a determining
that God possessed all perfections and that existence was one of those. However, predicate: it cannot be a property that
Kant objected, it is inaccurate to describe existence as a perfection. The reasons an object can either possess or lack.
for this were that the perfections that Descartes was referring to were attributes
or ‘predicates’. Existence, said Kant, could not be a predicate simply because
existence can be a thing that an object can possess or lack but it does not describe
anything about the nature of an object.
For example, if we describe God as all-loving then we are describing a predicate
that God has – it is a predicate (or attribute/characteristic) that tells us something
about God’s nature. The same is true when we describe God as omnipresent or
omniscient. Were we to say ‘God exists’ what does that tell us about his nature? For
Kant, it was for this reason that Descartes was mistaken in suggesting that God’s
existence was a determining predicate that he possessed.
To make this clearer, let us consider again what we mean be a predicate. If I say ‘my
car is silver’ then I am describing something about my car that enables others to
know something about it. I could go further and say that ‘my car has four wheels’,
‘my car has five doors’, my car has windscreen wipers, etc. All of these things are
predicates of my car – they explain things about my car, things that it possesses
and things that help others to understand something about the nature of my car.
However, if I said ‘my car exists’ I am saying nothing about its nature – I am merely
making the point that my car is in existence, as opposed to my car not being in
existence.
Kant further elaborated on his denial of existence as a predicate by providing the
example of 100 thalers. He asks the reader to consider what difference is held Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
in the understanding of thalers by adding the phrase ‘it exists’ to the list of other
predicates, (e.g. they are round, made of gold, etc.). He states that as nothing
changes in our minds by adding this phrase, then it shows how existence is not Key terms
a real predicate – despite the fact that 100 thalers in reality would have been Predicate: a defi ning characteristic or
preferable to 100 thalers in the mind alone! The word ‘exists’ adds nothing to attribute
our idea of God and therefore, suggests Kant’s, Descartes’ (and by association,
Thaler: currency used in 18th-century
Anselm’s) ontological arguments fail a priori to prove the existence of God. Prussia
Study tip
When you use references to scholars and texts, try to make them manageable in
size. Sometimes brief extracts are just as effective. In addition, do not just write 2.7 What was Kant’s main objection to
down a quote to ‘show off’ without thinking about how it fits in with the point the ontological argument?
you are making.
AO1 Activity
On revision cards, state the key arguments of both Gaunilo and Kant. Show
how they counter the arguments of Anselm and Descartes respectively. This
will help you consolidate your understanding of the ontological argument.
51


everything you know about the Your new task is this: below is a fairly strong answer, although not perfect,
topic area. that has been written in response to a question requiring an examination of the
challenges to the ontological argument. Using the band level descriptors you
can compare this with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside
Explanation that is extensive, those bands. It is obviously a fairly strong answer and so would not be in bands
demonstrating depth and/or breadth 1, 2 or 5. In order to do this it will be useful to consider what is both strong and
weak about the answer and therefore what needs developing.
thorough and accurate supporting use In analysing the answer, in a group, identify three ways to make this answer a
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and better one. You may have more than three observations and indeed suggestions
specialist language. to make it a perfect answer!
When Anselm formulated his ontological argument in the Proslogion, his statement
that God was that than which nothing greater can be conceived, gave the idea of
repeat chunks from a text book (known a God whose very existence could be proven through the simple definition of his
as rote learning). name. The premises upon which this argument existed seemed effective and the
inescapable conclusion of God’s existence was thereby established.
However, the challenge that came from Gaunilo, a monk from Marmoutier, seemed
to suggest that the ontological argument presented by Anselm was flawed
of key points from key areas. For and therefore failed to prove God’s existence as the argument itself was seen,
each one, provide further elaboration by Gaunilo, to be absurd. His response was that, to establish the existence of
and explanation through the use of something merely by stating that it possessed all perfections was nonsense.
evidence and examples. Gaunilo stated that were such a thing possible then it should be possible to define
anything into existence – as long as that thing was held to possess qualities of
perfection. His example was that of a perfect island – Gaunilo stated that this island
must exist in reality because he could think of a perfect island in his mind. In doing
this he was echoing Anselm’s argument that God must exist in reality as well as in
the mind as it was greater to exist in reality than in the mind alone.
Centuries later, Descartes developed Anselm’s argument and stated that God was
the supremely perfect being and that once that has been understood then it would
be also understood that God necessarily existed; indeed, to think of God as not
existing would be the same as trying to think of a triangle without three sides or a
mountain existing without a valley.
Kant attacked this argument by saying that Descartes had misused the word
existence. He said that existence was not a predicate – by which he meant, it was
not a word that you could use to describe the nature of something. The concept of
existence added nothing to our understanding of a thing – other then to state that
that thing possessed an external reality. However, you could not just add existence
to a list of predicates to cause them to come into reality. He gave the example of 100
thalers (money) which he said you could think of in the mind but when describing
them, if you added, ‘they exist’ then you would not be adding anything different
to the picture that you had of them in your mind and they certainly would not just
magically appear. Therefore Kant challenged the ontological argument.
52

Issues for analysis and evaluation Specification content

The effectiveness of the challenges to
The effectiveness of the challenges to the the ontological argument for God’s
ontological argument for God’s existence existence.
Gaunilo’s challenge to the ontological argument was in the fact that he felt that
Anselm had used an absurd argument. Using the philosophical argument reductio
ad absurdum, he showed that trying to define something into existence merely by
definition was a ridiculous idea.
His presentation of the perfect island was in response to Anselm’s definition of
God as a being greater than which cannot be conceived. Gaunilo stated that he
could think of an island of which none greater could be conceived but that did
not mean that it actually existed – indeed, such a claim clearly made no sense.
Gaunilo’s challenge here appears particularly effective, attacking as it does the core
of Anselm’s argument.
However, Gaunilo did not appreciate that Anselm’s claim was about God – and as
God was that than which nothing greater can be conceived – then that definition
applied to him alone. Gaunilo’s concept of a perfect island could not work as an
island can always be added to or improved – complete perfection (in the sense
that nothing could ever be improved upon it) makes no sense when talking about
a contingent reality such as an island. God was necessary – an island was not. This
leads to Gaunilo’s attack on Anselm’s argument being considered ineffective as it
did not make use of valid reasoning. AO2 Activity Possible lines
Kant’s challenged Descartes’ assertion that existence was a predicate of God. of argument
Descartes had stated that as the supremely perfect being, God possessed all
perfections. Included within this was the ‘perfection’ of existence. However, Kant Listed below are some conclusions
rejected this as he felt that Descartes’s use of the word existence was incorrect. that could be drawn from the AO2
Predicates tells us something about the nature of the reality they are trying to reasoning in the accompanying text:
describe. The concept of existence tells us nothing about the nature of a reality. 1. Gaunilo’s challenge was
Therefore, according to Kant, the ontological argument fails – and his challenge to undermined by Anselm’s use of
the ontological argument is considered effective. deductive reasoning.
Some have questioned whether Kant’s understanding of Anselm’s original 2. Kant’s challenge was more
argument was fully accurate, though. It has been observed that Kant was talking effective than Gaunilo’s.
about Anselm adding the concept of existence to the concept of God in order 3. The ontological argument is
to make his argument work; however, other scholars have suggested that this immune to challenge.
misunderstands Anselm, who they say was instead asking his readers to compare 4. The effectiveness of the challenges
something existing merely in the understanding with something existing in reality to the ontological argument
as well. depend entirely on their definition
of existence.
5. It is impossible to prove God’s
existence a priori and therefore
the challenges are effective.
and evidence.
53

Specification content The extent to which objections to the

The extent to which objections to the ontological argument are persuasive
ontological argument are persuasive.
The relative persuasiveness of the objections to the ontological argument depend
on how far the individual considers these objections to be valid, as well as how far
the original arguments were accepted as sound.
Gaunilo’s objections centre on the claim that in the same way that Anselm argues
it is possible to argue the existence of God through the definition of God as ‘that
than which nothing greater can be conceived’, then it must therefore be possible
to have the idea of a perfect island and, because of this idea, then this island must
exist. Gaunilo says ‘If a man should try to prove to me by such reasoning that this
island truly exists …. I know not which I ought to regard as the greater fool myself,
supposing that I should allow this proof, or him, if he should suppose that he
had established with any certainty the existence of this island.’ To demonstrate
how persuasive an argument this could considered to be we should reflect on
Gaunilo’s stance that just because you can define a greatest possible being does not
automatically lead to the fact that one actually exists.
However, there are critics of Gaunilo’s position here. They state that he has
misunderstood the ontological argument and is applying his criticism incorrectly.
Gaunilo does not seem to understand that because of God’s uniqueness the
ontological argument only applies to him – no other being. This is because only
AO2 Activity Possible lines God is necessary (non-contingent). All other beings are contingent and so cannot
of argument apply the same definition to themselves. This counter-argument, if accepted,
Listed below are some conclusions considerably undermines any persuasiveness that Gaunilo may have had with his
that could be drawn from the AO2 objection.
reasoning in the accompanying text: Contrary to the relative non-persuasiveness of Gaunilo’s objections, the objections
1. The persuasiveness of an that are stated by Kant appear far more persuasive. This is because Kant does not
argument depends on how valid attempt to directly undermine Anselm’s argument by virtue of his definition but
its premises are. instead challenges Descartes’ position. This, in turn, affects the position taken by
2. Gaunilo’s response is not Anselm on the nature of God. Kant shows Descartes reasoning in defining God’s
persuasive. existence through a consideration of his perfections as invalid reasoning. Kant
explains that existence, which was considered a perfection possessed by God is
3. Only ontological arguments based not a determining predicate – as existence cannot add anything to the idea of
on valid premises can withstand something. Only those qualities that add to the nature of God (e.g. omnipotence;
objections to their reasoning. omniscience; omnipresence, etc.) can be called predicates. Existence adds nothing
4. Kant’s understanding of predicates new to our understanding of the nature of God and so cannot be called a predicate.
is the most persuasive objection This therefore undermines Descartes’ position and strengthens the persuasiveness
to the ontological argument as of Kant’s objection.
presented by both Descartes and However, if we accept that Kant had misunderstood Anselm and that the idea of
Anselm. adding the concept of existence to the concept of God was not what Anselm was
5. Kant’s objections are persuasive suggesting, then the strength of Kant’s objections are somewhat undermined. This
because he is very effective at would therefore demonstrate that Kant’s objections are not as persuasive as at first
undermining a priori arguments. thought.
and evidence.
54


It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It is Analysis involves identifying issues
also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and used raised by the materials in the AO1,
for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO2.
Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The terms may and clear views, either of scholars or
be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills demonstrate from a personal perspective ready for
these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills is measured (see evaluation.
generic band descriptors Band 5 for AS AO2). This means that it picks out key things
Obviously an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor depending to debate and the lines of argument
upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good, satisfactory, presented by others or a personal point
of view.
basic/limited to very limited.
Your task is this: below is a reasonable answer, although not perfect, that has various implications of the issues raised
been written in response to a question requiring an examination of the strengths
of the challenges to the ontological argument. Using the band level descriptors detailed argument with a clear
you can compare this with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside conclusion.
those bands. It is obviously a reasonable answer and so would not be in bands 5, 1
or 2. In order to do this it will be useful to consider what is both strong and weak
about the answer and therefore what needs developing. argument analysed through individual
In analysing the answer, in a group, identify three ways to make this answer a commentary and response and arrives
better one. You may have more than three observations and indeed suggestions at a conclusion through a clear process
to make it a perfect answer! of reasoning.
Answer
The strengths of the challenges to the ontological argument are many. Gaunilo’s
challenge to the ontological argument clearly shows that Anselm’s reasoning was
absurd because he was trying to prove God’s existence by giving a definition that
included the idea that God had to exist.
This was not a good argument because, as Gaunilo said, if you could define things into
existence then he could define a perfect island into existence and that didn’t make any
sense. It was impossible, from Gaunilo’s point of view, to define anything into existence
merely by saying that it had to exist, as part of the definition of what the thing was.
Some scholars think that Gaunilo was confused in his arguments, though, and therefore
they weren’t very strong. This is because Gaunilo did not make a distinction between
contingent objects (which everything in the universe is) and non-contingent or
necessary objects (which only God is). As God is the only non-contingent being in the
universe then the ontological argument as presented by Anselm only applies to God and
nothing else and because Gaunilo missed this point his criticism was not particularly
strong.
However, a stronger form of challenge was made by Immanuel Kant who recognised
that including existence as a describing word (or predicate) for God was inaccurate. This
is because existence only tells you whether something is or not – it does not tell you
what it is, or anything else about it, and therefore cannot be considered to be a proper
predicate. Kant says that both Descartes and Anselm misunderstand this point in their
arguments and because of this their ontological arguments should both be considered
to be invalid.
Kant’s challenged Descartes’ assertion that existence was a predicate of God. Descartes
had stated that as the supremely perfect being, God possessed all perfections. Included
within this was the ‘perfection’ of existence. However, Kant rejected this as he felt
that Descartes’ use of the word existence was incorrect. Predicates tells us something
about the nature of the reality they are trying to describe. The concept of existence tells
us nothing about the nature of a reality. Therefore, according to Kant, the ontological
argument fails – and his challenge to the ontological argument is considered effective.
55

Challenges to religious
T3 belief – the problem of

evil and suffering
content and skills A: The problem of evil and suffering
The types of evil: moral (caused by The types of evil: moral (caused by free-will
free-will agents) and natural (caused agents) and natural (caused by nature)
by nature). Evil is often considered to be anything that causes suffering. This suffering can
occur in many different forms and can be the result of a moral action or an event
that occurs in nature. As such, the nature of evil presents several philosophical
issues. Consider the images in the diagrams – what sort of evil do they represent?
What is the suffering that is caused by these types of evil? How do they differ?
Examples of evil
Examples of Natural evil
Examples of Moral evil
Broadly speaking evil can be categorised in two main ways: moral evil and
Key terms natural evil.
Evil: anything that causes pain or Moral evil is understood as any suffering that is brought about through the actions
suffering
of a free-will agent. Free-will agents have the ability to choose ‘good’ or ‘evil’. As
Moral evil: evil caused as a result of such, their actions can result in the suffering of others. It is important to realise
the actions of a free-will agent that one of the main philosophical issues that is raised by this type of evil is that
Natural evil: evil caused by the if evil is caused by an individual that could have chosen to do good instead, does
means of a force outside of the control that mean that God cannot be held accountable for evil’s existence in the world?
of free-will agents – usually referred to Examples of moral evil include murder, theft, violence, rape, slavery, child abuse,
as ‘nature’ animal cruelty, terrorism, adultery, dishonesty, any form of negative discrimination
and genocide.
56

Natural evil is understood as any suffering that is brought about as a consequence

of the events outside of the control of free-will agents – most commonly those that
occur as part of the natural order. Examples of natural evil include the suffering
that results from earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, drought, tornadoes, hurricanes,
extremes in temperature – hot and cold, disease, ageing, crop failure, forest fires,
pollution and global warming. 3.1 Name the two main types of evil.
Occasionally free-will agents can set in motion a series of events that result in
suffering that were not intended. It is therefore highly debatable as to whether this
suffering constitutes moral evil or not. 3.2 Give an example of the two main
types of evil.
Study tip
In order to demonstrate the higher-level skills, you should always explain fully
any example of evil that you might use in an answer to illustrate moral or
natural evil. This explanation must demonstrate how the example chosen causes
suffering and is therefore considered as evil.
AO1 Activity
Compile a list of examples that show occurrences of the two main types of
evil. You should then share these with a partner and take it in turns to write an
explanation of how evil is shown through these examples and the effect it has
on others.
The logical problem of evil: classical Specification content

(Epicurus) – the problem of suffering The logical problem of evil: classical
(Epicurus) – the problem of suffering.
The problem of evil is an ancient philosophical and theological one. If a belief
system suggests that the universe was created deliberately, out of nothing, by a
God that is all-powerful, all-knowing and all-loving, then how is it possible that
things within that universe can go wrong? Not only that, why is it that within
Key quote
that universe, the created beings which are again deliberately made by this God, Either God wants to abolish evil,
suffer – often to appalling extremes. and cannot; or he can, but does not
Any response would seem to throw up some kind of philosophical contradiction want to. If he wants to, but cannot,
to the characteristics of this God and this is why, despite numerous attempts by he is impotent. If he can, but does
religious believers, theologians and philosophers, it remains a constant challenge not want to, he is wicked. If God can
to those that would believe in such a God (commonly referred to as the God of abolish evil, and God really wants to
Classical Theism). do it, why is there evil in the world?
(Epicurus)
57

Specification content John L. Mackie’s (J. L. Mackie’s) modern

John L. Mackie’s (J. L. Mackie’s) development – the nature of the problem of
modern development – the
nature of the problem of evil evil (inconsistent triad)
(inconsistent triad). The Australian philosopher J. L. Mackie formulated Omnipotence
the problem of evil into an ‘inconsistent triad’,
which runs thus:
Key terms 1. God is Omnipotent
Omnibenevolent: all-loving
2. God is Omnibenevolent
Omnipotent: all-powerful
3. Evil Exists
Mackie points out that it is logically inconsistent Omnibenevolence Evil
for these three statements to exist simultaneously.
This is because if God were omnipotent he would have the power to remove
evil as his omnipotence means that he is capable of any feat. The characteristic
of omnipotence also includes the notion that God could have created a
universe where there was no evil. For Mackie, omnipotence, as we will see
later, incorporates omniscience and involves a clear definition of what he calls
‘unqualified omnipotence’, that is, omnipotence without any restrictions due to the
constraints of the world.
If he were omnibenevolent then he, in his loving kindness towards his creation,
would want to remove evil so that creation did not suffer. The idea that any
omnibenevolent being would deliberately tolerate evil, and the horrendous
suffering that it causes, is anathema to the very idea of omnibenevolence.
However, the existence of evil is so tangible in its effects and its scope that any
denial of its existence would be nonsensical. Thus it is not possible for the three
statements to co-exist.
An alternative solution to the problem is to try to resolve the inconsistent triad by
removing one of the three points. Any such solution would read like so:
If we removed the characteristic of omnipotence from God, then we can
understand why evil exists because, whilst God loves creation and wants to prevent
evil, he does not have the power to do so. This solution echoes the philosophical
stance taken by process theologians such as Whitehead, who claimed that God
was part of the universe and was responsible for starting off the evolutionary
process that led to humanity and, as such was responsible for what happened to
his creation. However, such a God, as part of the universe, did not have sufficient
3.3 What is meant by the term the ‘God of power to remove evil. Process theologians regard this God as ‘the fellow sufferer
Classical Theism’? who understands’ – being as much part of the universe as humanity. However
attractive this solution appears, ultimately it does not satisfy those religious
Study tip believers who believe that their God was responsible for creating the universe ex
nihilo – and is therefore greater than all that exists within the universe.
Always make certain that you fully
explain the inconsistent triad and how So some suggest that we should remove the characteristic of omnibenevolence. In
it could be solved by removing any one this case evil exists and God is omnipotent. Having the power to remove evil does
corner of the triangle. Candidates often not mean that God wants to. If he is not ‘all-loving’ then why should he care if his
lose marks because they do not explain creation suffers? Such a God may even be considered as malicious, and may even
this properly. enjoy seeing his creation suffer. However, such a God is so far from the imagination
of all classical theistic religions as to be unrecognisable; the problem therefore
remains.
3.4 What is meant by the phrase ‘the
problem of evil’?
58

Finally then we can remove the fact that ‘evil exists’. In doing so, God retains his
characteristics of omnipotence and omnibenevolence and there is no contradiction
for believers, in terms of God’s characteristics. The assertion is that evil does not
exist. After all, it may be our perception that is at fault. If we were able to see the 3.5 Explain what philosophers mean by
universe, from a God’s-eye view, then we may see that the suffering that creation the term ‘inconsistent triad’.
faces is not the evil that we think it is, but rather has a purpose that
we do not understand because we do not have God’s perspective.
Imagine the situation of a toddler playing in the kitchen whilst the
parent is using the oven. The oven piques the toddler’s curiosity and
he wanders over to it. Standing against the oven he reaches up to try
and pull the pan off the top of the oven in order to see what is inside
it. At this point the parent, alarmed at what is about to happen, may
smack the toddler’s hand away from the oven. In doing so, the toddler
suffers from having a smacked hand. He cannot understand why the
parent has just smacked the hand and is upset by the incident. He
may even consider the parent to be cruel and unfair. However, what
the toddler was unaware of was that the pan on top of the oven was
full of boiling water and, had they succeeded in pulling it off the oven
top, they would have been severely injured and suffered a far greater
degree of pain than was caused by the smacking of the hand. The Danger ahead!
toddler did not have the parent’s perspective, and, like the toddler,
creation does not share God’s (as the parent) perspective.
Attractive as this idea may at first appear, it has been largely rejected for the simple
reason, as Hume points out, the effects of evil are felt too widely, and its presence
attested too vividly for it to be dismissible.
Mackie, however, focused on the logical problem of evil in its purest sense. The
logical problem arises because theists maintain that there are no limits to what
an omnipotent being can do, but then, the so called ‘solutions’ or ‘theodicies’
that are proposed, actually limit God’s power but misleadingly keep the term
‘omnipotence’. Therefore, Mackie argues that the theodicies do not give a solution
to the problem of evil since they have changed the premise (i.e. that God is
omnipotent).
Mackie calls his theory the ‘Paradox of Omnipotence’. He writes: ‘This leads us to
what I call the Paradox of Omnipotence: can an omnipotent being make things
which he cannot subsequently control? Or, what is practically equivalent to this,
can an omnipotent being make rules which then bind himself?’
From this he observes: ‘It is clear that this is a paradox: the questions cannot be
answered satisfactorily either in the affirmative or the negative. If we answer “Yes”,
it follows that if God actually makes things which he cannot control, or makes rules
which bind himself, he is not omnipotent once he has made them: there are then
things which he cannot do. But if we answer ” No “, we are immediately asserting
that there are things which he cannot do, that is to say that he is already not Key quote
omnipotent.’ Quite apart from the problem of
The only solution Mackie sees to this is to ‘deny that God is a continuing being, that evil, the Paradox of Omnipotence
any time can be assigned to his actions at all’, or, ‘by putting God outside time’. In has shown that God’s omnipotence
either case, this then is immediately compromised in considering any solution to must in any case be restricted in
the problem of evil that involves free will. one way or another, that unqualified
For many philosophers the problem of evil is simply insurmountable. The omnipotence cannot be ascribed to
inconsistent triad presents a simple but devastating critique of the question of any being that continues through
why an all-loving, all-powerful, God would allow his creation to suffer. However, time. And if God and his actions
this view has been challenged by a number of theists who maintain that the are not in time, can omnipotence, or
inconsistent triad and the problem of evil rest on assumptions that, if challenged, power of any sort, be meaningfully
can open the debate. ascribed to him? (Mackie)
59

For instance, one such assumption is the notion that just because God is
all-powerful and all-loving, why would he necessarily want to remove evil
immediately from the universe? Perhaps it does indeed serve some greater purpose
of which we are currently unaware.
Aquinas, referencing his work on our understanding of God’s nature, points out
that what we understand as ‘goodness’ (or even evil for that matter) may not be
the same as what God understands as goodness. After all, our understanding of
goodness is often relative to the time and culture within which we live. We are
limited by time as beings and the world and society that we live in are always
changing. God, as a perfect being, is not subject to such change and therefore
his understanding of concepts such as good and evil is likewise fixed and
unchangeable, and may be very different to our own; in which case there is no
logical contradiction within the ‘inconsistent triad’ and certainly no challenge to
God’s omnipotence.
Specification content William Rowe (intense human and animal

William Rowe (intense human and suffering) and Gregory S. Paul (premature
animal suffering) and Gregory S. Paul
(premature deaths). deaths)
William Rowe in his work: The problem of evil and some varieties of atheism (1979)
argued that, whilst it seemed reasonable for God to allow some limited suffering
to enable humans to grow and develop, he could not accept God allowing what
he called ’intense’ suffering’ Animal suffering also seemed pointless. Rowe used
the example of a fawn caught in a forest fire as an example of pointless animal
suffering. He argues:
■
An omnipotent and omniscient being would know when intense suffering was
about to take place.
■
Such a being could prevent the suffering from happening.
■
An all-loving being would probably prevent all evil and suffering that had no
purpose and was pointless and avoidable.
■
Such evil and suffering does happen.
■
Therefore, probably God does not exist.
Rowe’s approach is sometimes referred to as the evidential problem of evil, in that
it involves a consideration of whether, and to what extent, the existence of evil can
be used as evidence that can be used to argue the case against the existence of God.
This should be recognised as being different from the problem of evil as presented
by Epicurus and Mackie – that is more properly known as the logical problem
of evil.
Key quote Gregory Paul argues that the death of so many innocent children challenges the
existence of God. He estimates that since the time that God first spoke to man, as
The modern Christian consensus recorded in the sacred texts of the Abrahamic religions, that over 50 billion children
followed by billions is so firmly have died naturally before reaching what Paul calls ‘the age of mature consent’ and
overturned by human circumstances some 300 billion human beings have died naturally but prenatally. Paul calls this
that it very probably is not possible ‘the Holocaust of the children’ and using this statistical information, he argues:
to reconcile the Christian concept of ■
Millions of innocent children suffer and die every year, from both natural and
a pacific creator with the state of the evil causes.
universe. (Paul)
■
These children are too young to be able to make choices about God – they have
no free will.
■
No all-loving, all-powerful being would permit such suffering.
■
Therefore, God does not exist.
The problem of evil stated in this way is sometimes referred to as the statistical
problem of evil.
60


It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It Knowledge involves:
Assessment objective 1 (AO1) involves demonstrating knowledge and that is directly related to the specific
in response to a question requiring an examination of how suffering is caused area.
by the different types of evil and why this is a problem for religious believers.
It is obviously a below average answer and so would be about band 2. It will
be useful, initially, to consider what is missing from the answer and what is Explanation that is extensive,
inaccurate. The accompanying list gives you some possible observations to demonstrating depth and/or breadth
assist you. Be aware, as not all points may be relevant! In analysing the answer’s
weaknesses, in a group, choose five points from the list that you would use to thorough and accurate supporting use
improve the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out your additions, of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
each one in a clear paragraph, remembering the principles of explaining with specialist language.
evidence and/or examples. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try
to negotiate as a group and prioritise the most important things to add. you understand something by being
Suffering is a big problem not just for religious believers – it affects everybody at
some point during their lives. Suffering is what happens as a result of evil, although as rote learning).
some types of suffering are needed in order to improve a person’s life – e.g. the type
of suffering that is caused when a baby has an injection – it hurts but the result is Further application of skills:
that the baby is then protected from diseases. Go through the topic areas in this
However, suffering is linked to evil when the type of suffering produced does not section and create some bullet lists
seem to have any positive effect – such as when a person is murdered or when a
house is destroyed by a bad storm. and explanation through the use of
Lots of people suffered during the Holocaust, which was a terrible event caused by evidence and examples.
Hitler and the Nazis during the 1930s and 1940s. As a result 6 million Jewish people
lost their lives. Lots of other people lost their lives as well during this time because
they disagreed with the Nazis. This type of suffering was caused by human beings
and so is called moral evil.
Natural evil is when something other than humans causes evil. A famous example of
this is the Boxing Day tsunami in 2004 when thousands of people suffered because
of this terrible event.
Observations
■
An introduction is needed to define the different types of evil. ■
Needs to explain how each of the characteristics of the God
■
Needs to explain why evil causes suffering and how this is of Classical Theism should cancel out the existence of evil.
problematic for religious believers. ■
Explain how the specific types of evil produce suffering and
■
Explain the concept of the God of Classical Theism. how this occurs.
■
Include a reference from sacred writings to show why evil is
■
Show how the existence of evil undermines the concept of
a problem for religious believers. the God of Classical Theism.
■
Needs to explain about the types of evil and how they
■
Specific examples of evil should be fully explained to
produce suffering. demonstrate how they produce suffering.
■
Makes use of accurate terminology in relation to the
■
Needs a summary at the end that relates to the question.
classical and modern problems of evil.
61


content and skills
The extent to which the classical form of the
The extent to which the classical form problem of evil is a problem
of the problem of evil is a problem. In the 3rd century BCE, Epicurus is credited with posing the logical problem of
evil – in which is stated the formulation: ‘Either God wants to abolish evil, and
cannot; or he can, but does not want to. If he wants to, but cannot, he is impotent.
If he can, but does not want to, he is wicked. If God can abolish evil, and God really
wants to do it, why is there evil in the world?’
Epicurus bases his assumption of an existent God who is attributed with divine
power and benevolence, favourably disposed towards the human race. However,
his formulation, sometime referred to as the ‘Epicurean paradox’, denies that it
is possible for such a God to exist alongside the existence of evil. This then, is the
classical logical problem of evil. The extent to which it can be considered a problem
rests, ultimately, on the predisposition of the individual.
For instance – any individual who discounts the existence of God is automatically
‘rewarded’ by the problem of evil not being a problem at all. For evil may well
exist but God does not. Alternatively, the believer may decide to attribute different
characteristics to God – causing him to be a god of malevolence or limited power –
or even a God who has no particular interest in the welfare of human beings – a
god apathetic to innocent human suffering. This, however, is sidestepping
the problem!
For the individual who concedes to a belief in God then it becomes quickly
apparent that the attributes of the said God are essential when considering to
AO2 Activity Possible lines what extent the classical problem of evil is a problem. Thus, if a belief in God is
of argument held where God is considered to be an almighty power but to have no particular
fondness for humanity (or anything else in creation) then there is no contradiction
with the existence of evil – it may also be possible to dispute Epicurus’ assertion
that such a God would be ‘wicked’ in that the fact of the matter may be that God
simply does not care about the existence of evil – therefore, he is not so much
1. Evil is the result of God’s creation. wicked as apathetic where evil is concerned.
2. The logical problem of evil cannot Equally, any believer that holds faith in a God who is loving towards his creation
be overcome. but has no other particular attributes, must be willing to concede that, despite a
3. Only classical theists have an issue willingness to want to remove evil, He is unable to do so. This is the position held
with the problem of evil. by Process theologians, considering God as the ‘fellow sufferer who understands’.
4. The logical problem of evil is less In such a case, whilst the fact that evil still exists is an emotional and physical
important than the emotional and problem, it is no longer a logical one!
physical problem of evil. However, for the classical theist, holding to God’s attributes of omnipotence and
5. Rejecting any one of God’s key omnibenevolence then there is no escaping the logical problem of evil as presented
attributes helps to solve the to us by Epicurus – such a God – able to do anything and wanting to prevent our
classical logical problem of evil. suffering would surely not want us, as His creation, to suffer – would He?
and evidence.
62

The degree to which modern problem of evil Specification content

arguments are effective in proving God’s non The degree to which modern problem
of evil arguments are effective in
existence proving God’s non-existence.
Ask almost any non-theist why they do not accept the existence of God as a
believable proposition and, almost invariably, they will respond with reference to
the amount of evil and suffering in the world. It seems entirely inconsistent that a
God who is all-loving and all-powerful and has created the universe, could have put
together His creation in such a way to allow the existence of evil and suffering –
often to quite appalling extremes – thus undermining any counter claim regarding
his supposed goodness and power.
Mackie’s inconsistent triad – which shows the incompatibility of God’s
omnipotence and omnibenevolence with the existence of evil – is an effective
‘argument’ for undermining the existence of God – or so it seems. However, it must
be noted that the inconsistency of the three statements is based on the assumption
that God does indeed possess the stated characteristics and this may not actually be
the case.
If God does indeed have both omnipotence and omnibenevolence then it seems
virtually impossible to concede that evil exists, from a logical point of view.
However, the overwhelming evidence of suffering within and among the entirety AO2 Activity Possible lines
of creation – not just humanity – seems to make such a conclusion entirely of argument
nonsensical. Accepting this position would seem to therefore lead one to the
inescapable alternative conclusion – i.e. that a God with the characteristics of Listed below are some conclusions
omnipotence and omnibenevolence cannot exist. that could be drawn from the AO2
However, if it is accepted, in line with Mackie’s reasoning, that God is able to
exist without one of those key attributes, then the modern problem of evil, much 1. Modern problem of evil arguments
like the classical problem, no longer seems to be relevant. In other words – a are more effective than classical
God who is all-powerful but willing to let evil exist because he either doesn’t arguments in proving God’s non-
care or consciously wants his creation to suffer – would still exist but would be existence.
significantly different from the God worshipped by the vast majority of theistic 2. Omnibenevolence is a less
religions of the world today. significant attribute than
Perhaps, however, it is a God who is omnibenevolent and actively wants to stop the omnipotence when considering
suffering experienced by creation but is unable to do so. The laws of the universe whether God is worthy of worship.
may bind this being, perhaps, and due to limitations to His power he is incapable 3. There are solutions to the modern
of stopping the existence of evil. He may well still exist but would such a being be problem of evil.
worthy of worship? 4. It is not God’s non-existence that
Evidential arguments, such as those proposed by William Rowe in which a modern problem of evil arguments
whole range of suffering is brought as evidence against the existence of God, prove, rather it is God’s traditional
also mount a serious challenge to God’s existence – how can an omnipotent and attributes that are challenged.
omnibenevolent God allow such horrors to occur and yet stand idly by whilst they 5. Modern problem of evil arguments
continue to do so? Equally, the statistical problem of evil as presented by Gregory are entirely ineffective in proving
Paul, also shows a God who seems not to care about the destruction of literally God’s non-existence.
billions of children since the time of the existence of the Abrahamic religions – Consider each of the conclusions
the only sensible conclusion that can be drawn from this is that God simply does drawn above and collect evidence and
not exist. examples to support each argument
Thus it would seem that modern problem of evil arguments – such as those from the AO1 and AO2 material
outlined by Mackie, Rowe and Paul – do pose a significant challenge to believers in studied in this section. Select one
the God of Classical Theism and effectively seem to suggest his non-existence. conclusion that you think is most
and evidence.
63


Analysis involves identifying issues It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It
raised by the materials in the AO1, is also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and
and clear views, either of scholars or Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The
from a personal perspective ready for terms may be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills
evaluation. demonstrate these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills is
This means that it picks out key things measured (see generic band descriptors Band 5 for AS AO2).
to debate and the lines of argument Obviously an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
presented by others or a personal point depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good,
of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been written
in response to a question requiring an evaluation of the challenge to God’s
detailed argument with a clear
existence from the problem of evil. It is obviously a below average answer and
conclusion. so would be about lower band 2. It will be useful, initially, to consider what
is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate. The accompanying list
gives you some possible observations to assist you. Be aware, as not all points
argument analysed through individual may be relevant! In analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, choose
commentary and response and arrives five points from the list that you would use to improve the answer in order to
at a conclusion through a clear process make it stronger. Then write out your additions, each one in a clear paragraph.
of reasoning. Remember, it is how you use the points that is the most important factor.
Apply the principles of evaluation by making sure that you: identify issues
clearly; present accurate views of others making sure that you comment on the
views presented; reach an overall personal judgement. You may add more of
your own suggestions, but try to negotiate as a group and prioritise the most
important things to add.
Answer Observations
The problem of evil is a big problem. It tells us that it not ■
An introduction that sets out what the problem of evil is
possible for God to exist if evil also exists. The Australian and why it can be considered as challenging belief in the
philosopher Mackie tells us that it is inconsistent to existence of God.
think of God being all-powerful (omnipotent) all-loving ■
Needs to clearly explain what is meant by each of the
(omnibenevolent) and for evil to exist at the same time. key attributes possessed by God and why these further
God is responsible for causing things like the Boxing Day support the idea that evil should not, logically, exist.
Tsunami of 2004 where lots of people lost their lives or ■
Refer to Mackie and Epicurus to support the argument.
their friends and family. If God loved us then this would not ■
Consider the types of evil and their relevance to the debate.
happen at all. God is also responsible for causing the terrible
hurricanes that cause so much damage to property in America
■
Explore reasons for believing that the presence of evil
during August each year – how can a loving God do such would mean that it was impossible for God to exist.
things? ■
Use your understanding of deductive reasoning to
Some people say it is not God’s fault because we have free will demonstrate why the problem of evil could be considered
that means that we can cause evil and God is not allowed to to be a devastating challenge to the belief of classical
stop us. This would mean that evil exists because we cause it, theists.
not God and therefore shows that the problem of evil does not ■
Needs a stronger counter-argument to defend the position
successfully prove that God does not exist. of the classical theist.
Overall, the problem of evil does challenge belief in the ■
Should ensure that any examples included should clearly
existence of God. link to the evaluation of the contention in the question.
■
Should avoid oversimplifications in expression and make
effective use of specialist language
■
A conclusion that is balanced, reflective of the argument
presented and that clearly links to the question is needed.
64

B: Religious responses to the problem of Augustinian type theodicy: Evil as a
evil: Augustinian type theodicy consequence of sin: evil as a privation;
the fall of human beings and
creation; the Cross overcomes evil,
Religious responses to the problem of evil: soul-deciding.
Augustinian type theodicy
Despite several modern presentations to the contrary, Augustine’s
‘theodicy’ is not a compact singular work but rather a strand that runs
throughout much of his literary output. It has been observed by some
of his commentators that Augustine was obsessed with the problem of
evil and wrestled with it throughout his life – even before his conversion
to Christianity. Therefore it must be remembered that any presentation
of his theodicy that is demonstrated in a book such as this is a necessary
simplification of Augustine’s thoughts. The actual specifics can only be
gained by reading through his vast writings – and taking on board the
influences that he had from Manichaeism, Neo-Platonism and other
competing thought systems that he found himself exposed to during his
eventful life.
Evil as a consequence of sin Adam and Eve being tempted in Eden

According to the Augustinian type theodicy, God’s creation was originally free from evil.
It did not exist before the sin of angels and humans. It first came into existence when
angels, followed by humans, misused their wills and turned from God, their creator.
It is a fact of the created universe that God has called all things into existence ex
nihilo and, through corruption and decay, they will all eventually lapse back into
nothingness. Humans and angels are both part of the created order and therefore
they are susceptible to change and therefore have the capability of turning away
from God. It is precisely this turning – which involves an act of free will (namely, of
choosing a lower rather than a higher good) – that brings about evil. However, the
cause of humans and angels willing to do this remains a mystery beyond human
understanding, according to Augustine.
As the gift of free will necessarily entails the concept of moral responsibility, it is
humans that are ultimately responsible for sin and, consequently, evil – not God.
This is because humans voluntarily choose sin.
Evil as a privation
It is important to realise, however, that evil is not in any way a ‘substance’ or part
of the created order. The significance of this is that evil is then not something God Key term
creates. If it is a substance then God must have created it since he creates all things. Privation: the absence or loss of
God, being an omnibenevolent creator, cannot have created evil as a substance. something that is normally present
Instead, evil indicates an absence or privation of part of God’s created order. For (i.e. a privation of health means that a
person is ill and not healthy)
example, when humans or angels ‘turn away’ from God it is this turning away that
is a privation of God’s original created order and purpose. The ‘turning away’ is
then ‘evil’.
God made every good thing but every good thing has the potential to be corrupted.
Having that potential is not evil. Evil only occurs when the potential is realised and
the good thing becomes corrupted. Everything that is created must be corruptible
since it is subject to change. The very fact that things do corrupt shows they are
in their nature, good. Evil is when they lose some of their goodness. Hence evil is
a privation. Augustine referred to darkness as a metaphor for evil but darkness in
the sense of the absence of light. Evil has no real being of its own. The reason that
humans tend to be offended at the order of existing things is their finiteness, which
does not allow seeing the whole picture as God does.
65

The fall of human beings and creation
Key quote
As all human beings are ultimately descended from Adam (in Augustine’s words
The Almighty God, who … has ‘seminally present’) then all human beings share Adam’s guilt and sin. As we all share
supreme power over all things, being his guilt and sin we all deserve to face the same punishment. We suffer through ‘moral
Himself supremely good, would never evil’ as that is humankind’s fault through actions performed on the basis of free will.
permit the existence of anything evil
The suffering that human beings face as part of the natural world (i.e. natural evil) is a
among His works, if He were not so direct result of the ‘absence of good’ caused in creation by the ‘turning away’ from God
omnipotent and good that He can bring and therefore bringing corruption into the created order.
good even out of evil. For what is that
As an ultimate response to the question, ‘Why did God choose to create this particular
which we call evil but the absence of
universe, even though he knew that human beings would abuse their freedom and
good? In the bodies of animals, disease
sin?’ Augustine replies, ‘God judged it to be better to bring good out of evil, than to not
and wounds mean nothing but the
permit any evil to exist.’
absence of health; for when a cure is
effected, that does not mean that the The Cross overcomes evil, soul-deciding
evils which were present—namely, the It is this point (‘to bring good out of evil’) that many Christians refer to as the ‘happy
diseases and wounds—go away from mistake’ (felix culpa). In this is the Christian belief that, were it not for the events of
the body and dwell elsewhere: they The fall of Adam and Eve (and therefore, all human beings), then God would never
altogether cease to exist; for the wound have needed to send Jesus into the world to save it from its sin.
or disease is not a substance, but a
Those who freely chose to accept Jesus as their saviour would be redeemed and,
defect in the fleshly substance,—the
after this life, be reunited with God in Heaven. This is why the theodicy is sometimes
flesh itself being a substance, and regarded as a ‘soul-deciding’ theodicy.
therefore something good, of which
An Augustinian type theodicy believes that this chance for humanity to seek
those evils—that is, privations of
redemption, through Christ, not only demonstrates that God is merciful but also that
the good which we call health—are
it underlines his justice.
accidents. Just in the same way,
what are called vices in the soul are
nothing but privations of natural good. AO1 Activity
(Augustine) Create an information poster that summarises the key points of an Augustinian
type theodicy.
Key term
Redemption: the act of saving
something or someone. In the
Christian context it refers to Jesus
saving humanity from evil and sin
Study tip
Show awareness in your answers on
this theodicy that Augustine’s ideas
were founded on a complex set of
intellectual ideas that were combined
with biblical teachings to produce
his theodicy. Do not instantly dismiss
his theodicy as ‘simplistic’ or ‘naïve’
because in doing so you are revealing
your own understanding of Augustine
to be flawed. He is regarded as being
one of the greatest Christian thinkers
that ever lived – so be cautious in your
criticism and show respect to his views!
(You don’t have to agree with them
but neither should you dismiss them as
worthless either!)
The felix culpa led to atonement through Jesus for Christians
66

Challenges to Augustinian type theodicies: Specification content

validity of accounts in Genesis, Challenges to Augustinian type
theodicies: validity of biblical
chapters 2 and 3 accounts; scientific error; moral
Augustine’s theodicy relies heavily on the accounts of the Creation and The Fall as contradictions of omnibenevolent
depicted in the biblical book of Genesis, chapters 1–3. For the literalist Christian God and existence of Hell; logical
believer this means that the accounts are plausible and rooted in the revelation of contradiction of perfect creation
divine scripture. Humankind’s place in the created order, and the suffering that being susceptible to change.
it faces, is clearly accounted for in the Genesis accounts. However, as soon as any
other view of scripture is taken, Augustine’s theodicy becomes problematic.
If the view of scripture is taken as non-literal and mythological, then any claim of
historicity relating to the accounts of creation and fall become suspect. It is from
this viewpoint that the most devastating attacks upon the theodicy arise. John Hick
in his Evil and the God of Love (1966) considers many of these problems.
Key person
Augustine of Hippo: born in North Africa, 354CE, Augustine had a pagan
father and Christian mother. He had a Christian education but rebelled in his
teenage years and rejected Christianity. He spent many years trying to fi nd
a thought system that made sense to him and followed several (at the time) 3.6 On what did St Augustine base his
influential teachings. He gained a love of Greek philosophy (at that time not theodicy?
popular with the teachings of Christianity) and eventually became heavily
involved in the dualist teachings of Manichaeism followed by Neo-Platonism.
He spent much of his time also indulging himself in the ‘pleasures of the flesh’
(much to the despair of his Christian mother) until coming under the influence 3.7 What is meant by a privation?
of Ambrose of Milan, a Christian bishop. He renounced his other beliefs and in
387CE was baptised. Eventually in 396CE he became Bishop of Hippo, in North
Africa. He produced a vast amount of writing, chiefly in defence of Christianity
against a number of heresies popular at the time although he also wrote very
influentially on Christian belief and doctrine. His best known works are ‘City of 3.8 Why is the Fall of humanity a ‘happy
God’; ‘Confessions’ and his ‘Enchiridion’. He died in 430CE. mistake?’
Scientific error – biological impossibility of human Key terms

descent from a single pair (therefore invalidating the Literalist: interpreting the text of the
‘inheritance’ of Adam’s sin) bible in a literal sense – that is, every
word should be taken at face value;
The idea that all human beings deserve to be punished because they are descended interpretation is not required
from Adam fails because it is a biological impossibility. With our advancements in
The Fall: the events of Genesis
scientific understanding of genetics and the human mind and body, the idea of one
chapter 3, where Adam and Eve face
person’s ‘sin’ being transferred to all of humanity is not possible. Neither is the idea God’s punishment for disobeying his
that all humanity originated with one pair of human beings in the first place. If the divine command not to eat of the fruit
Genesis account is not scientifically valid then Augustine’s theory is not consistent from the tree of knowledge of Good
or relevant to our experience of evil. and Evil
However, this is the genetic argument. What about evolution and Dawkins’ idea
that behavioural traits or ‘memes’ are ‘inherited’? This could be argued to be
compatible with the Hebrew concept of yetzer hara (tendency or inclination for
evil inherent in a human being); however, the problem then arises that this is not a
behavioural trait that is consistent, but is, according to the principles of evolution,
subject to change and so cannot justify the ‘inheritance’ theory from a single pair
of human beings. It appears that this single idea of inheritance is very problematic,
and, according to science, an error.
67

Contradiction of perfect order becoming chaotic –
Key terms
geological and biological evidence suggests the contrary
Evolutionary theory: scientific
theory, originally proposed in the 19th The perfect world becoming imperfect contradicts all geological scientific
century that posited that life developed records and biological evidence. Geology sees the nature of the world as chaotic
from simpler to more complex life and unpredictable, even today, for example with earthquakes. Geologists would
forms via a process of natural selection certainly deny a movement from initial perfection.
and genetic mutation
Evolutionary theory, according to biology, of the development of human beings
Free will: the theological and as a result of a process of natural selection, mutation and evolution from earlier life
philosophical concept that states that forms is well evidenced. This reduces the plausibility of the creation account as an
humans have the ability to choose
historical fact.
freely between good and evil
In addition, evolution does not always mean progress. It is a misapprehension
Geological: the science relating to
to assume an intrinsic directionality that makes species more ‘advanced’. This
how the earth was formed
would be the stance taken against this understanding. Science cannot use ‘value
judgements’ for evolution. For instance, if human beings, over time, ‘regress’, it is
not seen as such but as simply another step in the evolutionary process. The matter
of ‘regression’ is a point of view.
Moral contradictions of omnibenevolent God and

existence of Hell; logical contradiction of perfect creation
being susceptible to change
If a perfect world had been created then how is it possible that there was
knowledge of good and evil necessary for the free will of humanity? This implies
that evil already existed and therefore this can only be the responsibility of God.
Hell is part of the created order. This suggests that not only did God know that
angels would rebel and human beings would fall but had also prepared a place of
punishment for them. Why would an omnibenevolent (all-loving) God do this? The
existence of Hell is not consistent with an all-loving God.
Perfection is immutable – it cannot change. So how can a perfect creation ever be
less than perfect? Angels rebelled against God. This implies flaws in God’s creation
of the angels because why would rebellion occur in a perfect created order?
In addition, if human beings began by being perfect, then even though they are
free to sin they need not do so. If they do, then they were not flawless to start with
and so God must share the responsibility of their fall. It is hard to clear God from
responsibility for evil since he chose to create a being whom he foresaw would do
evil. (Note that Augustine argues that some angels were predestined to fall. If this
view is not accepted then how did angels fall, given that they were perfect?) Surely
in a perfect world they would have no reason to sin.
Finally, God is omniscient. Therefore he must have known in advance that angels
would rebel and humans would fall – therefore he has to bear responsibility for the
existence of evil as a result of the lack of good in creation.
The debate about the validity of Augustine’s theodicy continues in modern
3.9 Describe one logical problem with
religious philosophy, however. Modern supporters such as Plantinga and Miller
Augustine’s theodicy. suggest that much depends on how we interpret what Augustine meant by terms
such as privation and free will. Others, such as Hick, consider that it is simply a
product of its time and has no real relevance to the way in which we understand
the world today.
3.10 Why does evolutionary theory
undermine Augustine’s theodicy?
AO1 Activity
Draw up a table that shows the scientific, moral and logical contradictions in
Augustine’s theodicy.
68


Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been everything you know about the topic
written in response to a question requiring an examination of Augustinian area.
type theodicies. It is obviously a below average answer and so would be about
band 2. It will be useful, initially, to consider what is missing from the answer
and what is inaccurate. This time there is no accompanying list to assist you. In Explanation that is extensive,
analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, decide upon five points that you demonstrating depth and/or breadth
would use to improve the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out
your additions, each one in a clear paragraph, remembering the principles of thorough and accurate supporting use
explaining with evidence and/or examples. of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
Answer
Augustinian type theodicies are heavily based on the Bible and in particular the you understand something by being
story from the Book of Genesis which explains how Adam and Eve disobeyed God able to illustrate and expand your
by listening to the serpent and eating from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and points through examples/supporting
Evil which God had expressly told them they were not to eat from.
Using this story, known as ‘The Fall’ and combining it with the creation story in as rote learning).
Genesis chapter 1 where God created everything perfectly (‘and He saw that it
was Good’), Augustine sets out, through several of his works, the fact that human
beings fell short of what God intended for them. In doing so they disrupted the Go through the topic areas in this
perfect world, brought evil into it in the form of natural evil and also, because they section and create some bullet lists
disobeyed God, moral evil.
Augustine shows how God did not create evil because evil is not a thing it is the and explanation through the use of
lack of a thing – Augustine calls this a privation – and thus because it is not a thing evidence and examples.
God did not (could not) create it. Therefore showing that evil is not God’s fault. It is
human beings’ fault because in turning away from God they caused the absence of
Good – i.e. the privation of Good – so it is humans’ fault not God’s. Also because it
was Lucifer in the form of a serpent that tempted Eve, that means that it is also the
free will choice of an angel (fallen angel) that also disrupted God’s perfect world.
However, showing that God is good and he doesn’t want humans to suffer forever,
he sent his son Jesus so that people that believe in him can be forgiven their original
sin and end up in Heaven with God.
69


content and skills
Whether Augustinian type theodicies are
Whether Augustinian type theodicies relevant in the 21st century
are relevant in the 21st century. The Augustinian type theodicies find their origin in the works of Augustine –
the 4th/5th-century Christian Bishop of Hippo. Based largely on the account of
The Fall in the Book of Genesis and the Christian understanding of the Atonement
through the resurrection of Jesus, the theodicy demonstrates how evil was not part
of God’s plan for creation but rather was the unintended consequence of allowing
free-will agents to exercise their moral choice. The question can then be asked –
how historically accurate are these accounts? Did they actually occur? If not, then
why should we believe anything that is based on them? In a 21st-century world of
scientific enquiry and healthy scepticism, such ideas seem easy to dismiss and are
therefore barely relevant.
The ability to have free will meant that a genuine choice between good or evil
needed to be available – this meant that moral evil could theoretically thrive, if
these free-will agents deliberately chose to turn away from good. Equally, the
disobedience shown to God demanded a just punishment – which is where
natural evil came from – a disruption of the perfect world created by God due
to the evil choices of the free-will agents. Such a viewpoint also demands an
assumption to believe that a divine being existed who ‘programmed’ His creation
to act in a particular way. This idea seems difficult to comprehend in an age where
AO2 Activity Possible lines evolutionary theory holds sway, where a consideration of how human beings were
of argument formed and developed is concerned.
Listed below are some conclusions The Augustinian account also presumes an acceptance of the belief in the existence
that could be drawn from the AO2 of angels – indeed it is the fallen angel in the form of the serpent that is the
reasoning in the accompanying text: catalyst for the events of the Fall – yet this is a strange notion for the 21st century
1. Science undermines the relevance where there is no empirical evidence for such creatures and certainly not in a way
of Augustinian type theodicies. in which they are capable of taking the form of an animal and speaking directly
2. Augustinian type theodicies with human beings – the whole account seems too fanciful to be taken seriously
are only relevant for Christian by the 21st-century mind – further depreciating the relevance of Augustinian type
believers. theodicies in the 21st century.
3. Augustinian type theodicies are The view of evil as a privation depends on the acceptance of the concept of a
entirely irrelevant in the 21st perfect world where all things existed a state of goodness and perfection and that,
century. only by a disruption of this, were absences of this goodness found and therefore
‘evil’ existed. However, in the 21st century, how believable is this? Evil is a very real
4. If the Book of Genesis is not
presence in the world – as are its effects. As such, suggesting that evil is a ‘lack of a
reliable then neither are
thing’ seems to belong purely to the realm of metaphysical speculation rather than
Augustinian type theodicies.
cold harsh reality.
5. A belief in free will is essential for
The salvation of human beings by acceptance of the sacrifice of Jesus is a comfort
Augustinian type theodicies to be
to those of the Christian faith, where a reconciled existence with God after
considered relevant.
death, offers hope of a future where pain and suffering will be nothing more
Consider each of the conclusions than a distant memory. ‘However, for those outside of this faith tradition no such
drawn above and collect evidence and comfort is offered and, as less than half of the planet’s population are promised
examples to support each argument this salvation then what relevance does it have to the majority of people in the
from the AO1 and AO2 material 21st century?
In conclusion, despite the appeal that they may have to believers from the Christian
faith traditions, Augustinian type theodicies lack the scientific and historical
credibility to be truly relevant in the 21st century.
and evidence.
70

The extent to which Augustine’s theodicy Specification content

succeeds as a defence of the God of The extent to which Augustine’s
theodicy succeeds as a defence of the
Classical Theism God of Classical Theism.
The problem of evil is a long-standing challenge to believers in the God of Classical
Theism. Throughout history there have been attempts to support this belief and
to attack the problem of evil. One such example can be found in the theodicies
(attempts to justify God in the face of the existence of evil) associated with the
works of Augustine of Hippo.
Augustine’s starting point is that God is not responsible for the creation of evil.
Augustine refers to evil as a lack of goodness or a ’privation of good’. One way
of trying to understand what is meant here is by considering the example of
blindness. Blindness is the lack or privation of sight, and so this helps to explain
the concept of evil being a lack or privation of good. Creating a ‘lack of something’
contradicts God’s act of creation. If this point is taken as valid, then Augustine’s
theodicy is already a partially successful defence of the God of Classical Theism.
In further defence of the God of Classical Theism, Augustine points out that it is the
free will of humans and angels that caused suffering. It was the deliberate turning
away from divine commands, as explained in the Biblical account of the Fall, which
resulted in the consequential destruction of the perfect order. It was not God’s will
for this to happen but rather the deliberate action of free-will agents. It should be AO2 Activity Possible lines
recognised that evil is a direct result of the consequences of the Fall. of argument
The Genesis account demonstrates the need for evil and suffering to exist as a
consequence of the actions from free-will agents. It is necessary for a just God
to punish wrongdoing. The introduction of natural evil (caused by the actions of
fallen angels, who wreak havoc and human rebellion, which affected all of creation
and subsequently distorting it) is therefore a deserved punishment. Again, if this 1. Augustine’s theodicy is successful
view is accepted then Augustine’s theodicy provides a successful defence of the if the Book of Genesis is accepted
God of Classical Theism, at least in part. as fact.
However, not all of Augustine’s viewpoints are as easy to accept. The assertion 2. The contradictions within the
that all humans are ‘seminally present’ in Adam and therefore, according to the Augustinian theodicy are what
inheritance of guilt doctrines, all descendants of Adam (i.e. all human beings) are weaken it most.
deserving of punishment as they have inherited his sin, is a particularly difficult 3. It is impossible to defend the God
viewpoint to accept. This is because genetic and biological records show that it is of Classical Theism by using the
biologically impossible (as well as genetically undesirable) for all humans to have Augustinian theodicy.
descended from a single male. In this case Augustine’s theodicy is not a successful 4. The Augustinian theodicy
defence of the God of Classical Theism. represents a partially successful
Equally, the proposition that God demonstrates mercy through making provision defence of the God of Classical
for a way of redemption through Christ, leading to the Fall being referred to as the Theism.
‘felix culpa’ (happy mistake), is only of relevance to Christian believers. What about 5. Only Christians can make sense
theists from other faith traditions? This part of the Augustine’s theodicy simply of the defence offered by the
does not work. Augustinian theodicy.
The moral and logical issues with the various contradictions within the Augustinian Consider each of the conclusions
theodicy further undermine its validity as a defence of the God of Classical Theism drawn above and collect evidence and
in the face of the existence of evil. examples to support each argument
Therefore, in conclusion, following the points made above, Augustine’s theodicy from the AO1 and AO2 material
fails as a successful defence of the God of Classical Theism. studied in this section. Select one
and evidence.
71


to debate and the lines of argument Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your next task is this: below is a below average answer that has been written
in response to a question requiring an evaluation of Augustine’s theodicy as
a successful defence of the God of Classical Theism. It is obviously a below
conclusion. average answer and so would be about band 2. It will be useful, initially,
to consider what is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate. This
time there is no accompanying list to assist you. In analysing the answer’s
argument analysed through individual weaknesses, in a group, decide upon five points that you would use to improve
commentary and response and arrives the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out your additions, each
at a conclusion through a clear process one in a clear paragraph. Remember, it is how you use the points that is the
of reasoning. most important factor. Apply the principles of evaluation by making sure that
you: identify issues clearly; present accurate views of others, making sure that
you comment on the views presented; reach an overall personal judgement.
You may add more of your own suggestions, but try to negotiate as a group and
prioritise the most important things to add.
Answer
You could argue that Augustine was a very intelligent person and therefore was
able to use this to help him put together an argument to prove that God existed, no
matter what challenges were presented to him in terms of the problem of evil.
Augustine knew that human beings were sinful creatures and because of this,
we were far more likely to make bad moral choices rather than good ones. This is
because we had free will. It is not God’s fault that we made these choices – he gave
us freedom to choose and we chose the wrong thing. In this case it is clear that the
theodicy is successful.
However, Augustine’s arguments are limited because of the time at which he lived.
We know a lot more about science and how the world works than he did and we can
see that many of his ideas make no scientific sense.
In conclusion, Augustine’s theodicy is not a successful defence of the God of
Classical Theism.
72

C: Religious responses to the problem Religious responses to the problem
of evil: Irenaean type theodicy of evil: Irenaean type theodicy: Vale
of soul-making: human beings
created imperfect; epistemic distance;
Religious responses to the problem of evil: second-order goods; eschatological
Irenaean type theodicy justification.
Unlike Augustine, who held that the responsibility for the existence of evil was due
to the actions of free-will agents deliberately turning away from God, Irenaeus Key person
maintained that the presence of evil in the created order was a deliberate action Irenaeus of Lyons: second–third-
of an omnibenevolent God who wanted his creation to develop the qualities that century Early Christian Bishop who
would make them spiritually perfect. His ideas are a result of his interpretation is chiefly remembered for his writings
of Genesis 1:26. However, like Augustine, his theodicy was never presented as a against the heresy of Gnosticism – a
complete work but rather arose from his ideas about the place of humankind in the major threat to Christian orthodoxy in
the fi rst few centuries of the Church’s
universe and the relationship that they have with God.
history. He also influentially stated
that human beings had been made
Vale of soul-making: human beings imperfect and needed to grow towards
created imperfect; epistemic perfection, which he believed could
distance; second-order goods; only be done by making the proper
response to God through Christ.
eschatological justification
Irenaeus regards this life as a place where human
beings develop their potential and grow from the
‘image’ (possessing the potential qualities of God’s
spiritual perfection) to the ‘likeness’ (actualising
those qualities) of God, through the trials and
tribulations that they face and the decisions that
they make. For every moral decision faced where Key quotes
a good choice is freely made, then the individual
Then God said, ‘Let us make
develops more fully towards spiritual maturity. Irenaeus of Lyons humankind in our image, according
Certain moral qualities were intrinsic to human (130CE–202CE)
to our likeness.’ (Genesis 1:26)
beings but Irenaeus theodicy shows how second-
order goods such as courage, forgiveness and compassion can only develop as a
God made man a free [agent] from
response to the suffering of ourselves and others. This was the essence of moving
the beginning, possessing his own
from ‘image’ to ‘likeness’.
power, even as he does his own
Evil is a necessary facet of life that enables humans to develop. Without it, soul, to obey the behests of God
decisions in life would have no real value. For instance, a person would never really
voluntarily, and not by compulsion
appreciate being in good health unless they had experienced being ill. As previously
of God. For there is no coercion
stated, second-order goods or virtues such as courage, patience and perseverance
with God, but a good will [towards
could never be developed if there were not the challenges in life that tested such
us] is present with Him continually.
virtues. Suffering not only enables humans to become stronger, it also allows them
to appreciate goodness more. For Irenaeus, the ability for human beings to be able
(Irenaeus)
to freely choose to do good was therefore instrumental in achieving God’s purpose
And the harder we strive, so much
for his creation.
is it the more valuable; while so
Irenaeus makes use of an analogy of God as a craftsman working with human much the more valuable it is, so
beings as his material and suggests that humans should allow God to mould them
much the more should we esteem it.
into perfection by acting in faith towards God and allowing the experiences of life,
(Irenaeus)
both good and bad, to make us into a perfectly crafted item. He also makes the
point that those who resist God will be punished in the next life. Unlike Augustine,
Irenaean type theodicy allows for God’s mercy to continue into the next life where
individuals who have rejected God in this life will have the opportunity to earn his
forgiveness and develop into spiritual perfection in the next. This eschatological
justification for evil allowed God to remain both just and good in the face of the
temporary suffering experienced by creation. This is what the philosopher and
theologian John Hick was to argue.
73

John Hick developed Irenaeus’ theodicy in his book Evil and the God of Love (1966).
Hick describes Irenaeus’ theodicy as a ‘soul-making’ theodicy (a reference to John
Key terms
Keats idea that the world was a proving ground for human beings who earned their
Epistemic distance: a distance
salvation, not simply by belief in a saviour figure, but rather by working through
measured in terms of knowledge rather
than space or time the trials and tribulations of everyday existence). Hick also makes the point that in
order to be truly free, human beings had to be created at an ‘epistemic distance’
Soul-making: a process where the from God.
soul is developing towards spiritual
perfection by gaining the wisdom to In this, humans were placed in a situation where the existence and non-existence
always make the correct moral choices of God were equally likely. This therefore allowed true human freedom to exist in
when faced with the ambiguities of life terms of how they then responded to God. God could not create humans who were
as a human being spiritually perfect or who were immediately aware of his existence for the simple
reason that, in the first instance, goodness developed through free choice is more
valuable than goodness that is ‘ready-made’ and, in the second instance, this would
restrict choices made as humanity would be constantly aware of being ‘watched’
and would therefore make all decisions in the light of this knowledge. Hick also
accepted the idea that God’s mercy would allow for all human beings to complete
the process of developing spiritual perfection – if not in this life, then in the next.
Key quotes
He shall overcome the substance of created nature. For it was necessary,
at first, that nature should be exhibited; then, after that, what was mortal
should be conquered and swallowed up by immortality, and the corruptible by
incorruptibility, and that man should be made after the image and likeness of
God, having received the knowledge of good and evil. (Irenaeus)
Key person The common cognomen of this world among the misguided and superstitious
John Hick: 1922–2012. Hick was is ‘a vale of tears’ from which we are to be redeemed by a certain arbitrary
one of the most influential religious interposition of God and taken to Heaven – What a little circumscribed
philosophers of the 20th and early straightened notion! Call the world if you please ‘The vale of Soul-making’.
21st centuries. His most famous (Keats)
works include Faith and Knowledge
(1957); Evil and the God of Love
(1966); Death and the Eternal Life
(1976); Philosophy of Religion (various AO1 Activity
editions – most recently 4th edition,
published 1990) and The New Frontier Create two mind maps – one for Irenaeus and one for John Hick. Detail their
of Religion and Science: Religious ideas on each mind map so that you are clear who said what with regards to
Experience, Neuroscience and the the theodicy. This will mean that you will be able to demonstrate ‘thorough,
Transcendent (2006). He died in relevant and accurate knowledge’ with regards to key philosophers (AO1 Level
February 2012. 5 response) in your answers to questions regarding Irenaean type theodicies.
Specification content Challenges to Irenaean type theodicies

Challenges to Irenaean type The modern re-workings of this theodicy, with its sympathies towards scientific
theodicies: concept of universal appreciations of the development of life on earth, have given it a lease of life and
salvation unjust; evil and suffering plausibility that the Augustinian theodicy has not been able to enjoy to the same
should not be used as a tool by an extent. Developing into spiritual maturity has a resonance with faiths outside
omnibenevolent God; immensity of of the Christian framework – and possibly echoes Hick’s own views on religious
suffering and unequal distribution of pluralism. However, despite many of its attractions, the Irenaean theodicy has also
evil and suffering. attracted fierce criticism.
The concept of universal salvation is unjust

3.11 Which biblical verse is the foundation If all humans will eventually achieve perfection, no matter what they have done in
of the Irenaean type theodicy? the past, how does this encourage good moral behaviour in the here and now? If
the end result is guaranteed by God, what is the point of the pilgrimage? Indeed, if
there is universal salvation then do we have free will to refuse to mature?
74

The concept of universal salvation seems to undermine the efforts of human
beings to develop their own spiritual maturity. If God will eventually realise
everyone to this state, does that suggest free will is limited? I.e. do human beings 3.12 What is the role of evil in the Irenaean
have the free will to refuse this development to spiritual perfection? type theodicy?
Evil and suffering should not be used as a tool by an

omnibenevolent God
Suffering should never be an instrument of a loving God. Hurting someone is more
akin to abuse than it is to love.
In addition, a number of criticisms involve suggestions of better ways to achieve
this process. For example, why did the natural environment have to be created
through a long, slow, pain-filled evolutionary process? Why could an omnipotent
God not do it in ‘the twinkling of an eye’? Equally, if we go on to another life to
reach maturity, then why did God not simply make our earthly spans much longer,
so that we could reach the Celestial City on earth, or at least get closer? Indeed, is
there any evidence for other lives?
Could not the greater goods be gained without such evil and suffering? As a
Christian theodicy, it seems to make the role of Jesus as saviour and atoning
Many Jews suffered at the hands of the Nazis
(making amends) for all sins, superfluous and unnecessary.
Immensity of suffering and unequal distribution of evil

Key quote
and suffering
Who has inflicted this upon us?
The immense suffering endured by some does not make up for any possible reward
of spiritual perfection. Suffering is not evenly spread – this implies inconsistency
…. Who has allowed us to suffer so
with God’s mechanism of perfection. terribly up till now? It is God that
has made us as we are, but it will
Does the end justify the means? The suffering experienced, for example, in
be God, too, who will raise us up
Auschwitz during the Holocaust or random acts of terror killing innocents, cannot
again. If we bear all this suffering
justify the ultimate joy. Indeed, in the Holocaust, people were ruined and destroyed
and if there are still Jews left, when
more than made or perfected. It is hard to see how this fits God’s design and
human progress.
it is over, then Jews, instead of
being doomed, will be held up as an
It would appear, then, that the intensity of the suffering felt by many makes this a
example. (Anne Frank)
‘soul-breaking’ rather than a ‘soul-making’ theodicy.
Study tip
Remember that criticisms of any argument can weaken or strengthen depending
on the viewpoint that a person holds. For example, one of the criticisms of 3.13 Give one criticism of the Irenaean
soul-making is only a strong criticism if a person holds to a Christian view of the theodicy.
atonement. If they don’t then it holds no value as a criticism.
AO1 Activity
Produce an information poster that details the key challenges to Irenaean type
theodicies – linking in the key part of the theodicy that they challenge – this
will help strengthen both your AO1 understanding and your AO2 evaluation
skills.
75


Band 5 for AS AO1).
everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a list of several key points bulleted in
area. response to a question that has been written requiring an examination of
Irenaean-type theodicies. It is obviously a very full list. It will be useful, initially,
to consider what you think are the most important points to use in planning an
Explanation that is extensive, answer. This exercise, in essence, is like writing your own set of possible answers
that are listed in a typical mark scheme as indicative content. In a group, select
the most important points you feel should be included in a list of indicative
thorough and accurate supporting use content for this question. You will need to decide upon two things: which points
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and to select; and then, in which order to put them in an answer.
List of indicative content:
■
Evil is a deliberate part of God’s plan.
able to illustrate and expand your ■
Augustinian type theodicies are very different from Irenaean type theodicies.
points through examples/supporting ■
Irenaeus was an Early Christian bishop who lived in Lyons, Gaul.
evidence in a personal way and NOT ■
Humans are created Imago Dei.
as rote learning).
■
All humans will eventually be united with God in spiritual perfection in Heaven – this
provides an eschatological justification for the suffering faced in life.
Further application of skills: ■
God is able to mould people into perfection if they act in faith towards him.
Go through the topic areas in this ■
Evil is a necessary part of human existence.
section and create some bullet lists ■
‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness’ (Genesis 1:26).
of key points from key areas. For ■
Human beings were created at an epistemic distance from God (distance in
and explanation through the use of knowledge) as that allows for free will to exist.
evidence and examples. ■
Second-order goods such as courage and compassion can only develop when
humans beings are faced with the problems caused by evil and suffering.
■
Genuine choice means good and evil need to be genuine possibilities and have
genuine consequences.
■
When humans freely choose to do good rather than evil, they fulfil God’s purpose for
his creation.
■
‘Image’ means having the potential to be like God whereas ‘likeness’ means
demonstrating God-like qualities.
■
The process of developing into spiritual perfection may take longer than just one
mortal lifespan.
■
Those who resist God by choosing evil will be punished in the next life.
■
God is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent.
■
It is impossible to appreciate being healthy unless you have been ill, this shows why
suffering is needed to help us understand how to choose to do good.
76


content and skills
Whether Irenaean type theodicies are credible Specification content
in the 21st century Whether Irenaean type theodicies are
Irenaean type theodicies find their origins in the mid-3rd century CE. Irenaeus of credible in the 21st century.
Lyons, in reflecting on the relationship that human beings had with God and the
place that they occupied in the created order, realised that humans were unique.
As such, humans were the only created being that had been made Imago Dei
(in the image of God) and as such possess the potential to develop the sort of
characteristics of God himself and become ‘like God’. This idea was based on the
verse in Genesis 1:26 ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness’. As far as
the 21st century is concerned, this idea fits in with the scientific understanding
that life on earth develops qualities that help it survive more effectively within
the natural environment (as per Natural Selection and the Theory of Evolution).
In this sense, the Irenaean type theodicies appear to have some credibility in the
21st century.
However, others may state that basing a theodicy on a document that is nearly
3000 years old makes any claim for credibility suspect at least. The idea that the
existence of evil and suffering can be explained away as some kind of ‘spiritual
of argument
workout’ may even sound obscene to some – particularly those whose suffering is
so acute that seeing any positives come from it is virtually impossible. Listed below are some conclusions
In fact the very immensity of suffering that has occurred throughout human that could be drawn from the AO2
history from genocides, such as those faced by the Bosnian Serbs, the victims of reasoning in the accompanying text:
Stalin, the peoples of Rwanda and European Jewry (and those are just events from 1. Irenaean type theodicies are not
the past 80 years of recorded human history), completely undermine the idea that credible because they do not take
suffering is there to help individuals become spiritually mature – such an idea the issue of evil seriously enough.
becomes abhorrent if that is the price that needs to be paid – what sort of God 2. It is the unfairness of the
would exact such a terrible cost from His creation? theodicies that causes the lack of
Where the theodicies may have credibility in the 21st century is in the promise credibility in the 21st century.
of hope given to all. The suggestion that this process of developing from image 3. If the Bible is accepted as a reliable
to likeness will one day be realised by all human beings, no matter how long it source then the Irenaean theodicy
takes for each individual gives something for everyone to aspire to in the sense makes perfect sense.
that suffering and pain will be removed for ever and all will be able to partake in
4. Developing spiritual perfection is
spiritual perfection in an eternity with God. Such is the hope for those that follow
a credible idea because it relates
Liberation Theology – in that, one day suffering will be overcome and God will
closely to the theory of evolution.
restore us to him in the original relationship envisioned in Eden.
5. The Irenaean type theodicies lack
Objections to this view are many though. Critics would claim that the idea of a
credibility in the 21st century
universal salvation appears abhorrent. Does this mean that some of the most
because they are not equipped to
wicked, evil and cruel humans ever to have lived will be given precisely the same
deal adequately with the intensity,
eventual reward as those humans who dedicated their lives to good works, selfless
immensity and utter unfairness
acts and the improvement of others? Do we really mean that Gandhi and Stalin
caused by evil and suffering.
will be treated the same? How does this demonstrate God’s justice? Why should
anyone even bother to try in this life now, if eventually we will all end up in Consider each of the conclusions
Heaven? The idea seems preposterous and seriously undermines any credibility this drawn above and collect evidence and
theodicy may have in the 21st century. examples to support each argument
In conclusion, despite the initial attractiveness of human development and a
universal hope of eternal reward, the contradictions contained with Irenaean type
theodicies are too severe for this theodicy to be able to maintain any credibility in
the 21st century.
and evidence.
77

Specification content The extent to which Irenaeus’ theodicy

The extent to which Irenaeus’ succeeds as a defence of the God of Classical
theodicy succeeds as a defence of the Theism
God of Classical Theism. The problem of evil is a long-standing challenge to believers in the God of Classical
Theism. Throughout history there have been attempts to support this belief and
to attack the problem of evil. One such example can be found in the theodicies
(attempts to justify God in the face of the existence of evil) associated with the
works of Irenaeus of Lyons.
Irenaeus bases his main ideas on Genesis 1:26 that states: ‘Let us make man in
our image, after our likeness’. The basic thread that runs throughout Irenaeus’
works (the theodicy was never written as a composite – it is a theme that runs
throughout many of his writings) is that human beings were made in God’s image
– in other words had the potential to be like God, but only through undergoing the
trials of suffering that life presents and responding to these appropriately (freely
choosing to do good rather than evil) would we develop into God’s likeness – i.e.
would fully actualise God’s qualities within ourselves. In this Irenaeus faces the
problem of evil head on and admits that evil exists. Not only does it exist, but it
was also part of God’s plan for humanity. God, in Irenaeus’ view, has deliberately
created evil so that we could develop our spiritual qualities and become better
people. In this sense, the Irenaean theodicy is a successful defence of the God of
Classical Theism because he admits the ‘third corner’ of the inconsistent triad but
overcomes this by stating that there is a very clear reason for the existence of evil –
to help human beings achieve spiritual and moral perfection.
of argument
Irenaeus speaks of God being like a craftsman, and evil is one of his tools that
Listed below are some conclusions allows him to mould humans into perfection when they act in faith towards him
that could be drawn from the AO2 (i.e. they freely choose to do good in the face of evil and suffering). The theodicy is
reasoning in the accompanying text: also successful if we consider John Hick’s development of Irenaeus’ theodicy when
1. Irenaean type theodicies weaken he makes the point that God’s mercy extends beyond this life and that, by virtue of
the concept of God’s omnipotence. his divine mercy, all human beings will eventually develop into spiritually perfect
2. Irenaean type theodicies are beings and be united with him in Heaven. This would, at first glance, seem another
incompatible with a loving God. successful defence of the God of Classical Theism in the face of the existence of
evil – in that the promise is that, one day, it will not only be overcome, but that all
3. Irenaean type theodicies suggest
individuals will one day achieve the end that God has set out for them and all of
that God is arbitrary in distributing
creation will be one in harmony together.
evil and suffering, incompatible
with the God of Classical Theism. Unfortunately for supporters of the Irenaean theodicy there are too many issues
that are unresolved. The extent of suffering is not evenly spread. Not all humans
4. Irenaean type theodicies do not
experience the same amount of suffering in their lives and some manage to
explain why an all-knowing God
become moral and spiritually good people even without undergoing trials of
would allow such a complex plan.
suffering and evil. In fact, some of those that undergo suffering have so much
5. Irenaean type theodicies are to deal with that they do not develop but actually regress – some into cycles of
successful because they are the violence and cruelty themselves, some in taking their own lives because they
only way of explaining free will. cannot stand to suffer another moment. Neither of these is taken account of in the
Consider each of the conclusions theodicy and both pose a serious challenge to its effectiveness as a defence of the
drawn above and collect evidence and God of Classical Theism. Furthermore, the concept of universal salvation seems to
examples to support each argument entirely undermine any reason for choosing to do the right thing in the here and
from the AO1 and AO2 material now – what’s the point if all humanity will eventually up with God anyway?
studied in this section. Select one Therefore, in conclusion, following the points made above, the Irenaean theodicy
conclusion that you think is most fails as a successful defence of the God of Classical Theism.
and evidence.
78


of view.
Your new task is this: below is a list of several key points bulleted in response various implications of the issues raised
to a question that has been written requiring an evaluation of the Irenaean
theodicy as a successful defence of the God of Classical Theism. It is obviously detailed argument with a clear
a very full list. It will be useful, initially, to consider what you think are the conclusion.
most important points to use in planning an answer. This exercise, in essence,
is like writing your own set of possible answers that are listed in a typical mark
scheme as indicative content. In a group, select the most important points you argument analysed through individual
feel should be included in a list of indicative content for this question. You will commentary and response and arrives
need to decide upon two things: which points to select; and then, in which at a conclusion through a clear process
order to put them in an answer. of reasoning.

■
Acceptance of the Irenaean type theodicy could call into question the
omnibenevolence of God if the purpose of life is to grow through suffering.
■
Surely such a God would find a more compassionate mechanism to allow Creation to
grow and develop towards God?
■
This theodicy is incompatible with the biblical accounts of Creation, the Fall and
Atonement.
■
There is no room for the redemptive power of salvation through Christ.
■
Idea of suffering leading to moral/spiritual development is not a universal experience.
■
It is possible for some individuals to develop and others not to.
■
Some suffering causes death rather than development.
■
Others develop moral virtues and spiritual maturity without excessive suffering.
■
The theodicy fails to account for the excessive extent of evil/suffering that some
experience.
■
It also fails to explain the uneven distribution of suffering.
■
The concept of universal salvation is morally inconsistent – if all eventually go to
Heaven, there is no incentive to do good rather than evil.
■
However, some observers may consider that the Irenaean type theodicy provides a
purpose for suffering.
■
Unlike Augustine, Irenaeus’s concept of development is compatible with a scientific
view of evolution.
■
The theodicy also involves genuine human responsibility, which is therefore
respecting of the doctrine of genuine human free will.
■
The theodicy promotes human growth/development in achieving moral virtue as a
key aim in life and encourages positive behaviour of individuals within society.
■
The theodicy also maintains a belief in and purpose for life after death.
79

T4 Religious experience
(part 1)
content and skills A: The nature of religious experience
The nature of religious experience The nature of religious experience with
with particular reference to Visions – particular reference to Visions – sensory;
sensory; intellectual; dreams.
intellectual; dreams
A vision can be defined as something seen other than by ordinary sight, i.e. a
supernatural or prophetic sight experienced whilst awake or during sleep, and
Key terms
especially one that conveys a revelation or message of some form.
Corporeal: of a material nature,
physical There are different types of vision. Like other types of religious experiences, they
have been classified and grouped differently by different scholars. In the main, in
Dreams: in terms of visions, the
terms of their nature, they have either sensory or dream based qualities and can
unconscious state where knowledge
or understanding is gained through a often contain an intellectual aspect.
series of images or a dream-narrative, A vision has a sensory characteristic if it is to do with sense experience. In other
that would not normally be available to words it is where external objects, sounds or figures appear before the recipient.
the individual in the conscious state A vision can also have an intellectual quality if the vision brings the recipient(s) a
Intellectual: in terms of visions, message of inspiration, insight or instruction. It can also contain warnings! Some
that which brings the recipient(s) dreams can involve visions wherein the unconscious state experiences a series
knowledge and understanding of images or a dream-narrative, which would not normally be available to the
Sensory: a vision where external individual in the conscious state.
objects/sounds or figures convey Obviously, these classifications are fluid and a particular vision may have more than
knowledge and understanding to the one quality, for example sensory visions often can convey some kind of knowledge
recipient
and understanding to the person or people who experience the vision.
Visions: the ability to ‘see’ something Sensory visions can be summarised in three ways. Group visions are seen by more
beyond normal experiences – e.g.
than one person, for example Angels of Mons, where during the First World War
the vision of an angel; such visions
usually convey information or insight a vision of St George and a phantom bowman halted the Kaiser’s troops. Others
concerning a specific religious claimed that angels had thrown a protective curtain around the British troops
tradition saving them from disaster. Sensory visions can also be individual, seen by only one
person, for example Bernadette of Lourdes who claimed to have been instructed by
an apparition of the Virgin Mary to dig a hole and a healing spring would appear.
The place was Lourdes. A slight variation is that a sensory vision can be corporeal
in nature and have an object that is external and appears to be physical in nature,
but only visible to certain people, for example the appearances of angels.
Individual visions, however, are often imaginative or dream based, internal visions
wherein the image is produced in the person’s imagination and has no existence
external to that person, for example John’s visions of strange creatures in the Book
of Revelation. This also brought a message to understand. Therefore, as above, as
well as having a specific quality of being dream based, it can also be intellectual.
Another example of a dream-based religious experience would be when the wise
men were warned in a dream not to return to Herod (Matthew 2:12).
The actual content of visions can be very varied. For example, there could be an
image or event in which there is a message, for example Peter’s vision of the large
sheet descending (Acts 10:9-16). The sheet contained all kinds of animals and
reptiles and birds. A voice told Peter to kill and eat. When he refused, the voice told
him that he should not call anything impure that God has made clean. Peter then
realised that he could eat with a Gentile.
80

Philosophy T4
Religious experience (part 1)
Key quote
When I saw the vision of his bleeding head, our Lord also showed my soul the
unpretentious manner of his loving. I saw that for us he is everything that is
good, comforting, and helpful. He is our clothing who wraps us up and holds
us close for love … and with this insight he also showed me a little thing, the
size of a hazelnut, lying in the palm of my hand. It seemed to me as round as
a ball. I gazed at it and thought, ‘What can this be?’ The answer came thus, ‘It
is everything that is made.’ I marveled how this could be, for it was so small
it seemed it might fall suddenly into nothingness. Then I heard the answer, ‘It
lasts, and ever shall last, because God loves it. All things have their being in
this way by the grace of God.’ (Julian of Norwich)
Angelic visions
A vision could also contain religious figures, for example St Teresa of Avila’s most
famous was of an angel holding a long spear and at the end of the spear was
Key quote
something like a fire. This seemed to pierce her heart several times and when it was
withdrawn it left her ‘completely afire with a great love for God’. In the year that King Uzziah died,
The vision experience could also be of a place of significance, for example Guru
I saw the Lord sitting on a throne,
Nanak’s vision of God’s court in which he was escorted into God’s presence and high and lofty; and the hem of his
commanded to drink a cup of nectar. robe filled the temple. Seraphs
were in attendance above him;
Visions can also contain fantastic creatures or figures, for example Ezekiel’s vision
each had six wings: with two they
of four living creatures (Ezekiel 1:6-14). Each had a face of a man, and on the right
covered their faces, and with two
side had the face of a lion, and on the left the face of an ox; each also had the face
of an eagle.
they covered their feet, and with
two they flew. And one called to
As we have seen, a vision could deliver a specific message, for example the
another and said: ‘Holy, holy, holy
final judgement and images of the end of the world in the Book of Revelation
is the Lord of hosts; the whole earth
(Revelation 20:12–15). This describes the dead being judged according to what
is full of his glory.’ The pivots on
they had done. Anyone’s name that was not found in the book of life was thrown
the thresholds shook at the voices
into the lake of fire.
of those who called, and the house
filled with smoke. And I said: ‘Woe
Key quote is me! I am lost, for I am a man of
… it penetrated into my entrails. When he drew out the spear he seemed to be unclean lips, and I live among a
drawing them out with it, leaving me all on fire with a wondrous love for God. people of unclean lips; yet my eyes
(Teresa of Avila) have seen the King, the Lord of
hosts!’ Then one of the seraphs flew
Study tip to me, holding a live coal that had
been taken from the altar with a
Do not narrate but use the examples to identify and discuss the features of
pair of tongs. The seraph touched
type and form of vision. Be aware that visions can be part of a conversion,
my mouth with it and said: ‘Now
or a mystical experience, but that visions are also a separate type of religious
that this has touched your lips, your
experience.
guilt has departed and your sin is
blotted out.’ Then I heard the voice
of the Lord saying, ‘Whom shall
I send, and who will go for us?’
And I said, ‘Here am I; send me!’
(Isaiah 6:1–8)
81

Specification content The nature of religious experience with

The nature of religious experience particular reference to Conversion –individual/
with particular reference to
Conversion –individual/communal; communal; sudden/gradual
sudden/gradual. The word ‘conversion’ means ‘to change direction’ or ‘to turn around’. It is a
process of change that alters one’s view of the world and one’s personal place in it.
Conversions are usually a personal experience but not always. There are many
examples of communal conversions. The classic example of communal or collective
Key term
conversion is in Acts of the Apostles chapter 2. The disciples were gathered in a
Conversion: in the religious context
room and received the Holy Spirit:
the change of state from one form of
life to another ‘When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. Suddenly
a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from Heaven and filled the
whole house where they were sitting. They saw what seemed to be tongues of
fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. All of them were filled with
4.1 State three ways in which a vision the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.’
can be experienced. (Acts 2: 1–4)
Although this in itself is a dramatic collective religious experience, it is what
happened next that is relevant here. Peter then took courage and addressed the
Key quote crowds, preaching to them and encouraging them to repent. The crowd responded
We only have to glance at religious and many were converted:
history to see the enormous vitality ‘When the people heard this, they were cut to the heart and said to Peter and
and significance of experience in the other apostles, “Brothers, what shall we do?” Peter replied, “Repent and be
the formation and development of baptised, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your
religious traditions. Consider the sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your
visions of the Prophet Muhammad, children and for all who are far off – for all whom the Lord our God will call.” With
the conversion of Paul, the many other words he warned them; and he pleaded with them, “Save yourselves
enlightenment of the Buddha. These from this corrupt generation.” Those who accepted his message were baptised, and
were seminal events in human about three thousand were added to their number that day.’ (Acts 2:37–41)
history. And it is obvious that the
emotions and experiences of men Characteristic features of a conversion
and women are the food on which The psychologist and philosopher William James understood conversion only in
the other dimensions of religion psychological terms; however, he discussed a number of key features of conversion
feed: ritual without feeling is cold, that have remained important to scholars today.
doctrines without awe or compassion A conversion can be either gradual or sudden. However, even sudden conversions
are dry, and myths which do not may have had prior sub-conscious development. Billy Graham agreed that
move hearers are feeble. (Smart) conversion did not have to be an instant dateable experience.
A conversion is often volitional or self-surrendering, meaning that the conversion
might involve the giving up of the personal will, either freely (volitional) or with
resistance and an internal battle (self-surrendering).
A conversion can be passive or active, which means either the experience comes
upon them somewhat unexpectedly without them deliberately seeking it, or
someone might specifically seek a spiritual experience by going to an evangelistic
meeting.
Conversions are often transforming in that the conversion might involve a
thorough-going transformation creating a ‘new person’ or as Paul writes ‘a new
creation’ (2 Corinthians 5:17).
82

Philosophy T4
Different descriptions of, and explanations for, conversions

Key quote
There are various ways in which a conversion experience can be explained, some of
which may overlap. And when I received the book,
a guidance that would explain
A conversion that involves the unifying of the inner self. This is how the American
everything to me – who I was;
psychologist and philosopher, William James (The Varieties of Religious Experience,
what was the purpose of life; what
1902), understood conversion. He saw it in psychological terms rather than a
miraculous occurrence. The divided self was an awareness of incompleteness.
was the reality and what would
be the reality; and where I came
Sometimes a conversion can be a matter of intellectual persuasion; this involves
from – I realised that this was
conflict between two systems of thought where the new one is seen as ‘true’. It can
the true religion. (Yusuf Islam,
also be one of moral transformation; this is where someone changes how they live
formerly Cat Stevens)
their life as a result of where it is the change in lifestyle that is the key factor.
A conversion can be from no religion to a faith. For example, Augustine, who
became Bishop of Hippo in 395CE, a key thinker in the development of the Key quote
Christian Church writes of his conversion, ‘As I came to the end of the sentence, it
In the evening I went very
was as though the light of confidence flooded into my heart and all the darkness
unwillingly to a society in
of doubt was dispelled’. It can also be from one faith to another faith. For example,
Aldersgate Street, where one was
Sundar Singh, who was raised a devout Sikh, was dissatisfied with Sikhism and he
sought ultimate meaning in Hinduism and Christianity. Disenchanted with both
reading Luther’s Preface to the
he made to kill himself unless God revealed Epistle to the Romans. About a
himself. Then he had a vision of Jesus and quarter before nine, while he was
became an active Christian for the rest of describing the change which God
his life. works in the heart through faith
in Christ, I felt my heart strangely
A conversion can even be from faith
(believing) to faith (trusting), or as some
warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ,
may put it, ‘from mind to heart’. For Christ alone for salvation, and an
example, John Wesley was aware that he assurance was given me that he had
did not have a faith in Christ as a personal taken away my sins, even mine, and
saviour but he saw that others had. Then, saved me from the law of sin and
in 1738 he records how he felt his heart death. (Wesley)
Saul of Tarsus – Road to Damascus
strangely warmed. ‘I did trust Christ, Christ conversion experience
alone, for salvation; and an assurance was
given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine …’.
Sometimes conversions are categorised under the headings ‘intellectual’ and
‘moral’. An example of an intellectual conversion would be C.S. Lewis, the author of
the Narnia Chronicles and professor at Oxford. He recounts how in 1931 he walked
and talked for hours with the author J.R.R. Tolkein about myth and Christianity
and became convinced that Jesus was the Son of God. Augustine is an example of a
moral conversion, in that his wayward life was challenged when he read the words
from Romans which exhorts the reader to abandon the works of the flesh and to
be clothed with Christ.
Study tip
Clearly, not all the features that appear in the various lists occur in every
example of a religious experience. Therefore, a number of examples may be
required if the features are to be illustrated and discussed.
AO1 Activity
Write a series of revision cards that detail specific examples of religious visions
or religious conversion accounts. This will provide useful reference materials 4.2 What can be considered to be the
in preparation for examination questions focussing on this area of the defining characteristic of a religious
specification. conversion?
83


The nature of religious experience with particular reference to Mysticism –
particular reference to Mysticism –
transcendent; ecstatic and unitive. transcendent; ecstatic and unitive
A departure from a logical, rational view of religion is the experience cited by
religious believers of mysticism. The term has become somewhat loosely translated
in recent times to refer to a range of experiences, often erroneously attributed to
a vague kind of ‘new-age’ approach to religious practices and experiences. Whilst
there may well be veins of mystical experiences to be found within such areas,
the history of such things is older by far. Mystical experiences are described in
the most ancient religious traditions that we know of. From ancient texts such as
the Bhagavad Gita in Hinduism to accounts of medieval mystics such as Julian of
Norwich and Meister Eckhart, mysticism has a rich and diverse history.
Key terms What then is the nature of mystical experience? To this question there are
Ecstatic: an overwhelming feeling of numerous responses but certain themes run throughout all of them. Ed Miller
bliss or peace regards it as ‘the pursuit of a transcendent, unitive experience with the absolute reality’
Ineffable: that being of which a
(Questions that Matter, Miller, 1995) and offers the following helpful summary:
person cannot speak as no words can 1. Transcendent: not localisable in space or time
describe the experience 2. Ineffable: not expressible in language
Mysticism: a religious experience 3. Noetic: conveying illumination, truth
where union with God or the absolute
reality is sought or experienced 4. Ecstatic: filling the soul with bliss, peace
5. Unitive: uniting the soul with reality.
Noetic: knowledge gained through
mystical experience that would Miller is not alone in making use of these particular terms to define mystical
otherwise not be available to the experiences. Commentators such as William James (who makes use of several of the
recipient through ordinary means above categories) and Walter Stace define mystical experiences in different ways but
Transcendent: that which lies admit to a series of common features that all such experiences are said to have.
beyond the everyday realm of the Religious mystics also often speak of a mystical ascent. In some ways similar
physical senses to the Platonic view of reality, where there is, effectively, a ladder or staircase.
Unitive: the feeling of complete These steps begin in the earthly, mundane world but, with regular practice and
oneness with the divine divine assistance, the individual can transcend their own reality and make an
ascent of this ladder, to gain unity with the ultimate reality. It is often described
metaphorically as a journey from darkness to light.
Transcendent mysticism is associated with the mystical experiences that take the
practitioner ‘beyond’ the realm of the normal everyday experience. Transcendental
realities are often described in language that refers to ‘other worldly’ or ‘different
dimensions’, both of which are vague descriptions of a feeling of moving
beyond this physical realm to the realm of the ‘other’, the realm of the spirit.
Such experiences encompass other types of mystical experience such as ecstasy
and unitive experience as the believer feel that they have become one with the
transcendent reality whilst effectively disengaging for a while, from the temporal
and physical world of the empirical senses. Most religious traditions have aspects
of transcendental mysticism within them. One of most notable of these is Sufism,
the mystical group within Islam focused on divine union with Allah through
meditation, dance, and other mystic practices, and the tradition that Rumi, a
13th-century Persian poet and arguably the most famous mystic from the Islamic
tradition, was associated with.
Rumi believed that all individuals have a yearning within them that is due to the
feeling of separation that all beings instinctively feel. He recognised that whilst
Allah was both high in the heavens and closer to man than his own jugular vein,
humankind was still separated from Allah and only by spiritual purification
through love could union with God (tawhid) be truly achieved. Rumi believed that
Ladder to Heaven
the human spirit was designed for the singular underlying purpose to draw into a
deeper relationship with God. He developed the practice known as Sema, a sacred
dance, where Sufis constantly turn on the left foot; (the turning, according to
84

Philosophy T4
Rumi, is a metaphor for ‘a blessed state of every fibre of an individual’s being turning
on the axis of the merciful and compassionate creator and sustainer of all things.’) this
turning is meant to generate a spiritual ascent to Allah. This message of yearning Key quote
to be united with Allah forms the central message in his poem The Song of the Reed Now listen to this reed-flute’s deep
Flute. Here Rumi invites the listener to understand the secret of human existence lament – About the heartache being
by hearkening to the message hidden in the plaintive tones of the reed flute. If, apart has meant:
reasoned Rumi, the most basic purpose of the human spirit was to put a person Since from the reed-bed they
in relationship with the divine then all other relationships within the created
uprooted me – My song’s expressed
order, especially those with other human beings, are mystical gateways into a
each human’s agony,
closer relationship with the creator. This highly significant part of Rumi’s mystical
experience was played out in his own relationship with his mentor, Shams. He A breast which separation’s split in
noted how through this close relationship he felt that he became closer in his two – Is what I seek, to share this
relationship with Allah. Rumi believed poetry, music, and dance were all direct pain with you:
doorways to the divine and, due to these convictions, he founded the Mevlevi order When kept from their true origin,
of Sufis, famous for their Whirling Dervishes. all yearn – For union on the day
The mystical ecstatic experience is they can return.
well documented and discussed in (Rumi)
the work of a wide range of mystics,
philosophers and scholars from other
traditions. Teresa of Avila regards
ecstasy as the suspension of the
exterior senses: ‘One perceives that the Key quote
natural heat of the body is perceptibly
The most important, the central
lessened; the coldness increases, though
characteristic in which all fully
accompanied with exceeding joy and
developed mystical experiences
sweetness.’ (Autobiography, Teresa).
Others in the Christian tradition
agree, and which in the last analysis
describe it as the closest a mortal being is definitive of them and serves to
can get to the feeling of what it must mark them off from other kinds of
be like for departed souls to be in the experiences, is that they involve
presence of God. Followers of Eastern the apprehension of an ultimate
religious traditions also describe feelings nonsensuous unity in all things, a
of mystical ecstasy – often centred oneness or a One to which neither
around intense meditative practices the senses nor the reason can
such as those in the later stages of penetrate. In other words, it entirely
Vipissana meditation in Buddhism and transcends our sensory-intellectual
Whirling Dervishes
Yogic practices in Hinduism. Broadly consciousness. (Stace)
speaking, ecstasy can be described to
have two effective states then – one which relates to an interior sensation where
the mind becomes utterly focussed on a subject (usually religious in nature) and Key quote
the other element is the physical suspension of the normal activity of the sense, The mystical experience is a
such that the individual appears to be in a trancelike state in ‘which they are not transient, extraordinary experience
easily disturbed. However, upon wakening, most are able to describe, in some marked by feelings of being in unity,
measure, the intensity of their experiences albeit in highly symbolic language. harmonious relationship to the
The unitive type of mystical experience tends to cover a range of similar types of divine and everything in existence,
experiences, rather than describing a single identifiable experience. The concept of as well as euphoric feelings, noesis,
union involves a removal of the separation between the individual and God. Many loss of ego functioning, alterations
Christian mystics have claimed such experiences, including St Bernard of Clairvaux, in time and space perception, and
the French Cistercian Abbott, who described the experience as a ‘mutuality of love’; the sense of lacking control over the
the German mystic (and student of Meister Eckhart), Henry Suso, stated that the event. (Lukoff)
experience was like a man who : ‘… is entirely lost in God, has passed into him, and
has become one spirit with him in all respects, like a drop of water which is poured
into a large portion of wine. Just as this is lost to itself, and draws to itself and into
itself the taste and colour of the wine, so it likewise happens to those who are in
complete possession of blessedness.’
85


The nature of religious experience particular reference to Prayer – types and
with particular reference to Prayer –
types and stages of prayer according stages of prayer according to Teresa of Avila
to Teresa of Avila. She was born on 15 March 1515 in Spain. Her family inspired the young Teresa
to take her religious life seriously and in 1535 she joined an order of Carmelite
nuns. After a severe illness which left Teresa partially paralysed for three years,
she became somewhat disillusioned with her religious practices, especially prayer.
However, a vision of the ‘sorely wounded Christ’ was to re-energise Teresa’s
spiritual journey and inspire her to write her great works on prayer.
Teresa’s approach to mystical experience was through her four stages of prayer. She
believed that true union with God could only be achieved by intense concentration
and disciplining oneself through a life of prayer that would, by a series of stages,
allow a person to reach that union:
‘To say something, then, of the early experiences of those who are determined to
pursue this blessing and to succeed in this enterprise … it is in these early stages
that their labour is hardest, for it is they themselves who labour and the Lord
Who gives the increase. In the other degrees of prayer the chief thing is fruition,
although, whether at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the road, all
have their crosses, different as these may be. For those who follow Christ must
4.3 How did Teresa of Avila describe take the way which He took, unless they want to be lost.’ (Autobiography)
religious ecstasy? Teresa firmly believed that it was not possible for an individual to achieve that
union by themselves but that, only through God’s grace, could a person move
through the various stages:
‘The beginner must think of himself as of one setting out to make a garden in
which the Lord is to take His delight, yet in soil most unfruitful and full of weeds.
His Majesty uproots the weeds and will set good plants in their stead. Let us
suppose that this is already done -- that a soul has resolved to practise prayer and
has already begun to do so. We have now, by God’s help, like good gardeners,
to make these plants grow, and to water them carefully, so that they may not
perish, but may produce flowers which shall send forth great fragrance to give
refreshment to this Lord of ours, so that He may often come into the garden to
take His pleasure and have His delight among these virtues.’ (Autobiography)
Teresa is often associated with teaching on the various stages of prayer. She
compares these stages to the ways in which a garden (the metaphor that she has
already established to represent the state of a person’s spiritual self) is looked after:
‘The garden can be watered in four ways: by taking the water from a well, which
costs us great labour; or by a water-wheel and buckets, when the water is drawn
The water wheel as a metaphor for prayer by a windlass…; or by a stream or a brook, which waters the ground much better,
for it saturates it more thoroughly and there is less need to water it often, so that
the gardener’s labour is much less; or by heavy rain, when the Lord waters it with
no labour of ours, a way incomparably better than any of those which have been
described.’ (Autobiography)
Whilst her definitions of prayer from her autobiography are highly significant,
many observers believe that the real insight into mystical experience is found in
Teresa’s final work: The Interior Castle. Moving on from her analogy of a watered
garden, Teresa now considers the soul to be like a castle that contains seven
suites or mansions (the original Spanish term, which is often used in English
considerations of Teresa’s teachings is las moradas). The first three mansions refer
to the type of prayer that Teresa speaks about in detail in earlier works such as her
Autobiography. These prayers, whilst allowing the individual to come closer to God,
do not give the same level of union that can eventually be gained. This union is to
be found within the fourth to the seventh mansions, where Teresa represents the
various degrees of mystical prayer.
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Philosophy T4
The first of these, found in the fourth mansion, is the prayer of consolations from
God, better known as the Prayer of Quiet. Teresa describes this as a state where Key quotes
the human will is completely captivated by God’s Love. This now has the individual Teresa says beginners should
operating on the mystical level and, as such, they experience, peace and spiritual use determination to overcome
delight. Sometimes the experience is so intense that the individual can faint or
distractions while praying and
appear semi-comatose – this state is referred to by St Teresa as a ‘sleep of the
devoutly contemplate Christ. At the
faculties’.
second stage, the soul has quieted
Within the fifth mansion Teresa describes the next stage as the prayer of simple union: and gains greater clarity. The will
‘God implants himself in the interior of the soul is such a way that, when it returns to is lost in God but other human
itself, it cannot possibly doubt that God has been in it and it has been in God’. faculties, such as imagination,
The sixth mansion contains the longest of Teresa’s mystical descriptions and is remain distracted. In the third
occasionally disputed as to precisely what was being described. It is commonly stage, Christ becomes the gardener;
known as the stage of spiritual marriage. The main experiences associated with this the soul is given over to God
stage can include rapture, feelings of painful longing, spiritual ecstasy and visions. blissfully but the union with God
The over-riding characteristic is the sense of wanting to be able to spend every remains incomplete. The fourth
possible moment alone with the divine ‘spouse’ and the complete rejection of all stage is a trance. Union with God
things that can get in the way of such moments.
is complete; the senses stop and
The seventh and final mansion is regarded as the highest possible state of prayer consciousness of the body fades.
that is achievable on earth. The soul is regarded as having reached a state of (Lapointe)
transforming union or, as it is more commonly known, the stage of ‘mystical
marriage’. It is the stage where complete unity with the divine is felt, to the extent We should desire and engage in
where an intimate and perceptive awareness, knowledge and understanding of the prayer, not for our enjoyment, but for
person of the divine is intuitively felt. the sake of acquiring the strength
which fits us for service. … Believe
AO1 Activity me, Martha and Mary must work
together. … I will end by saying that
Draw a poster with seven concentric circles – in each circle label the description
we must not build towers without
of prayer given by Teresa for the Interior Mansion. This will enable you to have
foundations, and that the Lord does
a visual reminder of the seven mansions and will help promote your ability
not look so much at the magnitude
to show ‘Thorough, accurate and relevant knowledge and understanding of
of anything we do as at the love with
religion and belief.’ (AO1 Level 5 descriptor).
which we do it. If we accomplish
Teresa of Avila (1515–1582)
what we can, His Majesty will see
to it that we become able to do more
each day. (Teresa of Avila)
Key term
Prayer: in simple terms,
communication with the divine
4.4 What metaphor does Teresa of Avila

employ to describe the various stages
of prayer?
87


everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a list of indicative content that could be used
area. in response to a question requiring an examination of the descriptions of prayer
from Teresa of Avila. The problem is that it is not a very full list and needs
completing! It will be useful, as a group, to consider what is missing from the
Explanation that is extensive, list. You will need to add at least five points that you would use to improve the
demonstrating depth and/or breadth list and/or give more detail to each point that is already in the list. Then, as a
group, agree on your final list and write out your new list of indicative content,
thorough and accurate supporting use remembering the principles of explaining with evidence and/or examples.
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and If you then put this list in order of how you would present the information in an
specialist language. essay you will have your own plan for an ideal answer.
God’s grace is necessary for fruitful prayer.
Prayer develops in stages.
Prayer is like watering a garden.
as rote learning).
■
Teresa’s mystical teaching on prayer is described in the Interior Castle.
■
The human will is captured by God.
■
A semi-comatose state can seem to occur.
Spiritual ecstasy.
Mystical marriage.
■
Your added content
and explanation through the use of ■
Your added content
evidence and examples. ■
Etc.
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Philosophy T4

content and skills
The impact of religious experiences upon Specification content
religious belief and practice The impact of religious experiences
Some may argue that religious experiences are not the same as sense experiences. upon religious belief and practice.
God is not material. God does not have a definite location. How would you
recognise it was God that you were experiencing? However, just as people are
known to each other by a kind of awareness and understanding of the mind rather
than through our physical body, so in the same way people claim to experience
God, who is non-physical, and this has great impact upon both religious belief
and practice.
A way of assessing the impact of religious experiences upon religious belief and
practice is with the experience of conversion. A conversion essentially initiates
two things: firstly, the belief in God’s existence or the truth of another religion;
and secondly, a change of behaviour in the new convert. For example, Augustine,
who became Bishop of Hippo in 395CE a key thinker in the development of the
Christian Church, converted from atheism to believer and had a major impact on
the belief and practice of others. In the same way, Sundar Singh, who was raised
a devout Sikh, had a vision of Jesus and became an active Christian for the rest of
his life.
of argument
The extent of change varies but the impact still remains on the individual.
In addition, this impact can influence others. Listed below are some conclusions
Swinburne proposed the principles of credulity and testimony. This stated that
it is reasonable to believe that the world is probably as we experience it to be.
He argues that other people’s testimony of religious experiences provide good 1. Religious experience has a major
reason to believe that God exists. Many people, on the basis of apparent direct impact on both belief and practice.
experiences of God, take it that God exists. This has also had impact upon others, 2. Religious experience has a major
who may also base their belief in God upon the acceptance of another’s religious impact on an individual’s belief
experience. All founders of world faith had this impact upon others. Religion, based but not always that of others.
on the experience of its founders has been a powerful force in history, and modern 3. Religious experience has most
researchers such as David Hay suggest it is widespread. impact on the practice of
William James was particularly interested in the effects of religious experience on individuals in that it changes their
people’s lives and believed that the validity of the experience rests upon the effects lives.
it produces. In his book, ‘The Varieties of Religious Experience’ where he documented 4. Religious experience has a major
many examples of religious experience, he saw that the effects of these experiences impact on both belief and practice
were powerful and positive. They changed the lives of communities and individuals but is still not evidence that it is
so much so that he saw this as powerful evidence for both a belief in God and true or that God exists.
the validity of such belief. However, some argue that James is too subjective as he
5. Religious experience has a major
focuses more on the truth of the experience for the individual, rather than whether
impact on both belief and practice
or not this relates to the idea of a God who exists in the ‘real world’.
and could be argued to be strong
Overall, belief and practice are impacted upon inevitably by religious experience evidence, or proof, that God exists.
but it is the range of this impact that differs, from just the individual, to world-
wide communities as in the case of religious founders.
Although the powerful force of religious experience is often used by many to examples to support each argument
suggest that a belief in God is a viable option and a possibility, or in some cases, from the AO1 and AO2 material
sound evidence for God’s existence, it should be remembered that not all accept studied in this section. Select one
this extent of the impact of religious experience. Others, such as Bertrand Russell, conclusion that you think is most
would argue ‘the fact that a belief has a good moral effect upon a man is no convincing and explain why it is so.
evidence whatsoever in favour of its truth’. For example, one can be influenced by a Now contrast this with the weakest
character from a good story but that does not mean the character is real. conclusion in the list, justifying
In conclusion, it is probably best to admit that whilst religious experience does your argument with clear reasoning
inevitably have a powerful impact upon religious belief and practice, its impact is and evidence.
limited to those that believe and cannot extend to sound and firm philosophical
proof that the object of that religious experience is objectively real.
89

Specification content Whether different types of religious

Whether different types of religious experience can be accepted as equally valid in
experience can be accepted as equally
valid in communicating religious communicating religious teachings and beliefs
teachings and beliefs. The main issue here is whether or not all religious experiences have the same value
for communicating or evidencing religious belief and specific teachings.
There is certainly a widespread lack of uniformity of religious experiences. There
are so many different types, all of which have varying impact. In addition, as
regards the religious teachings, it could be argued that the messages, visions,
information and beliefs apparently transmitted in religious experiences are
so diverse and contradictory that it is impossible for the majority of religious
experiences to be real and accurate, and therefore a valid tool for communicating
religious truths.
For example, in Zen Buddhism, religious experiences do not lead to Buddhists
claims of a creator God, but rather that meditation makes you fully in touch
AO2 Activity Possible lines with the true nature of reality. Opposed to this is the claim of some Christians
of argument that they meet with God or Jesus in their religious experiences. It appears, then,
that religious experiences could suggest that God, or the impersonal spiritual
Listed below are some conclusions experience, is relative to, and dependent upon, cultural beliefs that we will
that could be drawn from the AO2 understand and interpret.
However, different experiences recounted do not mean they are all in error. Maybe
1. All religious experiences have the only one religion is correct so the other religious experiences are false, but those of
same value for communicating that one religion are true. This is a more internal debate between religions. Some
or evidencing religious belief and may say that their religious experience allows them to have a pluralistic outlook,
specific teachings. for example Hick and Gandhi. Others may have a more exclusivist approach and
2. All religious experiences have the claim that their religious experience is the single truth.
some value for communicating Aside from this problem there is another issue. This is the key problem of
or evidencing religious belief and ineffability. Many religious experiences are beyond verbal description. There
specific teachings but it depends are no words that can describe the experience, so it is not possible for others to
upon the type of experience. understand. The experience is subjective and private, it is not open to anyone else.
3. Some religious experiences are The experience is personal, it is not possible to fully understand unless we have the
better at communicating or experience. If all this is true then how can ineffable religious experiences be as valid
evidencing religious belief and in communicating or evidencing religious belief and specific teachings as other
specific teachings. forms of religious experiences?
4. Not all religious experiences can Equally we should consider what the primary purpose of a religious experience
communicate or evidence religious is – is it for the individual alone? Is it only meant to deepen faith or is it there to be
belief and specific teachings. used as an exemplar for teaching others and sharing the experience? What if others
5. Religious experiences are not misunderstand the experience? Does it demean its original value for the recipient?
intended to have the same value One may also consider that certain types of religious experience may be considered
for communicating or evidencing ‘superior’ to others within a faith tradition for the alleged value that they may have
religious belief and specific in communicating or consolidating a particular belief or faith tradition, thereby
teachings. potentially making those who do not experience this feel inferior or unworthy.
Consider each of the conclusions Despite this, it may be safe to conclude that religious experiences are a valid
drawn above and collect evidence and way of communicating or evidencing religious belief and specific teachings for
examples to support each argument religious believers. However, the real question of whether or not they all have an
from the AO1 and AO2 material equal impact for this purpose is quite clearly dependent upon the type of religious
studied in this section. Select one experience it is.
and evidence.
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Philosophy T4

of view.
Your new task is this: below is a list of indicative content that could be used various implications of the issues raised
in response to a question requiring an evaluation of the impact of religious
experience upon belief and practice. The problem is that it is not a very full list detailed argument with a clear
and needs completing! It will be useful, as a group, to consider what is missing conclusion.
from the list. You will need to add at least six points (three in support and
three against) that you would use to improve the list and/or give more detail
to each point that is already in the list. Remember, it is how you use the points argument analysed through individual
that is the most important factor. Apply the principles of evaluation by making commentary and response and arrives
sure that you: identify issues clearly; present accurate views of others, making at a conclusion through a clear process
sure that you comment on the views presented; reach an overall personal of reasoning.
judgement. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try to negotiate as
a group and prioritise the most important things to add.
Then, as a group, agree on your final list and write out your new list of
indicative content, remembering the principles of explaining with evidence
and/or examples.
If you then put this list in order of how you would present the information in an
essay you will have your own plan for an ideal answer.
In support
■
Greater impact than cerebral factors
■
Begins and/or deepens commitment to religious belief and practice in a unique way
■
Your added content
■
Your added content
■
Etc.
Against
■
Religious upbringing has a greater impact
■
Sacred writings are more important than religious experiences fro belief and practice
■
Your added content
■
Your added content
■
Etc.
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content and skills B: Mystical experience
William James’ four characteristics of William James’ four characteristics of mystical
mystical experience: ineffable, noetic, experience
transient and passive. William James’ Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) is still regarded as one of the
most significant and influential studies of religion of the 20th century. Amongst
other subjects, James details a classification of mysticism within lectures 16 and
17 of the work. These are instrumental observations of mystical experience and
no serious study of the subject can be undertaken without reflecting on James’s
contributions.
Here follow the explanations of the classifications in James’ own words (All quotes
from James’ Varieties of Religious Experience):
1. ‘Ineffability – The handiest of the marks by which I classify a state of mind as
mystical is negative. The subject of it immediately says that it defies expression,
that no adequate report of its contents can be given in words. It follows from
Key quote this that its quality must be directly experienced; it cannot be imparted or
transferred to others. In this peculiarity mystical states are more like states of
One may say truly, I think, that feeling than like states of intellect. No one can make clear to another who has
personal religious experience has never had a certain feeling, in what the quality or worth of it consists. One
its root and centre in mystical must have musical ears to know the value of a symphony; one must have been
states of consciousness. Mystical in love one’s self to understand a lover’s state of mind. Lacking the heart or
states indeed wield no authority ear, we cannot interpret the musician or the lover justly, and are even likely to
due simply to their being mystical consider him weak-minded or absurd. The mystic finds that most of us accord
states. But the higher ones among to his experiences an equally incompetent treatment.’
them point in directions to which James first class of mystical experience is the one most commonly cited by mystics
the religious sentiments even such as Teresa of Avila, Eckhart, Rumi and others. It is atypical of a mystical
of non-mystical men incline. experience that it is so profound, that mundane language cannot express it. It also
They tell of the supremacy of the represents, as James acknowledges, the greatest challenges to the authenticity
ideal, of vastness, of union, of of the experience. However, James continues, just because it cannot be ‘proved’
safety, and of rest. They offer us should not detract from its value; indeed, he implies, it is more to do with the
hypotheses, hypotheses which we deficiency of the empiricist than it is with any such deficiency of the mystic, that
may voluntarily ignore, but which as the experience cannot be described.
thinkers we cannot possibly upset. 2. ‘Noetic quality – Although so similar to states of feeling, mystical states seem
The supernaturalism and optimism to those who experience them to be also states of knowledge. They are states
to which they would persuade us of insight into depths of truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect. They are
may, interpreted in one way or illuminations, revelations, full of significance and importance, all inarticulate
another, be after all the truest of though they remain; and as a rule they carry with them a curious sense of
insights into the meaning of this life. authority for after-time.’
(James) The gaining of a special kind of knowledge, or insight, is another hallmark of the
work of mystics down the ages and this is what James refers to when he considers
the noesis (gaining of knowledge) of the mystics’ experiences.
3. ‘Transiency – Mystical states cannot be sustained for long. Except in rare
instances, half an hour, or at most an hour or two, seems to be the limit beyond
which they fade into the light of common day. Often, when faded, their quality
can but imperfectly be reproduced in memory; but when they recur it is
recognised; and from one recurrence to another it is susceptible of continuous
development in what is felt as inner richness and importance.’
In the third classification, James relates the fleeting nature of the mystical
experience and demonstrates, through the evidence that he collects, that such
experiences may be very intense and have lasting consequences for the recipient,
yet in terms of the time in which they take, they are relatively short-lived.
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Philosophy T4
4. ‘Passivity – Although the oncoming of mystical states may be facilitated by
preliminary voluntary operations, as by fixing the attention, or going through
certain bodily performances, or in other ways which manuals of mysticism
prescribe; yet when the characteristic sort of consciousness once has set in,
the mystic feels as if his own will were in abeyance, and indeed sometimes
as if he were grasped and held by a superior power. This latter peculiarity
connects mystical states with certain definite phenomena of secondary or
alternative personality, such as prophetic speech, automatic writing, or the
mediumistic trance. When these latter conditions are well pronounced,
however, there may be no recollection whatever of the phenomenon and it
may have no significance for the subject’s usual inner life, to which, as it were,
it makes a mere interruption. Mystical states, strictly so called, are never merely
interruptive. Some memory of their content always remains, and a profound
sense of their importance. They modify the inner life of the subject between the
times of their recurrence. Sharp divisions in this region are, however, difficult to
make, and we find all sorts of gradations and mixtures.’
The fourth and final classification notes the important feature that the experience
tends to be ‘done to’ the recipient and that, even when the recipient goes searching
for the experience, the actual moment itself is governed by a being or force
external to the will of the mystic. The suggestion is also that these events have a
transformative effect on the individual, whose life will very often be changed after
the experience.
AO1 Activity
In pairs, take turns in testing each other with the definitions of each of William
James’ four characteristics for mysticism. In an examination situation it can
Key terms
be easy to mix ideas, terms and definitions – so regular memory testing with
Passive: in this context, where the
a partner can help avoid this. It is also likely to help you ensure your material
mystical experience is ‘done to’ the
in the exam response is a ‘… relevant response which answers the specific recipient – it is not instigated by the
demands of the question set’. individual or group but is instead
due to some kind of external force or
influence
Key person Transient: an experience that is
William James: born to a wealthy family short lived yet has far-reaching and/or
in North America in 1842, and brother long-lasting consequences
to the notable American novelist Henry
James, William explored several academic
disciplines during the fi rst part of his
life before settling on the relatively new
discipline of psychology. His work inspired 4.5 What are the four identifying features
many of the 20th century’s greatest of mystical experiences, according to
William James?
thinkers, including Ludwig Wittgenstein
(allegedly the only book written by a
modern philosopher that Wittgenstein
would have on his own bookshelf was
James’ Varieties of Religious Experience!).
A philosophical pragmatist, James
nonetheless stated his belief that religious
experience was ultimately beyond the
realm of empirical science to ever prove as
‘true’. Of such experience he observed: the
further limits of our being plunge, it seems
to me, into an altogether other dimension
of existence from the sensible and merely
‘understandable’ world.
William James (1842–1910)
93

Specification content Rudolf Otto – the concept of the numinous;

Rudolf Otto – the concept of the mysterium tremendum; the human
numinous; mysterium tremendum;
the human predisposition for predisposition for religious experience
religious experience. Otto’s approach, in his The Idea of the Holy, was to look at the aspects of religious
experience that were beyond the scope of rational and empirical reasoning. Instead
there is a focus on the ‘feelings’ of the recipient that, in many ways, was the first time
Key terms such an approach to the study of religious experience had been attempted. Otto
Anthropology: the study of human drew on the history of religion, as he was familiar with it, and combining it with
beings, their culture and social his interest in anthropology and naturalism, produced an investigation into the
development
subjective field of religious and mystical experiences.
Naturalism: that which arises from For Otto, the word ‘holy’ had several wide-ranging connotations, not all of which
real life or the world of nature
he found helpful when trying to describe the feelings in the religious or mystical
experience. He therefore made use of the term numinous. This
words derives from the Latin word ‘numen’, which refers to a
supernatural divine power. This sets it apart from the ethical and
moral connotations that holy may also have. Thus the individual
who experiences the numinous, is one who feels the presence of
a supernatural divine power as part of their religious or mystical
experience.
For Otto, the idea that human beings can be in receipt of the
numinous is part of the natural inclination of humanity towards
the spiritual realm. Whilst human experience is often described
in term of the rational – particularly when dealing with the
mundane aspects of human existence, Otto believed that
there was also a significant dimension of human existence that
yearned for that which he termed as the ‘non-rational’ – i.e. that
which could not easily be explained by reference to standard
A numinous experience?
empirical means. In this Otto is not stating that experiences of
the numinous were irrational – which implies a lack of sanity or sensibility, a lack of
stability in the interaction and experience – but rather the non-rational being that
Key quote which was entirely stable as an experience just not definable in rational terms.
‘Holiness’ – ‘the holy’ – is a category In Chapter 4 of the The Idea of the Holy, Otto addresses the numinous experience as
of interpretation and valuation being ‘the deepest and most fundamental element in all strong and sincerely felt
peculiar to the sphere of religion religious emotion’. He describes this as having a particularly profound effect on the
… while it is complex, it contains a individual in receipt of the numinous experience and states that the only way to
quite specific element or ‘moment’, sum up the intensity of this experience is by using the Latin expression ‘mysterium
which sets it apart from ‘The tremendum’. As Otto states, ‘the feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a
Rational’ … and which remains gentle tide, pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship. It may pass
inexpressible.’ (Otto) over into a more set and lasting attitude of the soul, continuing, as it were, thrillingly
vibrant and resonant, until at last it dies away and the soul resumes its profane, non-
religious mood of everyday experience.’
As he continues to describe the intensity of the mysterium tremendum, Otto is
trying to describe the profound intensity that is associated with a deeply felt religious
experience. In doing so he further illuminates our understanding of his concept of
the numinous as an expression of religious awe and wonder in the presence of the
4.6 What, in simple terms, does Otto supernatural divine power.
mean by the phrase ‘mysterium
tremendum’?
AO1 Activity
Using an example from the world religion in your course of study, record how
a religious experience in that tradition might be considered as ‘numinous’. You
should then use this recorded example in any answer that addresses Otto’s
concept of the numinous – this will help promote ‘Excellent use of evidence
and examples’ (Level 5 AO1 response) in your answer.
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Philosophy T4

You are now nearing the end of this section of the course. From now on the task everything you know about the topic
will have only instructions with no examples; however, using the skills you have area.
developed in completing the earlier tasks, you should be able to apply what you
have learned to do and complete this successfully.
Your new task is this: you will have to write a response under timed
conditions to a question requiring an examination of the reasons for celebrating with excellent use of evidence and
Ashura in Islam. You will need to focus for this and apply the skills that you have examples including (where appropriate)
developed so far: thorough and accurate supporting use
1. Begin with a list of indicative content. Perhaps discuss this as specialist language.
a group. It does not need to be in any order. This means that you demonstrate that
2. Develop the list using examples. as rote learning).
3. Now consider in which order you would like to explain the each one, provide further elaboration
information.
4. Then write out your plan, under timed conditions,

remembering the principles of explaining with evidence and/
or examples.
Use this technique as revision for each of the topic areas that you have studied.
The basic technique of planning answers helps even when time is short and you
cannot complete every essay.
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content and skills
Specification content The adequacy of James’ four characteristics in
The adequacy of James’ four defining mystical experience
characteristics in defining William James’ characteristics of mystical experiences have been the standard for
mystical experience. classification of the features of a mystical experience now for many years. Many
scholars have used, debated, accepted, challenged or developed them. The issue
really is can James’ identified features be seen to be adequate in the light of the
work of other scholars?
James, as we know, identified four features of mysticism. The first feature is
ineffability. This means that no adequate account of the experience can be given in
words. It defies expression. Phrases such as ‘the dissolution of the personal ego’ are
empty to those who have not experienced such things. A second feature is its noetic
quality, that is, apparent insight into the depths of truths unobtainable by the
intellect alone. They have a force of certainty and reality. Mystical experiences are
also transient, which means that the states cannot be maintained for long periods
of time. Though the states are remembered, they are imperfectly recalled. Usually
AO2 Activity Possible lines they leave the recipient with a profound sense of the importance of the experience.
of argument Finally, mystical experiences have the feature of passivity whereby there is a sense
Listed below are some conclusions of feeling that one is taken over by a superior power.
that could be drawn from the AO2 These all appear to be perfectly sound but whether or not they are adequate
reasoning in the accompanying text: depends upon whether any other scholarly observations have added, superseded
1. James’ four characteristics are or challenged them. If we compare Otto’s numinous classification of religious
adequate for defining mystical experience as the mystical element we can see there is nothing new really added
experience. to James’ characteristics of a mystical experience. Otto identified a number of
2. James’ four characteristics in elements such as awefulness (a sort of profound unease), overpoweringness
defining mystical experience are (inspires a feeling of humility), energy or urgency (compelling), wholly other
just one of many different ways of (totally outside normal experience) and fascination (causes the subject of the
studying mystical experience. experience to be caught up in it). Most of these are really elaborations upon, or
alternative definitions for, James’ four features.
3. James’ four characteristics are
more than adequate in defining In a way the same can be said of the philosopher F.C Happold who identified
mystical experience because they another three characteristics of the mystical experience: consciousness of the
are the standard set in the study of oneness of everything; a sense of timelessness; and, the idea that the ego is
mystical experiences. not the real ‘I’ but that there is something that lies behind the usual experience
of self. These appear to have similarities with both numinous and James’ four
4. James’ four characteristics in
characteristics.
defining mystical experience
have been better developed and However, if we look at the work of the Italian medieval theologian and philosopher
expressed by others. St Bonaventure, we can see a different perspective on mystical experiences which
really focuses on the process of mysticism rather than an analysis of its common
5. James’ four characteristics in
features. Bonaventure identified three stages of a mystic experience: the purgative
defining mystical experience are
stage when the mystic is purified and prepared for the experience through
adequate but not definitive.
meditation; the illuminative stage when the mystic is affected both in his intellect
Consider each of the conclusions and his feelings – illuminated both cognitively and emotionally; and, the unitive
drawn above and collect evidence and stage when the mystic gains a continuing union with God.
In conclusion, it appears that James’ four characteristics in defining mystical
experience are adequate enough as they have stood the test of time. Nonetheless,
this does not means that they are definitive and, as we have seen, there are other
more elaborate articulations of a mystical experience. In addition, it is evident
from the work of Bonaventure that just identifying features is only one aspect of
studying mystical experiences and there are other perspectives, such as the process
of a mystical experience, that are equally worthy of analysis and evaluation.
and evidence.
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Philosophy T4
The adequacy of Otto’s definition of Specification content

‘numinous’ The adequacy of Otto’s definition of
‘numinous’.
Rudolph Otto, a Protestant theologian, in his book The Idea of the Holy, tried to
identify and describe what made a religious experience uniquely religious, as
opposed to just an ordinary experience. The main issue here is not just Otto’s
definition but really the basis of that definition and the implications that it brings.
Rudolph Otto said of the numinous experience ‘there is no religion in which it does
not live as the innermost core and without it no religion would be worthy of the
name’. In other words, the claim of the numinous is that it is the one essential and
valid religious experience as opposed to just an experience.
Central to this investigation, however, was the underlying assumption and
conviction that a personal encounter with God is for every religious believer.
Again, Otto was convinced that everyone could have a personal encounter with
the spiritual or the divine and that it does not necessarily have to involve overt
dramatic sensory or dream experiences Otto’s numinous was a very individual and
personal experience.
Despite this, Otto also held that its dramatic nature lay in what the religious
experience invoked within the individual, namely, that the mysterium tremendum
also prompted the fascinans, that is, an intense fascination with the experience
itself. This then provided a platform from which a religious believer interprets the
world around them.
of argument
The problems with this account of the numinous is that it has very little to say Listed below are some conclusions
about the nature of God or the specific details about a specific religious belief. that could be drawn from the AO2
It provides no instruction or edification other than a sense of awareness of the reasoning in the accompanying text:
‘other’. Indeed, Otto himself held that God cannot be known through the senses 1. Otto’s numinous definition is
nor through the process of rational thought; God was ‘wholly other’. adequate in describing all religious
Other objections include the fact that it is too vague as to wonder how any experiences.
theological ideas could follow after the experience due to the fascinans as Otto 2. Otto’s numinous definition is
held. In this sense it appears limiting, especially as there are well-documented types adequate in describing some
of experience that are entirely different to the numinous. religious experiences.
Another criticism has been to suggest Otto reduces the concept of religious 3. Otto’s numinous definition is
experience to a simple ‘feeling’ when there is clearly much more to religious inadequate because it is far too
experiences than that. vague.
But the most powerful critique of Otto’s numinous really involves that which he 4. Otto’s numinous definition is
set out to demonstrate – that every individual can experience the divine. The real inadequate because it imparts
question is, however, due to such a general and diluted description of the religious nothing of significance regarding
experience as the numinous, how do we then know that it is God that is the object the truths behind such an
of this experience? experience.
In conclusion, it would seem that Otto’s numinous is adequate in describing what 5. The adequacy of Otto’s numinous
some, if not all, religious experiences may ‘feel like’, but beyond that it has clear definition is confined to the
limitations as the criticisms above would attest. It really tells us nothing more. individual and nothing more.
However, it may be possible to use the definition of numinous in conjunction with Consider each of the conclusions
other religious experiences as a basis for study and this, it is evident, is as far as its drawn above and collect evidence and
adequacy may extend. examples to support each argument
and evidence.
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evaluation. demonstrate these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills are
of view.
various implications of the issues raised You are now nearing the end of this section of the course. From now on the task
will have only instructions with no examples; however, using the skills you have
conclusion. have learned to do and complete this successfully.
This means that the answer weighs Your new task is this: you will have to write a response under timed
up the various and different lines of conditions to a question requiring an evaluation of whether Otto’s definition of
argument analysed through individual the numinous is an adequate description of religious experience. You will need
commentary and response and arrives to focus for this and apply the skills that you have developed so far:
of reasoning.
1. Begin with a list of indicative content. Perhaps discuss this as
a group. It does not need to be in any order. Remember, this
is evaluation, so you need different lines of argument. The
easiest way is to use the ‘support’ and ‘against’ headings.
2. Develop the list using examples.
3. Now consider in which order you would like to explain the

information.

remembering to apply the principles of evaluation by making
sure that you: identify issues clearly; present accurate views
of others making sure that you comment on the views
presented; reach an overall personal judgement.
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Philosophy T4

C: Challenges to the objectivity and content and skills
authenticity of religious experience Specification content
Challenges to the objectivity and
Challenges to the objectivity and authenticity authenticity of religious experience:
with reference to Caroline Franks
of religious experience: with reference to Davis (description-related;
Caroline Franks Davis subject-related and object-related
Caroline Franks Davis in her 1989 work The Evidential Force of Religious Experience, challenges). Claims of religious
listed three distinct forms of challenge to the validity of claims of religious experience rejected on grounds of
(mystical) experiences. misunderstanding; claims delusional
– possibly related to substance
Description-related challenges misuse, fantastical claims contrary to
When any event is described that claims itself to be an experience of ‘God’ or ‘The everyday experiences.
Divine’ then a claim is being made for which there is no proof. This description is
therefore not valid. Furthermore the claim is inconsistent or contradictory with
Key quote
normal everyday experience and, for this reason, should be rejected. It is not a
claim that is in any sense valid, merely a misunderstanding of the experience on With arguments against the
the part of the recipient. plausibility of religious doctrines
and reductionist accounts of
Subject-related challenges religious experiences now widely
In this challenge, the recipient (subject) of the religious experience is put under accepted, and with many people
suspicion. It may be claimed that they are unreliable as a source, they may leading atheistic lives … religious
be considered to be suffering from a mental illness or to have been suffering individuals can no longer assume
delusions brought about by some sort of substance misuse. In such cases they are that experiences judged to be
not in a position to properly understand what they have experienced and, as such, ‘genuine’ by fellow believers are
must have their claims dismissed. immune from further attack.
They are challenged on all sides,
Object-related challenges by philosophers, psychologists,
The final type of challenge focuses on the alleged object of the experience. The sociologists, anthropologists,
challenge is that the likelihood of having experienced something such as the members of other religious
recipient claims is so unlikely as to be entirely untrue. The suggestion of God (the traditions and even by members
object) having been experienced is no more likely than a claim of having seen of their own tradition with widely
an 8ft green alien or a flying antelope. As we are unlikely to believe anyone that differing views. (Franks Davis)
claimed experience of the latter two examples, why then should we believe the
claim of someone who was said to have experienced God?
AO1 Activity
With a group of three, learn a specific category of challenge from Franks
Davis. Once this has been done, you should research further information on 4.7 What are Caroline Franks Davis three
your challenge and then share your findings with the others in the group. In categories of challenge?
this way you will develop your understanding of the material and be able to
demonstrate ‘thorough, accurate and relevant knowledge and understanding
of religion and belief’ (Level 5 AO1 response) in your written answers.
The very nature of mystical experiences (whatever their type and whoever
undergoes them), seems to belong to a bygone era. Reading accounts of mystical
experiences in ancient religious texts seems perfectly natural as does considering
the experiences of the famous mystics from the traditions of the various world
religions. However, when faced with such claims in an age seemingly dominated
by empiricism, science, rationality and evidential proofs, scepticism tends to come
into play and doubt as to their occurrences, or at least, to the authenticity of such
experiences, seems to be the automatic response.
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Specification content Further debates about the challenges

Challenges: individual experiences In trying to establish the reliability of any mystical experience, some criteria for
valid even if non-verifiable; claims establishing truth must first be agreed upon. However, due to the very nature
could be genuine – integrity of of mystical experiences, most philosophers agree that such criteria are virtually
individual; one-off experiences can impossible to verify. This is due to the fact that, by their very nature, mystical
still be valid even if never repeated. experiences are subjective and not objective.
If something is objective and verifiable, it is something that relates to external facts
that can be agreed upon by the observers – it is possible to prove by one or more
of the five senses, it is something that can be described and multiple observers will
come to the same conclusion about the same thing, e.g. the colour of the car is red.
If something is subjective then it tends to be based upon opinion, personal
judgement, belief or assumption and is more difficult to verify. It is likely to be
interpreted in different ways by multiple observers and these views may change
according to time and context, e.g. this is the best car in the world to drive.
Due to the very fact that communicating mystical experiences depends entirely
on the perception of the experience by the recipient – or in some cases the
witnesses of the recipient – it is considered as a subjective experience. As scientific
empiricism tends to reject subjective accounts out of hand, then this presents a
serious challenge to the ‘truth’ of any mystical experience. However, equally, the
The two explorers experience remains valid for the individual, or group of individuals, even if by its
very subjectivity, it is non-verifiable. This would also extend to the idea that the
claim for the one-off experience can still be valid – a repetition of the event is not
required for it to retain its validity.
The work of the Vienna Circle and the logical positivists did much to help clarify
our understanding of how language is used to convey knowledge and ideas, as well
as the conditions where that language could be considered either meaningful or
meaningless. Any claim made by a religious believer about a mystical experience
may seem to be an ordinary claim about their perception of the state of reality
(whichever reality they may be referring to) but as their claim lacks any empirical
evidence to support it, and as such experiences are neither analytic a priori
nor synthetic a posteriori, they are considered by the logical positivists to be
meaningless.
A further difficulty is posed by Anthony Flew’s falsification principle, which stated
that propositions could be made meaningful if there was some evidence that could
count against them. However, Flew stated that as religious believers allow nothing
to count against their beliefs, then all religious statements, including those of
the mystic, were ultimately meaningless. He used John Wisdom’s parable of the
Gardener to support his point:
‘Once upon a time two explorers came upon a clearing in the jungle. In the clearing
were growing many flowers and many weeds. One explorer says, “Some gardener
must tend this plot.” The other disagrees, “There is no gardener.” So they pitch
their tents and set a watch. No gardener is ever seen. “But perhaps he is an invisible
gardener.” So they set up a barbed-wire fence. They electrify it. They patrol with
bloodhounds. (For they remember how H. G. Well’s The Invisible Man could be
both smelt and touched though he could not be seen.) But no shrieks ever suggest
that some intruder has received a shock. No movements of the wire ever betray
an invisible climber. The bloodhounds never give cry. Yet still the Believer is not
convinced. “But there is a gardener, invisible, intangible, insensible, to electric
shocks, a gardener who has no scent and makes no sound, a gardener who comes
secretly to look after the garden which he loves.” At last the Sceptic despairs, “But
what remains of your original assertion? Just how does what you call an invisible,
intangible, eternally elusive gardener differ from an imaginary gardener or even
from no gardener at all?”’
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Philosophy T4
Flew’s point was that for a religious believer, they would always offer a
qualification as to why no evidence could be found to count against their own
beliefs and, as religious experiences are essentially ones where there are no clear
and agreed upon criteria which can be used to count against them, they too must,
according to Flew’s criteria, be considered meaningless.
Using alternative explanations, based on the objective worlds of science and nature,
is nothing new in terms of critiquing events that fall into the religious and mystical
sphere. When considering the possibility of miracles occurring, David Hume in An
Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) stated that it was not impossible
that miracles could occur, it was merely impossible to ever prove that one had in
fact occurred. Transferring this naturalistic view to religious experiences, a similar
problem is faced. Due to their highly individualistic nature (for the most part)
religious experiences are not open to rational enquiry, and, thus, are treated with
suspicion at best and derision at worst.
The scientific fields of sociology, psychology and anthropology have all made huge
advances in understanding the human condition within the past century and, in
doing so, have all examined the religious dimension of humankind’s existence and
sought to offer alternative theories as to what is actually being experienced.
For instance, studies by the anthropologist Ioan Lewis have shown a close and
intelligible connection in pre-industrial societies between the incidence of religious Freud (1856–1939) dismissed religious
ecstasy and the need of individuals and groups to legitimatise claims made upon belief as a form of neurosis
the larger society. Sigmund Freud held the view that all religious experiences were
nothing more than the result of the repression of sexual urges. Re-interpreting
Teresa’s vision of the angel piercing her soul in the light of Freudian imagery is very
easy to do but has come under criticism itself for being too reductionist. Others
have commented that the characteristics of religious experiences bear remarkable
resemblances to the effects felt by those who use alcohol and drugs such as
LSD, which can stimulate the brain into hallucinating and experiencing so-called
alternative realities.
Despite these challenges, the British philosopher Richard Swinburne proposed the
principle of credulity. Swinburne argues that what someone claims to perceive is
probably the case unless there are special reasons for thinking the experience is
false. He then listed four special reasons that might cast doubt on the validity of the
event. The special reasons (principle of credulity) are:
■
If the person was unreliable (e.g. drugged).
■
If similar perceptions are shown to be false (e.g. drug induced by taking LSD).
■
If there is strong evidence that the object of the experience was not present, did AO1 Activity
not exist (e.g. a mirage). Produce a list of the key challenges
■
If the event experienced can be accounted for in other ways as a reality and not to the objectivity and authenticity
just in your imagination. of religious experiences and provide
If all lines of investigation above are exhausted then how do we explain a religious an example for each challenge on
experience? Again, the heart of the argument is that religious experience concerns your list, e.g. the challenge from
the reliability of our sense experiences. However, when someone tells us about their Falsification – Wisdom’s parable
experience, rather than us having the experience ourselves, should we believe them? of the Gardener. This will help you
Swinburne uses the principle of credulity to develop his principle of testimony. He develop a deeper understanding of
argues that other people’s testimony of religious experiences provides good reason the subject material and support your
to believe that their religious experience is valid and is part of his overall argument ability to develop skills in producing
that God exists. ‘extensive depth and/or breadth’
(Level 5 AO1 response) in your
In other words, in the absence of special considerations, it is reasonable to believe
answers.
that the experiences of others are probably as they report them to be. This is
Swinburne’s principle of testimony. Therefore, religious experiences are validated
and serve as strong evidence for the existence of God, according to Swinburne. The
integrity of the individual is maintained and according to this argument one-off
experiences can still be valid even if never repeated.
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everything you know about the topic You are now nearing the end of this section of the course. From now on the task
area. will have only instructions with no examples; however, using the skills you have
Your new task is this: you will have to write another response under
with excellent use of evidence and timed conditions to a question requiring an examination of the challenges
examples including (where appropriate) to the objectivity and authenticity of religious experience. You will need to
thorough and accurate supporting use do the same as your last AO1 Developing skills task but with some further
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and development. This time there is a fifth point to help you improve the quality of
specialist language. your answers.
you understand something by being 1. Begin with a list of indicative content. Perhaps discuss this as
able to illustrate and expand your a group. It does not need to be in any order.
as rote learning).
information.

or examples.
5. Use the band descriptors to mark your own answer,

considering carefully the descriptors. Then ask someone else
to read your answer and see if they can help you improve it in
any way.
Swap and compare answers to improve your own.
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Philosophy T4

content and skills
The extent to which the challenges to
religious experience are valid The extent to which the challenges to
The first challenge to religious experiences is that they are not really the same religious experience are valid.
as sense experiences, even if they have sensory elements to them. However, it
could be contended that just as we are known to each other by a kind of direct
apprehension rather than through our physical body, so in the same way we may
be able to experience God who is non–physical and so the challenge has its obvious
limitations.
Another challenge is that a direct experience of God is impossible as suggested by
the empiricist philosopher David Hume. How can that which is ‘wholly other’ be
partly revealed? If there is something ‘wholly other’ we could not possibly have
knowledge or experience of it. This claim of a direct experience of God does not
really make sense for many people. The response of religious believers, however,
could be that it may be possible for God to enter into time and space and it is also a
reasonable argument to believe that God would seek to interact with creation.
It has been argued by the logical positivists that a religious experience cannot be
verified. The nature of religious experiences are such that they have their own
level or ‘reality’ or ‘fantasy’ that is quite separate to meaningful logical analysis.
Pitted against this are that some religious experiences appear to be shared by
many people and so cannot be fabricated or ‘fantasy’. Indeed, there may be criteria
external to the experience that would add weight to its validity, for example if the
experience makes a noticeable difference to religious life of the person. Swinburne
adds to this that the onus is on the sceptic to show the experience is delusive.
Although some experiences may be experienced by more than one person, there
is still the issue of the lack of overall uniformity of religious experiences. They
are so different and sometimes contradictory. Which one is valid and which one
is true? However, God may reveal himself in terms of cultural beliefs that we
will understand and interpret and the fact that there are different experiences
recounted do not mean they are all in error. Maybe only one religion is correct so
the other religious experiences are false, but those of that one religion are true?
Science has provided challenges to religious experiences; for example, in the
field of physiology and neurology and the experiments by Persinger. Such
challenges conclude that religious experiences once again have clear materialistic
explanations. However, it could be argued that the neurological changes associated
with religious experiences may mean such activity does in fact perceive a spiritual
reality, rather than the explanation being that it is solely the brain that is causing
those experiences. Stimulating the temporal lobes, such as in Persinger’s Helmet,
may not induce, that is, be the cause of, the religious experience but rather be the
process that can facilitate it. It is clearly difficult to isolate what is the cause and
what is the effect.
Finally, there are psychological explanations such as collective neurosis, the primal
horde and the Oedipus Complex suggested by Freud and the arguments of Jung
that provide a positive, but materialistic account of religious experiences. However,
it should be indicated that such theories, especially on the part of Jung, were never
intended to debate issues of authenticity or validity with regard to the truth claims
of religious experiences. Instead they simply provide a suitable explanation for the
process by which human beings encounter such experiences. Indeed, Jung’s theory
of archetypes can be more simply explained by the fact that all human beings share
similar experiences.
In conclusion, key questions still remain despite the challenges. For example, if
103

there is a God, why doesn’t he reveal himself to everyone, especially if he wants us
to believe in him? Then again, although some have claimed religious experiences
might be explained by natural causes, is it reasonable to think that all claimed
religious experiences are wrong? Richard Dawkins himself tried out Persinger’s
Helmet and he claimed it did not produce any sensation of a religious experience.
So what conclusion can be drawn? Does it weaken or strengthen the challenge to
religious experience? Although challenges are clearly valid, the solutions are far
from being confirmed.

1. Challenges to religious experience are valid and can accurately account
for them.
2. Challenges to religious experience are valid but have their limitations.
Richard Dawkins, born 1941
3. Challenges to religious experience are not valid because they have been
adequately responded to.
Richard Dawkins believed that those who
claimed to have undergone religious 4. Challenges to religious experience are valid but so too are possible counter-
experiences were at best misguided. Taking arguments.
part in the Persinger’s Helmet experiment, 5. Challenges to religious experience are valid but the answers and
Dawkins claimed to have felt nothing other explanations of the phenomenon of religious experience are still uncertain.
than a mild tingling sensation. Consider each of the conclusions drawn above and collect evidence and
examples to support each argument from the AO1 and AO2 material studied
in this section. Select one conclusion that you think is most convincing and
explain why it is so. Now contrast this with the weakest conclusion in the list,
justifying your argument with clear reasoning and evidence.
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Philosophy T4
The persuasiveness of Franks Davis’ Specification content

different challenges The persuasiveness of Franks Davis’
different challenges.
Franks Davis has put forward three distinct challenges to the authenticity of
religious experiences. In order to assess their persuasiveness, we need to consider
each challenge in turn.
The first challenge is the description-related challenge, which argues that
when any event is described that claims itself to be an experience of ‘God’
or ‘The Divine’, then a claim is being made for which there is no proof. This
invalidates the description because the claim is inconsistent or contradictory
with normal everyday experience. A religious experience, therefore, is merely a
misunderstanding of the experience on the part of the recipient.
Whilst this challenge seems reasonable, there is a major flaw in the reasoning.
Aside from the issue of ‘proof’, which has its own problems in philosophy, the real
problem with this challenge is with the limited understanding of ‘experience’. It
is clear that this is a very materialist-based assumption akin to the empiricism
of Hume. Experience may not just be a matter of normal everyday experience.
Indeed, what makes religious experience different is that it could be argued to be
an experience of the ‘abnormality’ of a possible spiritual realm that filters into the
normal.
The second challenge is to do with subject-related challenges. This challenge,
suspects that the recipient (subject) of the religious experience is unreliable as a
source, and that they may be considered to be suffering from a mental illness or
to have been suffering delusions brought about by some sort of substance misuse.
Impaired perceptions and understanding thus mean that the recipient must have
their claims dismissed.
Again, this challenge seems quite logical. However, aside from the objections
raised to scientific and psychological explanations, the work of Richard Swinburne
in using his principles of credulity and testimony are a strong defence of those
who claim to have had a religious experience. Swinburne proposed the principle
of credulity, stating that it is reasonable to believe that the world is probably as
we experience it to be unless there are special reasons for thinking the experience
is false. In the light of some challenges to the objections raised, he argues that
religious experiences can therefore be verified. If this is the case, then, Swinburne
uses the principle of credulity as part of his argument to derive his principle
of testimony, which then argues that other people’s testimony of religious
experiences provides good reason to believe that God exists because one seems to
perceive is probably the case (principle of credulity). This is because many people,
on the basis of apparent (perceptual rather than inferred) direct experiences
of God, take it that God exists and in the the absence of special considerations,
it is reasonable to believe that the experiences of others are probably as they
report them (principle of testimony). Although Swinburne uses this as part of his
overall argument for the existence of God, the points he make do challenge the
persuasiveness of Franks Davis’ subject-related challenges.
Finally, the object-related challenges centre on the likelihood of having experienced
something such as the recipient claims being so unlikely as to be entirely untrue.
However, it could be argued that the nature of the experience is very different from
a hypothetical experience of a flying antelope and some would also suggest that it
merely points to the possibility for something else ‘existing’ in a different way than
we normally perceive, that is, in a spiritual sense.
In conclusion, although the challenges put forward by Franks Davis do appear
persuasive, it is clear that if these challenges are themselves challenged, their
persuasiveness is also questioned.
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1. Franks Davis’ different challenges are persuasive in that they recount and
highlight some of the central problems with religious experiences.
2. Franks Davis’ different challenges are not persuasive at all as there are many
responses that have been given to them.
3. Franks Davis’ different challenges are really an amalgamation of general
challenges to religious experiences that have already been well debated.
4. Franks Davis’ different challenges are persuasive for those who already
Richard Swinburne, born 1934 assume that there is nothing beyond the material real, that is, they are
materialists.
Richard Swinburne refuted the idea that
5. Franks Davis’ different challenges are not persuasive because they have a
religious experiences could be easily
clear materialistic basis and allow no possibility of a religious experience in
dismissed and with his principles of
the first place.
testimony and credulity, stated that people
should be believed when they claimed Consider each of the conclusions drawn above and collect evidence and
to have had an experience that might be examples to support each argument from the AO1 and AO2 material studied
described as religious, unless there were in this section. Select one conclusion that you think is most convincing and
strong grounds to doubt what they had explain why it is so. Now contrast this with the weakest conclusion in the list,
said. justifying your argument with clear reasoning and evidence.
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Philosophy T4

of view.
You are now nearing the end of this section of the course. From now on the task various implications of the issues raised
developed in completing the earlier tasks, you should be able to apply what you detailed argument with a clear
have learned to do and complete this successfully. conclusion.
Your new task is this: you will have to write another response under timed This means that the answer weighs
conditions to a question requiring an evaluation of the extent to which the up the various and different lines of
challenges to religious experience are valid. You will need to do the same as argument analysed through individual
your last AO2 Developing skills task but with some further development. This commentary and response and arrives
time there is a fifth point to help you improve the quality of your answers. at a conclusion through a clear process
of reasoning.

information.


any way.
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T1 Ethical thought

content and skills A: Divine Command theory
Meta-ethical theory. An introduction to ethics
The study of ethics examines the guiding principles that direct an action. Ethics
as a discipline is a study of the various systems of moral values that exist today.
Key terms Ethics analyses not only how these values direct a person’s actions if they wish to
Applied ethics: the debates that arise be morally good, but it also identifies the obligations behind the purpose of doing
when ethical issues are considered right rather than wrong.
Ethics: from the Greek ‘ethike’ The framework of guiding principles that is identified through a study of ethics
meaning habit or behaviour and is called an ethical theory. For those involved, acting consistently within this
closely related to the word ethos, it is framework is acting morally, or sometimes referred to as right behaviour.
a study of the framework of guiding
Sometimes a person, sometimes referred to as a ‘moral agent’ in ethics, may
principles that direct an action
choose to act contrary to a given framework and so be said to be acting immorally
Meta-ethics: the debates that arise or wrongly. In ethics, right and wrong generally have stronger meanings than just
when the nature of ethics is considered error or misjudgement. There is often an implied ‘going against character’ or failing
Moral: a term used to describe ethical to be the sort of person required in relation to set expectations – a standard of
behaviour which the moral agent has fallen short. There is an indication that the moral agent
Normative ethics: the debates has done something he or she is obliged not to do.
that arise when ethical theories are
considered Meta-ethical theory
In the study of ethics there is a distinction made between meta-ethics and
normative ethics. Meta-ethics is the study of the nature of ethical thinking, for
Key quotes example a consideration of why we act as we do, or, whether or not ‘right’ and
The unexamined life is not worth ‘wrong’ are dependent upon self-interest, subjective view or objective standards.
living. (Socrates) Normative ethics is the study of the content of, or the principles that underlie, a
specific ethical theory. Applied ethics is the term used to describe the debates that
Two things fill me with wonder: the arise when normative ethical theories are applied to issues that arise in practice in
starry sky above and the moral law the real world.
within. (Kant) Ethics, then, considers meaning behind terms such as ‘moral’ and ‘right’, studies
proposed theories that outline what is considered as ‘moral’ and ‘right’ behaviour,
Our duty can be defined as that and, considers how such theories work in practice.
action which will cause more good
This first Theme of your course will consider three meta-ethical questions:
to exist in the universe than any
possible alternative. (Moore) Section A: Whether or not ethical behaviour is independent of a divine being?
Section B: Whether or not ethical behaviour is to do with virtues more than rules?
A man without ethics is a wild beast Section C: Whether or not ethical behaviour originates with self-interest?
loosed upon this world. (Camus)
1.1 What does meta-ethics study? Give

an example.
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Ethics T1 Ethical thought
Key terms used in categorising ethical theories

Philosophers have identified common links between the various ethical theories 1.2 What is a moral agent?
and have categorised them into groups. It is important to have an understanding of
these terms as they will arise throughout the A Level course. Key terms
Absolutists believe that there exists a standard of right and wrong that is fully Absolutist: an ethical system that
and totally binding on all human beings. Those who are religious may feel that this believes there exists a standard of
absolute standard proceeds from the mind and will of a supreme being. Those who right and wrong that is fully and totally
are not religious may believe that the standard simply exists. binding on all human beings
Relativists believe that there is no absolute right or wrong. They do not see Objective: a theory that is
morality as imposing a binding obligation on human beings to behave in a independent of personal view
particular way. They see morality as the response of human communities to issues Relativist: an ethical system that
of how to behave in relation to each other. There are no absolute rules, but there believes there is no absolute right or
are norms of behaviour that promote goodwill and happiness or some other wrong
desirable objective. Subjective: a theory that is dependent
A relativist can say that she finds a certain course of action unjust or morally on a personal view
wrong, but it is difficult for her to conclude that someone else should feel that this
action was wrong. To the absolutist, a wrong course of action is something that
they are under a binding and absolute obligation not to do.
Whereas the absolutist would have to say: ‘This is wrong for me and for you and
for everyone’, the relativist could say: ‘This is wrong for me but may be right for
you,’ which is something the absolutist could never say.
There is some ambiguity in the terms absolutist and relativist in that they are not
always mutually exclusive but can overlap; for example, relativist systems may have
an absolutist element. Hence, moral relativists might agree on very basic human
values, such as respect for property, even though they may interpret this very
differently. Key quote
In ethics, a theory is described as subjective if its truth is dependent on the
At the descriptive level, certainly,
person’s view. Mackie observes: ‘What is often called moral subjectivism is the
you would expect different cultures
doctrine that, for example, “This action is right” means “I approve of this action”, or
to develop different sorts of ethics
more generally that moral judgements are equivalent to reports of the speaker’s
and obviously they have; that
own feelings or attitudes.’
doesn’t mean that you can’t think of
A theory is described as objective if its truth is independent of a person’s view. overarching ethical principles you
This is sometimes referred to as moral realism and the idea is that moral values
would want people to follow in all
are like mathematical numbers. Julia Driver comments: ‘Moral truth can have
kinds of places. (Singer)
a basis similar to mathematical truth. I can’t see 2 + 2 = 4; I know it to be true
nevertheless. When I see four apples grouped out there in the world, I know “There
are four apples” is true, even though I don’t see a big fat “4” flashing over them. Am
I justified in believing in moral facts? If I am justified believing in numbers, this line
of reasoning goes, then yes.’
It seems natural to link subjective with relativist, since both terms imply freedom
of choice of the individual: nothing is fixed and immovable. However, there is also
a sense in which subjective can be linked to absolutist. For example, you might
conclude that no ethical theory can be absolutist since our values stem from our
own feelings and choices. However, you may also think that some of those feelings
and choices are universal to human beings, and so apply to everyone. This implies
that it is not a contradiction to have an ethical theory that is subjectively grounded
but holds to absolute values.
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An ethical dilemma often raises questions about the consequences of various
Key terms actions that could be taken. Indeed, it is often the case that thinking about the
Consequentialism: an ethical theory goal of a particular action persuades us whether or not to take that action. Such an
based on considering consequences approach that focuses on the consequences is called a teleological ethical theory.
Deontological: a theory that explores Teleological comes from the Greek, meaning end or purpose. In such theories,
obligation or duty the rightness or wrongness of an action is identified by the consequences it
Teleological: a theory concerned produces. If the theory held that the action that best resulted in ‘the good of the
with the end purpose or goal of majority’ was the criterion for judging right action, then the right action would be
an action the one that produces the most good for the majority. It is the result and not the
action, which directs the right course of behaviour. This approach is also called
consequentialism, since it claims that the value of the consequences of our
actions is decisive for their moral status as right or wrong.
Deontological comes from the Greek, meaning obligation or duty. In such
theories there is a relationship between duty and the morality of human actions.
Therefore, deontological ethical theories are concerned with the acts themselves,
irrespective of any consequences of those acts. For instance, a deontologist
Key quote might argue that murder was wrong whatever the situation or consequence, and
An ethical dilemma arises when therefore euthanasia was morally wrong.
two or more causes of conduct may The study of applied ethics is complex and difficult because it is the point at which
be justifiable in any given set of principles are tested in the real world. Applied ethics often involves an ethical
circumstances, possibly resulting dilemma, that is, the potential conflicting nature of set principles. This sometimes
in diametrically opposed outcomes. challenges a person to re-examine and re-interpret these principles.
(Mason and Laurie)
AO1 Activity
Create some study cards with some key terms you have learned about in
this section.
Study tip
It is important when writing an answer in ethics to use the correct terminology
with reference to ethical theories.
Specification content Divine Command theory: God as the origin

God as the origin and regulator of and regulator of morality
morality; right or wrong as objective Plato wrote a dialogue entitled Euthyphro, in Socrates 469–399 BCE
truths based on God’s will/command, which a character named Euthyphro takes his
moral goodness is achieved by father to court, charging him with murder. His
complying with Divine Command; father failed in care and attention and allowed a
Divine Command a requirement of worker to die. Socrates, a philosopher, is at the
God’s omnipotence; Divine Command court awaiting his own trial, and so he engages
as an objective meta-physical Euthyphro in dialogue about moral goodness. In
foundation for morality. the dialogue Socrates poses the question that has
become known as the Euthyphro dilemma:
Euthyphro: ‘Well, I should certainly say that what’s
holy is whatever all the Gods approve of, and that its
opposite, what all the Gods disapprove of, is unholy…’
Socrates: ‘We’ll soon be in a better position to judge,
my good chap. Consider the following point: is the
holy approved by the Gods because it’s holy, or is it
holy because it’s approved?’ (Plato)
In other words, Socrates is asking whether God
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commands things because they are good in themselves, or are things good because
God commands and approves them? Put simply, does good exist independently, Key quote
and separate from approval, or does good exist as a consequence of it being Proponents of this view sometimes
approved? hold that ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ mean,
This is the first meta-ethical question for consideration. respectively, commanded and
Divine Command theory, also known as theological voluntarism, proposes that forbidden by God, but even if they
God has established eternal, objective principles of morality. As Frankena puts it, do not define ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in
‘the standard of right and wrong is the will or law of God’. this way, they all hold that an action
Followers of the Divine Command accept that there is an objective standard for
or kind of action is right or wrong
ethics but that the standard is not external to God, but rather originates with God. if and only if and because it is
In simple terms, that which God says is good becomes good. Right or wrong as commanded or forbidden by God, or,
objective truths are based on God’s will and command. This raises a problem. in other words, that what ultimately
makes an action right or wrong is its
If God were to command things because they are good, then this implies that there
is a standard of goodness independent of God. This would mean, then, that God is
being commanded or forbidden by
no longer the creator of everything. There would be a standard of values outside God and nothing else. (Frankena)
of his control and creativity. However, Divine Command proposes that the ethical
template for what is good originates with God and cannot be external from God.
The idea of a Divine Command theory is a requirement of God’s omnipotence.
JAT Robinson summarises this position well in his book Honest to God: ‘They are the Key quote
commandments which God gives, the laws which he lays down … They come down
God sets the moral rules and God’s
direct from Heaven, and are eternally valid for human conduct … Certain things are
rules apply to all, irrespective of
always “wrong” and “nothing can make them right”, and certain things are always
“sins”, whether or not they are judged by differing human societies to be “crimes”.’
time and place. The problem here
is that, actually, there are reasons
Robert Adams’ ‘Modified Divine Command to believe that God, if he exists, is
the greatest relativist of them all.
theory’ (Baggini)
The problems that this view raises are numerous, but there is another problem
that relates to the Euthyphro dilemma, namely, that if something is good because Specification content
God wills it is good, then can God will to be good that which we may consider evil? Robert Adams’ ‘Modified Divine
As Frankena puts it: ‘If God were to order the exact opposite of what we generally Command theory’ (Divine Command
take him to have ordered or of what we take to be right, then, by the hypothesis based on God’s omnibenevolence).
in question, this would be what we ought to do.’ This is often referred to as the
arbitrariness problem.
Certainly, some have argued that this is exactly in keeping with depictions of God
and his followers in the Bible, as Baggini points out: ‘Christian texts seem to provide
evidence that this is precisely what their God has done’. This is justified further in
the writings of William of Ockham who argues that God can perform acts that
according to common law are evil, but without involving any evil. This even extends
to those who are on earth and subject to ‘Divine Command’.
Key quotes
I reply that hatred, theft, adultery, and the like may involve evil according to
the common law, in so far as they are done by someone who is obligated by a
Divine Command to perform the opposite act. As far as everything absolute in
these actions is concerned, however, God can perform them without involving
any evil. And they can even be performed meritoriously by someone on earth if
they should fall under a Divine Command, just as now the opposite of these, in
fact, fall under a Divine Command. (William of Ockham)
Robert Adams born 1937
There are, however, certain exceptions to the law against killing, made by the
authority of God himself. There are some whose killing God orders, either by
law, or by an express command to a particular person at a particular time.
(Augustine)
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The major issue of Divine Command theory – leading to any ethical system it
proposes being arbitrary, that is, dependent on the whim of a creator God – has led
to a development and refinement in Divine Command theory, proposed by Robert
Adams.
1.3 What is an absolutist ethical theory? Adams argued that because morality is grounded in the character of God, who
is perfectly good, then God’s commands are rooted in God’s character. Since a
Key quote
characteristic of God is his omnibenevolence, then whatever God commands will
Any action is ethically wrong inevitably reflect this, God’s character. That is not the same thing as saying that God
if and only if it is contrary to and good are identical. God is not the very same thing as goodness. Goodness is
the commands of a loving God. an essential characteristic of God, it is grounded in the character of God. Morality,
(Adams) therefore, reflects at all times the omnibenevolent character of God.
This means, then, that morality cannot be arbitrary because it is grounded in the
Key term unchanging omnibenevolent nature of God. In the same way God cannot therefore
Omnibenevolence: God’s all-loving be subject to a moral law that exists external to him either.
nature
Key quote
On the Modified Divine Command theory, the moral law is a feature of God’s
1.4 What is another term for nature. Given that the moral law exists internal to God, in this sense, God is
consequentialism?
not subject to an external moral law, but rather is that moral law. God therefore
retains his supreme moral and metaphysical status. Morality, for the modified
1.5 Which characteristic of God is most
Divine Command theorist, is ultimately grounded in the perfect nature of God.
important in Divine Command theory? (Austin)
Specification content Challenges to Divine Command theory

Challenges: the Euthyphro dilemma The obvious challenge from the Euthyphro dilemma is traditionally seen to have
(inspired by Plato); arbitrariness two aspects to it. Firstly, is morality arbitrary if it is down to the command of a
problem (Divine Command divine being? Secondly, if God decides upon what is good then does this suggest
theory renders morality as purely God does this because they are right and good independent of God? In other
arbitrary); pluralism objection words, traditional Divine Command theory may be suggesting that morality is
(different religions claim different indeed a matter external to God.
Divine Commands). Robert Adams, in his Modified Divine Command theory, has addressed this
matter in pointing out that both the arbitrariness and external objectivity issues
Key quote are redundant when one considers Divine Command as an expression of God’s
omnibenevolence. However, not all are convinced. For some philosophers this just
The idea that God could just decree extends the problem and does not solve it. For example, Julian Baggini perceptively
that all that we thought evil was in observes, ‘This doesn’t seem to work, however, because the dilemma can just be
fact good and vice versa seems to restated: is God’s nature good because it is good or good because it is God’s’! The
make a mockery of the seriousness debate about Robert Adams’ Modified Divine Command theory continues.
of ethics. It makes right and wrong
ultimately arbitrary. (Baggini)
Key quote
For regressive avoidance, morality must not have ultimate grounds in obedience
to independent commanders: God must possess moral characteristics in want
of no further authority … why is morality seen as needing an external lawgiver
when, finally, a moral rabbit is pulled from a divine hat, a rabbit in no need of
an external anything? (Cave)
There are also clear problems with Divine Command theory when it comes to
consider the relationship between religion and morality as there are very different
ethical systems and principles that can be found within the religions of the world.
The questions this raises include: ‘which system is right?’ and, ‘are these systems
compatible?’. It is very clear that although there may be some common moral ideas
identified between religions, there are also differences.
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In addition, not only do we have different systems but we also have the problem
of identifying a specific religious ethic within a religion and then the variety Key quote
of interpretations this may be given. For example, consider the conflicting If there are reasons why God deems
interpretations of Shari’a found in the different law schools within Islam, or, the an action to be ‘right’ or ‘wrong’,
variety of understandings and applications of the precepts within Buddhism, or, then it is really those reasons that
the different views on Old Testament law within Christianity. Many conflicts arise provide the account of ‘right’ and
between some very respected and virtuous principles: for example, ‘Thou shalt ‘wrong’ and not God’s will. (Driver)
not kill’ is directly challenged by the principle of agape when it comes to issues of
abortion and euthanasia. Can Gandhi’s understanding and use of ahimsa as an
absolute principle work in a time of war?
In addition, there are the more controversial aspects of conflict when a small
minority group within a religion may propose specific interpretations of ethical
principles based upon a particular reading of religious texts as Divine Command
that other groups within that same religion may disagree with. There are a number
1.6 Explain one problem associated with
of examples ranging from women’s’ rights to matters of punishment Divine Command theory.
for homosexuality.
For example, some Christians still condemn homosexuality, whether in terms of
sexuality or the acts involved. They often refer to Biblical texts from both the Old
and New Testaments. However, there is a problem when it comes to Leviticus
20:13, which states ‘If a man has sexual relations with a man as one does with a
woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They are to be put to death;
their blood will be on their own heads.’ This raises several problems for Divine
Command theorists.
If God commands this then the full letter of the law is to be applied and
homosexual men should receive the death penalty. But this is contrary to 21st-
century law. Also, how does the Bible then address homosexual women? Although
Romans 1:26–28 recognises female homosexuality, it does not prescribe the death
penalty for them as it does for men in Leviticus 20:13. In addition, what about
wider teachings of tolerance and forgiveness taught by Jesus? Do such wider
teachings supersede this text? If so, does that mean the Divine Command can be
relative to a particular historical and social context? If not, then Divine Command
must advocate slavery as acceptable as it is not condemned in the Bible along with
many other views that are seen as unacceptable today. The main challenge, then,
to Divine Command is that it has no flexibility to adapt to the changing views about
morality that are accepted by most people today.
AO1 Activity
Study tip
Write down a conversation that Socrates would have with Robert Adams about
When writing an answer on ethics
the nature of morality. Included reference to the Euthyphro dilemma, the
always try to back up the point you
nature of good, the origins of good, and God’s nature.
are making with clear examples or
reference to evidence, or quotes,
drawn from the works of scholars.
113


key information and NOT writing Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
everything you know about the topic depending upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good,
area. satisfactory, basic/limited to very limited.
Understanding involves: For starters, try using the framework / writing frame provided to help you in
demonstrating depth and/or breadth As the units in each section of the book develop, the amount of support will be
with excellent use of evidence and reduced gradually in order to encourage your independence and the perfecting
examples including (where appropriate) of your AO1 skills.
thorough and accurate supporting use
This means that you demonstrate that EXAM PRACTICE: A WRITING FRAME
points through examples/supporting A focus on examining the different
evidence in a personal way and NOT versions of Divine Command theory.
as rote learning). Divine Command theory proposes that …
Go through the topic areas in this This means that it is objective because …
each one, provide further elaboration The theory suggest that morality is not external to God because …
The problems with the first form of Divine Command theory …
Robert Adams developed …
Adams’ theory has the advantage of …
Not all philosophers are convinced by Adams because …
In conclusion, Divine Command theory …
114


content and skills
Whether morality is what God commands
The issue here is whether or not we can accept the views put forward by Divine
Command theory that morality originates with God. Divine Command theory Whether morality is what God
holds that morality originates with the will of God but, as we have seen, there commands.
has been an ancient challenge from Socrates who asks Euthyphro whether God
commands things because they are good in themselves, or are things good because
God commands and approves them? This brings with it two problems: firstly, the
objection that morality is arbitrary; and, secondly, even if God commands what is
good, it could be because they are already good and independent of God.
On the one hand, we have seen how Robert Adams defends the Divine Command
theory in his modified version by pointing out that because morality is grounded
in God it cannot be arbitrary because it depends upon God’s omnibenevolent
character and so whatever God commands is a reflection of this. In addition, if
morality is grounded in the character of God then it cannot be external.
As we have seen, Julian Baggini rejects Adam’s response because it just extends the
problem and he states, ‘This doesn’t seem to work, however, because the dilemma
can just be restated: is God’s nature good because it is good or good because it AO2 Activity Possible lines
is God’s?’ of argument
There are clear strengths to Divine Command theory. It is consistent with religious Listed below are some conclusions
belief and takes all responsibility away from human beings to make crucial that could be drawn from the AO2
decisions. Its template becomes a secure and consistent guide for life. reasoning in the accompanying text:
However, there are clear weaknesses. First of all, there are inconsistencies. Indeed, 1. Divine Command theory is
some philosophers have argued that Divine Command theory does confirm acceptable as an explanation for
morality as arbitrary if one looks at the Old Testament and God’s interventions. the origin of morality.
Both Augustine and William of Ockham have confirmed that God can will 2. Modified Divine Command theory
anything in relation to morality. But this then raises the question as to God’s solves any problems associated
omnibenevolence. with the idea that morality is what
Again, another line of criticism in accepting that Divine Command theory is God commands.
a suitable explanation for the origins of morality is that there are too many 3. The Euthyphro dilemma is too
inconsistencies both between, and within, religions to accept that morality problematic for any theory
originates with God. For instance, take the issues of abortion and euthanasia and suggesting morality originates
the many different responses. with God.
Finally, there are other explanations that some philosophers see as more suitable 4. There are too many
as an explanation for the origin of morality that have more naturalistic or rational inconsistencies both between, and
justifications, for example virtue theory. within, religions to accept that
In conclusion, it appears to be clear that it is religious belief that dictates the morality originates with God.
answer for many; however, there still remains the issue of how, with God as the 5. There are better meta-ethical
originator of morality, do religious thinkers justify the challenges brought against explanations for the origins of
God’s omnibenevolent nature? morality other than with God.
This is particularly problematic when we consider such matters as homosexuality Consider each of the conclusions
and slavery, and the questions and inconsistencies that are raised. How is a verse drawn above and collect evidence and
like Leviticus 20:13 which states ‘If a man has sexual relations with a man as examples to support each argument
one does with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They are from the AO1 and AO2 material
to be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads.’ compatible with an studied in this section. Select one
omnibenevolent God? conclusion that you think is most
and evidence.
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Specification content Whether Divine Command theory is superior

Whether Divine Command theory to virtue theory or ethical egoism
is superior to virtue theory or
There are clearly several good reasons why Divine Command theory may be argued
ethical egoism.
as superior to other explanations for the origins of morality.
First of all it is consistent in that it is absolutist and universal. The main principles
of morality are clearly set out in religious texts. It is also helpful for many because
it takes away responsibility from human beings and guides them throughout their
lives in moral concerns. Divine Command theory, in its essence, has also stood the
test of time and whilst there are some minor concerns and inconsistencies, there
is an overall core belief about the will of God in relation to morality within and
between religious traditions.
There are, however, problems that one could suggest make it inferior to other
theories about the origins of ethics. Firstly, it is very inflexible in nature compared
to the other two theories when it is applied as a theory to ethics. There is also the
consideration that it is less virtuous overall, and even Christianity through the
teachings of Jesus appears to promote the development of virtue over the idea
that there is a fixed set standard of moral codes to adhere to. Virtue theory has this
strength over Divine Command theory.
Divine Command theory does not account for differences that arise, nor does
AO2 Activity Possible lines it cope well with modern-day problems that are not specifically referenced
of argument in religious texts. Here emerge possible accusations of potential intolerance
towards alternative ways of dealing with problems, for example, with a fixed and
Listed below are some conclusions unalterable view of ‘you shall not kill’ when faced with issues such as embryology,
that could be drawn from the AO2 abortion and euthanasia. Both virtue theory and ethical egoism allow for
reasoning in the accompanying text: differences, and, in the case of ethical egoism, would encourage differences and
1. Divine Command theory is promote tolerance for the actions of individuals in private matters.
superior to other theories. Finally, Divine Command theory does not allow individual growth of a person,
2. Virtue theory is more superior unlike the other two theories of ethics. This is because Divine Command theory
because it promotes responsibility. does not address the issues of intentions and virtues when it comes to ethical
3. Ethical egoism is more suitable decisions. It does not allow a person to reflect upon the reasoning behind the
and flexible an explanation for actions, nor does it allow a person to take responsibility for their decision making.
today and therefore more superior There appears to be a simplistic and blind following of rules with Divine Command
to either virtue theory or Divine theory without any insight into their nature and purpose, and ultimately, the
Command theory. validity of such rules.
4. It is not important which theory In conclusion, it could be argued that superiority is clearly a matter of perspective
is a superior theory, but rather in relation to the purpose of morality. For example, as we have seen from the
which is more practical for society above, for the religious believer that yearns for consistency, simplicity and
today. certainty, Divine Command theory may be a more superior theory to adopt. For
a more individualistic, flexible and personal approach to morality in the modern
5. There is no single theory that is world there are those people, both religious and non-religious, that may prefer
superior to another as they all the focus of developing virtuous behaviour as an alternative. On a more individual
have problems. level there are those who may feel that morality is a matter of personal preference
Consider each of the conclusions and engagement with moral issues in the pursuit of the self-interest advocated by
drawn above and collect evidence and ethical egoism may be the superior option.
and evidence.
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Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor to debate and the lines of argument
of view.
For starters, try using the framework / writing frame provided to help you in Evaluation involves considering the
various implications of the issues raised
As the units in each section of the book develop, the amount of support will be analysis and provides an extensive
reduced gradually in order to encourage your independence and the perfecting detailed argument with a clear
of your AO2 skills. conclusion.
Have a go at answering this question by using the writing frame below. up the various and different lines of
EXAM PRACTICE: A WRITING FRAME of reasoning.
A focus on evaluating whether morality

originates with what God commands.
The issues to discuss here relate to …
On the one hand it could be argued that morality originates with God because …
The advantage of the Divine Command theory is …
On the other hand, there are problems with Divine Command theory as outlined
by Euthyphro …
Although Robert Adams has addressed some of the initial problems associated
with the Euthyphro dilemma …
There are also other problems associated with Divine Command theory
such as …
In addition …
In conclusion, based upon this discussion, it can be seen that …
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content and skills B: Virtue theory
Ethical system based on defining An ethical system based on personal qualities
the personal qualities that make With virtue theory, or as it is often called, the theory of virtue ethics, we see a clear
a person moral; the focus on a shift away from identifying ethical theory as being found in ‘rules’ or ‘principles’,
person’s character rather than their to the quality, correct manner or disposition (hexis) of a human being. Right or
specific actions. wrong are therefore not a matter of rules but of personal character and qualities
that an individual exhibits in his or her behaviour. Virtue theory is all about how
an individual can develop the correct ‘character’ (ethos) so as to behave virtuously,
and, accordingly, that way which is morally correct.
Key quotes
Key terms People have recognisable reasons for doing what is right because doing what
Arete: a Greek word meaning virtue is right, it is argued, is likely to lead to their happiness. Morality and personal
happiness are entwined. (Cave)
Ethos: a Greek word used by Aristotle
for character of a person
Aristotle tells us that the well-being or eudaimonia which is the good for man
Eudaimonia: a Greek word used by is an activity in accordance with virtue … one can do or show too little or too
Aristotle to defi ne the end purpose of
human life to be happiness, flourishing
much of something, one can go too far or not far enough; what constitutes the
or fulfi lment right amount, the virtuous choice, is determined as the man of practical wisdom
would determine it; and he is the man who is good at choosing the means to the
Hexis: a Greek word used by Aristotle
for a person’s manner of behaviour
end of eudaimonia. (Mackie)
Specification content Aristotle’s moral virtues

Aristotle’s moral virtues (based on the The Greek word eudaimonia is key to understanding virtue theory. For Aristotle,
deficiency; the excess and the mean). the word meant happiness or ‘well-being’ in the sense of being successful or
fulfilled. However, it is not a disposition like a virtue but rather an activity of the
Key quote virtuous person. Eudaimonia is the end product generated, the outcome of being
virtuous.
Every art and every inquiry, and
similarly every action and pursuit, The goal of virtue theory, then, is to create the good life, to be happy and fulfilled
is thought to aim at some good; and through cultivating virtues (arete). It is sometimes known as aretaic ethics.
Eudaimonia is integral to every virtuous thing that we do in life. Rather than it
for this reason the good has rightly
being some sort of abstract substance to tap into, ‘happiness is an activity of the
been declared to be that at which all
soul in accordance with virtue’ according to the philosopher Roger Scruton; that
things aim. (Aristotle)
is, it is more about ‘doing’ than ‘being’. This is very significant as the optimum
disposition for eudaimonia is in accordance with virtuous behaviour. The goal of
Key quote virtue theory is to cultivate a virtuous disposition that brings about eudaimonia
Happiness means the general through virtuous actions.
condition of fulfilment or ‘success’. Virtue theory is grounded in Aristotle’s book The Nicomachean Ethics, however, the
It is absurd to ask why we should origins of virtue theory tie in with Aristotle’s whole view about the universe, the
pursue it, since success or fulfilment four causes and idea of teleology (an ultimate goal).
is what every activity intends. Eudaimonia, then, incorporates the idea of well-being, ‘peace’, and goodwill to all
(Scruton) but it also incorporates the physical good life. Aristotle’s virtue theory is a holistic
philosophy that must have a social context and the end result of enabling people to
live together.
Key quote Overall, there are three aspects to happiness according to Aristotle: (1) a life of
Happiness, then, is something final enjoyment, (2) a life with freedom and, (3) being a philosopher (a life of reflection
and self-sufficient, and is the end of and contemplation). The most important virtue of all, wisdom, is the overall
action. (Aristotle)
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characteristic of a person that can maintain all three. Such wisdom is not easily
gained and the good life is not so easily and quickly achieved. As Aristotle says, ‘But
we must add “in a complete life”. For one swallow does not make a summer, nor
does one day; and so too one day, or a short time, does not make a man blessed
and happy.’ 1.7 What does virtue theory concern itself
with?
AO1 Activity
Try and write a brief description of a fictional town that is called Eudaimonia. 1.8 Why is virtue theory not about rules?
In your description write down the ideal features that ensure it is Eudaimonia!
Study tip 1.9 Why is the word eudaimonia

significant?
Any answer in an examination should always select the key relevant points,
that is, the appropriate information relevant to the focus of the question. Try
to explain the points in your own words. This demonstrates more personal
understanding or ‘ownership’ of the knowledge. 1.10 Where can we find Aristotle’s ideas
about virtue theory?
Moral and intellectual virtues Aristotle 384–322 BCE

Aristotle wrote, ‘Since happiness is an
activity of soul in accordance with perfect
virtue, we must consider the nature of
virtue; for perhaps we shall thus see better
the nature of happiness.’ The Greek term
Key quote
arete means ‘virtue’ but it also conveys the
meaning of moral excellence, intellectual Virtue too is distinguished into
excellence and also physical excellence. kinds in accordance with this
Virtue is the idea of being how we are difference; for we say that some
meant to be or being ‘fit for purpose’. of the virtues are intellectual and
According to Aristotle, there are two kinds others moral, philosophic wisdom
of virtue: moral and intellectual. The moral and understanding and practical
virtues are acquired through habit and wisdom being intellectual, liberality
developed through practice. In contrast, and temperance moral. (Aristotle)
the intellectual virtues are developed by
education.
The moral virtues as discussed by Aristotle are:
1. Courage 6. Right or proper ambition
2. Temperance 7. Patience
3. Liberality 8. Truthfulness
4. Generosity (munificence or 9. Wittiness
magnificence) 10. Friendliness Key quote
5. Pride (high-mindedness, concerned 11. Modesty Virtue, then, being of two kinds,
with honour)
12. Righteous indignation. intellectual and moral, intellectual
virtue in the main owes both its
The intellectual virtues as discussed by Aristotle include:
birth and its growth to teaching (for
1. Intelligence or insight which reason it requires experience
2. Scientific knowledge by demonstration and conclusion and time), while moral virtue comes
3. Wisdom about as a result of habit, whence
4. Artistic endeavour through the guidance of reason also its name (ethike) is one that is
formed by a slight variation from the
5. Prudence, i.e. Understanding of good, or common sense to make the
right choice.
word ethos (habit). (Aristotle)
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Once again, it is important to note that such virtues are not easily learned but
rather cultivated carefully. Aristotle compares the development of such virtues with
at first a ‘sketch’ that gradually develops into a picture.
Aristotle also devotes a chapter of his book to the virtue of ‘justice’, although it is
clear that whilst being a virtuous state, it is more a collective outcome of virtuous
behaviour per se. He writes: ‘Justice in this sense, then, is not part of virtue but
virtue entire, nor is the contrary injustice a part of vice but vice entire. What the
difference is between virtue and justice in this sense is plain from what we have
said; they are the same but their essence is not the same; what, as a relation to
one’s neighbour, is justice is, as a certain kind of state without qualification, virtue.’
The scales of justice
Study tip
This section is full of new concepts. In revising, instead of just drawing up a
1.11 Explain how a moral virtue is glossary of key words try changing this into a flow chart that links each aspect of
different from an intellectual virtue. the topic together. Sometimes candidates start to explain one thing and then get
carried away and move from the focus of the question. Stay focused
1.12 Why is justice an important virtue for

Aristotle? Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean
For Aristotle cultivating virtues was to balance the two extremes of excess and
Key quote deficiency. Each extreme brought with it an associated vice. Balancing the virtues
and achieving the mean is no easy feat: ‘Hence also it is no easy task to be good. For
Virtue, then, is a state of character in everything it is no easy task to find the middle’ (Aristotle).
concerned with choice, lying in a
Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean produces three types of person:
mean … Now it is a mean between
two vices, that which depends on 1. The sophron who naturally lives in the mean without effort.
excess and that which depends 2. The enkrates who is tempted but has strong enough will power to live in the
on defect; and again it is a mean mean.
because the vices respectively fall 3. The akrates (‘person without will or weak-willed person’) who is weak
short of or exceed what is right in and cannot live in the mean by overcoming temptation of the vices. Such a
both passions and actions, while character according to Aristotle is said to be incontinent (akrasia).
virtue both finds and chooses that Aristotle’s account of the mean can be summarised in the following table:
which is intermediate. Hence in
respect of its substance and the Excess Deficiency
Mean (virtue)
definition which states its essence associated vice associated vice
virtue is a mean, with regard to Rashness Courage Cowardice
what is best and right an extreme.
(Aristotle) Licentiousness Temperance Insensibility
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality
Key terms Vulgarity Generosity Pettiness
Akrasia: incontinent, that is, lacking
self-restraint and uncontrolled Pride/High-
Vanity Humility
mindedness
Akrates: one who is weak-willed and
overcome by vices Over ambition Proper ambition Lack of ambition
Enkrates: one who is tempted, but Boastfulness Truthfulness Understatement
strong, and lives in the mean
Irascibility Patience Lack of spirit
Sophron: one who effortlessly lives
according to the mean Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness
Obsequiousness Friendliness Cantankerousness
Shyness/bashfulness Modesty Shamelessness
Malicious enjoyment/
Envy/spitefulness Righteous indignation
callousness
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Pythagoras c.570–c.495 BCE There are, according to

many commentators
on Aristotle, four key
virtues that are of
most importance to
Aristotle: temperance
(moderation);
courage; together
with justice; and
wisdom. These virtues
were seen to be the
most important Key quote
for a character to
Wisdom, thoroughly learned, will
develop, with wisdom
never be forgotten. (Pythagoras)
being the virtue
that manages and
drives them all and,
Key quote
naturally, producing
a morally virtuous, or It is better to be silent than
‘just’ outcome. to dispute with the Ignorant.
It is no surprise, then,
(Pythagoras)
that the greatest
advocate of virtue,
according to Aristotle
Key quote
is the philosopher, Do not say a little in many words but
that is, the one who a great deal in a few. (Pythagoras)
pursues the ‘loving’ (philos) and ‘wise’ (sophos). This phrase was first used by
Pythagoras, the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, to describe himself.
AO1 Activity
The virtues table above includes some very technical words to describe specific
qualities. See if you can find out alternative, simpler words to describe each
one. This will help you become familiar with them. Although you will not have
to know them all, it is good to be familiar with a few to use as examples in an
answer.
Study tip
When discussing virtue theory, do not simply list the virtues but be selective
using Aristotle’s three characters to exemplify them. Some candidates confuse
the virtues and the vices, especially since Aquinas lists pride as one of the
seven sins.
Jesus’ teachings on virtues Specification content

There is a long history of encouraging virtues in the Christian tradition, much of Jesus’ teachings on virtues
which can be traced back to the Old Testament and such works as Ecclesiastes in (the Beatitudes).
particular. Although traditionally many people may associate Christianity and its
teachings with rules and commandments, in the Sermon on the Mount, found
in Matthew’s Gospel chapters 5–7, the first section begins with Jesus promoting
specific inward qualities or virtues.
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Each virtue is considered ‘blessed’ and has a corresponding spiritual reward.
Jesus’ blessing is praise and affirmation in recognition of the virtuous quality
Key term
demonstrated. The text reads:
Beatitude: blessing given by Jesus for
certain personal virtues ‘Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven.
Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.
Key quote Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled.
Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy.
Even more striking, when seen Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.
against the background of Greek Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God.
ethics, is the positive value which Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the
Christianity attaches to qualities kingdom of Heaven.’
such as meekness and humility, in
(Matthew 5:3–12)
contrast to self-assertion and world
success. This is a central theme So the virtues identified by Jesus are: poor in spirit; mourning; meek; a hunger and
of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, thirst for righteousness; mercy; purity of heart; peacemakers; and, the persecuted
for the sake of righteousness.
which begins with the Beatitudes.
(Norman) The virtues have been the subject of much theological debate over the centuries.
Some scholars see them as echoes of Isaiah 61:1–3 that refers to freedom from
poverty, heartbreak, imprisonment and mourning, declaring hope for the righteous
Key quote who are in despair, and comfort for those who mourn. Alternatively, it can be
The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord viewed as the antithesis of Proverbs 6:16–19 which describes the unrighteous
is on me, because the Lord has character. There are many different ways of understanding these but below is a
anointed me to proclaim good news general summary of views about what each one means.
to the poor. He has sent me to bind
Virtue Meaning
up the broken-hearted, to proclaim
freedom for the captive and release The term poor in spirit is often interpreted as an
from darkness for the prisoners, understanding of poverty in relation to the whole person;
to proclaim the year of the Lord’s that is, physical, mental and spiritual. For example, those who
favour and the day of vengeance of are oppressed, enslaved, have their rights taken from them.
Poor in spirit
our God, to comfort all who mourn, Such people are humble before God. This also incorporates
and provide for those who grieve in those who are ‘poor in spirit’ through an awareness of their
Zion – to bestow on them a crown own insignificance, hopelessness and helplessness before
of beauty instead of ashes, the oil God.
of joy instead of mourning and a The idea of ‘mourning’ extends beyond the immediate
garment of praise instead of a spirit concern for loss of a loved one to the loss of possessions,
of despair. They will be called oaks status, or even health. It is the state of recognising concern
Mourning
of righteousness, a planting of the and regret for the current situation of being separated from
Lord for the display of his splendour. God. It is also ‘mourning’ for the state of the whole world in
(Isaiah 61:1–3) general.
Psalm 37:11 reads that ‘The meek will possess the land’.
Key quote Meekness is not weakness but more a description of discipline
Meek
and self-control exhibiting a gentle disposition towards
There are six things the Lord hates,
others.
seven that are detestable to him:
haughty eyes, a lying tongue, hands This is often understood as a desire for the virtuous outcome
Hungry and
that shed innocent blood, a heart of justice in life in relation to the kingdom of God. It is often
thirsty for
that devises wicked schemes, feet understood as depicting the virtue of seeking righteousness
righteousness
that are quick to rush into evil, a or justice in a personal, spiritual, social and global sense.
false witness who pours out lies and Through humility and an awareness of God’s mercy,
a person who stirs up conflict in the Christians are encouraged to display mercy towards others,
Mercy
community. (Proverbs 6:16–19) not because it brings the reward of God’s mercy, but because
it is a virtuous disposition in itself.
122

Virtue Meaning
Often understood as sincerity of character that wills and
Pure in heart determines the correct choices and decisions in life without
the contamination of selfish drives.
Traditionally ascribed to the role of the Messiah, those who
Peacemakers follow suit and work for peace in a world of conflict truly
appreciate the nature of God’s kingdom.
Such character displays a willingness to suffer for religious
Persecuted for
and moral principles but simultaneously display an
the sake of
underlying determination to survive and stand up for what is
righteousness
right despite the obstacles.
1.13 Where in the Old Testament can we
find examples of virtues encouraged?
AO1 Activity
Look at Aristotle’s virtues and those given by Jesus. Are there any similarities?
Are there differences? Write some down.
Study tip
It is always good to be able to quote from religious texts in an answer to support
your explanation or argument. The beatitudes are quite lengthy but try to
shorten them so that they are more useful as quotes.
Jesus preaching the Sermon on the Mount (painting by Carl Heinrich Bloch)
123

Specification content Challenges to virtue theory

Challenges: virtues are not a practical Virtue theory can be seen to be an alternative and attractive way to pursue ethical
guide to moral behaviour; issue of standards. Although the virtues are self-focused, they are in fact ‘other regarding’.
cultural relativism (ideas on the good Despite beginning with the self, virtue theory then moves on to develop a character
virtues are not universal); virtues can that responds best to others and hence builds an ideal community. There is
be used for immoral acts. therefore a strong social context for virtue theory and in this way it can be viewed
as a very practical system. It focuses on the way we behave and not simply what we
believe should be the case!
In addition, the virtuous person is an exemplar of good character, and virtue theory
therefore has clear guiding principles. It also acknowledges the fact that such
exemplars (philosophers) can serve as good role models. Indeed, Aristotle argued
that the wisdom in application and the delivery of justice for society ensure that it
Key quote works and is not subjective.
Virtue theory could also appeal to feminist thinkers as an alternative to the rules
He has all the virtues I dislike
and duties that, some argue, are stereotypically a male way of approaching life.
and none of the vices I admire.
Most of the systems in place have been devised by men, for men.
(Churchill)
Despite various attractive aspects of virtue theory, there are challenges that have
been raised.
Key quote The main issue with virtue theory as a system is that it does not conveniently
We value virtue but do not discuss fall within the ‘deontological’ or ‘teleological’ category due to its focus on
it. The honest bookkeeper, the characteristics of a person. Nonetheless, its links with Aristotle and Aquinas have
faithful wife, the earnest scholar get caused some to question whether or not it is really a form of Natural Law. Others
little of our attention compared to see it as more ‘teleological’ due to its focus on achieving eudaimonia.
the embezzler, the tramp, the cheat. There have been more specific challenges.
(Steinbeck)
Virtues are not a practical guide to moral behaviour
As a system, virtue theory can be argued to be arbitrary, imprecise and vague
because it lacks a focus on real behaviour in relation to real-life situations. More
guidance is required if it is to be effective as a moral system.
In virtue theory there is also too much dependence on the potential goodness of
others. It is naive in this respect and has an unconditional trust that allows for no
overall control or individual quality control. It is, essentially, too individualistic
because it deals primarily with the individual and so is not practical for society as a
whole.
Overall, it seems too complex for many human beings to apply; even Aristotle
recognised that not everyone has the same ability when resisting vice.
Cultural relativism and the use of virtues for immoral acts

Do virtues really exist? For example, there are various degrees of behaviour and
there have been clear instances in the history of the world when one society’s
virtue is considered another society’s vice.
For example, take the virtue of courage. Courage could be seen as putting up with
injustice and persecution in one society or system of belief, whereas it could be
seen as an active participation in the challenge to tyranny in defence of one’s own
A war hero wearing medals rights in another society. Warriors have often been praised for their courage. There
are many more examples associated with other virtues.
As a system virtue theory can be contradictory – if there are differences in
expressing a virtue then which is the right one to choose? It is very subjective.
Indeed, virtue theory has been argued to be self-centred; for example, the idea
of well-being can be understood as self-interest, or, at the very least have the
potential for this. In the light of this there is no guarantee that the action one agent
performs has a moral outcome as it does not really consider the consequences
for others.
124


Your new task is this: from the list of ten key points below, choose six that everything you know about the topic
you feel are the most important in answering the question above the list. Put area.
your points in order of priority explaining why they are the six most important
aspects to mention from that topic. This skill of prioritising and selecting
appropriate material will help you in answering examination questions for AO1. Explanation that is extensive,
A focus on outlining the challenges to virtue theory. with excellent use of evidence and
1. The main issue with virtue theory as a system is that it does not thorough and accurate supporting use
conveniently fall within the ‘deontological’ or ‘teleological’ category due to
its focus on characteristics of a person.
2. Its links with Aristotle and Aquinas have also caused some to question you understand something by being
whether or not it is really a form of Natural Law and therefore in essence a able to illustrate and expand your
deontological system. points through examples/supporting
3. Virtue theory is ‘teleological’ due to its focus on achieving eudaimonia but
as rote learning).
this makes it potentially subjective.
4. Virtue theory can be accused of being arbitrary, imprecise and vague Once you have made your choices
because it lacks a focus on real behaviour in relation to real life situations. and selected your information,
compare them with another student.
5. Virtue theory has very little practical guidance. See if together you can decide on six
and their correct order, this time, in
6. Virtue theory has very little overall quality control in determining what is sequence for answering a question.
correct, and therefore good, behaviour.
7. Virtue theory is too dependent on the goodness of others.
8. Virtue theory places too much focus on the individual and could be
accused of being self-centred.
9. It is too complex and intelligent a system for all and only relevant for the
philosopher.
10. Are there really such things as virtues?
125


content and skills
Specification content Whether being a good person is better than
Whether being a good person is just doing good deeds
better than just doing good deeds. The main issue for debate here is the challenge that this assertion makes to
traditional views of morality as following set instructions and codes of behaviour
to become moral and be a good person. Virtue theory holds that this is far too
simplistic and that being a good person involves more than this.
The central problem with the idea that doing good deeds makes one a good person
is that just following rules is not really edifying for ‘character’. In other words, such
a simplistic understanding of goodness is just superficial because it is grounded
in the action and not in the person. For instance, a good deed may be done with
impure motives, without good intention. Someone who is angry and wants to
be violent towards others may not act accordingly because of rules, but does that
make them ‘good’ in character when they are full of hate and bad intentions? In
the same way, a person may give to charity but if they are only doing this from a
reluctant duty or to appear good to others does that mean they are good?
Nevertheless, an alternative line of argument could be that a person still chooses
right over wrong, good over bad, and so really, even with insincere intentions, does
that make them less good than another that performs acts graciously? After all, the
end product is the same.
Virtue theory would counter this by arguing that developing virtues enables people
to learn to become moral beings and promotes a change and development in
character that will last; just following rules does not make one good intrinsically
AO2 Activity Possible lines but simply indicates that a person has done the right thing. For virtue theory,
of argument the idea of developing virtue is actually a process of self-development whereby
a person grows in moral character, in goodness or arete (virtue) and recognises
‘good’ beyond the action itself and integral to the person.
reasoning in the accompanying text: Virtue theory would argue that being a good person involves developing
independence and responsibility in order to do good deeds naturally and without
1. Anyone can do good deeds but not
the necessities of external, dependent structures.
everyone is sincere.
In addition, the virtuous person is an exemplar and therefore the clear guiding
2. Developing good character is more
principles arise from within rather than being imposed on from without. It also
important than doing good deeds.
acknowledges the fact that such exemplars (philosophers) can serve as good role
3. Good deeds and good character models and therefore assist others in their pursuit of good character. Therefore,
are inseparable. virtue theory does indeed agree with the sentiment that being a good person is
4. Doing good deeds is the priority better than just doing good deeds.
and developing good character is Nevertheless, there are problems with the view that being a good person is
only secondary to this. better than just doing good deeds. The main problem is that if no good deeds are
5. Developing virtues is the only way done then how can a person be good? Good deeds underline good character and
to consistently do good deeds. define it.
Consider each of the conclusions In conclusion, there is much to say about the argument that goodness is more
drawn above and collect evidence and than just good acts; however, it is also important to consider that good deeds are a
examples to support each argument strong indicator for goodness of character.
and evidence.
126

Whether virtue theory is useful when faced Specification content

with a moral dilemma Whether virtue theory is useful when
faced with a moral dilemma.
A moral dilemma is defined, according to scholars, as a situation when two or more
courses of conduct may be justifiable in any given set of circumstances, possibly
resulting in diametrically opposed outcomes. The issue, then, for virtue theory, is
whether or not it can be applied meaningfully when faced with, say for example, a
case of injustice like persecution.
In terms of a Christian response, some could argue that the beatitudes appear to
avoid fighting for justice but just accept injustice as it states, ‘blessed are those who
are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven’. In
terms of Aristotle’s virtues, courage has different understandings. It could, on the
one hand, support the beatitude above, or, alternatively, courage could mean to
stand up and fight against persecution.
In virtue theory there is, one could argue, some idea of ‘duty’ and ‘doing the right
thing’; however, this is not really explicitly stated in relation to how the virtues need
to be applied. Indeed, the question could be asked, ‘are the virtues really moral
absolutes?’. This problem, then, makes virtue theory uncertain for some. Due to
the fact that virtue theory sees every moral dilemma as contextual it is therefore AO2 Activity Possible lines
open to interpretation and debate, and therefore potentially confusing. of argument
The problem with having no rules to follow is that it could encourage an Listed below are some conclusions
‘anything goes’ society, which is certainly not consistent with religion nor with that could be drawn from the AO2
the philosophy or Aristotle. Indeed, the liberal and relative aspect to virtue theory reasoning in the accompanying text:
means that it will not appeal to the more conservative, traditional religious 1. Virtue theory is a good way of
followers or those who wish for a more structured approach to ethics. This point solving moral dilemmas.
may also indicate that there are other ethical systems that are more attractive 2. Virtue theory, based much on
to follow when facing a moral dilemma, systems that are more structured and moral character of the individual,
absolute. has the danger of being subjective
However, some thinkers see virtue theory as merely an extension of Natural Law and therefore not always reliable
or of the teachings of Jesus and therefore the underlying principles for each can in solving moral dilemmas.
be referred to for guidance in specific cases in partnership with considerations of 3. There are better theories and
virtuous character and behaviour. systems of morality to use than
One could argue that one of the great strengths of virtue theory is that it stresses virtue theory when facing moral
altruism, that is, a concern for the well-being of others. This is a teaching consistent dilemmas.
with all forms of religion and philosophy and a useful principle when facing moral 4. Virtue theory needs to be used in
dilemmas. The virtues are self-focused but are in fact ‘other regarding’. Although it conjunction with other methods
begins with the self it then moves on to develop a character that responds best to of moral decision making in order
others and hence build an ideal community that can face moral dilemmas. for it to be effective.
Indeed, it could be argued that if virtue theory were not useful then people such 5. Virtue theory is really based in
as Aquinas would not have developed the theory later in conjunction with Natural more concrete, absolutist theories
Law. Moreover, there is a clear social context for virtue theory in the writings of and so in itself is not useful in
Aristotle and in this way it is a very practical system. It focuses on the way we addressing moral dilemmas.
behave and not simply what we believe should be the case!
Since the virtuous person is an exemplar for others, he or she can serve as a good drawn above and collect evidence and
role model for others in facing moral dilemmas. One could argue that the wisdom examples to support each argument
in application and the delivery of justice for society ensure that it works and is not from the AO1 and AO2 material
subjective. studied in this section. Select one
In conclusion, it can be seen that virtue theory can certainly be of use when facing conclusion that you think is most
moral dilemmas, although it should be recognised that there are limitations. If one convincing and explain why it is so.
is looking for a more absolutist solution to moral dilemmas, then virtue theory Now contrast this with the weakest
may not be suitable. conclusion in the list, justifying
and evidence.
127


of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your task is this: from the list of the 12 key points below, select six that are
relevant to the evaluation task below. Put your selection into an order that you
would use to address the task set. In explaining why you have chosen these six
conclusion. to answer the task, you will find that you are developing a process of reasoning.
This will help you to develop an argument from this to decide how far morality
is just a matter of good deeds.
commentary and response and arrives A focus on evaluating whether there is more to morality than just
at a conclusion through a clear process doing good things.
of reasoning.
1. Following rules is too simplistic.
2. Rules do not make a person good, only obedient and subject to a law.
3. Doing good things is a feature of morality but not the only one.
4. Being a good person involves developing virtues.
5. Being a good person means knowing what is right and wrong.
6. Just doing good deeds tell us nothing about the person other than they
have done a good act.
7. Morality should involve an appreciation of motives and intentions behind

good acts.
8. Developing virtues is more important than performing good deeds.
9. Good deeds are a key feature of morality and the gauge by which morality
is measured.
10. Morality incorporates much more than mere actions.
11. Without good deeds there can be no morality.
12. Good actions are the essence of morality.
128


C: Ethical egoism content and skills
Ethical egoism is a meta-ethical investigation that is focused on the agent, that is, Specification content
individual character, to give an understanding of ‘norm’ or behaviour. In looking at Normative agent focused ethic
the individual character, and the motives behind an individual’s actions, there is a based on self-interest as opposed to
very important question that emerges. altruism; ethical theory that matches
Do we behave in a manner that is purely driven by our self-interest? the moral agent’s psychological state
(psychological egoism); concentration
Ethical egoism: a normative agent focused on long-term self-interests rather
ethic based upon self-interest as opposed to than short-term interests.
altruism
In 1928, H. A. Pritchard delivered a lecture entitled ‘Duty and Interest’ in which Key terms
he questioned the true motive behind a dutiful action. Richard Norman writes: Altruism: selfless concern for the
‘Pritchard’s central argument is this: if justice is advocated on the grounds that it is well-being of others
advantageous to the just person, it is thereby reduced to a form of self-interest’. In Ethical egoism: the normative view
other words, ‘duty is not really duty unless it is done for duty’s sake’. that holds that all action ought to be
motivated by self-interest
If we act because the end product is advantageous to us, whether we are
consciously aware of the fact or not, we are, in essence, acting from self-interest. Psychological egoism: the
This is the key meta-ethical point of focus for what is called ethical egoism. descriptive view that all human action
is motivated by self-interest
The distinction between ethical egoism and
psychological egoism
For those who advocate any form of ethical egoism as a moral theory, this idea of
Key quote
‘self-interest’ is the chief concern of their philosophical enquiry. As we have seen Within our own moral culture,
above, ethical egoism is the study of self-interest as one possible explanation for largely as a product of the Christian
some moral actions. Ethical egoism as a theory suggests that this is the best way tradition, an altruistic concern for
to act. others is widely held to be a, or even
the, supreme value. If, however,
Key quote in caring for other people, I do so
because I think that it will make
Psychological egoism is a theory of of human nature that purports to describe
my own life happier, then it would
what motivates people to act. Ethical egoism, on the other hand, is normative.
seem that it is not really a concern
It purports to tell us how people ought to act. (Driver)
for others which motivates me, but a
There is, however, a difference between ethical egoism and psychological egoism. concern for myself. (Norman)
Peter Cave writes: ‘Some scorn morality. They argue that we always act for our own
sake, in our own self-interest or, more accurately, in what we perceive to be self-
Key quote
interest.’ This is psychological egoism. Cave continues, ‘A different egoism, ethical
egoism, is that we ‘ought always to act self-interestedly’. Julia Driver notes that Psychological egoism offers an
‘Ethical egoism is not committed to the truth of psychological egoism’. account of human nature and is non-
In other words, to say that we always act out of self-interest (psychological egoism) normative. It concerns how people
is not the same thing as arguing that we should always act out of self-interest actually behave, not how they ought
(ethical egoism). In essence, they are very different claims. to behave. If we hold that all human
action is motivated by self-interest,
Ethical egoism is, therefore, a normative agent focused ethic based upon self-
interest, as opposed to altruism, and is a directive by which one should be guided
we’re making a strong universal
to behave. claim. We’re denying that altruistic
actions are ever performed.
Julia Driver writes, ‘Altruistic actions are those that are performed for the sake of
(Driver)
others – purely for the sake of others. The psychological egoist denies that there
are such acts.’ The response of the psychological egoist is interesting in response
to donating money to charity. They would suggest that the motive could be to
look good in front of others, to support a moral system to which they are duty-
bound, or, to avoid shame and personal anguish if they decide not to give. All such
explanations reveal the root intention of self-interest.
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Long-term and short-term self-interests
Key quote
Ethical egoism does not necessarily mean, however, that we always act selfishly
An egoistic view is one that either in the narrow understanding of the word. Acting out of self-interest can be
explains or justifies something in amalgamated with an action that demonstrates concern for others, as we have
terms of the agent’s self-interest. For seen above in Pritchard’s observation of ‘duty’.
example, psychological egoism is
For some, this is what distinguishes ethical egoism from psychological egoism in
the descriptive view that all human that it could be argued that acting in one’s own self-interest is more than just being
action is motivated by self-interest. selfish but that it involves a much more complex consideration of both short-term
Ethical egoism, on the other hand, and long term-benefits. After all, an action that overtly benefits another in the
is the normative view that holds that short term may have the covert purpose of self-benefit in the long term.
all action ought to be motivated by
Frankena writes, ‘It should be noted that an ethical egoist need not be an egotist
self-interest. (Driver)
or even an egotistic and selfish man in the everyday sense of these terms. Ethical
egoism is an ethical theory, not a pattern of action or trait of character, and is
Key quote compatible with being self-effacing and unselfish in practice.’
Ethical egoists may hold any kind The outworking of self-interest could be short term, for example in giving to
of theory of what is good and what charity or in sacrificing time by visiting an elderly relative. Interests are served
is bad, or of what the welfare of the immediately by making one feel good about doing the right thing, or, alternatively
individual consists of. (Frankena) interests could be considered as part of a long-term plan such as developing
character or earning merit for a greater cause such as the afterlife in terms of
religions.
Key quote
In the same way, acting out of self-interest can be seen as serving long-term
Here we must understand that the
interests. Peter Cave cites the 18th-century economist Adam Smith who recognised
ethical egoist is not just taking the
that ‘It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we
egoistic principle of acting and
expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.’ One only thinks of
judging as his own private maxim. the slogans, ‘serving the customer’ and the ‘customer is always right’ to realise that
(Frankena) supermarkets care about the customer simply because it is in their own long-term
self-interest to do so.
1.14 What is the difference between

ethical egoism and psychological
egoism?
Giving to the poor
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Max Stirner Specification content

Max Stirner was born in Germany in 1806. His real name was Johann Caspar Max Stirner, self-interest as the root
Schmidt but he used Max Stirner as a literary pseudonym. He studied at three cause of every human action even if it
universities in Germany and is known to have attended lectures by Hegel on the appears altruistic; rejection of egoism
philosophy of religion. In short, a man of no real notable academic repute in his for material gain; union of egoists.
day, he worked as a humble teacher but in later life did work as an academic
translator and a journalist, none of which were well paid. Max Stirner’s key work
was the book entitled The Ego and his Own published in 1844 in German 1.15 What is an altruistic action?
(Der Einzige und sein Eigentum); however, the circulation was minimal and
although it received some brief critical acclaim and provoked a response from the
philosopher, Feuerbach, it was not an overall success financially or academically.
Stirner lived most of his later life in poorer circumstances, often pursued by
Key quote
creditors and he died of fever in 1856. There looks to be a stark contrast
Despite this, Stirner’s ideas have influenced many people. Stirner’s ideas have also between the often melodramatic
been interpreted in different ways. For some, he was the forerunner of Friedrich tone of Stirner’s best-known work,
Nietzsche in terms of the style and substance of his writing. For others, he was a on the one hand, and the rather
pioneer of the sort of existentialism found in Sartre. He also had a great influence less sensational events of his
on the early thoughts of Karl Marx. Today, he is often held as the rational advocator own life, on the other. (Stanford
of the anarchist movement in his recognition of the illegitimate claims of the state. Encyclopedia)
In short, there are things written about Max Stirner and then there are the
things that Max Stirner actually wrote. In a sense, the work of Stirner is oddly
anachronistic in that in his day he was not really understood, and it is only a recent
emergence of scholarly interest in his work that has drawn out a true appreciation
of the complexity of his thought.
In essence, Stirner accepted the stance of psychological egoism only in so far as
he recognised the role of what others identified as self-interest in making moral
decisions. However, the irony is, he argued that the notion of self-interest was
deluded because it incorrectly identified the true nature of the ‘self’. Once the true
self is realised, the assertions of psychological egoism are weakened and a clearer
picture emerges of what pure self-interest really involves. Yes, Stirner agreed that
actions should be driven by self-interest, but, it is only when we understand what Max Stirner 1806–1856
the self actually is, that we can be truly free to act accordingly.
Stirner’s work is not really methodical. It appears random at times, almost chaotic, Key quote
repetitive and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia, ‘his unusual style reflects a
conviction that both language and rationality are human products which have It would also be a mistake to
come to constrain and oppress their creators’. However, with patience and careful think of Stirner as advocating a
reading, some main themes can be identified. In short, Stirner argues his case normative proposition about the
progressively throughout several stages of argument as follows: value of self-interested action as
■
That self-interest as is commonly understood is always a slave to something
ordinarily understood. Stirnerian
other than the ‘self’ or ego and so is not true ‘self-interest’. egoism needs to be distinguished
from the individual pursuit
■
That it is misguided to think that we actually are free to make moral choices in
of conventional self-interest.
relation to religious or philosophical systems of moral behaviour because such
(Stanford Encyclopedia)
systems control us.
■
That true egoism is a matter of realising what is ‘own’ and ‘ownness’ by not being
driven by religious, philosophical or materialistic frameworks that enslave us, but
to gain mastery over one’s self.
■
That the true self needs to be free from the constraints of any external ideologies
and not controlled from within by the senses, so that it is truly ‘self’, and
therefore, unique.
■
The only way to engage one’s uniqueness in the world is to cooperate with other
unique individuals by being part of a union of egoists.
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The delusion of the past and the true nature of self-
Key term interest: the ego (Einzige)
Einzige: ego Psychological egoism sees self-interest as the root cause of every human action,
even if it appears altruistic. Stirner acknowledges this explanation but questions
its truth. Stirner argued that we have had a false notion of liberty in our approach
to thinking; he denies there is such a thing in a sense because a conventional
1.16 Why did Stirner argue we were not understanding of self-interest is always slave to something, whether it be an
really free in our moral choices? obvious religious moral duty or obligation, or one that is more subtle and non-
religious, yet still brings with it a moral duty or obligation. He writes, ‘When one
looks to the bottom of anything, i.e. searches out its essence, one often discovers
Key quote something quite other than what it seems to be’. These revelations of ‘essence’
Stirner refers to as ‘spooks’ or ‘ghosts’.
Totally different from this free
thinking is own thinking, my The Stanford Encyclopedia supports this understanding of Stirner: ‘Stirner is
thinking, a thinking which does not occasionally portrayed as a psychological egoist, that is, as a proponent of the
descriptive claim that all (intentional) actions are motivated by a concern for the
guide me, but is guided, continued,
self-interest of the agent. However, this characterisation of Stirner’s position can
or broken off, by me at my pleasure.
be questioned … Moreover, at one point, Stirner explicitly considers adopting the
The distinction of this own thinking
explanatory stance of psychological egoism only to reject it.’
from free thinking is similar to that
of own sensuality, which I satisfy Instead, Stirner calls for human beings to recognise their enslavement to the duty
at pleasure, from free, unruly and obligation imposed by such moral frameworks and re-focus on what the self or
ego desires and wills. He writes, ‘Why will you not take courage now to really make
sensuality to which I succumb.
yourselves the central point and the main thing altogether?’ Therefore, any person
(Stirner)
that thinks they are acting independently in making moral choices is misguided as
it is not the agent that directs the moral behaviour but rather the ideal that controls
them. Stirner adds, ‘The habit of the religious way of thinking has biased our mind
Key quote so grievously that we are terrified at ourselves in our nakedness and naturalness; it
There is no sinner and no sinful has degraded us so that we deem ourselves depraved by nature, born devils.’
egoism! (Stirner) In a critical attack on both religion and philosophy, Stirner scorns the idea that
adopting belief systems and moral frameworks will lead to self-development and
moral improvement. For Stirner, adopting such normative ethical frameworks only
Key quote enslaved the self or ego. He refers to an example of a philosopher or free thinker
I decide whether it is the right thing who ‘thinks he is through with God and throws off Christianity as a bygone thing’.
in me; there is no right outside me. That thinker would still, according to Stirner, reject incest and adultery with a
(Stirner) ‘moral shudder’ because the philosopher or free thinker is still subject to a belief in
a moral framework.
If we consider the following scenario, we can see how Max Stirner’s thought works.
Some poor people ask for money. These are some possible responses:
‘I choose to give them money; however, every reason for which I could do this is related to
my own self-interest.’
In other words, it appears that I am free and have chosen a course of action
because it is in my own interest. Psychological egoism proposes this. However,
Stirner questions this conclusion that the underlying motive is self-interest. For
example, Stirner would see an underlying obligation:
‘I give them money because it makes me feel happy BUT it is also my duty.’
Stirner would argue that I am not free because, despite my self-interest in pursuing
happiness, I am still a slave as this feeling of happiness is only in relation to what
my conscience tells me is my duty. Stirner rejects psychological egoism because it
seems the self is obliged by the duty ‘one should help those in need’. Again:
‘I do not give them money (I justify my decision in any of several ways to make me
feel better).’
132

Stirner would argue that I am not free because I feel guilty as I am still a slave to
what my conscience tells me I should do. I have justified my actions and have good Key quote
reasons for going against the general rule of conscience, for example, in arguing Thousands of years of civilisation
there are charities and welfare to support them. Again Stirner rejects psychological have obscured to you what you
egoism because the self is still slave to some obligation: one should, unless there is are, have made you believe you
good reason not to, help those in need. are not egoists but are called to
‘I give them money reluctantly.’ be idealists (‘good men’). Shake
The Stirnerian response would be that I am not free because I just do what my that off! Do not seek for freedom,
conscience tells me is my obligation, despite me not wanting to. Psychological which does precisely deprive you
egoism is once again rejected because the self is still slave to the obligation of of yourselves, in ‘self-denial’; but
conscience: to not help those in need would mean I am bad and not fulfilling my seek for yourselves, become egoists,
duty of helping those in need. become each of you an almighty
Stirner has sometimes been referred to as advocating amoralism, that is, to reject ego. Or, more clearly: just recognise
morality outright. This is not entirely true and we have to be careful here not to yourselves again, just recognise
draw the incorrect conclusion. Stirner appears to reject fixed moral obligations what you really are, and let go
and not values. As the Stanford Encyclopedia states: ‘Morality, on Stirner’s account, your hypocritical endeavours, your
involves the positing of obligations to behave in certain fixed ways. As a result, foolish mania to be something else
he rejects morality as incompatible with egoism properly understood. However, than you are. (Stirner)
this rejection of morality is not grounded in the rejection of values as such, but in
the affirmation of what might be called non-moral goods … his rejection of the Key quote
legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all The man who is set free is nothing
normative judgement.’
but a freed man, a libertinus, a dog
The future of self is to realise ownness (Eigenheit) dragging a piece of chain with him:
he is an unfree man in the garment
Stirner made an important distinction between what is perceived as the self of freedom, like the ass in the lion’s
and ownness. The philosopher who thinks (s)he is free and independent needs skin. (Stirner)
to recognise that to be truly such they must be freed from all obligation to any
conscious or sub-conscious ideal. They must realise their ‘ownness’ (Eigenheit):
‘I am my own only when I am master of myself, instead of being mastered either by Key term
sensuality or by anything else (God, man, authority, law, State, Church, etc.); what Eigenheit: ownness, the idea of
is of use to me, this self-owned or self-appertaining one, my selfishness pursues.’ mastering oneself
Therefore, in relation to the example of giving to the poor (above) Stirner would
argue:
‘I do as I will/please.’
1.17 According to Stirner, what makes us
In other words, I am free because it is nothing to do with whether it is a good or
truly free to make choices?
bad thing to give money to a poor person, but rather because I am my own person
(ownness) and not a slave to any obligation. Max Stirner argued that this is true
freedom and true self interest.
Key quote
Ownness includes in itself
Key quote everything own, and brings to honor
again what Christian language
Away, then, with every concern that is not altogether my concern! You think at dishonored. But ownness has not
least the ‘good cause’ must be my concern? What’s good, what’s bad? Why, any alien standard either, as it is not
I myself am my concern, and I am neither good nor bad. Neither has meaning in any sense an idea like freedom,
for me. (Stirner) morality, humanity, etc.: it is only a
description of the owner. (Stirner)
The future of the self is to activate uniqueness (Einzig)
An awareness of ownness is one thing, but the implications of what ownness truly Key quote
means can only be realised through the appreciation of oneself as unique (Einzig). Egoism does not think of sacrificing
This is Stirner’s evaluation of the true self, of the true egoist. In short, being unique anything, giving away anything that
means individual freedom from all external conceptual theories that could be it wants; it simply decides, what I
imposed. Stirner writes, ‘I am owner of my might, and I am so when I know myself want I must have and will procure.
as unique.’ (Stirner)
133

This does not, however, mean that being a unique individual, and everyone
becoming unique, is the same thing as everyone being equal; equality is just
another conceptual and idealistic framework for all humanity to kneel to. Stirner
writes, ‘But I am not an ego along with other egos, but the sole ego: I am unique.
Hence my wants too are unique, and my deeds; in short, everything about me
is unique.’ The true unique egoist has a true appreciation of their self, which
inevitably, being unique, cannot be equated with another.
In addition, this activation of uniqueness needs also to be free from excessive
Key term
sensual appetites, or, to be more accurate, that the self is not controlled by these
Einzig: uniqueness, the freedom
appetites or under any obligation to them. The Stanford Encyclopedia states, ‘Stirner
from all impositions leaving pure
individuality
not only rejects the legitimacy of any subordination to the will of another but also
recommends that individuals cultivate an ideal of emotional detachment towards
their own appetites and ideas.’
In relation to the example of giving money to a poor person, we can develop
Stirner’s egoism further:
Key quote ‘Once I recognise that I am my own self and not accountable to any obligation I then
I am owner of my might, and I am become aware of my own true unique self and can judge accurately what course of
so when I know myself as unique. action I will to do that serves my own true unique nature and so I will give, or not,
In the unique one the owner himself according to this.’
returns into his creative nothing, I am truly free and act according to my self-interest which is not determined by any
of which he is born. Every higher sense of duty or obligation nor is it driven by a greed or hunger for materialistic
essence above me, be it God, be gain. This is the best way to behave for me, not because I should do it (nor should
it man, weakens the feeling of my it become a rule that binds me), but because it is what I will. This also links to the
uniqueness, and pales only before idea that Stirner rejects egoism as a means for material gain and leads to the idea
the sun of this consciousness. that it is not, in essence, anti-social.
(Stirner)
Union of egoists
Stirner’s argument suggests, then, that relationships towards others and how one
behaves as the true egoist all hinge upon one’s own unique nature. Whilst this
does not lead to an obligation of equality for all as individuals, it certainly does
not advocate greed for material gain. In the same way, Stirner’s egoism is not anti-
social and he is keen to advocate co-operation between egos.
AO1 Activity Much of Stirner’s work in The Ego and his Own is directed towards the notion of the
secular state and political ideologies. Ownership was a big issue for Stirner and was
Write an advertisement for a meeting one that, for him, should not be dictated by any outside agent or government. But
of a union of egoists. How would you at the same time he was practical and recognised that the only way forward was to
describe it? What would happen at develop a special community that was unprincipled other than having in common
that meeting? the recognition of the uniqueness of the egoist. He called this the union of egoists
and promoted the idea that society should be composed in such a way in which
the idea of cooperation prevailed in recognition of one’s uniqueness so that one’s
true identity is asserted. Although an ideal in itself, Stirner was well aware of the
deconstructing force of the concept of a union and the condition of uniqueness
Study tip and also the practical difficulties this may have involved.
The Stanford Encyclopedia states: ‘The egoistic future is said to consist not of wholly
It is very important in an answer to be
isolated individuals but rather in relationships of “uniting”, that is, in impermanent
able to explain what ethical egoism,
connections between individuals who themselves remain independent and self-
psychological egoism and Max Stirner’s
determining.’ The union of egoists would respect the uniqueness of each member,
arguments are. Try drawing a table
support them in their unique pursuit of their individual goals whilst still having no
with three columns and write down
shared final ends. It is a true cooperation of egos.
key points for each one. Colour code
any comparisons or highlight specific
distinctions of each. Key quote
Why will you not take courage now to really make yourselves the central point
and the main thing altogether? (Stirner)
134

Challenges to ethical egoism Specification content

In short, there are many challenges to ethical egoism. In terms of Stirner, the most Challenges: destruction of a
obvious one is the difficulty in understanding his work. As the Stanford Encyclopedia community ethos; social injustices
attest: ‘The plurality of interpretations of his own work might well have amused could occur as individuals put their
Stirner and encouraged him in his view that there could be no legitimate own interests first; a form of bigotry
constraints on the meaning of a text.’ (why is one moral agent more
important than any other?).
Destruction of a community ethos
One criticism is that ethical egoism can destroy a community ethos in promoting
the will of the individual over the will of the people. The state and laws are there
Key terms
for the benefit of the majority and as a guard against exploitation of any individual
Bigotry: intolerance and narrow-
against another.
mindedness
In response, Stirner would argue that it is this very aim to free people that is the
Community ethos: the character or
formula that enslaves them. This claim has often been interpreted as advocating
spirit of a community
anarchy and official opposition towards, and fight to eliminate, the state.
It is true that any state or system is illegitimate for Stirner’s ethical egoism,
since this essentially causes conflict between the individual’s uniqueness and an
obligation to serve the law. For Stirner, the demands of the state are not binding
on the individual but in no way does this mean an active affront to oppose or
eliminate the state system. It is up to each individual to decide whether or not
to agree with the state’s demands. It is Stirner’s views, according to the Stanford
Encyclopedia, that ‘whilst individuals have no duty to overthrow the state, Stirner
does think that the state will eventually collapse as a result of the spread of
egoism’.
Social injustices and bigotry could occur as individuals

put their own interests first
The next criticism of ethical egoism is the most obvious, that, in pursuing one’s
own interests there will, inevitably, be a conflict of interests with others. This could
inevitably lead to social injustices and bigotry.
One can see how this could arise by just considering Stirner’s words: ‘Now am
I, who am competent for much, perchance to have no advantage over the less
competent? We are all in the midst of abundance; now shall I not help myself as
well as I can, but only wait and see how much is left me in an equal division?’
This immediately provokes accusations of inequality in all aspects of social life,
ethical actions and political administration. Indeed, how can one society live
according to the demands and needs specific to countless individuals without
injustice and bigotry?
AO1 Activity
You have read the reasons above for the challenges to ethical egoism. For each
of the two main challenges, think of some practical examples of ‘destruction of
a community ethos’ and ‘bigotry’ that would support the explanations above.
135


everything you know about the Your new task is this: you need to develop each of the key points below by
topic area. adding evidence and examples to fully explain each point. The first one is done
for you. This will help you in answering examination questions for AO1 by
being able to ‘demonstrate extensive depth and/or breadth’ with ‘excellent use
Explanation that is extensive, of evidence and examples’ (Level 5 AO1 band descriptor).
with excellent use of evidence and Question focus on ethical and psychological egoism
thorough and accurate supporting use 1. Psychological egoism concerns itself with the explanation of all moral
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and decision making as originating from self-interest.
This means that you demonstrate that DEVELOPMENT: It argues that morality is not imposed upon us by external
you understand something by being systems but that we choose which systems to use in relation to what is best for us.
points through examples/supporting 2. Both ethical egoism and psychological egoism explain that even altruistic
evidence in a personal way and NOT actions have selfish motives.
as rote learning). 3. Ethical egoism is concerned with the idea that we ought to base our
Further application of skills: ethical decisions in self-interest.
Go through the topic areas in this 4. Max Stirner argued that ethical egoism was the way we should make
section and create some bullet lists ethical decisions.
each one, provide further elaboration 5. One of the key criticisms of ethical egoism is that it is arbitrary.
6. Another criticism of ethical egoism is that it has the potential to produce
evil acts.
7. Ethical egoism, if adopted by all, would mean an anarchist society.
8. Psychological egoism challenges altruism.
9. Ethical egoism does not necessarily mean that it is purely selfish in its
outcomes.
10. The outworking of ethical egoism can be either short term or long term.
136


content and skills
The extent to which ethical egoism inevitably
leads to moral evil The extent to which ethical egoism
The main potential problem with ethical egoism is that there is no absolute, as Max inevitably leads to moral evil.
Stirner writes, ‘I decide whether it is the right thing in me; there is no right outside
me’. This has led to the criticism that ethical egoism will inevitably lead to a person
perfoming immoral actions at the expense of others. But is this a valid criticism?
Certainly there is no control other than the individual will and the theory of ethical
egoism, if accepted, would need to trust a person to be truly disciplined. But it
could be argued that individuals are not responsible enough to do this. Indeed,
individuals are not true to themselves, as Stirner observes that many think they
are free and individual but in fact they are enslaved and directed by some form
of framework they have subscribed to. Stirner writes, ‘The man who is set free is
nothing but a freed man … he is an unfree man in the garment of freedom, like
the ass in the lion’s skin’ and again, ‘The freer the people, the more bound the
individual’.
Ethical egoism has also been accused of encouraging bigotry through promoting
self-interest over others and seeing oneself as more important. This would
inevitably lead to conflict in interests and disagreement. In addition, it has
the potential for anarchy in society, the consequences of which could be very
unsavoury. AO2 Activity Possible lines
Despite this, it could be argued that Stirner’s vision of the self leads to a virtuous of argument
self-interest and so this does not necessarily lead to moral evil. He writes, ‘I
love men too – not merely individuals, but every one. But I love them with the Listed below are some conclusions
consciousness of egoism; I love them because love makes me happy, I love because that could be drawn from the AO2
loving is natural to me, because it pleases me. I know no “commandment of love”.’ reasoning in the accompanying text:
Indeed, psychological egoism and ethical egoism both support the idea that a focus 1. Any moral system dependent on
on self-interest can lead, and often does lead, to moral good. In fact, all current self-interest inevitably leads to
systems, according to both psychological egoism and Max Stirner, do depend on a moral evil.
form of self-interest in decision making, despite deferring to an agreed framework. 2. Self-interest does not have to lead
In conclusion, it appears that although there are potential problems anticipated to moral evil but it can do.
by many who are critical of ethical egoism, and the charge that it inevitably leads 3. True self-interest underpins all
to moral evil is a possibility, it is not necessarily the case if one truly understands moral systems and so the evidence
the complexity behind Stirner’s ethical egoism. But despite Stirner’s development suggests self-interest does not lead
of the theory, the main problems do remain and it is the potential to lead to to moral evil.
moral evil that is of most concern. The key to the answer is really how far people 4. Self-interest makes one more co-
can operate individually and yet simultaneously with each other. In the end, the operative.
system advocated by ethical egoism and its coherent outworking depends upon co- 5. Ethical egoism is good in theory,
operation with, and the involvement of others, as a union of egoists. but is not workable in practice and
Nonetheless, it has been seen already that the idea of a union of egoists brings will inevitably lead to moral evil.
its own problems in trying to maintain a delicate balance between the will of the Consider each of the conclusions
individual that is accurately calculated, and that of the needs of other individuals. drawn above and collect evidence and
Some would go as far to say that this is impossible in, and certainly not a practical examples to support each argument
solution for, society as a whole. from the AO1 and AO2 material
and evidence.
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Specification content The extent to which all moral actions are

The extent to which all moral actions motivated by self-interest
are motivated by self-interest.
This issue really concerns the debate between psychological egoism, ethical egoism
and the different interpretations given to the term self-interest.
The position of psychological egoism is that whether we like it or not, we are all
driven by self-interest. The classic example is, in the words of Richard Norman,
‘in caring for other people, I do so because I think that it will make my own
life happier, then it would seem that it is not really a concern for others which
motivates me, but a concern for myself’. In which case, all our actions can be traced
back to motives of self-interest.
Some philosophers challenge this view. Peter Cave argues, ‘Sometimes people
act simply for the sake of others. Parents help children for the children’s sake.
Environmentalists save the beached whale for the sake of that whale beached.’ In
addition, there needs to be a clarification of what self-interest means. Max Stirner
has questioned the reliability of ascribing everything to self-interest.
On the other hand, if all moral actions are not motivated by self-interest, ethical
egoism suggests that the best way forward is that they ought to be. Ethical egoism
is the normative version of self-interest based ethics. Julia Driver confirms this
when she writes, ‘Psychological egoism is a theory of human nature that purports
to describe what motivates people to act. Ethical egoism, on the other hand, is
normative. It purports to tell us how people ought to act.’
Indeed, such an approach questions a possible assumption one could make in
AO2 Activity Possible lines reading the claim, that self-interest is a bad thing. As Frankena writes, ‘It should be
of argument noted that an ethical egoist need not be an egotist or even an egotistic and selfish
man in the everyday sense of these terms. Ethical egoism is an ethical theory, not
Listed below are some conclusions a pattern of action or trait of character, and is compatible with being self-effacing
that could be drawn from the AO2 and unselfish in practice.’
Max Stirner stripped away the delusions associated with conventional ideas of
1. All actions have some kind of self- self-interest to re-define the self as the ‘unique’ when he wrote, ‘I am owner of my
interest as their basis. might, and I am so when I know myself as unique. In the unique one the owner
2. People can act in a truly altruistic himself returns into his creative nothing, of which he is born.’ This means that all
fashion. moral actions can only be motivated by self-interest when we have a true vision of
3. All actions are not dictated by what the self consists of.
self-interest as the term is often In conclusion, it is clear that there is a case for all moral actions to be motivated
misunderstood. by self-interest, if, by ‘self-interest’ one means a choice, whether conscious or
4. If all actions are motivated by self- unconscious, in the conventional sense. However, this is not the case if, by self-
interest this does not mean they interest, the statement means we are all enlightened to the extent of the egoist
are bad. Max Stirner portrays. Overall, it seems, then, that whilst we are motivated
5. Self-interest is too complex to by individual choice and preference, whether or not self-interest is the true
understand and so the statement description of this depends upon the interpretation and understanding one
is superficial. ascribes to the term ‘self-interest’.
Consider each of the conclusions As Max Stirner himself argued, once the true nature of the self is discovered, it is
drawn above and collect evidence and only then that we are in a position to debate the issue of whether self-interest is
examples to support each argument the determining factor behind ethical actions, or indeed, whether it should be.
and evidence.
138


of view.
Your next task is this: develop each of the key points below by adding various implications of the issues raised
evidence and examples to fully evaluate the argument presented in the
evaluation statement. The first one is done for you. This will help you in detailed argument with a clear
answering examination questions for AO2 by being able to ensure that conclusion.
‘sustained and clear views are given, supported by extensive, detailed reasoning
and/or evidence’ (Level 5 AO2 band descriptor).
Question focus on an evaluation of ethical egoism as causing commentary and response and arrives
moral confusion at a conclusion through a clear process
of reasoning.
1. It has been argued that ethical egoism is arbitrary because it is based upon
individual interests.
DEVELOPMENT: This means there is no overall structure to this form of ethical

system other than the general guide to do as it pleases you. In other words, there is no
absolute and so no real guidance for the individual.
2. Ethical egoism cannot control society and promotes social injustice

through inequality.
3. Individuals are not responsible enough to make moral decisions

independently.
4. Individuals are not true to themselves, as Stirner argues people are really
slaves to what they think are their own views but are really principles they
choose from systems already in place.
5. Ethical egoism encourages bigotry.
6. Ethical egoism encourages anarchy.
7. Ethical egoism is misunderstood as it promotes virtuous, mature, and

disciplined behaviour on the part of the individual.
8. The union of egoists shows that ethical egoism encourages co-operation

not chaos.
139

Aquinas’ Natural Law –
T2 a religious approach
to ethics
content and skills A: Thomas Aquinas’ Natural Law: laws and
Specification content precepts as the basis of morality
Natural Law derived from rational
thought; based on a belief in a divine Aquinas’ four levels of law (eternal, divine,
creator (the highest good as being
the rational understanding of God’s natural and human)
final purpose). Natural Law is based on a particular view about nature and the universe. That view
is that the universe has a natural order that works to achieve an ‘end’ or ‘purpose’
Key quote (telos). This order, direction and purpose is determined by a supernatural power.
Human beings are part of the natural world and so they too have a ‘purpose’ or
The idea of Natural Law is ‘nature’. It is a nature that is in all human beings. Natural Law is therefore about
sometimes described as the view acting in such ways that we consistently move towards this ‘purpose’. Despite
that there is an unchanging, its teleological focus, Natural Law is often classed as a normative, deontological
normative order that is part of the theory that identifies principles of duty, that is, how we ought to behave.
natural world. (Buckle) Some argue that the ideals behind Natural Law can be traced back to ancient
philosophers such as Aristotle. Aristotle thought the teleological goal for man was
to live a life of a certain kind, that is, to be reasoning creatures and to use reason
to recognise how to behave (i.e. morally). It is when human beings act morally
that their purpose of telos is fulfilled. Hence the combination of reason and moral
action are in accordance with the natural order of things.
Overall, Aristotle saw the goal Aristotle 384–322 BCE
(purpose) of human life as
‘eudaimonia’ (happiness). He argued
that we pursue other goals in order
ultimately to achieve happiness.
Confusion can arise because
2.1 What was the goal of Natural Law for of modern usage of the word
Aristotle? ‘happiness’. For Aristotle, ‘happiness’
was very different from ‘pleasure’,
since he regarded the pursuit of
pleasure for its own sake as mere
gratification. In contrast, happiness
was living well and being fulfilled,
since it involved behaving rationally
(i.e. consistent with human nature
and order of the natural world).
Therefore, he thought that making
reasoned choices would lead to
Key quote happiness. In this thinking we can
From the beginning Natural see the germination of classical
Law theories drew on disparate Natural Law.
elements, which, waxing and waning It is with the Roman lawyer, Cicero,
at different times, shaped and where the account of a Natural
reshaped the doctrine accordingly. Law made its first systematic
(Buckle) appearance: ‘True law is right
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Ethics T2 Aquinas’ Natural Law –
a religious approach to ethics
reason in agreement with nature; it is of universal application. Unchanging and

everlasting; it summons to duty by its commands, and averts from wrongdoings Key quote
by its prohibitions.’ For Cicero, the ‘author’ of this law was God. This connection Natural Law is the same for all men
between Natural Law and an eternal or divine law was developed by the medieval … there is a single standard of truth
theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas. and right for everyone … which is
Aquinas was born (1125CE) into a Europe that was emerging from the ‘Dark Ages’ known by everyone. (Aquinas)
(a period of intellectual ‘darkness’ cause by the decline of the Roman Empire).
At this time, the Church was coming under increasing threat as more and more Key quote
people began to question the authority claims of the Church. It was at around this True law is right reason in
time that the crusaders were bringing back new religious and intellectual ideas agreement with Nature; it is of
from the Holy Land (which included the work of Aristotle translated into Arabic). universal application. Unchanging
Aquinas studied Aristotle’s works at the University of Naples at the age of 14 and he and everlasting; it summons to duty
was greatly influenced by what he read.
by its commands and averts from
In particular Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that rationality (the ability to reason) wrongdoing by its prohibitions.
was a key element of human existence. He also realised that if the truths of (Cicero)
teachings of the Bible and Christianity could be shown to be based on reason, and
not just faith, then Aquinas could help defend the faith against rising
Thomas Aquinas 1225–1274
challenges. Aquinas also used many of Aristotle’s terms in his Natural
Law theory; for example, he supported Aristotle’s idea of there being
‘efficient’ and ‘final’ causes.
Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that everything in the world had a
purpose, but unlike Aristotle he argued that this purpose was given
to it by God. Aquinas also incorporated into his Natural Law theory
Aristotle’s ideas of the importance of cultivating the cardinal virtues;
but for Aquinas this was in order to develop as a human being and
fulfil one’s true nature in relation to God.
For Aquinas, the Natural Law was located in the activity of human
reasoning. By applying reason to moral problems, we will find that
we act consistently with the Natural Law. Such acts are deemed good
acts, or natural good, since they are in line with our true human
nature and purpose. For Aquinas, the Natural Law was created
by God and designed to achieve the ultimate purpose – to enjoy
fellowship with God and to be perfect in the image of God. For
Aquinas, obeying Natural Law meant doing actions that develop our
image to reflect as closely as possible the image of God; however, true
perfection of this was not possible in our lives on earth.
For Aquinas, reason still played a key role in his development of
Natural Law, despite its divine origin. God was seen as the source
of the Natural Law, which was rooted in the human mind. When
reasoning about moral questions takes place, then good reasoning
will coincide with the Natural Law. Aquinas saw God as having
designed us for the end of perfection. He believed that we were
made in God’s image and our purpose was to eventually reflect this
image perfectly. Unlike earlier philosophers such as Aristotle and the
Stoics, Aquinas believed in a personal creator God. He also saw the
final purpose of human beings in terms of the eternal rather than the
temporal.
141

Aquinas did not think that this perfection could be discovered by Natural Law
alone. He also appealed to ‘eternal law’ and ‘divine law’:
■
Eternal law we only know in part since it refers to the principles by which God
governs the universe.
■
Divine law refers to the Bible which guides us in reaching our goal of perfection.
However, although such revelation is aimed at correcting that which was
impaired by the Fall of human beings, Aquinas believed that such perfection was
not achievable in this life, but only after death.
■
Natural Law is the part of the eternal law that applies to human choices in
identifying the primary precepts and can be known by our natural reason.
■
Human law involves a recognition of a need to seek the common good by
establishing custom and tradition of rules based in experienced judgements.
The Bible is part of divine law Aquinas did, however, recognise that this level of law could sometimes involve
wrong reasoning and lead to injustice, arguing, ‘if in any point it deflects from the
law of nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of law’.
This idea that there is a universal natural standard of good needed to be worked
out. Natural Law is within all of us but it is not like a physical law that has to be
followed. It derives from reason and reason needs to be applied carefully and
coherently in order to avoid an erroneous outcome.
2.2 How did Aquinas develop Aristotle’s
Natural law?
AO1 Activity
Compare Aquinas’ Natural Law with that of Aristotle and highlight the ways in
which it is different. Then create some flash cards to write down key terms and
the different levels of Natural Law.
Specification content Natural Law as a form of moral absolutism

Natural Law as a form of moral and a theory which has both deontological
absolutism and a theory which
has both deontological and and teleological aspects
teleological aspects. Natural Law ethics involve using reason to work out the morally correct behaviour
that is in accordance with the goal of being human. They are usually regarded as
being deontological and absolutist:
Key term 1. Deontological because what should be done is seen as being determined by
Casuistry: the art of applying key fundamental principles that are not based on consequences.
principles to an ethical case 2. Absolutist because they identify the right action by means of the primary
precepts.
The word ‘casuistry’ originates from the Latin word casus meaning case. Casuistry
is when core principles of pre-determined moral behaviour are applied to a ‘case’,
2.3 Why is Natural Law deontological? context or situation. Reason is used to apply the rule and determine judgement on
the morality of the situation.
For some, this is not, strictly speaking, a teleological approach due to the
Key quote predetermined absolute principles that are brought to the case. However, others
Casuistry is the science of judging have seen it as teleological because in applying the predetermined absolute
cases of conscience, or moral principles, the end result is considered. The fact that the term casuistry comes from
problems. (Holmes) the word ‘case’ suggests that a given context and ‘end’ results are considered and so
the teleological aspect of Natural Law is often accepted.
2.4 Why is Natural Law sometimes seen

as teleological?
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The five primary precepts Specification content

The primary precepts apply to all human beings without exception. They are good The five primary precepts
acts because they lead us towards the main human purpose or goal. The most (preservation of life, ordered society,
fundamental one that underpins them all is ‘act in such a way as to achieve good worship of God, education and
and avoid evil’. reproduction of the human species)
This summary identifies the most basic natural inclination. From this Aquinas then as derived from rational thought and
identified more general inclinations or tendencies. In one sense they can be seen based on the premise of ‘doing good
as fundamental principles that must be followed in order to achieve the required and avoiding evil’.
ends. Although there is debate about how many precepts Aquinas identified, it is
usually agreed that there are five. These five principles are:
1. Preserve innocent life (‘the preservation of its own being … whatever is a means
of preserving human life’)
2. Orderly living in society
3. Worship God
4. Educate children
5. Reproduce to continue the species.
Whether or not acts lead us towards God depends upon whether the action fits the
purpose that humans were made for. If the action helps us to fulfil that purpose
then it is good. The primary precepts help us to identify what are our God-given
purposes in life and therefore they identify which acts are ‘good’. If we fulfil these
purposes they will bring us closer to God and our ultimate goal of re-establishing a
‘right’ relationship with God and by doing so, gain eternal life with God in Heaven.
The secondary precepts and the importance Specification content

of keeping the precepts The secondary precepts which derive
from the primary precepts; the
From these primary precepts, secondary ones can be deduced. The difference
importance of keeping the precepts in
between the primary and secondary is that the primary precepts are always true
order to establish a right relationship
and held universally, without exception. They are also self-evident. In contrast, the
with God and gain eternal life with
secondary precepts are not strictly universal since they may not hold in certain
God in Heaven.
circumstances. They are also derived from reasoning from the primary precepts.
An example of a secondary precept would be ‘do not steal’. This reflects the
primary precept of ‘orderly living in society.’ However it is accepted that sometimes
situations occur whereby not following secondary precepts may be supported by
another primary precept. For example, if the act of stealing was for the purpose of
feeding a hungry child then the primary precept of preserving innocent life takes
precedence. In such a case the act is justified. Natural Law always demands that a
primary precept is adhered to. It is this sort of ‘working out’ that is casuistry. Again,
2.5 How does casuistry help Natural
its teleological influence can be seen here.
Law?
The theologian Ronald Preston thought that the flaw with casuistry was with those
who made use of casuistry, that is those that applied it, and not with the discipline
of casuistry itself. Indeed, he maintains that casuistry is essential: it involves the Study tip
careful use of thought in applying general principles to particular circumstances: There are many examples of specialist
‘Christian ethics would be an exercise in ignorance without it’. language and vocabulary in this topic.
Make sure that you don’t get confused
AO1 Activity by the different words which are used
to describe the main terms associated
Using the terms that have been used to describe Aquinas’ Natural Law, create a with Natural Law. Your ability to use
mind map which summarises each concept. Make sure that you use examples, the terms accurately in an examination
where appropriate, from the scriptures or key quotes. This helps with the answer would distinguish a high level
ability to select and present the key, relevant features of the material you answer from one that is simply a
have read. general response.
143


Knowledge involves: It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It is
Selection of a range of (thorough) also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and used
accurate and relevant information for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO1.
everything you know about the Your new task is this: below is a weak answer that has been written in
topic area. response to a question requiring an explanation of Aquinas’ Natural Law. Using
the band level descriptors you need to place this answer in a relevant band that
corresponds to the description inside that band. It is obviously a weak answer and
Explanation that is extensive, so would not be in bands 3–5. In order to do this it will be useful to consider what
demonstrating depth and/or breadth is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate. The accompanying analysis
gives you observations to assist you. In analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in
thorough and accurate supporting use a group, think of five ways in which you would improve the answer in order to
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and make it stronger. You may have more than five suggestions but try to negotiate as
specialist language. a group and prioritise the five most important things lacking.
Answer
able to illustrate and expand your Aquinas thought that the primary precepts of Natural Law apply to all human
points through examples/supporting beings without exception. They are good acts because they lead us towards the
main human purpose or goal which is to worship God. 1
as rote learning). Aquinas argued that we had to think carefully about what is right and wrong and by
reasoning we can work it out. 2
The most fundamental precept is ‘act in such a way as to achieve good and avoid
Go through the topic areas in this evil’. The Roman Catholic Church has used Natural Law as a means of making
section and create some bullet lists moral decisions for over seven hundred years and this shows that the theory is still
popular. For example, the primary precepts include worship God which is referred to
and explanation through the use of in the 10 commandments. Another precept is ‘to reproduce’ which is one of God’s
evidence and examples. first commands to humans. 3
Natural Law is an absolutist theory and it is too strict. Some Christians would allow
abortion (which breaks the primary precept of reproduction) if it was the most
‘loving thing to do’ but if a woman had been raped Natural Law would not allow
abortion as this would break the primary precept ‘to reproduce’. 4
Overall, Aquinas’ Natural Law has other secondary precepts but they are not as
important as the primary ones. 5
Analysis of the answer

1 The answer goes straight into the precepts without explaining how they
originate. The answer then states an important point but does not expand on it.
2 This point on reasoning is relevant but it is not explained at all well and suggests
that the writer has no idea of why reason is the basis of Natural Law.
3 The first sentence is relevant but does not explain how it is not the primary
precepts as such. The second sentence goes off at a tangent and does not stay
focused. The third sentence comes back to the specific precepts and states two
without development.
4 The point about absolutist is relevant but does not relate to anything else and
does not explain why it may be considered an absolutist theory.
5 The last sentence shows no real evidence of understanding the secondary
precepts at all. Overall there is no explanation of how the precepts are derived
144
nor why they are important for Natural Law theory.


content and skills
The degree to which human law should be Specification content
influenced by Natural Law The degree to which human law
It could be argued that Natural Law could influence human law in positive ways should be influenced by Natural Law.
and that it has much to offer. It gives clear cut, objective and universal guidance,
for example the primary precepts tell us what are right and wrong. The purpose of
human law is to keep order and indeed one of the primary precepts of Natural Law
reflects this.
It also supports specific human laws such as the prohibition of murder. In fact, it
could be argued that human law is based in the traditions of Natural Law, such
as society has been centred around the principles of the 10 commandments.
Experience tells us that ‘do not steal’ leads to an ordered society, again this
reflecting the fact that one key primary precept is ‘an ordered society’.
Like human law, Natural Law can be deduced by referring to the natural order of
things and does not rely on unpredictable consequences. It also gives due place to
reason in making laws and ethical decision making. This could be argued to be a
major help to establishing and applying human laws. Indeed, our society’s legal
system is based upon the principles of casuistry and working out how to apply AO2 Activity Possible lines
general principles of law to specific cases, sometimes working our secondary of argument
levels of application just like the secondary precepts. Furthermore, Natural Law
encourages virtuous behaviour and can create an image of the ideal citizen. Listed below are some conclusions
However, an alternative line of argument is that is does have its problems, which that could be drawn from the AO2
would not be acceptable in working out and applying human law. For example, reasoning in the accompanying text:
it is based on the assumption that what Aquinas considered to be ‘natural’ is 1. Natural law is not an adequate
always right. This is too intolerant today and if it did influence human law then we basis for human law as it would
would not allow homosexuality or same sex marriage on account of the primary not be fair to everyone.
precept to reproduce. Indeed, there is no debate allowed within the Natural 2. Natural law is an adequate basis
Law framework to consider the fact that people in same sex relationships might for human law as they both have
disagree with Aquinas’s view and argue that their sexuality is natural to them. much in common.
In addition, many people do not believe in a divine creator and therefore would not 3. Natural law is not an adequate
see a theory which is based on belief in God as an adequate basis for human law basis for human law because it
as it would not apply to all humans. In this respect some would argue that it is also is far too dated for the modern
outdated and that society has changed, even progressed beyond Natural Law ideas. world.
For example, many would argue that allowing abortion is the most loving thing to 4. Natural law should influence
do now, yet not only does it break the primary precept ‘to protect life’ it also would human law but it has its
deny abortion. Abortion is part of human law and permissible. limitations.
In conclusion, while there is much of value that Natural Law may bring to society, 5. Natural law is not an adequate
it tends to be too absolutist in its application and therefore too intolerant for it to basis for human law because it
be a basis of human law. This does not, however, mean that it is of no use at all in tends to be adopted mostly by
helping guide some aspects of human law, for example, virtuous behaviour and the religious traditions.
creation of an ordered society.
It must be remembered that the theory of Natural Law is based in centuries drawn above and collect evidence and
of philosophical debate and discussion and is very comprehensive in nature. It examples to support each argument
would therefore be a mistake to reject the whole of Natural Law without serious from the AO1 and AO2 material
consideration. studied in this section. Select one
and evidence.
145

Specification content The extent to which the absolutist and/or

The extent to which the deontological nature of Natural Law works in
absolutist and/or deontological
nature of Natural Law works in contemporary society
contemporary society. One line of argument in response to this is that Natural Law is too restrictive and
does not allow people to act following their conscience. It sets absolute standards
that must be adhered to and there is clearly no flexibility. Any absolutist system
does not allow for individual expression or individual reasoning that challenges set
precepts.
In addition, many people prefer to make decisions based on love or happiness
rather than strict rules, and there are more flexible teleological or agent-based
systems such as Situation Ethics, Utilitarianism or virtue theory that are perhaps
more applicable in our world today. One could even go as far as to say it is too
simplistic and does not reflect the complexities of ethics in today’s contemporary
of argument
world.
Listed below are some conclusions Indeed, many people have rejected the ‘deontological’ approach in favour of
that could be drawn from the AO2 approaches which allow them more autonomy (freedom of choice). These rules
reasoning in the accompanying text: are seen as universal and applicable to all at all times, yet they themselves are
1. Deontological systems such hundreds of years old and whilst they may not have changed, society has changed.
as Natural Law can work in An obvious example is that divorce is now accepted by law but according to Natural
contemporary society because Law this breaks the primary precept of an ‘ordered society’. Another example
they give clear rules. would be to not accept homosexuality as legal and to outlaw abortion. For many
2. Deontological systems such as this would be a regression and not progress.
Natural Law cannot work in Atheists or humanists would not want to follow a deontological religious ethical
contemporary society because theory as they do not believe God is the source of morality. They do not believe that
they are too inflexible. a divine being decides what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ for humans. Whilst not all Natural
3. Deontological systems such as Law is religious, the principles behind it are still based in ancient thought and
Natural Law cannot work in culture.
contemporary society because Nonetheless, those who favour a deontological approach to an ethical or legal
they are too dated and can be system would argue that Natural Law’s rules are eternal and unchanging so they
accused of being intolerant. can apply to all people at all times.
4. Deontological systems such They would argue that Natural Law provides clear rules for people to live by and
as Natural Law can work in that there are no ‘grey’ areas or complicated issues. For example it is quite clear
contemporary society as it is clear that any sexual act which is not open to the possibility of reproduction is wrong as
much of our legal tradition and it challenges one of the primary precepts.
moral behaviour has its roots in In addition, it has been the basis of some religious moral thinking such as the
Natural Law. Roman Catholic Church and has stood the test of time. Millions of people adhere
5. Deontological systems such as to it today. The fact that sacred texts support such an approach for many religious
Natural Law cannot work in believers would approve of its use as a guide in today’s society.
contemporary society as we have In conclusion, there is an extent to which Natural Law works in contemporary
progressed beyond such simplistic society but this is only partial. Some would say it is the important things that
systems. Natural Law is useful for such as virtuous behaviour and a strict moral code
Consider each of the conclusions that disapproves of anti-social behaviour such as violence, stealing and murder.
drawn above and collect evidence and In this way it is still valuable. However, in the eyes of the law, there can be no
examples to support each argument disagreement with the conclusion that its extent of value stops when certain issues
from the AO1 and AO2 material of family law, medical ethics and sexuality are considered. Here the proposals put
studied in this section. Select one forward by Natural Law would clearly not work today.
and evidence.
146


of view.
Your task is this: below is a weak answer that has been written in response to various implications of the issues raised
a question requiring evaluation of whether Natural Law is an excellent system
for making moral decisions today. Using the band level descriptors you need to detailed argument with a clear
place this answer in a relevant band that corresponds to the description inside conclusion.
that band. It is obviously a weak answer and so would not be in bands 3–5. In
order to do this it will be useful to consider what is missing from the answer
and what is inaccurate. The accompanying analysis gives you observations to argument analysed through individual
assist you. In analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, think of five ways commentary and response and arrives
in which you would improve the answer in order to make it stronger. You may at a conclusion through a clear process
have more than five suggestions but try to negotiate as a group and prioritise of reasoning.
the five most important things lacking.
Answer Analysis of the answer

Some disagree with this statement 1 Whilst the point raised here is valid it could have been explained more clearly.
because they say how can we be sure For example, why is the concept of the ‘telos’ so important within Natural Law?
that the ‘telos’ or purpose of a particular God designed everything with a purpose and therefore fulfilling its intended
object or action as defined by Natural design is good. This could then be challenged.
Law is correct? For example, Natural 2 A valid point that is partially supported by reasoning.
Law says the main purpose of sex
3 However, the reasoning is simplistic. The challenge is not about whether or not
is reproduction, but what if its main
God exists but about whether or not I have a purpose.
purpose is pleasure? 1
4 The candidate needs to explain why Aquinas believed there was a ‘universal
Also, Natural Law is based on the belief
human nature’, i.e. we were all created this way by God. Also they could
that God created a world and everything
introduce scholars who reject this idea because from the study of the various
within it for a purpose, but many people
cultures around the world that there doesn’t appear to be a universal human
would challenge this idea. 2 An atheist
nature.
would have no reason to follow this
theory as they don’t believe in God. 3
5 The example of the Eskimos is good to use.
Aquinas believed that all of mankind

6 A poor conclusion with no real justification nor link to the above reasoning.
has the same universal nature, but is
there such a thing as a universal human
nature? 4 For example, Eskimos think it
is acceptable to allow elderly relatives to
die in the cold to stop them becoming a
burden on their family. This would not be
acceptable to people in British society
today. 5
Therefore it is not that excellent. 6
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content and skills B: Aquinas’ Natural Law: the role of virtues
Specification content and goods in supporting moral behaviour
The need for humans to be more God-
like by developing the three revealed The three revealed virtues
virtues (faith, hope and charity). One way that correct reasoning can be developed is through the cultivation of
certain virtues. Aquinas identified three theological virtues (revealed in the Bible)
that are known as the three revealed virtues; he actually referred to them as
‘articles of faith’. These are:
1. Faith 2. Hope 3. Love (charity).
Although charity is the word often used in translation, it is derived from the Greek
word for ‘love’ used by Paul in 1 Corinthians chapter 13, ‘ἀγάπη’ (agape), which
is often understood as pure, unconditional love as opposed to sexual, empathetic
(usually associated with family love), and, affection (usually associated with
friendship) which are different Greek words but also translated as ‘love’.
1 Corinthians reads:
‘If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only
a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can
fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move
mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the
poor and give over my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love,
I gain nothing.
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It
does not dishonour others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no
record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always
protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are
tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we
know in part and we prophesy in part, but when completeness comes, what is in
part disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I
reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind
me. For now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face.
Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.’
The Apostle Paul c.4 BCE–c. 62–64 CE
For Aquinas these are the superlative virtues that define and direct all other
virtues. As they are the absolute and superlative they are perfect. However, they
are aspirational in that they cannot be fully achieved in this world, being far above
2.6 Why is it important to clarify agape as
the capacity of a human being, but should be a standard that is aimed at. It is with
the Greek word for love?
God’s grace through these virtues that enables a human being to strive towards
perfection. Of course, the final and absolute end is supernatural union with God.
Key terms This state of perfect happiness, towards which the superlative virtues guide human
Agape: Greek word for pure, beings, is known as the beatific vision. As Aquinas writes, human beings ‘attain
unconditional love their last end by knowing and loving God’.
Beatific vison: the state of perfect In order, faith is more than just an intellectual acknowledgement of assent to the
happiness through supernatural union divine. Faith is an act of will for Aquinas: it is ‘an act of intellect which assents to
with God
the divine truth at the command of the will, moved by God’s grace’. Faith involves
the whole person and reflects a total outpouring and deference to the divine as an
Key quote active assertion.
Faith has to do with things that are Secondly, hope is the constant and consistent trust in achieving the beatific vision.
not seen and hope with things that This is like an inspired positive state of being, a spiritual energy that drives a person
are not at hand. (Aquinas) in pursuit of final end. It is a pure form of desire focused on the highest aim alone.
It is an underlying virtue that supports the active participation in other non-
theological, moral virtues.
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Finally, the greatest of them all is love (charity). Love for God is reflected in the
love for one’s neighbour and is the real key to Aquinas’ view of morality. Love is
the one virtue that actively directs all other virtues towards God. As reflected in
1 Corinthians 13, without love, all other virtues are ‘nothing’, meaningless and
empty. Love also has the healing property that restores our ‘fallen’ nature.
Key quotes
You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and
with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment. And a second is
like it: You shall love your neighbour as yourself. On these two commandments
depend all the Law and the Prophets. (Matthew 22:38–40)
God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in them …. There
is no fear in love. But perfect love drives out fear, because fear has to do with
punishment. The one who fears is not made perfect in love. (1 John 4:16–18)
One vital aspect of love as a virtue for Aquinas is that it incorporates the ‘gift’ of
wisdom, a virtue in itself and so significant in the thought of Aristotle also. But Key quote
for Aquinas, wisdom was the insight into the supernatural truths of creation, the A new command I give you: Love
goodness of God and the beatific vision; the ‘sovereign good, which is the last one another. As I have loved you, so
end …’ This is crucial to moral philosophy as it is those who are wise and have a you must love one another. By this
comprehensive understanding of the goodness of God that can then direct others everyone will know that you are my
towards the virtuous life. In this sense the superlative virtue of love is the essence disciples, if you love one another.
of all other virtues in that it directs them towards the correct end. (John 13:34–35)
AO1 Activity Key quote

Design a diagram that will help to summarise the three revealed virtues and The things that we love tell us what
that also links to the idea of the beatific vision. we are. (Aquinas)
Four cardinal virtues Specification content

As well as the superlative revealed virtues, Aquinas identified some natural The need for humans to be
virtues. He argued that one way correct reasoning can be developed is through more God-like by developing the
the cultivation of specific natural virtues and he identified four virtues as the most four cardinal virtues (fortitude,
important of these. These are known as the ‘cardinal virtues’: temperance, prudence and justice).
1. Prudence 2. Temperance 3. Fortitude 4. Justice.
For Aquinas these were the main framework for moral behaviour that helped
human beings become more God-like in their application. Key terms
Prudence involves being able to make sound judgements in reasoning. It is the Courage: a cardinal virtue involving
physical, moral or spiritual endurance
application of ‘wisdom concerning human affairs’, that is, ‘right reason with
and strength of character
respect to action’. Prudence involves being aware of both the moral principles
established through Natural Law but also the specific situation wherein such Justice: a cardinal virtue involving
guidance in how we act towards others
principles need to be applied. In effect, prudence is the basis of casuistic endeavour.
In other words, prudence is the capability and competency of rational evaluation of Prudence: a cardinal virtue involving
sound judgement
circumstances in order to establish direct true and good courses of action. It does
this in three steps: counsel, which is a consideration of possible courses of action; Temperance: a cardinal virtue
judgement, which decides upon the correct course of action; and, command, which involving balance and restraint
is the application of that judgement. This is the art of casuistry.
Aquinas relates prudence to other virtues that depend upon it such as memory,
intelligence, docility, shrewdness, reason, foresight, circumspection, and caution.
2.7 Give an alternative word to explain
Temperance is all about moderation and we can see here the idea of Aristotle’s each of the four cardinal virtues.
doctrine of the mean. It involves sobriety and restraint. Temperance has the ability
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to purify and refine physical pleasures. He writes, ‘sensible and bodily goods …
Key quote are not in opposition to reason, but are subject to it as instruments which reason
employs in order to attain its proper end’.
Actions are about singular matters:
Part of temperance is also the virtue of humility, of knowing how to present oneself
and so it is necessary for the
in the correct and balanced manner. Meekness, generosity and studiousness and also
prudent man to know both the
part of temperance as they restrain such vices as anger and vanity.
universal principles of reason, and
the singulars about which actions The virtue of courage, sometimes also referred to as fortitude, incorporates
are concerned. (Aquinas) discipline, patience, endurance and perseverance in the face of difficult
circumstances, whether physical, moral or spiritual. A courageous person will not
be beaten or broken by stress and sorrow. Courage also encourages nobility of
character and one that is not controlled by fear on the one hand, yet on the other
hand not subject to reckless, irresponsible or rash behaviour.
The final cardinal virtue is justice. It is interesting to note that whilst the first three
are to do with individual qualities, the last cardinal virtue has a specific focus on
others, that is, our actions towards them. It is less to do with our own character
but more to do with how our actions are governed. Justice covers the law, both
general as regards community welfare and also individual cases. It also involves
the specific way in which matters are administrated, both in terms of goods and
responsibilities which, according to Aquinas, ‘are [fairly] apportioned among
people who stand in a social community’ and in ‘due proportion’.
It is interesting to note that Aquinas’ idea of justice does not mean equality for all,
but recognises individual needs, relative to circumstances and needs. For example,
someone in poverty requires more assistance from justice than a wealthy person.
AO1 Activity
Use your knowledge and understanding of both the revealed virtues and the
cardinal virtues to complete the following task: A person has been caught
stealing from the funds of a local charity. They feel very guilty and sorry for what
they have done and turn to you for help. How would you encourage them to act
and what advice would you give in applying the virtues? This practises the AO1
skill of being able to show an accurate understanding of ethical concepts.
Study tip
Remember to use examples when explaining the four cardinal virtues so that
you can fully explain your answer.
Specification content Aquinas’ definition of different types of acts

Aquinas’ definition of different types and goods
of acts and goods: internal acts (the
intention of the moral agent when Internal acts and external acts: intention and action
carrying out an action) and external Aquinas made a distinction between the intention of an act and the act itself.
acts (the actions of a moral agent); For those looking on, it may well be judged that an action was good. However, if
real goods (correctly reasoned goods the onlooker knew the real motive or intention, then it may well be seen rather
that help the moral agent achieve differently. Likewise it is not acceptable to do a bad act intentionally even if the aim
their telos) and apparent goods is to bring about good outcomes.
(wrongly reasoned goods that don’t
This approach to understanding intentions is important when applying Natural
help the moral agent achieve their
Law to moral dilemmas. It is at the heart of what is known as the ‘doctrine of
God-given purpose).
double effect’. This states that even if a good act results in bad consequences,
then it is still right to do that act. It is still right to do that act, even if it was known
that bad consequences would result. The important issue is the intention. If the
intention was not to bring about these bad consequences, then the unfortunate
side effects do not make the act morally wrong.
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Classical formulations of the principle of double effect require that four conditions
be met if the action is to be morally permissible:
Key terms
1. That we do not wish the evil effects, and make all reasonable efforts to avoid them;
Apparent good: apparent good is a
2. That the immediate effect be good in itself; vice or sin that takes us further away
3. That the evil is not made a means to obtain the good effect; from the ideal human nature that God
had planned for us
4. That the good effect be as important (proportionate) at least as the evil effect.
External act: an action that is seen to
An example of this would be treating a pregnant woman for cancer in order to be good or bad but one that does not
save her life but at the same time destroying the unborn child. Since the death of correlate with, nor is consistent with,
the unborn child was not the intention of the act that produced it but rather an the intention behind it
unfortunate side effect, then the act that brought it about is deemed good and
Internal act: an action that is
morally right, according to Natural Law ethics. consistent with intention whether
good or bad
Real goods and apparent goods: right and wrong
Real good: real good is a
reasoning characteristic that will help people
As we have seen, Natural Law is within all of us but it is not like a physical law that to become closer to the ideal human
has to be followed. It derives from reason but sometimes the reasoning can be nature that God had planned for us
incorrectly directed or applied.
Reason should tell us what we should desire, since we have a natural inclination. Food is good but this
This should lead us to our goal of perfection (image of God). This is what is known does not justify greed
as a real good, for example being generous and giving to charity, with correct
intention of course!
However, Aquinas recognised that sometimes we do not do the things that we
should. We can reason wrongly.
One example of reasoning wrongly would be if a good was pursued that actually
was not a good as understood by Natural Law (i.e. it did not develop perfection).
It is what is referred to as an apparent good. It was the philosopher Socrates who
first made this distinction and pointed out that we never desire anything that we
do not, at the moment of desiring it, judge to be good; this personal judgement,
however, does not make the action good. Aquinas argued that it is our fallen
nature that can lead us astray to choose things that we desire, but which may
not be contributing to our development into the image of God. An example of an
apparent good would be following our desires for something that seems good at
the time but not in line with our good overall in relation to Natural Law such as
eating as much as possible because the food tastes good. This shows a lack of the
cardinal virtue of temperance and cultivates a greedy character. Therefore, Aquinas
did not believe that people choose to be ‘evil’ but rather they performed evil acts
because they used their ability to reason incorrectly. 2.8 Why is intention important in Natural
Law?
AO1 Activity
Prepare a 30-second YouTube blog explaining how Natural Law distinguishes 2.9 What is the difference between real
between actions and intentions, and real and apparent goods. Give examples and apparent goods?
and this task will allow you to show that you understand the reason why
certain decisions may be made as part of ethical theory.
Study tip
Do not confuse real and apparent goods. Make sure you know them accurately.
Using examples for each will help you remember.
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Band 5 for AS AO1).
everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a strong answer that has been written in
area. response to a question requiring an examination of the religious basis of
Aquinas’ Natural Law. Using the band level descriptors you can compare this
with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside those bands. It is
Explanation that is extensive, obviously a strong answer and so would not be in bands 1–3. In order to do
this it will be useful to consider what is good about the answer and what is
accurate. The accompanying analysis gives you clues and prompts to assist you.
thorough and accurate supporting use In analysing the answer’s strengths, in a group, think of five things that make
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and this answer a good one. You may have more than five observations and indeed
specialist language. suggestions to make it a perfect answer!
able to illustrate and expand your The Christian denomination that has been most influenced by Aquinas’ Natural Law
is the Roman Catholic Church. Their theology follows the strict rules and guidelines
set out by Aquinas. Catholics believe in Natural Law when it states that all moral
as rote learning). decisions can be made using our God-given reason. Aquinas developed Aristotelian
ideas that everything has a purpose described as our ‘telos’. Aquinas, unlike
Aristotle, believed this purpose was given by God. Our ‘telos’ is to reach fellowship
Go through the topic areas in this with God through the decisions we make using our ability to reason. Any action
section and create some bullet lists that does not bring about causality or fulfil its final purpose is wrong. This is the
of key points from key areas. For fundamental religious basis of Natural Law. 1
and explanation through the use of Aquinas determined that Natural Law has five primary precepts: to worship God;
evidence and examples. self-preservation and preservation of the innocent; to live in an ordered society; to
learn; and, continuation of the species through reproduction. He then explained the
secondary precepts which demonstrate the primary precepts in action. For example,
in order to live in an ordered society, we need the secondary precept ‘do not kill’.
Many Catholics still accept the use of Natural Law because it gives them a clear
set of rules by which to lead their lives. The Roman Catholic Church upholds the
precept of ‘an ordered society’ by maintaining an absolutist approach to issues such
as abortion and euthanasia which would break this precept. The primary precepts
are also supported by the Bible; for example, in Genesis it states the one of our main
purposes is reproduction. 2
As a deontological theory Natural Law focuses on the action that is performed and
Aquinas described both ‘exterior’ and ‘interior’ acts. The exterior act is the act itself
and the interior act is its motive. For an act to be good both the exterior and interior
acts must be good. Many Roman Catholics still accept his ideas and believe that
doing the right action for the right reasons will improve oneself and enable humans
to get closer to God. This is consistent with the teachings of the New Testament for
example, ‘God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in them’ according
to 1 John 4:16–18. 3
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Aquinas also encourages the development of cardinal virtues such as inner
strength-fortitude or temperance (everything in moderation). Jesus taught that
virtues were very important for Christians, such as in the Beatitudes. Scholars such
as Peter Vardy agree that the idea of improving the self and soul is very appealing to
religious believers who aim to get closer to God. 4
Aquinas believed that the main purpose of sex was reproduction – as outlined in
the primary precepts. Any sexual activity that frustrates this final cause such as
homosexual sex is therefore wrong. This is the reason why many Roman Catholics
hold the view that homosexual sex is not permissible because it does not lead to the
fulfilment of the ‘telos’ of sex –reproduction. For many Christians this has a biblical
basis on Old Testament teaching and the idea of procreation fits in with the creation
stories and Adam and Eve in Genesis. 5
Overall, it can be clearly seen how Aquinas’ Natural Law has a clear religious
basis, from being grounded in God as ‘telos’, the nature of the precepts, the nature
of actions and the development of virtuous character, all supported by Christian
religious texts. 6
Hints
1 Basis in God.
2 Evidence.
3 Explanation and link.
4 Virtues.
5 Example of application.
6 Clarity.
Completed hints
1 The answer has carefully selected accurate and relevant information. Specialist
vocabulary is also used accurately. A clear religious basis for Aquinas’ Natural
Law is established.
2 The answer has clearly linked the primary and secondary precepts here, not only
to each other, but also to Roman Catholic teachings and to biblical evidence.
3 The answer has clearly defined interior and exterior acts here and explained why
these concepts are important to religious believers.
4 In addition to this he has identified the cardinal virtues and their link to human
personal development. He has supported the point he has made with a scholarly
opinion.
5 Here the answer has clearly identified why Roman Catholics would support
Natural Law’s view on homosexual acts.
6 A concise but accurate summary.
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content and skills
The strengths and weaknesses of Natural Law
Natural Law clearly has many strengths otherwise it would have not been as
The strengths and weaknesses of
influential as it has been throughout history.
Natural Law.
The first attraction and strength is that it is based on what it means to be human.
To be human means acting in line with your true nature and following our natural
inclinations. When the theory is applied, it assumes the special status of human
beings.
Natural Law also reveals a universal law, and is therefore not relative to culture or
a religion. This means that the primary precepts are common to all. Because it is
about following natural inclinations, then the application to a moral issue is always
the same, wherever you are and whoever you are.
Natural Law appeals to common sense and some versions, for example that posed
by Aristotle, do not need God for its authority. It also gives a clear basis for morality,
there is an authority and a clear justification for actions allowed and it is clear how
Natural Law is applied. For instance, the primary precepts are clearly identified and
justified. It is clear for all to see why abortion is wrong.
Natural Law also judges the intrinsic value of actions regardless of outcomes – it
is the action itself, not the outcomes, that decides whether an act is moral. This
avoids the problem of seemingly doing an action that appears good but in fact has
evil motives. In such cases the theory does not identify those acts as good. This
seems a correct judgement.
It could also be argued that its application seems clear even when there appears
a conflict within the system itself. Whilst the application of the primary precepts
is straightforward, the doctrine of double effect allows for possible conflicts of
primary precepts.
Finally, it does encourage virtuous behavior such as love, wisdom, justice and
temperance. These are valuable in any society.
However, there are some strong challenges to Natural Law. Perhaps the most
significant one is often referred to as the naturalistic fallacy. It is unreasonable to
expect someone who does not believe in the existence of a moral God, to accept
that what simply exists as human nature has moral authority. It is argued that
describing the facts of any situation never leads to making a value judgement.
What ‘is’ (fact) does not imply what ‘ought to be’ (value). In other words there
seems to be a mistake in reasoning (fallacy) in identifying morality with another
concept (i.e. nature).
Indeed, what does it mean to say an action is ‘natural’? Does it just mean that it
refers to the action that is common to a particular group?
There is also a question over whether or not there really is a common human nature?
Surely the fact that cultures have different values challenges the idea of a common
nature; for example, the Spartan nature was to kill weak or defective children
whereas this is certainly not universal. Some would deny there was any such thing
as a human nature. Indeed, human nature seems to change. For instance, the debate
about homosexuality has raised questions about what is natural.
There is also the challenge that if there is a constant unchanging human nature and
a Natural Law that stems from it, how is it that so many through the centuries have
got human nature so wrong, for example slavery and apartheid were considered as
natural.
As Natural Law is a major component of Roman Catholic doctrine, its legalism
might seem to some to be in conflict with a Christian stance. It is action centred
rather than people and consequence centred. This is particularly evidenced in
Natural Law approaches to abortion and euthanasia.
154

The doctrine of double effect assumes that a sharp distinction can be drawn
between directly intending a result and merely foreseeing it. If a result can
be foreseen, then in performing the action the person must be intending the
consequence. For instance, the acceptance of collateral damage from a bombing
raid. If it is known that many innocent lives will be lost, then is the act moral? It
also raises the issue that Natural Law itself raises about intentions and real and
apparent goods.
In conclusion, just as with any system there are key strengths and weaknesses.
Rather than judging the overall quality of Natural Law, it may be better to point out
that, for many, there are consequentialist systems that are preferable to Natural
Law simply because they are more flexible and suitable for today’s world.

1. The strengths of Natural Law can withstand criticisms as they have done
throughout time.
2. The weaknesses with Natural Law are far too strong for it to remain a
valuable ethical system today.
3. Since most of our laws are a reflection of Natural Law is it still valid today.
4. Natural Law will remain valid if it will focus more in application on virtues
and goods in casuistry rather than on precepts.
5. Other ethical theories that are either more flexible or consequentialist are
preferable to Natural Law.
Consider each of the conclusions drawn above and collect evidence and
A consideration of whether Natural Law Specification content

promotes injustice A consideration of whether
We can see how this issue may be raised because on the one hand Natural Law fails Natural Law promotes injustice.
to recognise that some acts, for example sex, can have more than one purpose. As a
result this clearly discriminates against those who perform an act without fulfilling
its purpose, for example pre-marital relationships and homosexuality.
As it is inflexible at times, Natural Law fails to move with the times and promotes
what some would see as ‘old-fashioned’ and out of date ideals. For example, this
can clearly be seen in the fact that divorce is viewed as wrong and yet is legal;
likewise, abortion is legal but viewed as wrong by Natural Law.
Unlike relativistic theories such as Situation Ethics, Natural Law fails to consider
the personal situation in which a person finds themselves. Some people argue it
could be more loving to allow non-married couples to express their love for each
other through sex. Moreover, it does not, in considering the context, reflect the true
application of law, which always considers ‘mitigating circumstances’ for any crime
committed. Natural Law simply applies universal principles almost like a ‘one size
fits all’ theory. This is certainly inconsistent with modern justice. However, some
would argue that there are clear ways in which Natural Law promotes justice by
providing humans with a set of rules which they can live by and it promotes a sense
of community. This is very important for social justice.
155

Natural Law also promotes universal and eternal laws: so human beings know,
regardless of the century they live in or where they live, what is acceptable and
what is not. People have the primary precepts as guidance. In this sense it both
promotes and supersedes human justice, as it recognises that God punishes those
who do wrong and sin as they move further away from reaching the goal of eternal
life with God. This is a very significant aspect for those religious believers that
follow Natural Law.
Finally, it promotes justice by advocating basic human rights such as the right to
life, the right to education and the right live in an ordered society. No-one would
disagree with these today.
In conclusion, it appears that although Natural Law does have its flaws when
applied rigidly and has the potential to cause injustice, the fact that its very basis is
to promote virtue, love and protection of the innocent through an ordered society
means that it would be very harsh to agree and make a general statement that
Natural Law promotes injustice.

1. The statement cannot be true because one of the virtues, and indeed a
purpose of Natural Law, is to see that justice is served.
2. The inflexible nature of Natural Law leads to injustice in practice.
3. Overall, Natural Law does not promote injustice but there are potential
problems with it in application.
4. If Natural Law were followed, it would clearly promote injustices and there
are several examples of this.
5. If applied carefully, sensitively and with good reasoning in a Christian
manner, Natural Law could never promote injustice.
156


of view.
Your task is this: below is a strong answer that has been written in response various implications of the issues raised
to a question requiring evaluation of Natural Law as a good basis for making
moral decisions. Using the band level descriptors you can compare this with the detailed argument with a clear
relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside those bands. It is obviously conclusion.
a strong answer and so would not be in bands 1–3. In order to do this it will
be useful to consider what is good about the answer and what is accurate. The
accompanying analysis gives you clues and prompts to assist you. In analysing argument analysed through individual
the answer’s strengths, in a group, think of five things that make this answer a commentary and response and arrives
good one. You may have more than five observations and indeed suggestions to at a conclusion through a clear process
make it a perfect answer! of reasoning.
Answer
For many believers across the world Natural Law does provide an excellent basis
for making moral decisions. Its absolutist approach determines that some actions
are always right or always wrong. This provides people with clear cut consistent
rules. Natural Law echoes the Ten Commandments in the Bible such as ‘do not
kill’. 1 ’ Natural Law is still used by the Roman Catholic Church, the largest
Christian denomination in the world. It must therefore provide an excellent basis
for making moral decisions as it is still used by many as part of their faith. The Pope
criticised relativist theories as ‘moving towards a dictatorship of relativism’ where
the individual only looks out for themselves. In contrast, Natural Law is based on
goodness for all humanity. It promotes precepts such as ‘an ordered society’. It also
promotes the Golden Rule of Christianity – ‘Do unto others as you would have them
do unto you’ through cardinal virtues such as justice. 2
However, many have criticised Natural Law’s absolutist approach. For example,
some philosophers have observed that what is ‘good’ or acceptable varies within
different cultures and believed that there is no such thing as a universal human
nature. 3 The idea that all of humanity is given the gift of reason also seems
unrealistic as not everyone has the ability to reason. Reformist Protestants such as
Martin Luther have also criticised Natural Law and Roman Catholic theology for the
emphasis they place on human reason, as he believed that the Bible was the highest
form of authority. 4
Many also believe that Natural Law is outdated in its views on abortion and
euthanasia and the strict rules it applies prevent people from doing what they
believe to be right. It was a firm belief in Natural Law that led to the Pope
condemning the widespread use of contraception in poverty-stricken African
countries when surely allowing this would be the most loving answer to providing a
better quality of life? 5
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Whilst many favour the rules-based approach given by Natural Law and the way it
allows them to have a clear moral stance on many issues, I think it is fundamentally
flawed as people’s perception of what is a rational decision will vary according to
their cultural background – what is considered rational and right in one culture may
not be in another. 6
Hints
1 Focus.
2 Understanding.
3 Examples.
4 Role of authority.
5 Develop.
6 Link.
Completed hints
1 The answer has clearly focused on the question and has made a valid point on
the benefits of Natural Law’s absolutist approach.
2 The second half of the paragraph displays clear understanding of one of the core
principles of Natural Law and of one of the virtues.
3 Some good examples of evaluation are given here pointing out two of the major
weaknesses of Natural Law. The fact that not everyone has the ability to reason
could be developed further with an example.
4 The reference to Martin Luther shows a mature understanding of the issue of the
importance of scriptural authority over Natural Law.
5 Whilst the points raised here are perfectly valid, they could be developed – what
are Natural Law’s views on abortion and euthanasia and why are these views
held? Why according to Natural Law would contraception not be allowed?
6 An appropriate conclusion has been drawn that clearly links to the arguments
presented above. Perhaps an example could have been used to illustrate the
point made? But still, overall very good.
Natural Law is still used by

the Roman Catholic Church
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C: Aquinas’ Natural Law: application of content and skills
the theory Specification content
Aquinas’ Natural Law: application
The issues arising from abortion of the theory. The application of
Aquinas’ Natural Law to the issue of:
An abortion can be defined as the termination of a pregnancy before 24 weeks.
abortion.
Abortions are available on the National Health Service (NHS) but women seeking
them must be referred by a doctor. According to the Brook Advisory Service ‘…
although the normal legal limit for abortion is 24 weeks, it is usually easiest to get Key terms
an abortion on the NHS if a woman is under 12 weeks pregnant’. Blastocyst: a group of multiplying
There are two classifications of abortion: medical and surgical. The first, achieved cells
by means of an abortion pill (mifepristone) and a tablet (prostaglandin) inserted Embryo: an animal in the early
into the vagina 36 to 48 hours later, is a medical abortion. It involves no surgery stage of development before birth; in
and, in effect, is like heavy menstruation; however, it is not available in all areas. humans, the embryo stage is the fi rst
three months after conception
The second type involves surgery and is called a surgical abortion. Most
commonly, it is achieved through vacuum aspiration or suction and is available Foetus: the unborn baby from the end
up to the week 13 of pregnancy. Women usually recover within a few hours and of the eighth week after conception
(when the major structures have
can go home the same day. In later stages of pregnancy, a process of dilation and
formed) until birth
evacuation is used, which involves opening the cervix and entering the womb, then
removing the contents by means of surgical instruments as well as suction. Medical abortion: abortion by means
of the abortion pill
One of the important issues surrounds the question of exactly the moment
of the beginning of ‘humanness’. The beginning of ‘humanness’ is debated in Surgical abortion: abortion by
means of the suction method
philosophical, ethical and legal circles but, biologically speaking, the beginning is at
conception. In its broadest terms, the development, that is, the actualisation of the Zygote: a cell formed by the union of
potentiality to become fully human, takes the following course: a male sex cell (a sperm) and a female
sex cell (an ovum), which develops into
1. conception the embryo according to information
2. zygote (pre-embryo, 0–5 days) encoded in its genetic material
3. blastocyst (a group of multiplying cells, pre-embryo, 5–14 days)
4. embryo (14 days to 8 weeks)
5. foetus (8 weeks onwards) 2.10 What is the legal timeframe for an
6. new born (birth, usually between 38 and 42 weeks). abortion?
It is interesting that the stage of pregnancy is calculated from the first day of the
woman’s last period. Despite such accuracy of science and technology, even the Key quote
stage of conception is arguably vague and the timings given above assume normal
growth rates. Personhood may be one thing and
human life another; hence it is
A foetus possible to argue that, while the
zygote may not be a person, there is
no logical alternative to regarding
it as the first stage in human life.
(Mason and Laurie)
Key quote
The basic argument against
abortion, on which all others build,
is that the unborn child is already a
human being, a person, a bearer of
rights, and that abortion is therefore
murder. (Mackie)
159

The changes in the law against abortion reflect changes in attitude and begin with
Key quote the Offences Against the Person Act (1861), which depicts procuring a miscarriage
Whether or not abortion should be as a criminal act. The problem was that there was no option for therapeutic activity.
legal turns on the answer to the In 1929 the Infant Preservation Act allowed the preservation of the mother’s life as
question of whether and at what reason for a termination.
point a foetus is a person. This is a David Steel introduced the Abortion Act 1967 that stated: ‘two doctors must agree
question that cannot be answered that an abortion is necessary. It is deemed necessary if:
logically or empirically. The concept 1. The woman’s physical health is threatened by having the baby or any existing
of personhood is neither logical children would be harmed mentally or physically by the woman proceeding to
nor empirical: it is essentially a have the baby.
religious, or quasi-religious idea, 2. There is a high risk the baby would be handicapped.
based on one’s fundamental (and
This was clarified by the Embryology Act 1990 (Section 37). According to Mason
therefore unverifiable) assumptions
and Laurie ‘… it now states that a person is not guilty of an offence under the law
about the nature of the world. of abortion when termination is performed by a registered practitioner and two
(Campos) registered medical practitioners have formed the opinion in good faith that the
continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater than if the pregnancy
were terminated, of injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman
or any existing children of her family.’ The legal limit was also reduced from 28
weeks to 24 weeks; however, the Act also removed time restrictions for a foetus
aborted due to abnormality.
AO1 Activity
An acrostic is a form of writing in which the first letter of each line spells out
a word. Using the word ‘Abortion’, aim to write out eight facts or key words
which you feel sum up the important aspects of the issue.
David Steel born 1938
Study tip
There are many examples of specialist language and vocabulary in this topic.
Make sure that you don’t get confused by the different terms that are used to
describe issues related to abortion. Your ability to use the terms accurately in
an examination answer would distinguish a high level answer from one that is
simply a general response.
This raises a key legal issue in that an abortion for reason of abnormality does
absolve the gynaecologist of destruction of the foetus but not of unlawful killing of
2.11 When was the Abortion Act
a ‘creature in being’. For instance, if such an abortion entitles the foetus to a birth
introduced?
and death certificate, then surely such a ‘person’ is protected by the full extent of
the law?
Peter Singer raises the issue of personhood when he writes: ‘To kill a human adult
2.12 What are the two conditions of the act is murder, and is unhesitatingly and universally condemned. Yet there is no obvious
in considering an abortion necessary? sharp line which marks the zygote from the adult. Hence the problem.’
Key quote
Key quote
The dilemma of the gynaecologist who is there to relieve a woman of her foetus,
What is to be done with a live
however, is that ‘there is now an infant who, on any interpretation, is entitled
foetus? The 1990 Act absolves the
to a birth certificate, and, if necessary, a certificate as to the cause of death’.
gynaecologist of destruction only
(Mason and Laurie)
and not the killing of a ‘creature in
being’. (Mason and Laurie)
160

Another related issue involves the sanctity of life, which is the belief that life is
in some way sacred or holy, traditionally understood as being given by God. Kant Key quote
actually gives the idea of the sanctity of life a non-religious perspective based on We may take the doctrine of the
purely ethical grounds, and philosophers such as Peter Singer have long called for sanctity of human life to be no more
a shift from talking about the sanctity of life towards a more universal discussion than a way of saying that human
about the value of life. life has some very special value
The key debates, then, consider when an act can be classed as killing, or even …. The view that human life has
murder, and at which point potential human life acquires such value as to make unique value is deeply rooted in our
abortion an ethical injustice. society and is enshrined in our law.
This leads into more specific questions concerning the nature and status of (Singer)
the foetus.
One of the major problems with the abortion debate is that there are blurred Key terms
and inaccurate definitions for the terminology. For example, those campaigning Birth: the point at which the child
against abortion (pro-life) and those campaigning for the rights of women to is separated from the mother and
have abortions (pro-choice), interpret the terms life and unborn differently. For becomes a separate entity
one group, the idea of a human person includes the stage of an embryo, while the Consciousness: awareness of self
other considers only that stage beyond birth.
Ensoulment: the point when the soul
It is important, therefore, to establish what such interested parties actually mean enters the body
when they refer to a baby, a person and a life. This is intrinsic to this aspect of
Potential: the possibility, at
the debate and therefore it is important to consider some different views. There
conception, of becoming a human
are several arguments concerning the application of the status of personhood to person
the embryo, foetus or child. These tend to be based on either biological stages or
related to philosophical and religious principles or concepts. Pro-choice: supporting women’s
rights to have abortions
Biological debates depend upon physical evidence to define the status of the
foetus. Some argue that the status of personhood is only applied at actual physical Pro-life: against abortion
birth. This is the first true point of independence and individuality. Others argue Quickening: traditionally, when the
for the point of viability, that is, the status of personhood is awarded at that child is fi rst felt to move inside the
time when the unborn can exist beyond any dependence on the mother. A more mother
traditional approach has been defining the start of human life by what is known Relational factors: different
as the quickening when the ‘child’ is first felt to move, although this does vary interpretations of the same words or
from individual to individual and therefore has no standardised point. Finally, terms, depending on the viewpoint of
some would suggest life begins at the point when potential for life begins (at the observer
conception). Sanctity of life: the belief that life is
Philosophical or religious arguments are based on concepts or principles sacred or holy, given by God
beyond the physical evidence. Some would argue that life begins at the point of Viability: the ability to grow and
consciousness when the ability to think and reason is clearly evidenced. Others develop into an adult, especially the
argue for ensoulment when it is believed that the soul enters the body. This ability of the child to exist without
point is debated as proposals between 40 and 90 days have been offered, but the dependence on the mother
argument defies accuracy.
Peter Vardy makes an important point when he observes that arguments are
based upon the meaning of words, or what he calls ‘relational factors’. What he
means by this is that there are different interpretations or understandings of the
same words. Until accurate definitions of key terms are agreed, the stage at which
personhood status is awarded can never be universal.
161

One final consideration is that there is a clear disparity in the development of
Key quote individuals. During life, although there are broad timescales at which people
mature, develop and grow, there is, by the very nature of individuality, a blurring
The only absolute in the saga is that
of the exact moment one moves from adolescence to adulthood, from childhood
‘life’ as it is generally understood
through puberty and so forth. Why are the early stages of development any
begins with the formation of the different?
zygote; on this view, the conservative
Roman Catholic view represents
the only tenable option – the AO1 Activity
difficulty is that it is also the least Find out how the Hippocratic Oath has been modified for doctors today and
practical solution to the question. explain why.
(Mason and Laurie)
Hippocrates 460–370 BCE
Key quote
Definitions intended for statistical
use are not, however, necessarily
the same as those to be applied in
practice. (Mason and Laurie)
Key quote
… I will neither give a deadly drug
to anybody who asked for it, nor will
I make a suggestion to this effect.
Similarly I will not give to a woman
an abortive remedy. In purity and
holiness I will guard my life and
my art …. What I may see or hear
in the course of the treatment or
even outside of the treatment in
regard to the life of men, which on
no account one must spread abroad,
I will keep to myself, holding such
things shameful to be spoken about.
If I fulfil this oath and do not violate
it, may it be granted to me to enjoy
life and art, being honoured with
fame among all men for all time to
come; if I transgress it and swear
falsely, may the opposite of all this
be my lot. (Hippocratic Oath –
Classical version)
2.13 Identify two key areas of discussion

from the biological debates
concerning the beginning of
human life.
162

The application of Natural Law to the issue Specification content

of abortion Aquinas’ Natural Law: application
of the theory. The application of
For those who accept Aquinas’ doctrine of Natural Law and seek to apply this to
the issue of abortion, believe that the key primary precept involved here is that of
abortion.
preserving innocent life. Hence the act of abortion is seen as inherently evil because
of the intentional and direct killing of an innocent human being. This would apply
to all situations including the cases of rape or incest.
The debate, however, will then focus on when a foetus can be considered as a
person. Opinions vary between regarding it as the moment of conception or
choosing the time of the appearance of a certain feature, such as neural activity.
This is where there could be some debate.
Study tip
Being able to make accurate reference to sacred texts, and/or sources of wisdom
where appropriate is vital if you wish to gain a high level in your answer.
However, make sure that the quotations that you use are relevant to the point
that you are making in your answer.
There is another approach that could, however, be taken. Professor of Ethics,

Howard Kainz has argued that in the case of abortion, two other precepts are
perhaps even more relevant to the issue of abortion than the ‘preservation of
life principle’, that of the right to procreation and the right to nurture offspring.
He argues that in the case of abortion there are those who defend the right of
the woman if her life is in danger: ‘Those who apply the first precept often make
an exception for situations threatening the life of the mother, since there is a
conflict between two rights to life.’ However, for Kainz, this opens up another
area of debate regarding rape in that ‘if every woman has a right to conceive Pope Pius XI 1857–1939
and procreate, and if this right implies that she has a right to make that choice
voluntarily, no more obvious infractions of that right than rape and incest can be Key quote
contemplated’. In other words, if one uses a principle of exception for the first
Whether inflicted upon the mother
precept, then one has to admit the possibility that there could be exceptions in
or upon the child, [abortion] is
applying the two precepts of right to procreation and nurturing offspring. Just as
against the precept of God and the
one has a right to preserve one’s life, one also has an equal right to preserve one’s
choice to procreate. Rape clearly violates this choice. Indeed, it is then a question
law of nature: ‘Thou shalt not kill’.
of conflicting principles that exist within the primary precepts as they stand. This (Pope Pius XI)
would then obviously open up the debate or real and apparent goods but still raise
more questions. Key quote
Kainz, however, argues that despite all this confusion, a more virtuous approach to On the other hand, it should be
rape may be more Christian in terms of the dilemma of abortion. He argues that recognised that application of the
‘Christian principles may supersede considerations of conflicts of right related to second precept may change our
Natural Law’ and that a woman who decides to nurture a child after rape or who perspective on some of the common
sacrifices her own life due to a problem pregnancy in order for the child to survive exceptions many are willing to
are classic examples of virtuous behaviour that demonstrate ‘going the extra mile’. allow regarding the prohibition of
He writes, ‘from the standpoint of Natural Law, such decisions would belong in the abortion … in light of the second
category of heroic virtue — sacrifices of personal rights that go beyond any normal precept, a conflict of rights obtains
call to maternal responsibility’. also in the cases of rape and incest.
For, if every woman has a right to
conceive and procreate, and if this
right implies that she has a right
to make that choice voluntarily, no
more obvious infractions of that
right than rape and incest can be
contemplated. (Kainz)
163

Kainz does raise an important issue but also indicates that Natural Law has an
Key quotes obligation to reason, through the art of casuistry, and clearly take into account
Christian virtues. However, some would be reluctant to accept that even the virtue
When suffering is the result of of agape (love), the greatest of divine virtues, can be stretched beyond what the
following an ethical principle then primary precepts identify as its key application. Critics may suggest that this is not a
we need to look very carefully at our true understanding of the application of such virtue.
ethical principle and ask whether
we are applying it too inflexibly.
Key quote
(Hope)
It goes without saying, however, that Christian principles may supersede
The doctor’s dilemma is self-evident considerations of conflicts of right related to Natural Law. Deciding to bring a
– is he or she practising truly ‘good’ child into the world after a rape, for example, would be in the same category
medicine in keeping alive a neonate as gospel admonitions to ‘go the other mile’, ‘lend to others without hoping for
who will be unable to take a place repayment’, ‘turn the other cheek,’ etc. In situations of problem pregnancies like
in society or who will be subject to ectopic gestation, a woman deciding to forfeit her own right to life and her right
pain and suffering throughout life? to nurture and raise her children to bring her child to term would be going even
(Mason and Laurie) further in ‘other miles’. From the standpoint of Natural Law, such decisions would
belong in the category of heroic virtue — sacrifices of personal rights that go
It is perverse to seek a sense of beyond any normal call to maternal responsibility. (Kainz)
ethical purity when this is gained
at the expense of the suffering of Interestingly enough, the doctrine of double effect, however, does permit the death
others. (Hope) of the foetus, but only as a by-product of another act. This means that the intention
was not to kill the foetus. For instance, in the case of the use of chemotherapy or
the performance of a hysterectomy to remove a cancerous uterus, when it would
lead to the death of the foetus. However, as that is not the intention of the act, but
rather a by-product, the removal of the cancerous uterus is acceptable.
It is quite clear that in its application, Natural Law itself is not as clear as some
would suggest and, arguably, how it first appears to present itself.
AO1 Activity
Write a newspaper column response as a Roman Catholic follower of Natural
Law to a woman who has been considering an abortion giving clear reasons for
your advice.
Specification content The issues arising from euthanasia

Aquinas’ Natural Law: application The issue of euthanasia is equally as complex as abortion and for similar reasons.
of the theory. The application of The context is the end, as opposed to the beginning, of life, yet some of the
Aquinas’ Natural Law to the issue of: principles are the same. Certainly, the ethical issues identified progress under
voluntary euthanasia. similar headings.
The first problem involves the technical difficulties surrounding the different
definitions and types of euthanasia. There is a clear disparity in law both between
Key term
countries and the ways in which legislation is applied.
Euthanasia: literally meaning
a gentle or easy death, it is the The meaning of the word derives from the Greek eu thanatos, interpretations
controversial and, in some cases, of which include good, easy, gentle (eu) and death (thanatos). The key idea goes
illegal action of allowing a terminally beyond the mere descriptive term and encompasses an idea of a death that is
ill person to die with dignity, avoiding beneficial for the party involved. Tony Hope, Professor for Medical Ethics at the
pain and suffering University of Oxford and author of a key text for student doctors, Medical Ethics
and Law: The Core Curriculum, offers the distinctions between different types
of euthanasia. Here we are interested in voluntary euthanasia, sometimes referred
164

to in its more narrow application as physician-assisted suicide. Hope identifies
the following:
■
Euthanasia: one person kills another with intention or allows another’s death for
the other’s benefit.
■
Active euthanasia: one person actions another’s death for the other’s benefit
■
Voluntary: the request to die by the person who competently wishes it so.
Voluntary euthanasia is therefore also known as active euthanasia.
The history of the legal status of voluntary euthanasia reflects many of the issues
that arise when considering whether any proposed change in law may
actually ‘work’.
In 1961 suicide was decriminalised. Despite this, the Suicide Act 1961 was very
explicit that to aid or assist suicide in any way was still a crime.
As with the debate surrounding abortion, there are two central principles at stake.
The first is whether or not killing should be allowed in any circumstances. The
second relates to the value that is given to life in respect of issues such as sanctity
or quality, whether for religious, ethical or philosophical reasons.
In the consideration of abortion, the second area for debate was the point at which
it could be said that life actually begins. The problems associated with establishing
the start of a life could be deemed similar to those related to the end of life.
Generally, a physical end of life can be determined medically. However, for a person 2.14 What is voluntary euthanasia?
in a coma, for example, who is kept alive artificially and yet still demonstrates signs
of consciousness, the issue is problematic. Such a situation again calls into question
the definition of life and even whether a physical definition suffices. This is a key 2.15 When was suicide decriminalised?
question in the euthanasia debate.
Related to this issue are also the philosophical questions about quality of life. Is
there a point at which one can conclude that life has lost its value? If so, exactly
when should this be and who is going to decide?
There is also the issue of the patient refusing to accept treatment, which is allowed
by law, even where refusal may result in harm to themselves. The only exception
would be if they were determined not to have the mental capacity or competency
to make such a decision.
This mainly refers to those who are dying. They have the right not to prolong Key quote
their life, by refusing treatment. They do not have the right, however, to hasten
Patients have the right to decide
an end to their life by administering a different course of medication. Does this
how much weight to attach to
pose a contradiction? If a person refuses treatment to prolong life then have they
the benefits, burdens, risks and
shortened their life? How, in principle, is this different from shortening life in
the overall acceptability of any
another way? Thus, humans have the legal right to the opportunity to extend life
but not to shorten it. Where death is inevitable, humans can only stave it off and
treatment. They have the right
are not allowed to welcome it. to refuse treatment even where
refusal may result in harm
There appears to be an uncomfortable inconsistency here. Consciously refusing
to themselves or in their own
treatment, knowing that the consequence is death, is seen as acceptable.
death, and doctors are legally
Consciously willing medication of which the consequence is also death, only sooner
bound to respect their decision.
and with less pain, is unacceptable. It is this delicate dilemma – if, indeed, it is one
– that is at the very heart of the euthanasia debate: namely, just how far should a
(General Medical Council)
person’s individual rights extend over their own body, fate and destiny?
Ethically, perhaps people should have a duty to prevent the prolonged and
meaningless suffering of others. In addition, consideration should be given to the
impact that a prolonged and painful death may have on others, such as close family
and friends.
165

Arguments against the introduction of a law that allows euthanasia point to the
very real risk of abuse:
■
How could such a law be effectively monitored?
■
Would it be in the best interests of society as a whole?
■
Would it be a workable law?
■
Further, does euthanasia go against the Hippocratic Oath?
■
Is it interfering with the natural or divinely ordained course of events?
For medical practitioners there is no clear legal guideline other than advice given
by such bodies as the British Medical Association in 2001 or the Royal College of
Key quote Paediatrics and Child Health. However, such guidelines are very vague with respect
to active intervention and the withholding of curative medical treatment. Even
A patient’s condition may improve doctors are unsure and clearly vulnerable, both legally and ethically.
unexpectedly, or may not progress
as anticipated, or their views
about the benefits, burdens and
risks of treatment may change
over time. You should make sure
that there are clear arrangements
in place to review decisions.
(General Medical Council)
Medical practitioners have no clear legal guidelines
AO1 Activity
As a doctor write down the concerns that you may have if you were to be
involved with someone that was terminally ill and was considering euthanasia.
Specification content The application of Aquinas’ Natural Law to the

Aquinas’ Natural Law: application issue of: voluntary euthanasia
of the theory. The application of
The primary precept of preserving innocent life is also the key principle when faced
with the issue of euthanasia. It is often expressed in terms of ‘the sanctity of life’
voluntary euthanasia.
argument. Sanctity means ‘the quality of being sacred or holy’. Natural Law teaches
that there is something special about a human being that is above and beyond
that of animals. Therefore it should be protected. The taking of another’s life, even
if they request it, is not therefore morally acceptable. By the same argument, the
taking of one’s own life (suicide) is equally an immoral act.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines euthanasia as ‘an act or omission
which, of itself or by intention, causes the death of handicapped, sick, or dying
persons – sometimes with an attempt to justify the act as a means of eliminating
suffering.’
166

This would be the objection of Natural Law to an approach that suggests casuistry
and a consideration of virtues or of ends is subordinate to the application of
primary precepts. It also suggests that there are dangers in what may be considered
virtuous and entitled ‘mercy’ killing, is really an apparent good only.
However, there are some instances of uncertainty in the application of even the
first precept. As Professor Ian Harriss has argued, in a paper on euthanasia and
applied ethics in 2005, there are still some questionable applications of the first
precept that exist today in the name of Natural Law. He writes, ‘In Spain, where
the Catholic faith and Natural Law have exerted a strong influence on policy, an
intervention with the direct intention of either accelerating death or killing the
patient is considered morally wrong, but the heavy use of sedation implies that
unconsciousness, either disease-induced, or drug-induced, is generally perceived as
the best way out.’
Although administering drugs to end a life is unacceptable, it could be argued that
it is morally acceptable, under Natural Law, to give a large dose of morphine to
control the pain of a terminally ill patient, even if it was foreseen that the morphine
would shorten the patient’s life. Whatever the consequences, the intention was Key quote
not to kill the person, but to bring relief to their pain. This is the application of the
principle of double effect. Casuistry typically uses general
principles in reasoning analogically
However, again, in response to this application of Natural Law, Harriss writes,
from clear-cut cases, called
‘Natural Law theory is inherently hostile to utilitarian arguments, and this is seen
paradigms, to vexing cases. Similar
to full effect in the assertion that there is a ‘slippery slope’ that must be avoided at
all costs. In its concession to the doctrine of double effect, however, Natural Law
cases are treated similarly. In
theory is compromised by a latent concession to Utilitarianism.’ Is the application this way, casuistry resembles
of double effect therefore a true absolutist application of Natural Law? legal reasoning. Casuistry may
also use authoritative writings
Obviously there are other applications of Natural Law to consider such as whether
relevant to a particular case.
legalising voluntary euthanasia would challenge the precept of living in an ordered
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
society? Would allowing mass voluntary euthanasia disrupt society? In addition,
one could also consider each of the precepts in conjunction with an understanding
of how correct reasoning is applied and also use of the moral virtues. In conclusion,
the application of Natural Law, in light of its complexity – let alone the complexity
of the issues surrounding both abortion and voluntary euthanasia – could mean
that any attempt to apply it may not always be considered to be the definitive
model.
AO1 Activity
An acrostic is a form of writing in which the first letter of each line spells out
a word. Using the words ‘Natural Law’, aim to write out ten points which you
feel you could use in an answer on Natural Law and voluntary euthanasia.
Study tip
There are many examples of specialist language and vocabulary in this topic.
Make sure that you don’t get confused by the different terms which are used to
describe the key words associated with euthanasia. Your ability to use the terms
accurately in an examination answer would distinguish a high level answer from
one that is simply a general response.
167


everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a fairly strong answer, although not perfect,
area. that has been written in response to a question requiring an examination of the
application of Natural Law to abortion. Using the band level descriptors you can
compare this with the relevant higher bands and the descriptions inside those
Explanation that is extensive, bands. It is obviously a fairly strong answer and so would not be in bands 5, 1 or
demonstrating depth and/or breadth 2. In order to do this it will be useful to consider what is both strong and weak
about the answer and therefore what needs developing.
thorough and accurate supporting use In analysing the answer, in a group, identify three ways to make this answer a
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and better one. You may have more than three observations and indeed suggestions
specialist language. to make it a perfect answer!
Natural Law has its origins in Aristotle and there has been a significant development
of this with Thomas Aquinas to make it a religious system for ethics. Natural Law is
repeat chunks from a text book (known absolutist in the sense that there is great focus on the primary precepts in line with
as rote learning). the view that God created everything for a purpose.
Further application of skills: Natural Law stresses the importance of using human reason to establish what
the precepts are but it does not end there. Reason is also then used to apply these
precepts to moral issues. It is here where people sometimes disagree.
of key points from key areas. For As Natural Law supports the sanctity of life and the Roman Catholic view about
each one, provide further elaboration when life begins tends to be ensoulment, then, the conclusion is that personhood
and explanation through the use of and a right to life is applied at this stage in the development of the foetus. Therefore,
evidence and examples. when the primary precepts are applied to abortion, the act of abortion is considered
wrong as it goes against the primary precept of protection of the life of the innocent
but also the precept of reproduction.
However, there is also the principle of double effect that would justify abortion under
certain conditions, such as when two of the precepts conflict. Some have suggested
that this principle is unsound and also has inconsistencies.
Some may argue that Natural Law also should consider the virtues when
approaching the issue of abortion; however, what is clear is that Natural Law would
not consider the people involved or their emotions because they would feel that in
doing so they are not able to make a clear and rational response.
168


content and skills
The effectiveness of Natural Law in dealing Specification content
with ethical issues The effectiveness of Natural Law in
The main argument that would be presented here in supporting Natural Law dealing with ethical issues.
in dealing with ethical issues is that it is viewed by its proponents as universally
applicable. For the followers of Natural Law, the rules apply to all people at all
times and in all places and so therefore is an effective way of dealing with ethical
issues.
For example, followers of Natural Law would argue that it provides clear-cut rules
when approaching ethical issues, such as the view that abortion is wrong as it
breaks the primary precept to reproduce. Nothing could be more straightforward.
Another strength of Natural Law in dealing with ethical issues is that it can be
deduced by reason alone and does not rely on unpredictable consequences or
emotions. This is very much in line with the way the human law operates so that it
is rational and not emotionally driven in order to promote overall justice and order AO2 Activity Possible lines
in society, another of the primary precepts. of argument
For a religious person, the theory of Natural Law creates a link between the creator,
the creation and our purpose as human beings. This brings an ethical system that is Listed below are some conclusions
coherent and consistent overall. that could be drawn from the AO2
However, it is not as simple as the above arguments may suggest and some would
say that Natural Law, in dealing with ethical issues, is ineffective and is no longer 1. Natural Law, in dealing with
of use today in the light of social and ethical changes and an appreciation of the ethical issues, is ineffective and is
complexity of both contemporary ethical issues, and, in the face of refined and no longer of use today in the light
progressive human laws. In short they would suggest that Natural Law is outdated of social and ethical changes.
as society has changed. 2. Natural Law, in dealing with
The first point in case would be issues of human rights. Discrimination against ethical issues, is ineffective
sexual orientation is not allowed in law. This is clearly not the case with Natural as it does not account for the
Law on a range of specific issues to do with sexuality. complexities of modern law or
ethical issues.
Natural Law also fails to consider the situation people find themselves in when
applying the primary precepts. For example, it does not allow abortion even in 3. Natural Law, in dealing with
the case of rape. Even Roman Catholic thinkers such as Kainz have argued that ethical issues, is effective because
the principle of double effect is at best unstable and at worst contradictory and it is clear and consistent.
inconsistent. 4. Natural Law, in dealing with
It could be argued that Natural Law, in dealing with ethical issues, is inflexible ethical issues, is effective on the
and fails to consider the consequences of so called ‘right’ actions. Euthanasia is whole, although there are times
not allowed, but this could lead to greater pain for the person involved and their when it needs applying very
family. On its own terms, a consideration of real and apparent goods in relation to carefully.
intentions needs to be tested against the cold application of a single ruling. 5. Natural Law, in dealing with
Finally, some would argue that basing decisions is not necessarily a bad thing if ethical issues, is ineffective
that emotion is based in love and concern for others, as these principles can often because it is itself inconsistent.
guide ethical decisions. For example, a mother would not act rationally, but often Consider each of the conclusions
emotionally, when dealing with an incident involving her child. drawn above and collect evidence and
In conclusion, there is much debate about the effectiveness of Natural Law in examples to support each argument
dealing with ethical issues; however, although final agreement on the statement from the AO1 and AO2 material
will never be universal, this does not mean that it cannot be effective. To be more studied in this section. Select one
effective, however, perhaps a more critical and systematic analysis of its principles conclusion that you think is most
and application needs to be considered? convincing and explain why it is so.
and evidence.
169

Specification content The extent to which Natural Law is

The extent to which Natural Law is meaningless without a belief in a creator God
meaningless without a belief in a
Aquinas embraced the principles established by Aristotle and clearly developed
creator God.
them into a coherent religious philosophy. For Aquinas, God made the world and
established within it a sense of order and purpose which reflects God’s will. The
idea of an overall creator, then, for Aquinas is integral to Natural Law. His theory
rests upon this and develops from it.
For example, it is believed that it should be the goal of every human to return to
God and gain eternal life, the beatific vision. In terms of ethical behaviour and
human laws, God creates all that exists, including eternal law, which is revealed
in divine law found in religious scriptures and teachings. These revelations are
then used to shape ethical behaviour and human laws. For example, there are
examples of these in the absolutist laws contained within scriptures such as in the
Ten Commandments. Again, the primary precepts reflect the main purposes for
humankind as outlined in religious scriptures, and the ideas of real and apparent
AO2 Activity Possible lines goods, together with an encouragement of virtuous behaviour, are clearly
of argument consistent with the teachings of Jesus.
Listed below are some conclusions As it is the basis of Roman Catholic theology then religious believers would agree
that could be drawn from the AO2 that Natural Law is meaningless without a belief in a creator God.
reasoning in the accompanying text: There is always a counter-argument, however, and many would disagree totally
1. Natural Law is meaningless with Aquinas and the Roman Catholic Church.
without a belief in a creator God Two key points that could be put forward to challenge the view that Natural Law is
as Aquinas’ version completes the meaningless without a belief in a creator God can be presented by looking at two
theory. key figures in the history of Natural Law theory. The first is Aristotle, whose system
2. Natural Law can be meaningful may be seen to be in line with the idea of a creator God; however, the idea of Prime
without a belief in a creator Mover is so distant from the idea of a creator God found in Christianity that it is
God because it is based on sufficient to challenge the statement. Aristotle’s Prime Mover is a philosophical
philosophical principles, as with principle as opposed to the active, interventionist God found in Christianity. The
Aristotle, rather than religious second individual is John Finnis, who himself is a Roman Catholic and yet Finnis
belief. has shown that a Natural Law system can be totally independent of God as humans
3. Natural Law is more meaningful make their own decisions and the law is autonomous and independent of religion.
with the belief in a creator God. In such a way is can be argued that it is not true that Natural Law is meaningless
without a belief in a creator God.
4. Natural Law is never meaningless
because it can operate with or In conclusion, it appears that Natural Law can operate as a system independent of a
without a creator God. creator God and can be meaningful. However, it all really depends upon perspective
as some religious believers would disagree. Nonetheless, it could be suggested
5. Natural Law is not meaningless that even if it were dependent on a creator God, then, it will still have meaning
without a belief in a creator God without God because Natural Law applies at all levels, from eternal to human, and
as John Finnis, a Roman Catholic in this life, as Aquinas himself said, we could not achieve perfection here on earth.
himself, has demonstrated, but So Natural Law, even from a religious perspective could never be meaningless in
this does not mean that it cannot itself. Nonetheless, the real issue is whether or not it has deeper meaning or more
be linked to a creator God. meaning with a creator God and for religious followers of Natural Law this is
Consider each of the conclusions clearly the case.
and evidence.
170


of view.
Your task is this: below is a reasonable answer, although not perfect, that various implications of the issues raised
has been written in response to a question requiring an evaluation of the
effectiveness of Natural Law in its application to abortion. Using the band detailed argument with a clear
level descriptors you can compare this with the relevant higher bands and the conclusion.
descriptions inside those bands. It is obviously a reasonable answer and so
would not be in bands 5, 1 or 2. In order to do this it will be useful to consider
what is both strong and weak about the answer and therefore what needs argument analysed through individual
developing. commentary and response and arrives
In analysing the answer, in a group, identify three ways to make this answer a at a conclusion through a clear process
better one. You may have more than three observations and indeed suggestions of reasoning.
to make it a perfect answer!
Answer
On the one hand, those who accept Aquinas’ doctrine of Natural Law and seek to
apply this to the issue of abortion, believe that the key primary precept involved
here is that of preserving innocent life. Therefore the act of abortion is seen as wrong
because of the intentional killing of an innocent human being. For others, this is far
too absolutist and simplistic an application and does not consider all circumstances.
Then there is the exception of double effect in Natural Law. The doctrine of double-
effect does permit the death of the foetus, but only as a by-product of another act.
This means that the intention was not to kill the foetus.
There is another approach; for example, a professor of ethics has argued that in the
case of abortion, two other precepts are perhaps even more relevant to the issue of
abortion, that of procreation and nurturing offspring. He argues if you defend the
right of the woman if her life is in danger for abortion, then, in the same way if every
woman has a right to conceive and procreate, rape violates this right and so maybe
abortion can be justified in the case of rape. In other words, if one uses a principle of
exception for the first precept, then you have to be consistent in applying it to other
precepts. Not all Roman Catholics may accept this but critics of Natural Law would
agree with the apparent inconsistency.
Overall, I think there are problems in applying Natural Law to abortion but this
does not mean it is ineffective. It does, however, question how far Natural Law is
consistent.
171

Situation Ethics –
T3 a religious approach
to ethics
content and skills A: Joseph Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: his
rejection of other forms of ethics and
Fletcher’s rejection of other his acceptance of agape as the basis of
approaches within ethics: legalism,
antinomianism and the role of
morality
conscience; Fletcher’s rationale for
using the religious concept of ‘agape’
(selfless love) as the ‘middle way’
Fletcher’s rejection of other approaches
between the extremes of legalism and within ethics and his rationale for using the
antinomianism. religious concept of ‘agape’ (selfless love) as
the ‘middle way’ between the extremes of
legalism and antinomianism
In 1966 an American moral theologian Joseph Fletcher published a book entitled
Situation Ethics: The New Morality.
In it, Fletcher advocated a ‘new’ approach to Christian ethics and moral decision
making which promoted a compromise between the two extremes of legalism
3.1 What were the two extremes to ethics
and antinomianism.
for Fletcher?
Key quote
3.2 Was the approach of situationism Situation Ethics was, as are most books, a product of its times. If we distinguish
entirely new? ethics from morality, the method of Situation Ethics had such widespread
appeal partly because of its close fit with the ‘new morality’ that had emerged
or was emerging. The ‘new morality’ provided a fertile ground for the book and
Key quote helped to make it a bestseller. Fletcher tapped into powerful social and cultural
There is an old joke which serves undercurrents that were becoming more and more evident. (Childress)
our purposes. A rich man asked a
This approach, labelled ‘situationism,’ was a theological way of meeting a practical
lovely young woman if she would
need in light of the radical changes of the 20th century. Bishop John A.T. Robinson,
sleep the night with him. She said
author of the equally popular Honest to God, saw Fletcher’s book as the only ethic
‘No.’ He then asked if she would do
for ‘man come of age’, a phrase that was to become very pertinent to the whole
it for $100,000? She said, ‘Yes!’ He debate that surrounded Situation Ethics.
then asked $10,000?’ She replied,
Situation Ethics was simply one concise and well-publicised statement of a
‘Well, yes, I would.’ His next
trend in Christian ethics that had been growing for decades. It was not something
question was, ‘How about $500?’
entirely new.
Her indignant, ‘What do you think
I am?’ was met by the answer, ‘We The ‘liberal era’ of the 1960s was certainly part of the reason for the popularity
have already established that. Now of Situation Ethics (post-Second World War feminism, Vietnam, civil rights,
teenager and hippy culture, sexual liberation and rejection of traditional sources of
we are haggling over the price.’
authority), but this was definitely not the reason for its emergence. The theological
(Fletcher)
origins of Situation Ethics are much more complex than its popular social context
may suggest.
The changing moralities and questioning of authority that are usually associated
with Situation Ethics had their origins much earlier in theological circles. Situation
Ethics found a niche in the growing dissatisfaction of religious followers with the
inflexible nature of tradition.
172

Ethics T3 Situation Ethics –
There were some key landmarks in the development of Situation Ethics that had an
influence on Joseph Fletcher and ones that he responded to: Key terms
1. 1928 Durant Drake, published The New Morality, calling for a pragmatic Antinomianism: a theory of ethics
that does not recognise the authority
approach to ethics.
of but promotes freedom from external
2. 1932 Emil Brunner published his Divine Imperative, an influence on Fletcher. rules, from the Greek word meaning
3. 1932 Reinhold Niebuhr published Moral Man and Immoral Society, another lawless
influence on Fletcher. Legalism: an approach to ethics
4. 1959 Fletcher himself published a seminal paper on Situation Ethics in the that accepts the absolute nature of
Harvard Divinity Bulletin promoting the ‘new morality’. established rules or principles
5. 1963 H. Richard Niebuhr published The Responsible Self. Situation Ethics: a relativist theory of
ethics made famous by Joseph Fletcher
6. 1963 Paul Lehmann’s Ethics in a Christian Context and John Robinson’s
Honest to God were published.
1966 therefore saw a systematic statement of this growing trend when Fletcher
published his book Situation Ethics.
Fletcher’s main argument in his book Situation Ethics proposes the idea that the
moral principles held to so dearly by the Church for so long cannot be used as
moral absolutes because they are problematic and do not work in real situations
where an ethical decision needs to be made. For example, ‘Do not kill’ is ‘wrong’
only in given circumstances. What about war? Self-defence? Meat-eating? The list
is endless.
Joseph Fletcher argued that to make a meaningful ethical decision, the situation
needed to be considered first before anything else. Then, when each situation
has been considered, deciding to do what is ‘right’ depends upon the practical
application of Christian love (agape) and not by referring back to set moral
principles. This is because the ‘right’ decision in one circumstance, Fletcher argued,
Key person
cannot become the blueprint for all other circumstances. Each situation should be Joseph Fletcher (1905–1991): was
an American professor who formalised
considered independently.
the theory known as Situation Ethics
Fletcher still held to the principle of using reason to make an ethical decision, in in his book Situation Ethics: The New
line with Natural Law theory, ‘while rejecting the notion that the good is “given” in Morality (1966). He was a leading
the nature of things’. He also accepted scripture as crucial, accepting revelation ‘as academic involved in topics ranging
the source of the norm’ but rejecting all “revealed” laws except for ‘to love God in from abortion to cloning. He was
ordained as a priest, but later identified
the neighbour’.
himself as a humanist. He stated that
Fletcher’s conclusion was that the use of absolute ethical principles in applying we should always use the principle of
them to real-life situations was simply not Christian. There were too many love or agape (selfless love) and apply it
problems, inconsistencies and contradictions. to each unique situation.
Key quote Key quote

The simple-minded use of the notions of ‘right and wrong’ is one of the chief The Sabbath was made for man, not
obstacles to the progress of understanding. (Whitehead) man for the Sabbath. (Mark 2:27)
173

The best way to understand Fletcher’s work is to cite two anecdotes:
■
Fletcher quotes a conversation with a taxi driver, wherein the taxi driver states:
‘there are times when a man has to push his principles aside and do the right
thing’.
■
Fletcher also quotes from Nash’s play the Rainmaker in which a father says to his
son: ‘Noah, you’re so full of what’s right that you can’t see what’s good’.
The common thread here is that absolute principles of right and good are not
really absolute, and there are times when principles are inappropriate to apply to
the real world. The author Arthur Miller referred to the strict application of moral
principles (legalism) as ‘the immorality of morality’.
Fletcher pointed out two things about his new method of moral decision making:
3.3 What principle did Fletcher accept (1) That his ‘new morality’ (as it was known) was not really new.
from Natural Law? (2) The roots of ‘new morality’ can be found in ‘classical’ Christianity.
AO1 Activity
Create a quick magazine entry entitled: ‘The emergence of Situation Ethics’ and
identify the influences on Fletcher and Fletcher’s own reasons for rejecting the
two extremes of legalism and antinomianism.
Study tip
In an answer on Situation Ethics remember to focus on the question.
Background information is useful for your understanding of Situation Ethics but
not always relevant to the question set.
As Robinson writes: ‘The ‘new morality is, of course, none other than the old
morality, just as the new commandment is the old, yet ever fresh, commandment
of love.’
In beginning his work, Fletcher argued that there are three possible options for
making a moral decision:
1. The legalistic approach – apply set principles rigidly and without consideration
of context.
2. Antinomian approach that tended to champion the freedom of the individual
Key quote
without reference to any rules.
What can be worse, no casuistry
3. The situational approach – to consider each situation on its merits before
at all may reveal a punishing and
applying the Christian ‘principle’ of love (agape).
sadistic use of law to hurt people
instead of helping them. (Fletcher) Despite rejecting both legalism and antinomianism as approaches to ethics, he was
more dismissive of the former. Professor James Childress wrote in the Introduction
to Fletcher’s book: ‘Even though Fletcher rejects both, he appears to fear the
tyranny of legalism more than the anarchy of antinomianism.’
Key quote
Fletcher’s theory does appear to be more in line with ‘freedom’ from rules and laws
The Christian ethicist agrees with
that are seen to be artificial, rather than in trying to redefine a flexible legalistic
Bertrand Russell and his implied
approach. For Fletcher, freedom to reason was crucial and he rejected outright the
judgment, ‘To this day Christians constraints of any form of legalism.
think an adulterer more wicked
Fletcher described legalistic approach to ethics taken by the Church as using ‘a
than a politician who takes bribes,
whole apparatus of prefabricated rules and regulations’ as ‘directives’ rather than
although the latter probably does
as ‘guidelines or maxims to illuminate the situation’. Such an approach was too
a thousand times as much harm.’
rigid, according to Fletcher who writes, ‘What can be worse, no casuistry at all may
(Fletcher)
reveal a punishing and sadistic use of law to hurt people instead of helping them.’
174

Many did accuse Fletcher of an antinomian approach but it is clear from his
writings that he saw his own approach as grounded, not in existentialism, but Key quote
in a more virtuous ‘strategy of love’. Fletcher accused fellow academic thinkers Legalists make an idol of the
and the Roman Catholic Church, who saw his approach as antinomian, as sophia, antinomians repudiate it,
misunderstanding the term situational and making it synonymous with the term situationists use it. (Fletcher)
existential. For Fletcher, antinomians had no strategy as he saw it as ‘the approach
with which one enters into the decision-making situation armed with no principles
or maxims whatsoever, to say nothing of rules’. Fletcher likened the antinomian
approach to the misunderstanding Paul faced when writing to the church in
Corinth.
Fletcher’s middle way between the two extremes of legalism and antinomianism
is what he called a ‘principled relativism’ because, although rejecting absolutes,
he did not embrace the total autonomy of antinomianism. Fletcher saw laws as
‘illuminators’ and not ‘directors’ and he preferred, therefore, to see love (agape)
as the only true ‘principle’ that was constant to which one, as a Christian, had
obligation: ‘Christian Situation Ethics has only one norm or principle or law
(call it what you will) that is binding and unexceptionable, always good and
Key terms
right regardless of the circumstances. That is “love” – the agape of the summary Conscience: traditionally an internal,
intuitive guide to good or bad;
commandment to love God and the neighbour’.
Fletcher reinterpreted this notion as a
description of ethical action
The role of conscience
Existentialism: a philosophy that
Fletcher’s understanding of conscience is different from traditional views; he sees
proposes the individual is free and
it as a ‘function, not as a faculty’. He is not so much interested in what it ‘is’ as he is responsible to determine their own
in ‘what it does’. He writes, ‘The traditional error lies in thinking about conscience development
as a noun instead of a verb’. In other words, it was not something that exists inside
us that directs us, for Fletcher it was more a description of the process by which we
respond to ethical issues.
Fletcher rejects what he identifies as the four traditional ideas about conscience, i.e.
that it is:
1. ‘An innate, radar-like, built-in faculty – intuition.’
2. ‘Inspiration from outside the decision maker – guidance by the Holy Spirit.’
3. ‘The internalised value system of the culture and society.’
4. ‘Reason making moral judgments or value choices.’
Fletcher’s conclusion is that, ‘There is no conscience; conscience is merely a word
for our attempts to make decisions creatively, constructively, fittingly.’
Fletcher’s understanding of the function of conscience is not one of reviewing past
actions or apportioning guilt and shame; according to Fletcher, the way conscience
functions is by looking forward towards prospective application, that is, the moral
problems to solve.
Fletcher rejects the idea of morality as a manual for the conscience. In other words,
morality is not something that is set in stone and dictates how the conscience is to
react in a given situation. The Church has made this mistake.
Traditionally, the Church has devised moral principles in abstract, systematised
them and then applied them in actual cases (casuistry) to give prescriptions and
directives. For example, the principle that to have an abortion is wrong is derived
from the ruling found in the Ten Commandments ‘do not kill’. When a person
considers abortion, then, their conscience is dictated to by this directive.
This is not how Fletcher sees the role of conscience, as this approach to morality
is not life-centred nor person-orientated because it only considers an abstract
principle. In contrast, Situation Ethics calls for the practical application of Christian
love to a given situation. The situation and context come first and principles are
put aside.
175

In essence, Situation Ethics is practical and the emphasis is on action and not
theory, on doing and not just debating, on being alive and responsive to the context
and not just adhering to a set of rules.
3.4 Why is love not a noun for Fletcher? The roots of ‘new morality’ can be found in ‘classical’ Christianity. Fletcher saw his
approach to ethics as grounded in the Christian gospel. Fletcher sees love as an
active principle – it is a doing thing rather than as a noun or thing in itself. ‘Love is
the only universal. But love is not something we have or are, it is something we do.’
Key quote Agape is the word used in the New Testament for pure, unconditional Christian
The moral precepts of Jesus are love. It is love which is disinterested and seeks only the benefit of the one who is
not intended to be understood loved.
legalistically, as prescribing what
all Christians must do, whatever the AO1 Activity
circumstances, and pronouncing
Try and list some reasons why Fletcher may have rejected traditional ideas
certain courses of action universally
about conscience and preferred his own definition. Try to link the questions to
right and others universally wrong.
his relativist approach and the extreme of legalism.
They are not legislation laying down
what love always demands of every
one: they are illustrations of what The biblical evidence used to support
love may at any moment require of
anyone. (Robinson)
this approach: the teachings of Jesus
(Luke 10:25–37) and St Paul (1 Corinthians 13)
Fletcher himself used a variety of references to scripture but his main focus was on
Key quote the use of the word agape, the Greek word for Christian love. As seen in the Natural
There is only one ultimate and Law section of this book, the word agape expresses pure, unconditional love to set
invariable duty, and its formula is, it apart from other Greek words describing different aspects of love.
‘Thou shalt love thy neighbor as The main focus of the word was the use of it in the parable of the Good Samaritan,
thyself.’ How to do this is another where the ‘strategy of love’ is clearly outlined, and in Paul’s letter to the Corinthians
question, but this is the whole of (1 Corinthians 13) where the meaning of agape is elaborated.
moral duty. (Temple) The Parable of the Good Samaritan reads:
‘On one occasion an expert in the law stood up to test Jesus. “Teacher,” he asked,
Key quote “what must I do to inherit eternal life?” “What is written in the Law?” he replied.
The law of love is the ultimate law “How do you read it?” He answered, “Love the Lord your God with all your heart
because it is the negation of law; and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind”; and,
it is absolute because it concerns “Love your neighbour as yourself”.
everything. (Tillich) “You have answered correctly,” Jesus replied. “Do this and you will live.”
But he wanted to justify himself, so he asked Jesus, “And who is my neighbour?”
Jesus told the Parable of In reply Jesus said: “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he
the Good Samaritan was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away,
leaving him half dead. A priest happened to be going down the same road, and
when he saw the man, he passed by on the other side. So too, a Levite, when he
came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan, as he
travelled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him. He
went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the
man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him. The next day
he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper. “Look after him,” he said,
“and when I return, I will reimburse you for any extra expense you may have.”
Jesus then asked which person fulfilled the role of neighbour to the injured
man and it was acknowledged that it was the ‘one who had mercy’. Jesus then
instructed the questioner to ‘do likewise’, applying the universal principle of
neighbourly love to all. This parable influenced Fletcher’s understanding of agape.
Luke uses the Greek word αγαπήσεις (agapeis) the future command ‘you will
love…’ from the verb αγαπώ (agapo) ‘to love’.
176

Although charity is the word often used in translation, it is derived from the Greek
word for ‘love’ used by Paul in 1 Corinthians chapter 13, ἀγάπη (agape), which is Key quote
often understood as pure, unconditional love as opposed to sexual, empathetic
(usually associated with family love), and, affection (usually associated with He answered, ‘Love the Lord your
friendship) which are different Greek words but also translated as ‘love’. God with all your heart and with all
your soul and with all your strength
1 Corinthians reads:
and with all your mind’; and,
‘If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only ‘Love your neighbour as yourself.’
a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can (Luke 10:26)
fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move
mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor
and give over my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain Key quote
nothing.
And now these three remain:
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It faith, hope and love. But
does not dishonour others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no the greatest of these is love.
record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always (1 Corinthians 13:13)
protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are
tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we
know in part and we prophesy in part, but when completeness comes, what is in
part disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I
reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind
me. For now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face.
Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.’
It can clearly be seen the impact and influence of Paul’s words on the history of
Christian ethics, from Augustine and Aquinas through to Joseph Fletcher, all of 3.5 What did Fletcher see as the biblical
whom bestow upon ‘love’ the highest status. basis for Situation Ethics?
Study tip
It is important to know the scriptural texts on which the principle of agape is
based but it is not necessary to re-write them in an answer. Be selective and pick
out key points to quote.
The Apostle Paul was the author of 1 Corinthians 13
177

Specification content Situation Ethics as a form of moral relativism,

Situation Ethics as a form of moral a consequentialist and teleological theory
relativism, a consequentialist and
We have already seen that Fletcher referred to his system of ethics as a ‘principled
teleological theory.
relativism’. Situation Ethics is relativistic because it recognises no universal moral
norms or rules and proposes that each situation has to be looked at independently
because each situation is different.
The only grey area here is with Fletcher’s insistence on, and recognition of, the
principle of agape which he referred to as the one true binding factor: Christian
Key quote Situation Ethics has only one norm or principle or law (call it what you will)
that is binding and unexceptionable, always good and right regardless of the
There can be no ‘system’ of Situation
circumstances. That is ‘love’ – the agape of the summary commandment to love
Ethics, but only a ‘method’ of
God and the neighbour’.
situational or contextual decision
making. (Childress) It must be remembered, however, that in recognising a principle, Fletcher made
sure that it was understood as a practical tool of application that responded to the
needs of each situation and not an absolute principle that directed each situation
Key quote uniformly. In other words, the principle of agape remains constant but at the same
The situation ethic, unlike some time responds differently according to the needs of the situation. In this sense it is
other kinds, is an ethic of decision truly relativist as an ethical theory according to Fletcher.
– of making decisions rather than Fletcher’s Situation Ethics is also consequentialist in that the situation is considered
‘looking them up’ in a manual of and with application of conscience through agape and in doing so is looking
prefab rules. (Fletcher) forward towards prospective application. Situation Ethics, then, makes moral
judgements based on the outcome or the consequences of an action.
In this way Situation Ethics is also teleological. It is concerned with the end purpose
(telos) or goal of any proposed action. For Fletcher, the end should always be that
which asserts the triumph of Christian love.
AO1 Activity
The recognition of Situation Ethics as a form of moral relativism, a
consequentialist and teleological theory can be supported with reference to
examples from the four working principles and the six fundamental principles
which are the subject of the next section. In preparation for this, create the
following table:
Form Examples from from the four working principles

and the six fundamental principles
Moral relativism
Consequentialist theory
Teleological theory
You can then use this table as a way of developing your explanation of the ways
in which Situation Ethics may be categorised as such a theory.
178


Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been everything you know about the topic
written in response to a question requiring an examination of why Situation area.
Ethics rejects the extremes of legalism and antinomianism. It is obviously
a below average answer and so would be about band 2. It will be useful,
initially, to consider what is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate. Explanation that is extensive,
The accompanying list gives you some possible observations to assist you. Be demonstrating depth and/or breadth
aware, as not all points may be relevant! In analysing the answer’s weaknesses,
in a group, choose five points from the list that you would use to improve the thorough and accurate supporting use
answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out your additions, each one in of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
a clear paragraph, remembering the principles of explaining with evidence and/ specialist language.
or examples. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try to negotiate
as a group and prioritise the most important things to add. you understand something by being
Joseph Fletcher was a moral theologian in the 1960s who wrote about Situation
Ethics. This means that instead of following set rules you just look at each situation as rote learning).
separately and then decide what to do.
He didn’t like legalism because this was all about rules and just doing as you were
told. This didn’t help people because there are times when things are difficult and it Go through the topic areas in this
just gets confusing. Rules don’t always apply to every situation, for example, like war section and create some bullet lists
when killing is good.
He didn’t like antinomianism because it allowed you to do anything. Antinomianists and explanation through the use of
promote immoral behaviour because they do not follow rules. If everyone lived like evidence and examples.
this then people would only love themselves and not their neighbours as Joseph
Fletcher argued.
Observations
1. An introduction needs to include much more biographical information.
2. The introduction needs to address the question set straight away.
3. Needs to explain what legalism is accurately
4. Needs to explain what antinomianism is accurately.
5. Include a relevant quotation from Fletcher.
6. Needs to explain about agape.
7. Reference to conscience may help improve the answer.
8. Needs to include the story of the ‘Good Samaritan’.
9. Explain how legalism is not adequate by using an example.
10. Explain how antinomianism is not adequate by using an example.
11. Could explain why Situation Ethics is not antinomian.
12. Needs a summary at the end that relates to the question.
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content and skills
The degree to which agape is the only
The degree to which agape is the intrinsic good
only intrinsic good. Some would argue that laws sent by God are intrinsically good because they are
part of God’s nature and will; for example, Divine Command theory suggests this.
They would continue to express that following the will of God is vital in developing
good character.
Jesus himself, in the Beatitudes, praises many virtues as good; for example, ‘blessed
are the peacemakers’ and ‘blessed are the meek’. Surely it cannot be one thing that
is just classed as good? Also one could argue that agape is the not the only intrinsic
good because if it directs everything else then surely they become good like agape?
The main problems with seeing love as the only intrinsic good it is that it means
that morality is very narrow and that any other virtues are ignored and not
developed, such as Aquinas’ courage and justice. It also ignores the fact that ‘good’
is always a relative term and has no consistent value in that it is like a variable.
In addition, there is much biblical evidence to suggest that good is used many
times to describe a variety of things. For example, God saw that creation was good;
the ‘Good Samaritan’ did the right thing according to the story; it is ‘good’ to give
AO2 Activity Possible lines praise to God. In Matthew 19:17 it states, ‘Why do you ask me about what is good?’
of argument Jesus replied. ‘There is only One who is good. If you want to enter life, keep the
commandments.’ Again in, Mark 10:18 it states, ‘Why do you call me good?’ Jesus
Listed below are some conclusions answered. ‘No one is good except God alone.’ This all seems to suggest various
that could be drawn from the AO2 applications and designations for what is good.
William Barclay was uncomfortable with Fletcher’s view that nothing is intrinsically
1. Agape is the only intrinsic good good or bad in itself. He allowed that some actions can be seen as morally right
and is the foundation of Fletcher’s given an extraordinary situation; but this does not necessarily follow that the thing
ethical argument. involved is in itself morally good. He went even further to suggest that there are
2. Agape is the only intrinsic good some actions that can never be seen to be morally right; for instance, to encourage
but this has to be qualified by a young person to experiment and experience drugs for themselves knowing that it
careful explanation as to what is could lead to addiction. ‘The right and the wrong are not so easily eliminated.’
meant by this. However, in Fletcher’s defence it could be argued that we need to define what
3. Agape is the not the only he meant carefully. Fletcher, denies that it is some kind of ‘thing’ as in a ‘noun’,
intrinsic good because if it directs rather, it is an action and argues that ‘Only in the divine being, only in God, is love
everything else then surely they substantive. With men it is a formal principle, a predicate. Only with God is it a
become good? property. This is because God is love. Men, who are finite, only do love.’ This would
4. Agape is the only intrinsic good is be in agreement with Jesus’ answer in Mark. This gives us a clue as to what Fletcher
too simplistic to accept. really means in that to do good one must always act lovingly or develop the quality
5. Agape is the not the only intrinsic of love.
good because good is a relative Even Aquinas recognised this in agreement with Paul that ‘love’ was the greatest
term. of the three revealed virtues and that this superlative was the basis of every other
Consider each of the conclusions virtue. In this sense it can be seen that there is a case for seeing agape is the only
drawn above and collect evidence and intrinsic good.
examples to support each argument In conclusion, it could be argued that to take Fletcher’s proposition out of context
from the AO1 and AO2 material means that it can be misunderstood and challenged. When it is considered
studied in this section. Select one carefully and in line with Natural Law and virtue theory it can be seen to be
conclusion that you think is most consistent with the idea that both Jesus and Paul propose that in intrinsic terms
convincing and explain why it is so. agape is the only thing that is good because it is, for want of a better phrase, ‘godly’
Now contrast this with the weakest or ‘god-like’.
and evidence.
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Whether Situation Ethics promotes immoral Specification content

behaviour Whether Situation Ethics promotes
immoral behaviour.
It can be seen that this has arisen from the accusation of antinomianism that
Fletcher was so keen to avoid.
Some have argued that it promotes immoral behaviour because someone could
claim to be acting out of love and could perform such acts as murder or adultery
whilst really acting in a selfish, unfair and unjust way (on those who suffer as a
result). Relativism gives too much freedom to the individual to decide what action
to take. Humans are prone to making mistakes or being influenced by personal
gain rather than love – this could lead to unjust and immoral behaviour.
William Barclay in his book ‘Ethics in a Permissive Society’ wrote, ‘If love is perfect
then freedom is a good thing. But if there is no love, or if there is not enough
love, then freedom can become licence, freedom can become selfishness and
even cruelty.’ The problem, according to Barclay, is one of human nature. Barclay
referred to Robinson’s description of Situation Ethics as ‘the only ethic for man
come of age’ and responded by arguing: ‘This is probably true – but man has not
yet come of age’. In other words, humanity as a whole is not mature enough for AO2 Activity Possible lines
such a sophisticated philosophy. of argument
Religious believers could argue that all people should follow divine law as God is Listed below are some conclusions
the ultimate source of moral authority. They cannot rely on principles devised by that could be drawn from the AO2
sinful mankind. reasoning in the accompanying text:
Some Christians may also argue that God should decide what is fair and just, God is 1. It is inevitable that Situation Ethics
the ultimate source of authority and not humans who often make wrong decisions. promotes immoral behaviour
For example, consequences may not always be loving or predictable and although because of the imperfection of
the intention may have been to act in a loving, fair and just way, the outcome is human beings.
not one that reflects goodness or right moral behaviour. People cannot accurately 2. Situation Ethics promotes
predict the consequences of their actions. Therefore they do not know if the moral behaviour and nothing
desired goal of love will be achieved. else because it is guided by the
Fletcher’s response would be that Situation Ethics avoids immorality because it is ultimate principle of love.
based in love and would quote Paul and Jesus in their recognition that love is the 3. Situation Ethics can promote
greatest commandment. To follow anything other than love is to make the mistake immoral behaviour if it is not
of legalism and fall into what Miller called ‘the immorality of morality’. Remember, applied correctly but that is the
‘The Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath’. same for any ethical theory.
Like virtue theory, Situation Ethics promotes responsibility of the individual but 4. Situation Ethics promotes immoral
most of all it is grounded in a loving concern for neighbour. As Fletcher comments, behaviour because it gives too
‘What a difference it makes when love, understood agapeically, is boss; when love much freedom to the individual.
is the only norm. How free and therefore responsible we are!’ 5. Situation Ethics promotes immoral
In conclusion, it is clear that Situation Ethics, through the principle of agape, is not behaviour because it challenges
intended to promote immoral behaviour but in practice the question still remains, laws that have been established
‘Can an individual always be trusted to be accurately applying the principle through reason and experience
of agape?’ and that are right.
Indeed, this has long been the crucial problem for the practical application Consider each of the conclusions
of Situation Ethics in that it rests entirely upon, not just the single notion of a drawn above and collect evidence and
universal understanding of agapeic love, but more importantly upon the ability of examples to support each argument
human beings to relate this accurately to many complex ethical problems. This was from the AO1 and AO2 material
indicated by Barclay’s argument against Robinson who argued that Situation Ethics studied in this section. Select one
was the ‘only ethic for man come of age’ and the question of human ability to do conclusion that you think is most
this remains the central question in this debate. convincing and explain why it is so.
and evidence.
181


of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been
written in response to a question requiring an evaluation of whether or not
Situation Ethics can be accused of being antinomian. It is obviously a below
conclusion. average answer and so would be about lower band 2. It will be useful, initially,
to consider what is missing from the answer and what is inaccurate. The
accompanying list gives you some possible observations to assist you. Be aware,
argument analysed through individual as not all points may be relevant! In analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in
commentary and response and arrives a group, choose five points from the list that you would use to improve the
at a conclusion through a clear process answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out your additions, each one
of reasoning. in a clear paragraph. Remember, it is how you use the points that is the most
important factor. Apply the principles of evaluation by making sure that you:
identify issues clearly; present accurate views of others making sure that you
comment on the views presented; reach an overall personal judgement. You
may add more of your own suggestions, but try to negotiate as a group and
prioritise the most important things to add.
Answer Observations
Fletcher wished to avoid antinomianism because he argued 1. An introduction needs to include much more biographical
that if you are not guided by anything then the world would be information.
chaotic and it would be an immoral place to live. 2. The introduction needs to address the question set
Barclay criticised Fletcher because he argued that even if it straightaway.
is not meant to be antinomian it cannot be avoided because 3. Needs to explain why Fletcher’s theory was accused of
we as humans are not capable of applying love to every single being antinomian.
situation.
4. Needs to explain what Fletcher said about antinomianism
In conclusion, it can be seen that there are clear arguments and why his theory was different.
for and against but I think it is good because it is based in
5. Include relevant quotes from Fletcher.
concern for someone else and so cannot ever be selfish or
accused of being antiniomian. 6. Needs to present Fletcher’s argument about agape being
the middle way between two extremes.
7. Reference to conscience may help improve the answer.
8. Needs to include an explanation of Paul’s chapter on love.
9. Explain what antinomianism is and use William Barclay’s
argument that suggests it cannot be avoided.
10. Could explain why Situation Ethics is not antinomian.
11. Need to evaluate examples of how Situation Ethics may
fail and become antinomian.
12. Needs a conclusion at the end that relates to the question.
182


B: Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: the principles content and skills
as a means of assessing morality Specification content
The boss principle of Situation Ethics
The boss principle of Situation Ethics (following the concept of agape).
(following the concept of agape)
The Old Testament is written in Hebrew and the word used for the loving Key terms
relationship between God and God’s people is ‘chesed’. This word describes a Aheb: Hebrew word for love that is
‘love’ that is faithful, strong, consistently present and kind. It is often translated as seen to be similar to the idea of agape
‘loving kindness’ or ‘steadfast love’ and incorporates the ideal of commitment and
Chesed: Hebrew word that describes
of an already existing bond and a deliberate choice of affection and kindness. The
an exclusive kind of love in a particular
Hebrew people were often reminded to consider or remember this love of God in relationship
terms of the action it produced in history when God intervened on their behalf, for
example the Exodus.
The word used in Leviticus 19:18, the verse that is referred to in the parable of the
Good Samaritan, however, is ‘aheb’, which is more descriptive of a spontaneous Key quote
and impulsive love on behalf of humans towards God and fellow human beings. It Situation Ethics is more Biblical
is also used as a sense of delight by God in righteousness or righteous individuals. and verb-thinking than Greek and
Aheb is universal in application and not exclusive to God’s loving relationship with noun-thinking. It does not ask
the Hebrew people. It is outward looking and embraces all. It is this sense of love what is good but how to do good for
that is the origins of agape. whom; not what is love but how to do
In the New Testament we have Jesus’ recognition of the greatest commandment to the most loving thing possible in the
‘love God and your neighbour as yourself’ quoted from Leviticus. The word used in situation. It focuses upon pragma
Greek is agape, as we have already seen, and it is this idea of pure, unconditional, (doing), not upon dogma (some
sacrificial love that was epitomised in the character and work of Jesus. tenet). (Fletcher)
This love is a virtuous love, identified and developed by Augustine, and later
Aquinas through Natural Law, that is the ultimate, superlative virtue. Fletcher
comments, ‘Augustine was right to make love the source principle, the hinge
principle upon which all other “virtues” hang, whether “cardinal” (natural) or
“theological” (revealed).’
It is within this context that Fletcher describes agape as the ‘boss’ principle
of Situation Ethics. As Fletcher comments, ‘What a difference it makes when
love, understood agapeically, is boss; when love is the only norm. How free and
therefore responsible we are!’
Key quote
Love alone, because, as it were, it has a built in moral compass, enabling it to
‘home’ in intuitively upon the deepest need of the other, can allow itself to be
directed completely by the situation. (Robinson)
Key quote
This is the radical simplicity of the Gospel’s ethic, even though it can lead
situationally to the most complicated, headaching, heartbreaking calculations
and gray rather than black or white decisions. (Fletcher)
183

Specification content The four working principles

The four working principles Fletcher’s next task in his book Situation Ethics, once the principle of agape was
(pragmatism, relativism, positivism established, was to clarify how this was to work in practice when approaching
and personalism). ethical decision making. In doing this he identifies four key working principles.
1. Pragmatism
The solution to any ethical dilemma first and foremost has to be practical. This idea
3.6 Why is aheb significant in relation to was influenced by the philosopher and psychologist William James. Fletcher wrote:
agape? ‘All are agreed: the good is what works, what is expedient, what gives satisfaction.’
In other words, it is no good suggesting a solution to a problem because it is a good
Key quote solution on rational, philosophical grounds if that solution falls flat in practice. The
key measure of the success of an ethical solution lay not in its thought but in its
To ignore the ethical significance
application. This does not mean that reason is not important, but simply put, as
of success is to betray … a
Fletcher suggests, it is the ethical question, that is, the pragmatic posture that is ‘in
defective sense of responsibility.
the chair, at the head of the conference table’.
(Bonhoeffer)
Key quote
Pragmatism is, to be plainspoken, a practical or success posture. (Fletcher)
2. Relativism
Key quote Again, influenced by earlier theologians, this is the idea that ‘the situationist avoids
There must be an absolute or norm words like “never” and “perfect” and “always” and “complete” as he avoids the
of some kind if there is to be any plague, as he avoids “absolutely”.’ However, to be relative there has to be an object
true relativity. (Fletcher) to be relative to, a kind of measurement of its true relativity. Fletcher declared this
to be ‘agapeic love’: ‘It relativises the absolute, it does not absolute the relative’. In
other words, although every situation is unique that does not mean, for Fletcher,
Key quote a response that is antinomian and typically ‘random, unpredictable, unjudgeable,
Thus Christian ethics ‘posits’ meaningless, amoral’ as this would make it anarchic. Rather, the situation is always
faith in God and reasons out what relative, not to its own circumstance, but to agape.
obedience to his commandment 3. Positivism
to love requires in any situation.
This is the view that statements of faith are accepted voluntarily and reason is
(Bonhoeffer)
then used to work within, or work out, one’s faith. This is in opposition to the view
that reason should be the basis of faith; in terms of Christian ethics this means the
voluntary acceptance of the principle of agape. Faith comes first as Fletcher argues,
3.7 What are the four working principles? ‘The Christian does not understand God in terms of love; he understands love in
terms of God as seen in Christ.’
Key quote 4. Personalism
Situation Ethics puts people at This is the basic understanding that ethics deals primarily with people; it is a
the center of concern, not things. concern for people rather than things. It is a concern for the subject rather than the
Obligation is to persons, not to object; the disciple is given the command to love people and not laws or principles.
things; to subjects, not objects. The
legalist is a what asker (What does AO1 Activity
the law say?); the situationist is a
who asker (Who is to be helped?). Make some flash cards with the key principle on one side and a quote from
(Fletcher) Fletcher with an explanation on the other side.
Key quote Study tip

A basic maxim is that the disciple Fletcher uses technical and precise definitions for his working principles. Make
is commanded to love people, not sure that you learn them and do not confuse them with each other.
principles or laws or objects or any
other thing. (Fletcher)
184

The six fundamental principles (love is Specification content

the only good, love is the ruling norm of The six fundamental principles (love is
the only good, love is the ruling norm
Christianity, love equals justice, love for all, of Christianity, love equals justice,
loving ends justify the means and love decides love for all, loving ends justify the
situationally) means and love decides situationally).
Fletcher identifies six statements on which his ‘one “general” proposition’ is based,
that is, the commandment to ‘love God through the neighbour’. In other words, the Key terms
fundamental principles are there to help elucidate the nature of agape. Compendium: a thorough collection
of material
1. Only one ‘thing’ is intrinsically good; namely, love: nothing else at all
Fletcher calls this the New Testaments ‘law of love’. Despite love being always Distillation: a process of extracting
key, quality material
‘intrinsically good regardless of the context’, Fletcher denies that it is some kind of
‘thing’ as in a ‘noun’, rather, it is an action. Argues that ‘Only in the divine being,
only in God, is love substantive. With men it is a formal principle, a predicate.
Only with God is it a property. This is because God is love. Men, who are finite,
Key quote
only do love.’ Christian Situation Ethics assert
He prefers to see love as an active principle – it is a ‘doing thing’, as he writes, ‘Love firmly and definitely: Value,
is the only universal. But love is not something we have or are, it is something we worth, ethical quality, goodness
do.’ For Fletcher, ‘love is a way of relating to persons, and of using things’. or badness, right or wrong – these
things are only predicates, they are
2. The ruling norm of Christian decisions is love: nothing else
not properties. They are not ‘given’
Fletcher argues that religious and moral laws have been given artificial status
or ‘objectively’ real or self-existent.
and understanding. He uses the response of Jesus when accused of breaking
There is only one thing that is
Sabbath rules: ‘the Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath (Mark
always good and right, intrinsically
2:27–28)’. In other words, for Fletcher, the purpose of the laws has been totally
good regardless of the context, and
misunderstood and become dictator to the person, whereas Jesus recognised that
laws were there to serve a person.
that one thing is love. (Fletcher)
Fletcher’s argument is that love is the new covenant; it replaces the old laws and he
Key quote
refers to the teaching of both Jesus and Paul for justification: ‘They redeemed law
from the letter that kills and brought it back to the spirit that gives it life’. To love Christianly is a matter of
attitude, not of feeling. Love is
Fletcher does not disrespect the law, but argues that the situationist recognises the
discerning and critical; it is not
law for what it is – a ‘distillation’ of the spirit of love rather than a ‘compendium’
of the legalistic rules.
sentimental. (Fletcher)
3. Love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed,
Key quote
nothing else
Jesus and Paul replaced the
So what is this love? As we have seen Key ideas
already, Fletcher distinguishes agape
precepts of Torah with the living
The six propositions: principle of agape – agape being
from other Greek words for love. It is
1. Only one ‘thing’ is intrinsically goodwill at work in partnership with
‘giving love’.
good; namely, love: nothing else reason. (Fletcher)
Given justice is to apportion a human at all.
being that to which he or she is
entitled, Fletcher asks what this
2. The ruling norm of Christian Key quote
decisions is love: nothing else. Justice is the many-sidedness of
means in Christian terms? The answer
is: ‘For what is it that is due to our 3. Love and justice are the same, for love. (Fletcher)
neighbours? It is love that is due – only justice is love distributed, nothing
love (“Owe no man anything except to else. Key quote
love”). Love is justice, justice is love.’ 4. Love wills the neighbour’s good Justice is Christian love using its
whether we like him or not. head … Justice is love coping with
5. Only the end justifies the means, situations where distribution is
nothing else. called for. (Fletcher)
6. Love’s decisions are made
situationally, not prescriptively.
185

4. Love wills the neighbour’s good whether we like him or not
Key term Jesus urged everyone to ‘love your enemies’. This is a classical statement of the
Kenotic: from a Greek word meaning substance and fibre of Christian love leading to a ‘radical obligation’. Love then
to empty or make oneself completely
becomes, according to Fletcher, ‘kenotic or self-emptying’.
receptive to something
Pure love, then, according to Fletcher is indiscriminate in its application.
5. Only the end justifies the means, nothing else
Key quote
Fletcher rejects the idea that the end should not be used to justify the means
Disinterested love can only mean (found in traditional Christian thinking) as an ‘absurd abstraction’. Ethics is, in
impartial love, inclusive love, principle, teleological.
indiscriminate love, is love for Tom,
In other words, Fletcher saw any system that proposes that means are intrinsically
Dick and Harry. (Fletcher)
good, and therefore absolute, as fundamentally flawed. For instance, in practice,
there is ‘an unlovely lip service paid to a maxim that the practices in question
Key quote all obviously contradict’. For example, whilst on the one hand upholding these
Unless some purpose or end is as infallible blueprints, the same society can justify war, corporal and capital
in view, to justify or sanctify it, punishments, surgical mutilations, espionage and ‘a whole host of things’.
any action we take is literally In this light, there are, according to Fletcher, four factors of judging a situation in
meaningless. (Fletcher) ethics:
1. What is the desired end?
2. What should be the means to achieve it?
3. What is the motive in achieving it?
4. What would be the consequences?
The clear contradiction in making ‘flexible’ the ‘inflexible maxims’ clearly shows
that it is the ends that dictate moral behaviour and ethical decisions.
6. Love’s decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively
Fletcher sees it as part of our heritage that we have sought for laws to become
slaves to; however, once again this only leads to failure as the principles fail to
unfold in practice:
‘Nothing in the world causes so much conflict of conscience as the continual,
conventional payment of lip service to moral “laws” that are constantly flouted in
practice because they are too petty or too rigid to fit the facts of life.’
He calls for an end to the ideology that proposes absurdities: ‘For real decision
making, freedom is required, an open-ended approach to situations. Imagine the
3.8 Why is the word kenotic important for
love? plight of an obstetrician who believed he must always respirate every baby he
delivered, no matter how monstrously deformed.’
Fletcher’s clear conclusion is that all ethical decisions must be situation based (led,
3.9 What is justice the same as according of course, by agape) and not law based.
to Fletcher?
AO1 Activity
Try and think of a practical example for each fundamental principle that
illustrates how it might work in practice.
Study tip
Fletcher uses technical and precise phrases for his fundamental principles that
are quite lengthy. Try making a mnemonic to help you remember them and be
able to explain them in your own words. Make sure that you learn them and do
not confuse them with each other.
186


in response to a question requiring an examination of Fletcher’s four working area.
principles. It is obviously a below average answer and so would be about band
2. It will be useful, initially, to consider what is missing from the answer and
what is inaccurate. This time there is no accompanying list to assist you. In Explanation that is extensive,
analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, decide upon five points that you demonstrating depth and/or breadth
would use to improve the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write out
your additions, each one in a clear paragraph, remembering the principles of thorough and accurate supporting use
explaining with evidence and/or examples. of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and
Answer
Fletcher made four statements about how his theory would work in practice. you understand something by being
First, it had to be a good solution. For example, no good suggesting to someone who
has lost something to buy another if they have no money.
Secondly, the solution all depends on your faith and not on an action. It is what you repeat chunks from a text book (known
believe that matters. as rote learning).
Thirdly, it is always relative which means that your decision will always depend Further application of skills:
upon the situation and not on a rule. Go through the topic areas in this
Finally, it makes sure that the most important thing is the person or people involved. section and create some bullet lists
187


content and skills
The extent to which Situation Ethics promotes
The extent to which Situation Ethics
justice
promotes justice. In promoting justice some would argue that as each situation is considered
differently in Situation Ethics, unlike in absolutist theories where a person has
to follow rules, this promotes greater justice in society overall. For example, an
abortion may be allowed according to Situation Ethics if the abortion was an act
of selfless love whereas in Natural Law this would not be allowed as it goes against
the primary precept of reproduction and some would see this as unjust.
In addition, it could be argued that the use of Situation Ethics would encourage
people to act selflessly and put other people first. This would make a more just
society overall. Fletcher would also argue that acting is such a way would ensure
justice as one of the six fundamental principles states ‘love is justice distributed’.
As Situation Ethics is a consequential theory, we must consider any possible
consequences before acting. Therefore some would argue that this makes us
consider carefully the impact of our actions on others before taking them and can
only promote a just end.
Another argument is that if people used Situation Ethics as a basis for moral decision
AO2 Activity Possible lines making then everyone should act in a loving way to all as one of the six fundamental
of argument principles states ‘love wills the good of others, regardless of feelings’. There would be
no room for prejudice or discrimination. This means that people would in effect treat
Listed below are some conclusions a stranger in the same way as they treat a member of their family.
However, an alternative line of reasoning could be that without absolute moral
rules many people would fear that there would be chaos and no overall control
1. Situation Ethics promotes justice over peoples’ actions. Adopting a relativistic approach to ethics means what is
as it is flexible. ‘right’ then changes all the time and consequently many people are unsure what
2. Situation Ethics promotes justice the ‘right’ thing to do is. It will therefore just promote confusion and is a sure
as it is the same as love according recipe for injustices.
to Fletcher. Many would also consider the idea of ‘love’ as subjective since what one person
3. Situation Ethics does not promote considers to be a selflessly loving act another person may not. For example, some
justice because it is too dependent people may argue that euthanasia is an act of selfless love whilst other might argue
on the individual and not focused it is the opposite and that ‘mercy’ killing is not mercy at all.
on society. Another point in opposition to Situation Ethics is that people cannot accurately
4. Situation Ethics does not promote predict consequences. What we think might end in loving consequences might
justice because no-one will agree actually lead to unloving consequences. In a book published in 1971, Ethics in a
on the most loving course of Permissive Society, Barclay presented concerns over the theory of Situation Ethics.
action. Barclay was in no doubt of the sensitive and intelligent nature of agape; ‘Obviously,
5. Situation Ethics can promote when we define love like this, love is a highly intelligent thing’; however, it was
justice but it has to be applied very Barclay’s view there will always be a dispute as to what actually is the most loving
carefully and thoughtfully to work. thing to do and actually what this means in practice.
Consider each of the conclusions It is also highly unlikely that we would act in the same way and show the same
drawn above and collect evidence and amount of ‘love’ to a stranger as we would to our own spouse or children, despite
examples to support each argument Situation Ethics suggesting the contrary. There are clear emotional bonds and
from the AO1 and AO2 material duties which link us to our relatives and friends more than to strangers and these
studied in this section. Select one will undoubtedly influence the decisions we make.
conclusion that you think is most In conclusion, there are clearly times when Situation Ethics is very persuasive
convincing and explain why it is so. and definite examples of where justice might be served. However, there are also
Now contrast this with the weakest dangers and so no real overall quality control other than a positive in the abilities
conclusion in the list, justifying and nature of human beings to deliver justice through love. The cynic would say
your argument with clear reasoning this is not at all practical and the historian may argue that history shows us it can
and evidence. never happen. Maybe Situation Ethics is more useful as a personal tool for ethics
more than a blanket social rule?
188

The effectiveness of Situation Ethics in dealing Specification content

with ethical issues The effectiveness of Situation Ethics
in dealing with ethical issues.
It could be argued that Situation Ethics as a relativistic theory is therefore flexible
and practical enough to deal with ethical matters. It takes into account the
complexities of human life (the situation) and can take tough decisions where,
from a legalistic perspective, all actions seem wrong. It is therefore effective in
accommodating the particular as opposed to applying the general.
Another line of argument could be that Situation Ethics allows people the
individual freedom and responsibility to make decisions for themselves, which
many people nowadays prefer to the prescriptive and legalistic approach. It helps
people to see another’s perspective and also to grow in moral awareness.
Indeed, the principle of agape involves ‘selfless’ love, that is, putting others first,
which should ensure fairness and justice; in other words, it puts people before laws
and this is the essence of ethical concern.
It could also be suggested that it is the consequences of an ethical action that
matter; therefore people would have to consider the likely consequences of their
actions before they take them, and it is only then that the consequences will be
effective for human well-being. AO2 Activity Possible lines
In contrast to this, William Barclay criticised Fletcher’s various examples of of argument
where an allegedly immoral action prevents further immoralities. He did this on
the grounds that such actions were not the only possibilities to prevent further Listed below are some conclusions
immorality and would certainly not guarantee the end intended. Once again, the that could be drawn from the AO2
abnormal or extraordinary appears to be the basis of Fletcher’s theory of ethics. reasoning in the accompanying text:
Despite this, without absolute rules there could be potential for moral chaos for 1. Situation Ethics is effective in
many reasons; for example, by using relativism, it is understood that ideas about dealing with ethical issues and can
what action is ‘right’ changes all the time. When things change they usually start be used in its fullest sense.
with small numbers and then spread out to influence the population. This will 2. Situation Ethics is effective in
means several ideas of what is ‘right’ co-existing and conflicting. dealing with ethical issues but not
A strong criticism of Situation Ethics is that relativism gives too much freedom to in replacing the law or religious
the individual to decide what action to take. Humans are prone to making mistakes teachings that have stood the test
or being influenced by personal gain rather than love. When applied to ethical of time.
issues, it is not necessarily the case that a personal viewpoint is always the best. 3. Situation Ethics is effective in
Ethical issues need less emotive influence and involvement, and more rational helping other ethical systems in
thought. dealing with ethical issues in its
In summary, Barclay recognises the value of a situationist approach in its reminder emphasis on empathy.
for people to be more flexible in applying moral rules and laws; however, ‘we do 4. Situation Ethics is not effective in
well still to remember that there are laws which we break at our peril’. A great dealing with ethical issues because
lesson, however, from Situation Ethics, according to Barclay, is that it teaches and it is too subjective.
encourages sympathy and discourages self-righteousness in approaching ethical 5. Situation Ethics is not effective in
dilemmas but this in no way means it should replace established teachings and dealing with ethical issues because
rules. it promotes chaos and anarchy.
Overall, Barclay’s was a scathing critique of the new morality. His view was Consider each of the conclusions
that Fletcher’s morality was too dangerous for society as a whole. According to drawn above and collect evidence and
Barclay, there are certain moral principles that are absolute and always morally examples to support each argument
good. However, Barclay did concede that some absolute principles were not from the AO1 and AO2 material
always absolute in their application, especially in extreme circumstances. Such studied in this section. Select one
circumstances, nonetheless, are ‘so rare as to never justify questioning the whole conclusion that you think is most
fabric of the law’. convincing and explain why it is so.
In conclusion, Situation Ethics can be effective in dealing with moral issues but Now contrast this with the weakest
this does not mean we should follow it entirely. Barclay makes a valid point in conclusion in the list, justifying
indicating what we can learn from Situation Ethics and maybe the way forward is your argument with clear reasoning
for deontological systems to reflect upon this and try to adapt accordingly? and evidence.
189


to debate and the lines of argument Obviously, an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor
of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your new task is this: below is a below average answer that has been written
in response to a question requiring an evaluation of whether Situation Ethics
promotes justice. It is obviously a below average answer and so would be about
conclusion. band 2. It will be useful, initially, to consider what is missing from the answer
and what is inaccurate. This time there is no accompanying list to assist you.
In analysing the answer’s weaknesses, in a group, decide upon five points that
argument analysed through individual you would use to improve the answer in order to make it stronger. Then write
commentary and response and arrives out your additions, each one in a clear paragraph. Remember, it is how you use
at a conclusion through a clear process the points that is the most important factor. Apply the principles of evaluation
of reasoning. by making sure that you: identify issues clearly; present accurate views of
others, making sure that you comment on the views presented; reach an overall
personal judgement. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try to
negotiate as a group and prioritise the most important things to add.
Answer
Situation Ethics does promote justice according to some people because it is
compassionate and thinks of other people.
It also allows for differences of opinion and respects the views of others. This leads
to people being more tolerant and not argue with each other because you really do
your own thing.
Some people don’t like it as a system, however, because it appears too slack and
allows anything, including moral behaviour and injustice. Such people argue that
people are wicked and need controlling and not let loose on society.
190


C: Fletcher’s Situation Ethics: application of content and skills
the theory Specification content
The application of Fletcher’s Situation
The application of Fletcher’s Situation Ethics Ethics to homosexual relationships
to homosexual relationships and polyamorous and polyamorous relationships.
relationships
Key terms
Fletcher on homosexuality and sexual relationships Homosexual: being sexually
Fletcher was not only a religious commentator, he was also involved in issues of attracted to people of one’s own sex
social injustice and wrote at a time when homosexuality was illegal. In 1960
Wolfenden report: a government-
he wrote an academic paper entitled ‘Sex offenses: an ethical view’ in which initiated investigation to explore
he stated: ‘Some forms of sexual activity are historically and conventionally the problems of prostitution and
related to criminal law, such as … homosexuality.’ Fletcher was unhappy with the homosexuality, fi nally published
inconsistent approach by the government, which had so long been influenced by in 1957
the Church in matters such as morality. He was also unhappy with the Church in
their approach to issues involving sexuality and sex in general. He argued: ‘The
Anglo-American policy has been a very confused and inconsistent one, tending to
dead-letter laws and hypocrisy. In England, law reformers find it something of a
puzzle that adultery, fornication and prostitution are not criminal offenses; nor is
homosexuality between females an offense, although between males it is.’
Key quote
He argued that human laws and attitudes towards sex and homosexuality were
The range and complexity of sex
outdated, inconsistent, hypocritical but more importantly unjust. Although he did
laws at present ‘on the books’ is a
not quote from the Bible, or refer to Situation Ethics, he made it quite clear that to
treat people with prejudice and discrimination on account of their sexuality was
monument to the tongue-in-cheek
not a proper legal approach, let alone not a Christian one, and needed reform. legislation and to the ‘prohibitionist’
fallacy. (Fletcher)
Fletcher pointed out himself that the Wolfenden report was concerned with
laws as regarding public and private behaviour and made no judgement according
to morality. The Wolfenden report states: ‘It should not be the duty of the law to Key quote
concern itself with matters immorality as such … it should confine itself to those Only may an ideologically free and
activities which offend against public order and decency or expose the ordinary pluralistic society base frame its
citizens to what is offensive or injurious.’
moral principles or judgements as
Fletcher argued that any law based upon the presupposition of apparent ‘sin’ is to right and wrong and enforce its
unreliable and controversial. It was here where he cited his well-known tenet of standards by legal weapons. Society
Situation Ethics, namely, concern for neighbour: ‘There is no idea here that ethics, has a right to protect itself from
whether religious or not is to be separated from society, and social practice; on danger within and without, and not
the contrary, ethics always limit individual or private freedom by subordinating it
to force a monistic and monopoly
to the social or public interest – to neighbour-concern.’ It was also a mistake, he
standard of personal (in the sense of
argued, to let a particular religious or philosophical stance, based upon what it
private) conduct. (Fletcher)
regards as wrongdoing or ‘sin’, dictate and shape the law: ‘Sin is already divorced
from crime in our pluralistic culture and the only real sanction for criminal law is
the common interest, public order, or the collective good.’
Although Fletcher acknowledged, and accepted to some extent, that the distinction
between personal taste through freedom, and public actions that impact upon this
freedom of others, is blurred, he did argue that this should be legally determined,
not determined by religious matters. This leaves some scope for personal choice
and freedom: ‘There is some boundary between personal existence and the social
membership. There is some range for private choice and personal taste.’ 3.10 Was Fletcher just interested in
religious issues?
Fletcher’s conclusion was to propose that sex laws should be restricted by three
criteria: the age of consent; infringement of public decency; acts involving assault,
violence, duress or fraud.
191

Alan Turing
We begin our consideration of homosexuality and polyamorous relationships
3.11 Why did Fletcher object to the with an account of social injustice. Alan Turing was was prosecuted for
Church’s approach to sexual ethics? homosexuality under the law at that time, which in retrospect the governing
authority has now recognised as absurd.
Key term The film ‘The Imitation Game’
Polyamorous: having a (loving)
released in 2014 tells the story of
sexual relationship with more than Alan Turing (1912–1954). Turing
one individual with the knowledge and was an incredibly intelligent man,
consent of all partners a brilliant mathematician, and also
widely recognised to be the father
of theoretical computer science and
artificial intelligence. During World
War 2 Turing worked at Britain’s
codebreaking centre at Bletchley
Park, enlisted by the government to
break German ciphers. Turing was
successful in creating a machine
that cracked codes generated by
the Enigma machines and it has
been estimated that as a result of
his work the war in Europe was
shortened by up to four years,
saving thousands of lives.
After the war in 1952, whilst
working at Manchester University,
Turing was arrested and prosecuted
for homosexual acts. At that time,
Key quote homosexual acts were deemed
We can only see a short distance criminal acts. Turing evaded
ahead, but we can see plenty there a lengthy prison sentence by
that needs to be done. (Turing) accepting medical treatment that in
effect was equivalent to chemical
castration, widely held to be a ‘cure’ Alan Turing 1912–1954
for homosexuality. In poor health
due to the effects of the treatment, both mentally and physically, Turing died two
years later from cyanide poisoning. Although determined as suicide by an inquest,
it has also been demonstrated that evidence could suggest accidental poisoning.
It was not until 2009, despite homosexual acts being legal since 1967 and despite
Turing’s heroic past, that Gordon Brown, the Prime Minister apologised publically
for ‘the appalling way he was treated’. In 2013, Queen Elizabeth II granted Alan
Turing a posthumous pardon.
3.12 Why is the story of Alan Turing
significant?
AO1 Activity
Imagine that you are Joseph Fletcher. Compose a letter to the Prime
Minister indicating why it is justified that Alan Turing should receive a
public posthumous apology.
Study tip
When answering a question on applied ethics any background material should
be used carefully and selectively to illustrate a point you are making in focusing
on the question. Do not slip into ‘narrative mode’.
192

Considering that both homosexuality and polyamorous relationships, whether
heterosexual or homosexual, have existed as far back in history as we can delve, it
is surprising that the laws for treatment of homosexuals have only been liberalised
in the western legal system relatively recently.
During the 1950s a committee was established to investigate the issues and ‘social
problems’ associated with prostitution and homosexuality; the committee included
a judge, a psychiatrist, an academic and various theologians. Their findings, The
Wolfenden Report, was published in 1957.
The main conclusion of the report concerning homosexuality
was that it would be wrong for criminal law to intervene
in what they did in the privacy of their own homes and,
therefore, consenting adults should be given the freedom to
explore their sexuality.
The report stated: ‘… unless a deliberate attempt be made by
society through the agency of the law to equate the sphere of
crime with that of sin, there must remain a realm of private
life that is in brief, not the law’s business.’
However, it was not until ten years later, under a more
liberal-thinking government, that the recommendations
actually came into force on 28 July 1967. This was the result
of great pressure from several areas of public influence, who
felt that homosexual men, in particular, were already the
object of ridicule and derision.
Gay Pride demonstration in London
Even so, it was still widely held to be a disability or condition
that carried with it a burden of shame. Since this breakthrough in public and
government acknowledgement of the rights of homosexuals there have been
several developments in the law: Key quote
1. 1967: the age of consent set for homosexual males was 21. … it is pointless condemning
someone for being homosexual: it is
2. 1994: the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act reduces the age of consent to
18.
a condition that is not arrived at by
choice …. the homosexual, whether
3. 2000: the Parliament Act was invoked to ensure the passage of the Sexual
he or she indulges in homosexual
Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, which made the age of consent 16 (17 in
acts or not, is a person loved by
Northern Ireland for girls) for both homosexuals and heterosexuals.
God and for whom Christ died.
4. 2003: The Sexual Offences Act completely overhauled the outdated procedures (Shannon)
for dealing with sexual offences, including making gross indecency between
men, buggery and sexual activity between more than two men no longer crimes
in the United Kingdom.
Key quote
5. 2013: Legislation for same-sex marriage came into force on 13 March.
As we live in such a monogamy-
In summary, the privacy law that was initially seen to be a right and a
centred society, it makes sense
breakthrough, was later seen to have become an admission of disagreement. In
order fully to acknowledge the rights of homosexuals, the freedom of expression
that many people can only
in public, within the laws of common decency and inoffensiveness afforded to all conceive of non-monogamy in
subjects, needed to be acknowledged. Hopefully we are not far from achieving that what ultimately still amounts
now as a society. to monogamous terms. There is
also a common misconception
Polyamorous relationships that will define a polyamorous
The notion of polyamorous relationships has been around since Greek times and relationship as no different from
yet still today there is a general tendency to see it as an abnormal ethical deviation an open-relationship agreement:
rather than one of alternative acceptable practice. Its popularity is growing, and one committed couple, with some
some would argue re-defining sexuality. Polyamorous relationships cover many light-hearted fun on the side.
possible scenarios and can be informal, short term and uncommitted or can be (polyamorousdefi nition.com)
long term.
193

The problem with any definition is that it sets parameters and restraints. It is ironic
that this is what polyamory is trying to avoid, that is, being classified and pigeon-
holed into a particular set of rules in terms of sex and relationships!
Polyamory is a minefield to comprehend and in some ways it is easier to say what
Key quote it is not than what it is! For instance, psychology.com rejects ‘cheating’, ‘swinging’
The controversial philosopher and ‘polygamy’ because there is less emphasis on consent and love, and more
Michael Foucault (1926–1984) even focus on dishonesty and sex. Most polyamorous websites try to define their actions
argued that the idea of ‘sexuality’ and explain them relative to honesty, respect, consent and a loving relationship,
is a modern invention designed and endeavour to distance themselves from what they would consider just
to exercise political power over sexually driven encounters such as casual sex, prostitution, adultery and forms of
different members of society. dominated hierarchical sexual relationships.
(Wilcockson) In contrast, sites such as Wikipedia identify many forms of polyamorous
relationships that extend beyond the above recommendations.
Key quote Until a consensus is reached there will be no real fixed definition and all we can
recognise at the time of writing is that through debate many are ‘working towards’
Queer theory suggests that there
clarification. For the purpose of our studies, we will assume that the refined
can be no hard and fast boundaries
understanding of polyamorous is the one that is defined primarily by love and
about what is or is not a legitimate not sex.
sexual relationship and no
It has been proposed that there are values ascribed to polyamory, although this is
institution has the right to impose
debated in terms of whether all values are shared by all forms of polyamory. For
its views on others; being queer
example, Wikipedia suggests several areas but there are five that are pertinent to
is the freedom to define oneself
what polyamorous websites state:
according to one’s nature, whatever
that may be. (Wilcockson) 1. Fidelity and loyalty not as sexual exclusivity, but as faithfulness to the promises
and agreements made about a relationship.
2. Communication and negotiation because there is no ‘standard model’ for
Key quote polyamorous relationships and so negotiating with all involved to establish the
Increasingly, people claim that they terms of their relationships is required.
embark on a sexual relationship 3. Trust, honesty, dignity, and respect at all times.
as part of the quest for personal 4. Gender equality and the removal of traditional boundaries associated with
fulfilment …. Sex is seen in that gender roles that sometimes determine one’s behaviour.
context – as a pleasure in itself, but 5. Non-possessiveness, although it is recognised that jealousy and possessiveness
also as a way of becoming intimate do happen and sometimes cannot be avoided, but they should be explored,
with the partner, sharing in a way understood, and resolved within each individual, with compersion (the sharing
that has an effect on the relationship of common joy and the opposite of jealousy) as a goal.
as a whole. (Thompson)
Key quote
In our outer world culture, sexual, romantic love is a well-defined box that
every human being is supposed to be seeking. We are bombarded with the
idea that we can only find romantic sexual love with one person, our soul-mate
…. For polyamorous folks, we have, or are trying to discard this narrative. In
letting go of the narrative we also let go of the narrow definition of romantic
love. Suddenly all is not so clearly defined. You can love in different ways,
different intensity and experience an array of romantic and or sexual love. We
can experience a partner who we love, spend romantic time with but we are
not sexual with them. We can meet wonderful lovers we move in and share our
daily lives with, and some we may see just twice a year. We love them, they are
romantic or love partners but they do not fit the box of the eternal soul-mate we
forsake all others for. (lovemore.com)
AO1 Activity
Write out a contract for a polyamorous relationship.
194

Applying Fletcher’s principles to homosexuality and

polyamorous relationships
We can see from Fletcher’s writings that it is clear that Fletcher held a view that 3.13 When was homosexuality
sexual relationships were a matter of personal individual freedom governed by the decriminalised?
rule of concern for neighbour. This is in line with his view that ethics should not
be driven by an absolutist, legalistic approach. This is what he called the agapeic
approach, the boss principle.
Before considering any other aspects of Situation Ethics it should be recognised that
the practices of homosexuality and polyamory should have the same treatment as,
say for example, a monogamous relationship in that what applies to them should
also be the case for another relationship. This is not legalistic, however, but rather
as Fletcher would argue, the agapeic principle that is the one constant and sets
Situation Ethics apart from antinomianism.
For instance, the principle of agape would support the law as long as what is done
in private or public does not contravene the law or human rights and also that
it does not offend public decency. Although there is a grey area with the latter
point, this is for a judge and jury to decide and not strictly speaking a moral agent.
Therefore, if a relationship is considered honestly, with consent and lovingly
then there is no reason why, according to the agapeic principle, that this cannot
be considered to be against the principles of Christianity according to Fletcher’s
Situation Ethics.
For Fletcher’s Situation Ethics, it was a matter of applying the principle of agape Key quote
in line with the four working principles and the six fundamental principles. Again, Whether any form of sex (hetero,
such a response would be in accordance with the relativity of the law and the homo or auto) is good or evil
genuine act; it would be a practical (pragmatic) solution that addresses the people depends on whether love is fully
(personable) involved and not be dictated by any prefabricated moral assumptions; served. (Fletcher)
finally, it approaches the situation with the belief in agape as its basis and any
reasoning follows from this and does not precede it.
This response therefore ensures that it supports the basis of agapeic concern for Key quote
‘neighbour’ as outlined in the six prepositions: love is the only good, love is the What sex probably needs more
ruling norm of Christianity, love equals justice, love for all, loving ends justify the than anything is a good airing,
means and love decides situationally. They key here is that the loving acceptance of demythologizing it and getting rid
the end justifies the means and that justice triumphs in this situation. of its mystique-laden and occult
It would be very difficult to see Situation Ethics as regarding homosexuality and accretions, which come from
polyamory as ethically wrong, unless, of course, the law and human rights are romanticism on the one hand and
infringed upon, but this would be the very same for a monogamous relationship puritanism on the other. (Fletcher)
or any other relationship in that case! Indeed, both issues of homosexuality and
polyamorous relationships are related specifically to the idea of love. In this sense
the only true assessment of the validity of such relationships, then, according to
Fletcher’s Situation Ethics, would be that they are acceptable if, by partaking in
such relationships, the love involved was sincere and that the ideal of agape was
upheld.
195


Band 5 for AS AO1).
everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a list of several key points in response to a
area. question that has been written requiring an examination of the application of
Situation Ethics to homosexual relationships. It is obviously a very full list. It will
be useful, initially, to consider what you think are the most important points to
Explanation that is extensive, use in planning an answer. This exercise, in essence, is like writing your own set
of possible answers that are listed in a typical mark scheme as indicative content.
In a group, select the most important points you feel should be included in a list
thorough and accurate supporting use of indicative content for this question. You will need to decide upon two things:
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and which points to select; and then, in which order to put them in an answer.
■
Key dates as background include:
able to illustrate and expand your - 1967 the age of consent set for homosexual males was 21;
points through examples/supporting - 1994 the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act reduces the age of consent to 18;
evidence in a personal way and NOT - 2000 the Parliament Act was invoked to ensure the passage of the Sexual Offences
repeat chunks from a text book (known (Amendment) Act 2000;
as rote learning). - 2003 The Sexual Offences Act completely overhauled the outdated procedures for
Further application of skills: dealing with sexual offences;
- 2013 Legislation for same-sex marriage came into force on 13 March.
Fletcher involved in issues of social injustice and wrote at a time when
of key points from key areas. For homosexuality was illegal. 1960 wrote an academic paper entitled ‘Sex offenses: an
each one, provide further elaboration ethical view’ in which he criticised legislation.
and explanation through the use of ■
Fletcher was unhappy with the inconsistent approach by the government and also
evidence and examples. the Church, to issues involving sexuality and sex in general.
■
He argued that human laws and attitudes towards sex and homosexuality were
outdated, inconsistent, hypocritical but more importantly unjust.
■
Fletcher supported the Wolfenden report.
■
Fletcher argued that any law based upon the presupposition of apparent ‘sin’ is
unreliable and controversial.
■
It was also a mistake, he argued, to let a particular religious or philosophical stance,
based upon what it regards as wrongdoing or ‘sin’, dictate and shape the law.
■
Fletcher argued that issues of privacy and public indecency should be legally
determined, not determined by religious matters.
■
Fletcher’s conclusion was to propose that sex laws should be restricted by three
criteria: the age of consent; infringement of public decency; acts involving assault,
violence, duress or fraud.
■
Fletcher held a view that sexual relationships were a matter of personal individual
freedom governed by the rule of concern for neighbour.
■
This is in line with his view that ethics should not be driven by an absolutist,
legalistic approach.
■
This is what he called the agapeic approach, the boss principle.
196


content and skills
Whether agape should replace religious rules
Some would argue that Situation Ethics is modelled on altruistic love, which is a
major feature of many religions. Fletcher himself was a Christian moral theologian Whether agape should replace
at the time and advocated the principle of agape as found in the Bible in the religious rules.
teachings of Jesus and Paul. He was also influenced by other Christian theologians
who argued the same.
Indeed, the idea of putting people first (personalism) is in keeping with the actions
of many world religious leaders but especially in the life and work of Jesus. Jesus
always put people before religious principles such as when he healed on the
Sabbath and declared, when criticised, that ‘Sabbath was made for man not man
for the Sabbath’. This would suggest that agape should supersede religious rules
even if it does not replace them.
The idea of love has been a major feature of the teachings of several religious
leaders especially in the history of Christianity such as Augustine and Aquinas who
both held that agape was the superlative virtue.
However, the approach of Situation Ethics has been condemned by some religious
leaders, for example the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church, as it puts too
much emphasis on the benefits of relativism as opposed to the adherence to
God’s will. They argue that it also fails to consider the traditions within various
denominations; for example, sex before marriage is allowed according to this
theory if it is an act of selfless love whereas in some denominations it is held that
sex is for marriage alone.
of argument
Christianity, along with other religions would also claim that love should not be the
only desirable quality because other teachings and qualities are as important, for Listed below are some conclusions
example justice, equality, and discipline through self-control. that could be drawn from the AO2
The final line of argument in defending religious rules, teachings and traditions
was that presented by William Barclay in his book ‘Ethics in a Permissive Society’. 1. Agape should replace religious
In response to Fletcher’s attack on legalistic religious rules, Barclay clarifies the rules as it is more flexible.
nature and function of the law as ‘the distillation of experience’ that society has 2. Agape should replace religious
found to be beneficial. If this is so ‘to discard law is to discard experience’ and with rules as it is an important biblical
it the valuable wisdom and insight it may bring. He also argued that religious rules principle.
are actually ‘the rule of reason applied to existing circumstances’ and therefore a 3. Agape should not replace religious
valuable tool for defining approval and punishment. Religious rules, for Barclay, rules but be guided by them.
serve to work together with human law for the protection of society but he also
4. Agape should not replace religious
pointed out that ‘there are many things which are immoral, but which are not
rules as it is too vague and
illegal’ indicating that religious rules also serve to maintain morality. Barclay
subjective and open to misuse.
pointed out that Fletcher’s view of true morality existing with the freedom to
choose does not really consider the fact that that freedom also involves the 5. Agape should not replace religious
freedom not to choose a course of action as well! rules as the religious rules that
remain have stood the test of time.
In conclusion there are religious rules that are outdated that the Church recognises
as such but maintains those which it deems necessary for both religious and moral Consider each of the conclusions
living. Fletcher’s challenge did not necessarily mean that religious rules need drawn above and collect evidence and
replacing but more that they need guiding by the principle of love and sometimes, examples to support each argument
where necessary, adapting. Barclay was a harsh critic but some would say that from the AO1 and AO2 material
although religious rules are valuable, history has shown us that they can be studied in this section. Select one
contextual whereas the principle of love is not. conclusion that you think is most
and evidence.
197

Specification content The extent to which Situation Ethics provides

The extent to which Situation Ethics a practical basis for making moral decisions
provides a practical basis for making
moral decisions for both religious for religious believers
believers and non-believers. Much of the AO2 so far has dealt with society (i.e. secular notion that incorporates non-
believers) so it makes sense to focus on religious believers in this evaluation although
bear in mind the Specification does identify the term ‘non-believers’ for which other
appropriate evaluations, much of which you have read so far, can be used.
For Christians, Situation Ethics fits in with the whole ‘philosophy’ and practical
ethics of Jesus in the New Testament. Jesus broke religious rules and dealt with
everyone as an individual and according to the circumstances, for example healing
of argument
on the Sabbath, and declared ‘Sabbath was made for man and not man for the
Listed below are some conclusions Sabbath’.
that could be drawn from the AO2 Situation Ethics is flexible in that it gives personal freedom to people to decide what
reasoning in the accompanying text: is the most loving action and still remains consistent with the actions and teachings
1. Situation Ethics provides a of Jesus. Indeed, like Jesus, Situation Ethics does not reject laws but sees them as
practical basis for making moral useful tools which are not absolutely binding.
decisions for religious believers It could be argued that the ‘situationism’ of Fletcher has been instrumental in,
because it is flexible and reflects for example, the Church of England (among others) recognising areas of possible
the complexity of modern ethical injustice, such as the issues of equality, the role of women in the Church, and
debates. slavery. This means that it can provide, and has provided, a basis for religious
2. Situation Ethics provides a ethical decisions.
practical basis for making moral Again some would argue that there can only be a Christian basis of morality if
decisions for religious believers agape love is seen as central to morality. There will always be a dispute as to what
because it is based in the universal really is the most loving thing to do, and what this actually means in practice but
religious principle of love for one’s that is no different to difficulties when applying rules.
neighbour.
However, some see Fletcher’s views as not necessarily accurately reflecting New
3. Situation Ethics does not provide Testament views on morality; for example, the New Testament appears to have
a practical basis for making moral clear moral views on theft and adultery. Indeed, the examples Fletcher uses to
decisions for religious believers justify Situation Ethics are so extreme that they account for very few real instances
because it is too dangerous for in life. For example, how often does a woman need to commit adultery and get
religious society as a whole. pregnant to escape a captor? This is the point made by William Barclay who argued
4. Situation Ethics does not provide that the cases are too extreme as to justify changing religious or moral rules.
a practical basis for making moral William Barclay has argued that if law is ‘the distillation of experience’ that society
decisions for religious believers has found to be beneficial, then ‘to discard law is to discard experience’ and the
because it is itself inconsistent. valuable wisdom and insight it may bring. Barclay was particularly critical of
5. Situation Ethics can provide a Situation Ethics. Barclay firmly believed that the law and absolutes are there for the
practical basis for making moral protection of society and a product of past reasoning and experience. This is the
decisions for religious believers reason they exist.
but only in conjunction with other Finally, Situation Ethics seems to deconstruct itself because we need an idea of
religious teachings and ethical what outcome is most valued, best or right before we can decide upon which acts
theories. are needed to bring about that right!
Consider each of the conclusions In conclusion, there are strong arguments against Situation Ethics as a practical
drawn above and collect evidence and basis for making moral decisions for religious believers, most pertinently, those
examples to support each argument put forward by William Barclay. However, to reject it outright, as Barclay himself
from the AO1 and AO2 material pointed out, would be a mistake. Even Barclay said that religious believers could
studied in this section. Select one learn something from it when approaching ethical issues. It must be pointed
and evidence.
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out, nonetheless, that Fletcher’s examples of the application of Situation Ethics
in practice, using extreme cases, was never with the intention of demonstrating
Situation Ethics at its best; rather it was with the intention of pointing out
the inadequacy of deontological, absolute systems of ethics and this must be
recognised in any objective evaluation.

It is now time to reflect upon the information that has been covered so far. It is Analysis involves identifying issues
also important to consider how what you have learned can be focused and used raised by the materials in the AO1,
for examination-style answers by practising the skills associated with AO2.
Assessment objective 2 (AO2) involves ‘analysis’ and ‘evaluation’. The terms may and clear views, either of scholars or
be obvious but it is crucial to be familiar with how certain skills demonstrate from a personal perspective ready for
these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills is measured (see evaluation.
generic band descriptors Band 5 for AS AO2). This means that it picks out key things
Obviously an answer is placed within an appropriate band descriptor depending to debate and the lines of argument
upon how well the answer performs, ranging from excellent, good, satisfactory, presented by others or a personal point
of view.
basic/limited to very limited.
Your new task is this: below is a list of several key points in response to a various implications of the issues raised
question that has been written requiring an evaluation of whether Situation
Ethics is compatible with religious teachings. It is obviously a very full list. It will detailed argument with a clear
be useful, initially, to consider what you think are the most important points to conclusion.
use in planning an answer. This exercise, in essence, is like writing your own set
of possible answers that are listed in a typical mark scheme as indicative content.
In a group, select the most important points you feel should be included in a list argument analysed through individual
of indicative content for this question. You will need to decide upon two things: commentary and response and arrives
which points to select; and then, in which order to put them in an answer. at a conclusion through a clear process
of reasoning.
■
Agape makes it compatible with any Christian approach that sees ‘love’ as the
centre of Christianity.
■
There is strong biblical evidence to support the priority of love in the writings of
Paul, for example, 1 Corinthians 13.
■
Jesus himself broke the Sabbath law on work in favour of a person-centred
approach when he plucked ‘heads of grain to eat’ on the Sabbath when he and his
disciples were hungry.
■
Jesus stated that ‘Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath’.
■
The change in views within Christianity on issues such as war, slavery, the death
penalty and equality for women indicates recognition that absolutes are not always
absolute.
■
Christians may follow theories such as Utilitarianism that has some similarities with
Situation Ethics and so suggests some compatibility.
■
Situation Ethics has a major influence on the Anglican Church.
■
In 1956, the study of the situationism approach to ethics (referred to as ‘new
morality’) was banned from all Roman Catholic academies and seminaries on the
grounds of its incompatibility with Roman Catholic teaching.
■
Barclay’s official critique that followed later also supported incompatibility.
■
There are clear fundamental laws and absolutes in the bible that many Christians
adhere to when making moral decisions.
■
Situation Ethics dispenses with a lot of Christian teachings that are seen as valuable,
if not definitive.
■
Some would say that Situation Ethics is too antinomian to be compatible with
Christianity.
■
Natural Law is compatible with Christianity and only elements of Situation Ethics
are compatible.
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Utilitarianism –
T4 a non-religious
approach to ethics
content and skills A: Classical Utilitarianism – Jeremy
Specification content Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism: happiness as
Bentham’s theory of ‘utility’ or the basis of morality
‘usefulness’; ultimate aim is to pursue
pleasure and avoid pain; principle of
utility (‘the greatest happiness for the Bentham’s theory of ‘utility’
greatest number’). The term ‘Utilitarianism’ comes from the word ‘utility’, which means ‘usefulness’.
In particular it concerns itself with working out how ‘useful’ an action is, based
upon assessing its end result. Utilitarianism is not new or even recent. Like most
philosophies it can be traced back to ancient Greece. Utilitarians argue that
Key terms everyone should do the thing that produces the most ‘useful’ end.
Greatest happiness principle: They apply the following reasoning:
a calculation used in utilitarian theory
to assess the best course of action 1. The most useful end is seen as that which brings the maximum levels of
to take ‘happiness or pleasure’.
Utilitarianism: an ethical theory 2. Therefore actions that produce the most happiness for all are seen as the best
that maintains that an action is right course of action (i.e. good moral actions).
if it produces the greatest happiness 3. This way of assessing which course of action is the best one to take is known as
for the greatest number – the ethical
‘the greatest happiness principle’.
nature of actions is therefore based on
consequences for human happiness Therefore, utilitarians argue that everyone should do the most useful thing. The
most useful thing is seen as action or actions that result in maximum levels of
happiness or pleasure. Therefore, actions that produce the most happiness are seen
Key quote as good and right actions or moral actions that produce happiness for all. Since
We must, therefore, pursue the Utilitarianism is concerned about the outcome (or end) of an action, it is therefore
things that make for happiness, a teleological ethical theory.
seeing that when happiness is We have to be careful with explaining the greatest happiness principle, as it can
present, we have everything; but be slightly misleading, since the greatest happiness did not necessarily involve the
when it is absent, we do everything greatest number of people. The emphasis is more on the action that produces
to possess it. (Epicurus) the greatest amount of happiness overall. In other words, what is right is what
maximises happiness. This is a very important point to remember.
Key quote Jeremy Bentham is usually accepted as the originator of Utilitarianism. He was a
social reformer and sought to develop an ethical theory that promoted actions that
Happiness is a very pretty thing
would benefit the majority of people. As a barrister and expert in the law, Bentham
to feel, but very dry to talk about. became aware of widespread social injustice. This prompted him to become
(Bentham) concerned with issues of public morality. He was instrumental in reforming prisons
and advocated that the penalties imposed for crimes should be sufficient to deter
but not cause unnecessary suffering. He also advocated such things as censorship
4.1 Why is ‘happiness’ important for and laws governing sexual activity in an attempt to improve public morality. His
Utilitarianism? guiding principle for public policy was ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest
number’. He then developed this into a moral philosophy. In 1826, Bentham
founded University College. Rather strangely, his embalmed body, wearing his
usual clothes, sits in the entrance hall in a glass case! Only his head was replaced by
4.2 According to Utilitarianism, what are a wax model.
the best actions?
200

Ethics T4 Utilitarianism –
a non-religious approach to ethics
For Bentham, happiness was the supreme ethical value or what he called the
‘sovereign good’. Happiness is useful, because it is good for people to be happy. Key terms
Bentham argued that we are motivated by pleasure and pain so that we pursue Hedonism: an ethical theory that
pleasure and avoid pain. This view of happiness being linked to pleasure owes defi nes what is right in terms of
something to an earlier ethical theory called hedonism. In hedonism, the only pleasure
thing that is right is pleasure. Principle of utility: an action is
right if it promotes and maximises
Study tip happiness
When answering a question, remain focused on the title of the question.
Often candidates are drawn into digression by writing biographical details or
information that is not directly relevant to the focus of the question, e.g. some Key quote
interesting information about Jeremy Bentham’s childhood! Nature has placed mankind under
the governance of two sovereign
Although Utilitarianism is a teleological ethical theory, there is a rule or guiding
principle underpinning this approach. This guiding principle, known as the
masters, pain and pleasure. It is
principle of utility, states that people should act to bring about a balance of good for them alone to point out what we
over evil. Bentham saw this as measuring whether or not an act would promote ought to do, as well as to determine
pleasure or pain. Bentham wrote, ‘By the principle of utility is meant that principle what we shall do. (Bentham)
which approves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it
appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest
is in question.’ Every action, then, can be measured by this principle.
AO1 Activity
Write a dictionary definition for ‘Jeremy Bentham and the principle of utility’
that is 200 words long. Try to include key points such as Utilitarianism,
4.3 What was Bentham’s trained
hedonism, an explanation of the principle and Bentham’s reasons for proposing profession?
the principle.
Jeremy Bentham 1748–1832
201

Specification content The hedonic calculus

The hedonic calculus as a means of Having established that the measure of happiness is the criterion for a right act,
measuring pleasure in each unique there arises the problem of how to calculate that measurement. For Bentham,
moral situation; by considering seven happiness consisted of pleasure minus pain.
factors: intensity, duration, certainty, The principle of utility centred on the act delivering the greatest amount of
remoteness, fecundity, purity pleasure and the least amount of pain. Bentham’s solution to measuring this
and extent. balance was his hedonic calculus, also called the pleasure calculus.
He thought there were seven different elements that should be taken into account
Key quote when calculating the amount of happiness. Each word used has a specific meaning
Create all the happiness you are in relation to a pleasure experience and the resulting happiness produced.
able to create; remove all the misery
Element of Meaning
you are able to remove. Every day
pleasure
will allow you, – will invite you to
add something to the pleasure of Intensity The stronger, the better, meaning that those pleasures that
others, – or to diminish something give an acute and extremely potent rush of pleasure bring
of their pains. (Bentham) instant happiness.
Duration The longer-lasting, the better, meaning that inevitably the
enduring nature of the experience of happiness is a key factor
in assessing the quality of the pleasure.
Certainty The more sure that pleasure will result, the better. This
is a true ‘calculation’ of the implications of the pleasure
being consistent and, in some cases, more reliable than an
alternative. As Driver writes, ‘all things being equal, we should
go for the more certain than less certain pleasures’.
Extent The more people who experience it the better, as shared
pleasures enhance the impact of happiness beyond oneself in
true keeping with the happiness principle.
Propinquity The nearer the pleasure is to you, the better, meaning the
present as opposed to those we are looking forward to in the
distant future.
Richness or The more chance the pleasure will be repeated or will result
fecundity in other pleasures, the better. This considers the additional
occurrences of the same pleasure or pleasures, or, alternatively
subsequent and dependent sub-pleasures that may result.
Purity The least amount of pain it involves, the better. Some
experiences may not be pure happiness but may involve
a ‘roller coaster ride’ of ups and downs. For Bentham, a
consistent experience of pleasure that is as far distanced from
‘pain’ or negative feelings is superior.
Bentham, in his work, Principles of Morals and Legislation wrote a poem to help
Study tip
remember they key principles of the hedonic calculus:
A mnemonic to help you remember
‘Intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure –
the initial letters of the hedonic
calculus is ‘In Dark Corners Edward Such marks in pleasure and pains endure.
Ponders Radical Propaganda’. Such pleasures seek, if private be thy end:
If it be public, wide let them extend.
Such pains avoid, whichever be thy view,
If pains must come, let them extend to a few.’
202

Using these criteria, Bentham argued that it was possible to work out the right
course of action in any situation. The balance of pain and pleasure created by one Key quote
choice of action could be compared with those …the rarest of all human qualities
created by other available choices. is consistency. (Bentham)
Bentham was concerned with maximising the
quantity of happiness; he was not concerned
about prioritising which forms of happiness
were superior to others. Bentham wrote in The 4.4 State two principles of the hedonic
Rationale of Reward that, ‘Prejudice apart, the calculus.
game of push-pin is of equal value with the arts Utilitarianism measures
and sciences of music and poetry’. Bentham’s the balance between
position was that all pleasures are of equal value. pain and pleasure
AO1 Activity
Create a flow diagram that explains the hedonic calculus with some practical
examples to help you explain it.
Study tip Key quote

The important thing about Bentham’s hedonic calculus is that you understand The quantity of pleasure being
how it is applied. It is better to remember three elements and explain how they equal, push-pin is as good as poetry.
work than to list all seven and not relate them to his theory or an issue. (Bentham)
Act Utilitarianism Specification content

Teleological thinking considers the consequences of a particular action or the ‘end’ Act Utilitarianism as a form of moral
result, and it is the assessment of this ‘end’ that determines whether or not the relativism, a consequentialist and
action is morally good. In this case the goal should always be ‘happiness’. teleological theory.
As it considers consequences it is also known as a consequentialist theory. This
means that ethical decisions and judgements, whether something is right or Key terms
wrong, should be based on the outcome or the consequences of an action. In this Act Utilitarianism: a form of
case does it lead to the ‘greatest happiness for the greatest number’? Utilitarianism associated with Bentham
The term Act Utilitarianism is usually associated with the Utilitarianism that treats each moral situation as
unique and applies the hedonic
of Bentham and use of his hedonic calculus. Bentham thought that previous
calculus to each ‘act’ to see if it fulfi ls
experiences did not always help us make moral choices and that each situation was the ‘principle of utility’. Any action
different, and so had to be calculated afresh. For Act Utilitarianism in its strong is right if it produces ‘the greatest
form, in each situation the calculus should be applied, regardless of previous happiness for the greatest number
experiences in decision making. Jeremy Bentham’s theory is therefore considered
Consequentialist: people should make
to be a relativistic theory. This means there are no universal moral norms or rules moral judgements based on the outcome
and that each situation has to be looked at independently because each situation is or the consequences of an action
different. Act Utilitarianism appears to favour the individual situations more than
Relativistic: this means there are no
the cases for the majority.
universal moral norms or rules and
Although Bentham is said to be an act utilitarian, he did not claim that it was that each situation has to be looked at
necessary to calculate the rightness and wrongness of every act from the hedonic independently because each situation
calculus, just that this was generally the case. is different
4.5 Explain why Utilitarianism is a

relativist theory of ethics.
203


everything you know about the topic Your new task is this: below is a list of indicative content that could be
area. used in response to a question requiring an examination of Bentham’s hedonic
calculus. The problem is that it is not a very full list and needs completing! It
will be useful, as a group, to consider what is missing from the list. You will
Explanation that is extensive, need to add at least five points that you would use to improve the list and/or
demonstrating depth and/or breadth give more detail to each point that is already in the list. Then, as a group, agree
on your final list and write out your new list of indicative content, remembering
thorough and accurate supporting use the principles of explaining with evidence and/or examples.
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and If you then put this list in order of how you would present the information in an
specialist language. essay you will have your own plan for an ideal answer.
Purity of experience is important.
Bentham wrote a poem to help remember them.
They are used to work out the impact and quality of the happiness experience
produced.
as rote learning).
■
Extent of the pleasure is important.
Further application of skills: ■
Intensity of the pleasure is important.
Your added content
Your added content
■
Etc.
204


content and skills
The degree to which pleasure can be seen as
the sole intrinsic good The degree to which pleasure can be
The main issue here is with the vagueness of ‘pleasure’ and its subjective nature. seen as the sole intrinsic good.
For example, not everyone may have the same amount of pleasure from the same
experience. However, Bentham would argue that if we use the hedonic calculus
correctly then this would be accounted for; one person would not choose a scary
ride at a theme park but another person would choose it because it was ‘thrilling’
and not ‘scary’.
The most obvious challenge to the idea of pleasure as the sole intrinsic good is
once again linked to the idea of subjectivity. Just because a pleasure may produce
happiness does that mean it is the same as ‘good’ in terms of ethics?
The idea of pursuing happiness as a goal has been called into question. Mill later
developed Bentham’s system and refined the definition of pleasure and ‘happiness’
into a nobler idea more akin to Aristotle’s eudaimonia. Some would argue that the
pursuit of eudaimonia is superior because it embraces a more holistic view of an AO2 Activity Possible lines
individual’s overall well-being. of argument
There are surely some pleasures that are nobler than others. Although Bentham’s
calculus goes some way towards identifying these through the applications of key Listed below are some conclusions
principles, it is still left to individual interpretation of these. For example, some that could be drawn from the AO2
may see spiritual and intellectual happiness as superior to sensual satisfaction reasoning in the accompanying text:
whilst others may disagree. 1. Pleasure can be seen as the sole
However, it is clear that pleasures that produce happiness are vital for complete intrinsic good because it is the only
mental health and quality of life, although one could argue that there is an way to create happiness.
obsessive compulsion to seek out constant pleasure that may be implicit in the 2. Pleasure can be seen as the sole
hedonic calculus. Some would argue that life is better as a ‘roller coaster’ as the ups intrinsic good if it is guided
and downs help us learn and grow as individuals. Indeed, does not the extent of carefully by Bentham’s hedonic
the pleasure grow when we know what pain is? However, despite this it is clear to calculus.
many that life is to be enjoyed and not ‘suffered’ and all noble religious and non- 3. Pleasure cannot be seen as the
religious ideals seek some form of individual satisfaction. sole intrinsic good because it is too
The real question seems to be ‘is happiness or pleasure a valid aim?’ when subjective.
compared to more spiritual goals such as salvation. The problem also is that there is 4. Pleasure cannot be seen as the
no capacity for self-sacrifice or discipline in the ideal of pleasure as the sole intrinsic sole intrinsic good because it
good. Sometimes we cannot compute what impact an experience may have and is too narrow a view of the life
can have the tendency to not see how good something may be because it appears experience.
too difficult or uncomfortable for us. Are there not instances where pain is good 5. Pleasure cannot be seen as the sole
for you? What about pains associated with hard work or exercise? intrinsic good because it does not
In conclusion it appears that the answer depends upon the nature of the happiness take into account differences in
involved in relation to the pleasure and in Bentham’s calculus maybe there ought the quality or overall value of the
to be some priority, say for example, the extent and fecundity which have more happiness produced.
chance of including more than one person. This leaves us with the lingering doubt Consider each of the conclusions
that pleasure as the sole intrinsic good does seem rather self-indulgent. drawn above and collect evidence and
and evidence.
205

Specification content The extent to which Utilitarianism works in

The extent to which Utilitarianism contemporary society
works in contemporary society.
Many people would see the fact that Utilitarianism as a teleological theory aims for
the goal of happiness as being realistic as this is what many people claim is their
aim in life and for society as a whole in providing ‘the greatest happiness for the
greatest number’.
Whilst Act Utilitarianism does have a number of weaknesses, the fact that it
forms the basis of modern political democracy shows that it must still be useful
in contemporary society. Utilitarianism has aims that are attractive in that
happiness is desired and the avoidance of pain seem reasonable goals. It does
seem that we are motivated by pleasure and motivated to avoid pain. It also seems
straightforward to apply to most situations and concurs with common sense. For
example, it takes into account consequences of our actions, whereas simply looking
at intentions with no regard to their consequences seems impersonal. This is
important in establishing social laws.
Utilitarianism also considers others and not just the individual. It is concerned with
the common good. It takes into account all who are affected by the action. In short,
Act Utilitarianism is pragmatic and concentrates on the situation a person is in and
the effects of an action. In addition, another strength of the theory is that it treats
everyone the same and no individual gets special treatment. This is consistent with
the ideals of contemporary society.
Overall, Utilitarianism allows people the autonomy to make decisions for
themselves; for example, in Act Utilitarianism each act is considered individually
so it is not prescriptive and restrictive. Ultimately, for many people ‘happiness’
is an important aspect of decision making as it is their main aim in life and
Utilitarianism can provide a clear guidance on what leads to the ‘greatest happiness
for the greatest number’.
However, Utilitarianism does have a number of key weaknesses as an ethical
theory. Although it is essentially concerned with fulfilling the ‘greatest happiness
for the greatest number’ it can, as a result, allow a minority to suffer, for example,
leading to the justification of acts such as slavery or torture. This would not be
allowed in contemporary society.
It seems to ignore intentions and an individual’s motive which conveys that the
means by which the greatest good is achieved seems incidental and of no moral
relevance. In other words, injustice could be seen as right action, which seems
contrary to common sense. Justice is the foundation of contemporary society.
In deciding whether an action is morally right, it requires the outcomes of the
action to be known. However, outcomes may not be accurately predictable. This
is certainly true in the case of a war. It is also true with some forms of genetic
engineering. To decide what action will produce the greatest good, the alternative
actions also have to be considered and their possible outcomes predicted. This
seems an impossible task. In this way one could argue that Utilitarianism seems
too demanding, since we ought always to do that which gives greatest good for the
greatest number, but there may always be an act, other than what we choose, that
would give greater good.
Another criticism of Utilitarianism fails to consider that we have certain duties or
obligations towards others; for example, a mother’s duty to protect her child. This
is part of human nature and another aspect to this is that people are not infallible
and they often can make errors of judgement, specifically in relation to what they
think will lead to happiness may not in the end produce it.
206

There is also the argument that it cannot really be applied consistently: happiness
is subjective and people have different ideas about what constitutes ‘pleasure’.
What is one person’s pleasure is another person’s idea of pain. How would this
work in society?
Finally, a religious believer would argue that the rules for society should be based
on God’s will not on the pursuit of happiness. Indeed, they would indicate that
some of the rules of society are not consistent with the pursuit of an individual’s
pleasure or ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’.
In conclusion, it can be seen that aspects of utilitarian theory do work in society but
it is clear that using it as a basis for all our laws would be questionable.

1. Utilitarianism works in contemporary society as its basis is ‘the greatest
happiness for the greatest number’.
2. Utilitarianism works in contemporary society as it still influences our
political system today.
3. Utilitarianism works in contemporary society as it is the goal of each
individual to be happy.
4. Utilitarianism cannot work in contemporary society as a theory on its own.
5. Utilitarianism cannot work in contemporary society because there are too
many weaknesses.
Utilitarianism forms the

basis of modern politics
207


of view.
various implications of the issues raised Your new task is this: below is a list of indicative content that could be used
in response to a question requiring an evaluation of the effectiveness of Act
Utilitarianism for ethical decision making. The problem is that it is not a very
conclusion. full list and needs completing! It will be useful, as a group, to consider what is
missing from the list. You will need to add at least six points (three in support
and three against) that you would use to improve the list and/or give more
argument analysed through individual detail to each point that is already in the list. Remember, it is how you use the
commentary and response and arrives points that is the most important factor. Apply the principles of evaluation by
at a conclusion through a clear process making sure that you: identify issues clearly; present accurate views of others,
of reasoning. making sure that you comment on the views presented; reach an overall
personal judgement. You may add more of your own suggestions, but try to
negotiate as a group and prioritise the most important things to add. Then, as a
group, agree on your final list and write out your new list of indicative content,
remembering the principles of explaining with evidence and/or examples.
If you then put this list in order of how you would present the information in an
essay you will have your own plan for an ideal answer.
In support
■
Hedonic calculus is useful as a guide.
■
It considers the rights of the individual.
■
Your added content
■
Your added content
■
Etc.
Against
■
Act Utilitarianism is too subjective.
■
Act Utilitarianism cannot be consistent.
■
Your added content
■
Your added content
■
Etc.
208


B: John Stuart Mill’s development of content and skills
Utilitarianism Specification content
Mill’s idea that not all pleasure
Mill’s idea that not all pleasure is the same is the same – ‘higher pleasures’
(intellectual) are superior to ‘lower
The ethical theory of Utilitarianism proposed by Bentham soon started to raise
pleasures’ (basic physical pleasure).
some strong criticisms. Not least amongst the critics was his former pupil, John
Development of the ‘harm principle’:
Stuart Mill.
the actions of individuals should
The main criticism against Bentham was that he tried to measure pleasure in be limited to prevent harm to
quantitative terms. It appeared to allow for some actions to be called right and other individuals.
good when they seemed, to others, to be wrong. For instance, Bentham’s approach
appeared to conclude that a gang rape would be a right action if the pleasure
gained by the group of rapists exceeded that of the pain experienced by the
Key person
person raped. John Stuart Mill 1806 –1873:
was a British philosopher, political
This also raised questions about the exact nature of ‘pleasure’. It is important economist, civil servant and Member
to remember that it is in the context of such criticisms of Bentham that Mill of Parliament. Bentham was his
developed utilitarian theory. mentor and a close family friend.
This equating of happiness with good is a view that can be found in the writings He was an influential liberal thinker
and developed Bentham’s version of
of Aristotle. He referred to it as eudaimonia. Aristotle argued that pleasure was
Utilitarianism. He focused more on the
not mere gratification but rather includes the idea of well-being, living well, being ‘quality’ of pleasure rather than the
fulfilled. This is much closer to the view that Mill took. ‘quantity’ of pleasure. Retrospectively
some scholars have credited him as
Higher and lower pleasures introducing Rule Utilitarianism.
As a result of the flaw identified in Bentham’s definition of defining
happiness in quantitative terms, Mill shifted the focus in his version
of Utilitarianism from the quantity of happiness and pleasure to
the quality of the happiness and pleasure. He recognised that some
pleasures were superior to others and developed a system of ‘higher’
and ‘lower’ pleasures.
Mill distinguished between pleasure that stimulated the mind,
which he called higher pleasure, and pleasure that was merely
physical or lower pleasure. He claimed that human beings alone
could achieve the higher pleasure and it was the higher pleasure that
was more satisfying. However, Mill was aware that often people did
not choose the higher pleasure in preference to the lower pleasure.
He felt that this was because they had not experienced both. Had
they done so, they would have known that higher pleasure was
more satisfying than the lower pleasures.
According to Mill, therefore, intellectual pleasures, that is, pleasures
of the intellect or mind, are higher and superior. For example,
reading philosophy or poetry is far superior to gorging oneself on a
feast! Such pleasures help humans to develop their intellect. Albert J.S. Mill 1806–1873
Einstein became famous for scientific discoveries and so is a classic
example of aspiring to higher pleasures by using his intellect.
Lower pleasures, then, are inferior pleasures of the body, that is, physical pleasures 4.6 State one way in which Mill disagreed
such as sex and eating. They are lower because they do not enrich or enhance the with Bentham.
intellect or develop the quality of an individual. Eating fish and chips fulfils a lower
pleasure by satisfying hunger, but it only serves to meet basic bodily needs.
Key quote
Over himself, over his own body and
mind, the individual is sovereign.
(Mill)
209

Mill did, however, recognise that people must satisfy the lower pleasures, that is,
Key quote they do need to eat and sleep. This is a basic requirement. However, it was not good
It is better to be a human being to focus solely upon the lower pleasures and the greatest aim in life was to aspire
dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; to achieving the higher pleasures.
better to be Socrates dissatisfied By making a distinction between higher and lower pleasures, Mill moved the
than a fool satisfied. (Mill) calculation of pleasure away from quantity towards quality. No longer was it simply
how much pleasure an action caused. Now it was also a matter of the quality of the
pleasure.
Key quote
Mill’s Utilitarianism, then, was not concerned entirely with the quantity of the
No pleasure is a bad thing in
happiness that an act produced but argued that this should be weighed against the
itself, but the things which
quality of happiness produced by such an act.
produce certain pleasures entail
disturbances many times greater Universalisability and the harm principle
than the pleasures themselves. As a political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament Mill was very
(Epicurus) interested in social reform and looking at how society worked and what was best
for people in general. Perhaps the most important contribution by Mill, then, was
his introduction of the idea of universalisability. Similar to Bentham’s principle
4.7 Give an example of a ‘higher of utility, Mill wanted to show that what is right and wrong for one person in a
pleasure’. situation is right or wrong for all. He argued that:
1. Happiness is desirable since we all desire it.
2. Happiness is the only thing desirable as an end, since things are only desirable
4.8 Give an example of a ‘lower pleasure’.
because they bring about happiness.
3. Therefore, everyone ought to aim at the happiness of everyone, as increasing
the general happiness will increase my happiness.
4.9 Why is the ‘harm principle’ so This argument supports the idea that people should put the interests of the group
important for Utilitarianism? before their own interests. Bentham’s principle of utility had focused much more on
individual situations and had no concept of protecting the common good universally.
However, it is always the identification of the greatest happiness in terms of quality
that drives this decision. In essence, as society is made up of individuals, for society
to be happy, individuals collectively need to be happy also. It is therefore the ‘duty’ or
‘rule’ for society that it should protect the happiness of its subjects.
It was this thinking that led to Mill developing what has been called the ‘harm
principle’. In his book ‘On Liberty’ Mill wrote,
‘That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually
or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is
self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised
over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm
to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He
cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to
do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so
would be wise, or even right …. The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which
he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely
For society to be happy, individuals concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his
collectively need to be happy also
own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.’
Key quote AO1 Activity

The only purpose for which power
Write down the key principles of Utilitarianism and colour code them according
can be rightfully exercised over any
to (1) what is common to both Bentham and Mill (2) Bentham and (3) Mill.
member of a civilised community,
against his will, is to prevent harm
to others. (Mill) Study tip
Always remember to point out the historical context and development of
Utilitarianism in relation to the different versions presented.
210

Development of Rule Utilitarianism Specification content

Mill thought previous experiences did help us make decisions. Indeed, human Every action does not need to be
beings have already developed some rules that help them make decisions more assessed and actions are right if
quickly. These rules are universal in nature, and if applied in any situation, they they conform to an historical rule
would lead to the greatest happiness of the greatest number (i.e. they would that has demonstrated that it fulfils
maximise happiness). In Rule Utilitarianism, moral actions are those which the principle of utility (now known
conform to the rules that lead to the greatest good. For example, we do not need to as ‘Rule’ Utilitarianism). Mill’s
use the hedonic calculus to work out that giving money to the poor is right because Utilitarianism as a teleological and
it is a well-worked rule of Utilitarianism. deontological hybrid.
In its strong form, Strong Rule Utilitarianism claims that an action is right if,
and only if, it follows the rules: the rules should never be disobeyed. These rules Key quote
are universal in nature and, if applied in any situation, would lead to the greatest
There is no case of moral obligation
happiness for the greatest number. They would maximise happiness. The rule
in which some secondary principle
utilitarian would notice the similarities between the present case and the previous
is not involved. (Mill)
ones and draw on those previous calculations.
A strong rule utilitarian, on the one hand, believes that any rules created using the
principle of utility should never be broken. This is because the rules were made Key quote
in order to promote happiness. However, on the other hand, in its weaker form All action is for the sake of some
known as Weak Rule Utilitarianism, a person tries to allow for the fact that in end, and rules of action, it seems
extreme cases the rule created using the principle of utility needs to be broken in natural to suppose, must take their
order to achieve the greatest happiness. For example, the rule ‘do not kill’ might whole character and colour from the
have be broken by someone during World War II if they had the opportunity to kill end to which they are subservient.
Hitler, as this would have fulfilled the principle of utility. (Mill)
Mill is said to be a rule utilitarian; however, it is doubtful whether he advocated
the strong form. He viewed the rules more as helpful guidance than obligatory.
They were necessary as a means of saving time. This view, known as Weak Rule Key terms
Utilitarianism, states that on certain occasions the rules can be disobeyed if a Rule Utilitarianism: a view
greater amount of happiness will result. In this latter sense, Mill’s theory is often associated with John Stuart Mill. Rule
utilitarians believe that by using the
seen as a deontological and teleological hybrid; that is, it is a mixture of the
‘principle of utility’, that is, the greatest
application of rules that have been established through the experience of applying happiness for the greatest number, one
Utilitarianism, but also at times through the consideration of the end goal of his can draw up general rules, based on
specific form of Utilitarianism without reference to past experience. past experiences, which would help to
keep this principle
AO1 Activity Strong Rule Utilitarianism: a strong

rule utilitarian believes that any rules
Design a diagram that links the different elements of Bentham’s version of formulated and established through
Utilitarianism. Begin with the hedonic calculus but remember, place the ideas the application of the ‘principle of
of the seven elements within the context of Bentham’s ideas as a whole. utility’ should never be broken as they
guarantee happiness for society
Weak Rule Utilitarianism: a weak
Study tip rule utilitarian tries to allow for the fact
In the exam, write a brief bullet list by way of a plan for each question that that in some situations breaking a rule
originally created because it generally
you attempt to answer. Your bullet list should use key words, e.g. for a
fulfi ls the principle of utility may be the
question on Mill: refinement of Bentham, higher/lower, quality, eudaimonia, right course of action, because in this
universalisability. particular situation, breaking the rule
is more likely to fulfi l the principle of
utility than keeping the rule
4.10 Explain the difference between

Strong Rule Utilitarianism and Weak
Rule Utilitarianism.
211


Your new task is this: you will have to write a response under timed
with excellent use of evidence and conditions to a question requiring an examination of how Mill developed
examples including (where appropriate) Bentham’s Utilitarianism. You will need to focus for this and apply the skills that
thorough and accurate supporting use you have developed so far:
specialist language. 1. Begin with a list of indicative content. Perhaps discuss this as
This means that you demonstrate that a group. It does not need to be in any order.
as rote learning). 2. Develop the list using examples.
each one, provide further elaboration 3. Now consider in which order you would like to explain the
information.

or examples.
212


content and skills
The extent to which Rule Utilitarianism Specification content
provides a better basis for making moral The extent to which Rule
decisions than Act Utilitarianism Utilitarianism provides a better basis
In terms of Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism, a great strength is that it has a clear for making moral decisions than
method in its application of the hedonic calculus. Indeed, one could go as far as Act Utilitarianism.
to argue that the hedonic calculus is thorough in its consideration of measuring
aspects of pleasure. Act Utilitarianism is also a morally democratic approach that
seeks the fairest result through application of the happiness principle.
There are, however, specific weaknesses of Bentham and Act Utilitarianism.
Firstly, it is not clear how the hedonic calculus resolves the problem of assessing
the quantity of pleasure. For instance, how is it possible to quantify and compare
intensity of pleasure with duration of pleasure? Listing elements of pleasure does
not resolve the problem of quantifying the pleasure. Secondly, the hedonic calculus AO2 Activity Possible lines
does not prioritise or rank aspects of pleasure and so can lead to further confusion. of argument
If applied clumsily the hedonic calculus is open to abuse; for example, it appears
to justify gang rape. Finally, Bentham’s hedonic calculus criteria seem to be geared Listed below are some conclusions
towards the individual in its application, that is, more to the principle of utility that could be drawn from the AO2
in general, rather than a consideration of its wider implications of the happiness reasoning in the accompanying text:
principle advocated by Utilitarianism. 1. Rule Utilitarianism provides a
Mills Rule Utilitarianism has specific strengths, the first of which is that it is better basis for making moral
arguably a more intelligent and thoughtful approach than Bentham’s theory. It decisions than Act Utilitarianism as
clearly addresses the quantitative aspect of pleasure by qualifying it and refining it is a more refined system.
it with the qualitative analysis. Some would therefore say that it avoids the pitfalls 2. Rule Utilitarianism provides a
of Bentham’s basic calculus and comes across as a more refined and nobler system better basis for making moral
of thought. decisions than Act Utilitarianism
However, was Mill right when he argued that higher pleasures are better than at is better to apply to society as a
lower pleasures? Who is it that decides this? In addition, with the introduction whole.
of new variables it could be argued to be too complex a system to calculate and 3. Both Rule Utilitarianism and Act
therefore due to its complexity be of no practical use. Utilitarianism can be a basis for
Nonetheless, Rule Utilitarianism has the great strength of being directed in the making moral decisions.
main at society and has a basis of tried and tested experiences on which to act, 4. Weak Rule Utilitarianism provides
and not, as in the case of Act Utilitarianism, advocating an unpredictable fresh a better basis for making moral
calculation for each decision. This is useful to help people and guide them rather decisions than both Strong
than to over complicate the theory and confuse people. In Mill’s harm principle we Rule Utilitarianism and Act
appear to be working towards safeguarding against the possibly inconsistencies Utilitarianism.
that Act Utilitarianism could potentially create. 5. A combination of the
In conclusion, I suppose it all depends upon what the theory is being used for. various aspects of all types of
It would appear that Act Utilitarianism is more pertinent to the individual and Utilitarianism is the best way for
allows for more freedom in application whereas Strong Rule Utilitarianism could making moral decisions.
be seen as possibly too inflexible for society as a whole and not accounting for Consider each of the conclusions
that freedom. Maybe a happy compromise is to say that overall, a Weak Rule is drawn above and collect evidence and
the most superior approach to ethics because it does allow the individuality of Act examples to support each argument
Utilitarianism and the guidance of Rule Utilitarianism? from the AO1 and AO2 material
and evidence.
213

Specification content Whether Utilitarianism promotes immoral

Whether Utilitarianism promotes behaviour
immoral behaviour.
There is a great deal of emphasis on principles of reason and individual
judgements. This is where the main criticisms of Utilitarianism arise and opens it
up to accusations of immoral behaviour.
Religious believers, on the whole, would argue that God’s rule and teachings are
universally applicable, objective and ensure overall justice. This is more reliable
than a secular theory developed by humans and applied inconsistently. The latter
will only lead inevitably to instances of immoral behaviour.
Another line of argument would be that, according to Utilitarianism, happiness
is subjective and that two similar situations could be treated differently as people
have different ideas of what happiness is. This could lead to injustice for those
involved.
Despite this, however, Utilitarianism, especially that proposed by Mill, is based
on a democratic and fair philosophy as it promotes the ‘greatest happiness for
the greatest number’ and Mill’s harm principle defends against misuse and
immorality. Indeed, even with Bentham’s proposals, if the hedonic calculus is used
AO2 Activity Possible lines and considered as a whole, it ensures that everyone’s happiness is considered
of argument when making an ethical decision. In this sense it promotes justice and not immoral
behaviour. Indeed, in considering the consequences of each action, Utilitarianism
Listed below are some conclusions makes people consider how their actions affect others and is another safeguard
that could be drawn from the AO2 against immoral actions.
Another challenge to the statement would be that Act Utilitarianism takes the
1. Utilitarianism promotes immoral situation into account when making an ethical decision and therefore is more just
behaviour because it is focused on than absolutist theories, which simply prevent people from performing certain
individual human reason. actions. The danger with absolute systems is that they could, according to Arthur
2. Utilitarianism promotes immoral Miller, promote the ‘the immorality of morality’.
behaviour because there is no In this way the use of the hedonic calculus ensures that everyone’s happiness
overall objective standard. is considered when making an ethical decision, so it is just. In Weak Rule
3. Utilitarianism does not and never Utilitarianism, for example, the rules that have been formulated ensure that similar
intends to promote immoral actions are treated in the same way, for example do not lie, but are also considered
behaviour. with the flexibility that legalism or Strong Rule Utilitarianism cannot offer.
4. Utilitarianism does not promote Act Utilitarianism, however, can be accused of allowing a minority to suffer as
immoral behaviour but there are long as the majority are happy. It could justify acts such as the torture or death of
potential areas in which possible an innocent person as long as it fulfilled ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest
applications of it can lead to number’. Ultimately, it allows many people put their own happiness before
injustice and immorality. the happiness of others so this will lead to injustice. It is in the very nature of
5. If it is argued that Utilitarianism Utilitarianism as a consequentialist theory the intended outcome is not guaranteed
promotes immoral behaviour and so people may end up being treated unfairly.
then the same can be said of every In conclusion, it not the case that any particular system of ethical theory ever
other ethical theory. intends immoral behaviour or promotes it for that matter. Even religious
Consider each of the conclusions systems can be accused of immorality in practice, for instance intolerance and
drawn above and collect evidence and discrimination but it would be wrong to say that this was intended or promoted.
examples to support each argument It is how they are applied that matters and it is this application, possibly unwisely,
from the AO1 and AO2 material that appears to be the root of immorality and not the theory itself.
and evidence.
214


demonstrate these terms, and also, how the performance of these skills are evaluation.
of view.
Your new task is this: you will have to write a response under timed This means that the answer weighs
conditions to a question requiring an evaluation of the effectiveness of Mill’s up the various and different lines of
Rule Utilitarianism. You will need to focus for this and apply the skills that you argument analysed through individual
have developed so far: commentary and response and arrives
of reasoning.

information.

215


content and skills C: Utilitarianism: application of the
Specification content theories (Act and Rule)
The application of Bentham’s
Act Utilitarianism and Mill’s Rule The application of Bentham’s Act
Utilitarianism to both of the issues
listed below: Utilitarianism and Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism to
1. Animal experimentation for animal experimentation for medical research
medical research. The history of medicine has a long association with the use of animals for medical
2. The use of nuclear weapons as a research through dissection and vivisection, from the time of Ancient Greece and
deterrent. Rome, with the work of Claudius Galen in particular through to the 16th century
and the pioneering work of William Harvey on blood circulation based upon
Key terms analysis of a dissected pig.
Dissection: the action of dissecting a
body or plant to study its internal parts Claudius Galen 130–210
Vivisection: the practice of

performing operations on live animals
for the purpose of experimentation or
scientific research
Key person
Claudius Galen: was a Greek physician
who went to Rome and revived the ideas
of Hippocrates and other Greek doctors.
He put great emphasis on clinical
observation – examining a patient very
thoroughly and noting their symptoms.
He compiled much of the knowledge
obtained by previous writers, and
furthered the inquiry into the function
of organs by performing vivisection
on animals, for example extending his
knowledge of anatomy by dissecting
pigs and apes and studying their bone
structure and muscles.
Key person
William Harvey: was born in
Folkestone, Kent on 1 April 1578. His
father was a merchant. Harvey was
educated at King’s College, Canterbury
and Cambridge University. He then
studied medicine at the University of
Padua in Italy, where the scientist and
surgeon Hieronymus Fabricius tutored
him. Harvey was an English physician
who was the first to describe accurately
how blood was pumped around the
body by the heart. By a long series of
dissections (from dogs and pigs down
to slugs and oysters), and by a process
of logical argument, Harvey was able
William Harvey 1578–1657
to prove that the body contains only a
single supply of blood; and that the heart
is a muscle pumping it round a circuit.
216

Today animal dissection and vivisection are widespread and still legal for medical
research. However, the attitude of people towards animals and the treatment of
animals has become the subject of much debate in recent history.
One issue concerns the different views held on the relationship that human beings 4.11 Why are Galen and Harvey significant
have to animals today and how this works in practice. Here is summary of some for the use of animals in medical
approaches and their legal status: research?
Term Definition
The view that supports the idea that humans are supreme
Animal use
species. Animals are to be used for food and pleasure
(legal)
(sports).
Animal Establishes laws and regulations to control animal
protection experiments and to ensure animals are treated with
(legal) dignity.
Animal welfare Supports the rights of animals to be free from abuse and
(legal) to be looked after, e.g. RSPCA.
People who fight for a change in the laws of animal
Animal reform
experiments, animal ownership, animal-based clothing
(legal)
and animals sports.
Animal
An anonymous group that has used acts of terrorism to
liberation
free animals from abuse.
(illegal)
The view that supports the use of animals in extreme
Animal control sports such as dog fighting or fox hunting, believing that
(illegal) animals are here for our use or pleasure (even if it means
they suffer).
The use of animals for medical research is a very specific area of animal research
and is hotly debated. The problem with applying any ethical theory to any issue is
that we need first to be aware of some facts about the issue. With some issues facts
can be straightforward but with other issues the information may be disputed.
Unfortunately, with animal experimentation for medical research there are
disputed facts.
The area of dispute is focused directly on whether or not animal experimentation is
useful for medical research.
Key term
Pressure groups such as Animal Aid contest its usefulness. Founded in 1977 ‘the
Animal Aid: a charity that promotes
society campaigns against all animal abuse but particularly the use of animals in
animal welfare and argues against the
experiments and the cruel treatment of farm animals’. Animal Aid campaigns by use of animals for medical research
all peaceful and non-violent means and so is legal. It is interesting to note that one
of their foundational policies is that they reject current human attitudes towards
animals that states that humans are higher intellectual beings, based upon a
quotation by Jeremy Bentham: ‘The question is not, can they reason? Nor, can they 4.12 What is animal welfare?
talk? But can they suffer?’
Animal Aid rejects all forms of psychology experiments such as electric shocks, 4.13 What is animal protection?
starvation, deprivation, and tormenting techniques that are used just to observe
the reactions of animals, and they quote David Helton, Editor of BBC Wildlife
in 1984 to demonstrate their stance: ‘it takes two to make an experiment – the Key quote
monkey and the man – and the best way of judging behaviour is not by looking at To discriminate against beings
the monkey’. solely on account of their species is
The link between diabetes and a damaged pancreas was made in the 18th century a form of prejudice. (Singer)
by studying human autopsies. However, because scientists for a long time were
217

unable to cause diabetes in laboratory animals by damaging the pancreas the
theory lost favour for many years.
Key quote
Animal Aid has much to say about the historical results of medical research using
That which is morally wrong cannot animal experimentation. They argue:
be scientifically right. To seek one’s 1. Much medical research, including into diseases like cancer, is repetitive and
own advantage regardless of the pointless.
cost to other sentient beings is to
2. We have enough drugs (only 200 are necessary to human health and yet there
renounce humanity. (Kingford)
are thousands available through marketing and retail competition).
3. Animal experiments are unreliable, for example penicillin is useful for humans
Key quote but kills guinea pigs and hamsters and chloroform kills dogs and anaesthetises
During my medical education humans.
at Basle I found vivisection 4. It has been known for drugs passed on in animals to have caused human
horrible, barbarous and above all deaths.
unnecessary. (Jung) 5. Many cancers are preventable and so we should focus on eliminating causes
and not searching for cures.
Dr Gill Langley has long been associated as campaigning against the use of animal
experimentation in medical research and argues that medical history shows time
and again that an understanding of health and disease has been set back due to
animal research and experimentation. In addition, she points out that many vital
discoveries have been made without animal experiments.
For Langley there are two major uncertainties with animal research and
experimentation:
1. There are significant species differences in anatomy, metabolism, physiology
or pharmacology caused by underlying genetic variations and these variations
between species can, and do, regularly confound the translation of laboratory
animal results to humans.
For example, mice are the most commonly used species in medical research.
4.14 Why is Gill Langley concerned about
Langley observes, ‘There are at least 67 known discrepancies in immunological
the uncertainties in the use of animal functions between mice and humans – hardly surprising, since our species diverged
experimentation in medical research? between 65 and 75 million years ago.’
2. Human illnesses are researched in animals because there is a lack of knowledge
and the causes and progression of a human condition are unknown. However,
Key quote
an animal model is usually developed on the basis of a narrow range of human
The value of animal models is symptoms, and based upon an ignorance of the distinction between causes and
constrained by evolution-determined outcomes of illness.
species differences and by Langley compares Parkinson’s disease and the contrasting symptoms in humans
inevitable dissimilarities between and marmosets and argues, ‘The marmoset model is simplistic compared to the
the conditions created in animals human condition, involving a more limited number and type of brain cells …
and the human disorders being marmosets do not develop the pathological hallmark of Parkinson’s disease, the
researched. (Langley) clumps of abnormal protein called Lewy bodies that develop in cells of the brain.’
Langley argues that the poor performance of animal models in medical research
Key term should prompt a serious appraisal of the potential of alternative, non-animal
Understanding Animal Research: models which include human cell and tissue studies (in the ‘test tube’), molecular
a Mutual Society (not-for-profit approaches, clinical research, population studies and computer simulations.
organisation) that explains why The obvious strengths of these research approaches is that they are more
animals are used in medical and
relevant to humans and often allow a better understanding of underlying disease
scientific research
mechanisms. She argues that a dependence on ‘surrogates’ to formulate and test
medical hypotheses is ‘seriously flawed’.
Despite the strong argument, there is a counter-argument typified by the response
4.15 What is UAR? of such groups as Understanding Animal Research (UAR). UAR states that it
‘supports the humane use of animals in biomedical research, and believes that
animal research is a vital part of the scientific process’.
218

Like Animal Aid and Langley, UAR present some persuasive arguments based
on facts: Key quote
1. Animal research has played a vital part in nearly every medical breakthrough For over 150 years research using
over the last decade. animals has advanced scientific
2. We share 95% of our genes with a mouse, and animals suffer from similar understanding of human and
diseases to humans including cancers, TB, flu and asthma. animal health and the impact
of the environment on wildlife.
3. All veterinary research has relied on the use of animal research.
This research should never be
4. Non-animal methods cannot replace all use of animals. undertaken lightly and animals
5. As a result of medical experimentation on animals there have been many should only be used when there is
breakthroughs, in discovering, developing or perfecting the following: no alternative method available.
modern anaesthetics; tetanus vaccine; penicillin; insulin; hip replacement (Understanding Animal
surgery; kidney transplants; heart transplants; blood transfusions; herceptin Research)
(a humanised mouse protein) increasing the survival rate of those with breast
cancer; the development of Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapies (HAART),
to ensure that AIDS is no longer terminal; asthma inhalers; modern vaccines
including those against Polio, TB, meningitis and papillomavirus; and, smallpox
has been eradicated from earth thanks to research in animals.
They also argue that:
1. Dogs, cats and
primates altogether
account for less than
0.2% of research
animals and 97% of
research in the UK is
done on mice, rats,
fish and birds.
2. The UK has some of
the highest standards
of laboratory animal Key quote
An animal laboratory for experimentation
welfare in the world. Experiments on animals have
3. All research in the UK must be approved by the Home Office, furthermore, the contributed greatly to scientific
researchers and the institutions doing the research must be licensed by the advances. (House of Lords
Home Office. Select Committee)
4. Ethics committees exist to ensure that the potential benefits of research
outweigh any suffering to the animals. Animal welfare is underpinned by the Key quote
3Rs – there is a legal requirement to replace animals with alternatives, refine
Producing a new medicine is a
experimental techniques and reduce the numbers of animals used in research.
lengthy and complex process …
Indeed, Albert Sabin, who developed the Polio vaccine has stated, ‘Without Tests on animals play a vital role.
animal research, polio would still be claiming thousands of lives each year’ and the (The Nuffield Council on
former CEO of the Medical Research Council, Prof Colin Blakemore, argued that
Bioethics)
‘[primates] are used only when no other species and no alternative approach can
provide the answers to questions about such conditions as Alzheimer’s, stroke,
Parkinson’s, spinal injury, hormone disorders, and vaccines for HIV.’
AO1 Activity
Create a small leaflet that outlines the two sides of the debate for the use of
animal experimentation in medical research.
Study tip
Make sure that you have a good grasp of key arguments for and against the use
of animal experimentation in medical research.
219

The focus now needs to be on what the different forms of Utilitarianism
would conclude.
Key quote In applying Utilitarianism it may be best to look at different aspects of the theory,
What else is it that should trace the but also bear in mind that due to the complexity of the issues and the complex
insuperable line? Is it the faculty nature of the theory itself, there are different ways of applying it. As Bass writes,
of reason or perhaps the faculty of ‘however good the utilitarian case against animal research in general, it will be
discourse? But a full-grown horse possible in principle to find cases in which it seems justified’.
or dog, is beyond comparison a Regarding the use of the utilitarian principle that aims for the ‘greatest happiness
more rational, as well as a more for the greatest number’. On the one hand, it clearly projects the happiness of
conversable animal, than an infant many human lives than animals if we consider lives already saved and potential
of a day or a week or even a month, human disaster by not controlling epidemics. On the other hand, in the use of
old. But suppose the case were animal experimentation for medical research, it would appear that if facts are
otherwise, what would it avail? The correct and there are many uncertainties and discrepancies then the greatest
question is not, can they reason? happiness for humans is not guaranteed in relation to suffering of animals.
nor, can they talk? but, can they Concerning the principle of utility that ‘promotes pleasure and avoids pain’, there
suffer? Why should the law refuse is pleasure in that it benefits humans that may potentially suffer, but it brings
its protection to any sensitive suffering for animals – which outweighs the other? Is it a matter of the numbers
being? The time will come when involved? For Bentham it may be that the quantity matters most, for Mill it is
humanity will extend its mantle about the quality of pleasure, which means, reluctantly, a utilitarian would have to
over everything which breathes … support some forms of animal experimentation for medical research.
(Bentham) Bentham himself is considered a pioneer of animal rights. Bentham did not argue
that humans and nonhumans had equal moral significance, but argued that the
latter’s interests should be taken into account. Bentham changed the views of
many people towards animals; rather than regarding them as inferior to human
beings because of their inability to reason, Bentham applied ethical Utilitarianism
to animals as his famous quotation affirms, ‘The question is not, can they reason?
Nor, can they talk? But can they suffer?’ Bentham’s ‘insuperable line’ as he called it,
was that it was the ability to suffer rather than the ability to reason that provided
the framework and standard of how we treat other animals. Bentham may well
have disagreed with animal experimentation for medical research; as Julia Driver
notes, ‘What struck many as lacking in Bentham’s value theory was a special place
for the rational capacities that mark a difference between persons and animals’.
Bentham’s hedonic calculus suggests that the whole of the calculus should be
used in dealing with both human beings and animals. The only satisfactory way of
dealing with this is to consider the principle of ‘extent’ and look long term to when
the suffering of animals in the present leads to less suffering for both animals and
humans in the future overall.
Key quote Mill, however, is quite clear that animal pleasures and pains do not equate to
Even if some individual experiments their human counterparts in terms of value. Animals do not appreciate the higher
may be justified, this does not pleasures and cannot, therefore operate as utilitarian beings. This does not mean
mean that the institutional practice they do not need protecting and treating well. As Julia Driver comments, ‘This
distinction between higher and lower pleasures allows Mill to hold that while
of experimenting on animals is
animals do have moral standing in virtue of their sentience – that is, in virtue of
justified. Given the suffering that
their capacity to feel pleasure and pain, and thus to have both positive and negative
this routinely inflicts on millions
experiences – their moral standing is not the same as that of persons who have
of animals, and that probably very
higher moral standing in virtue of their capacity to experience higher pleasures.’
few of the experiments will be of
significant benefit to humans or Mill’s harm principle is aimed chiefly at society and humans so that society
benefits; however, it would insist on the stringent application of rules to minimise
to other animals, it is better to put
suffering rather than be against it totally.
our resources into other methods of
doing research that do not involve In response to animal experimentation for medical research, Strong Rule
harming animals. (Singer) Utilitarianism would most probably advocate a reasonable argument in support
based mainly upon the principles outlined in Mill’s views above.
220

Weak Rule Utilitarianism, however, may be more flexible, as Mill also argued that
‘reasons for legal intervention in favour of children, apply not less strongly to … the
lower animals’, and that intervention should be based on ‘the intrinsic merits of
the case’, rather than upon ‘incidental consequences … to the interests of human
beings’. Therefore, a weak rule utilitarian would not consider the variants but work
with the underlying principles as advocated by the distinction between higher and
lower pleasures. Elsewhere, Mill is clear that animal pleasures and pains do not
equate to their human counterparts in terms of value. Therefore, there would be
no absolute response to the issue, which is problematic, not for the utilitarian, but 4.16 Why does Bentham think animals
for making a policy regarding animal experimentation for medical research. should be protected?
The application of Bentham’s Act Specification content

Utilitarianism and Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism to The application of Bentham’s
Act Utilitarianism and Mill’s Rule
the use of nuclear weapons as a deterrent Utilitarianism to the use of nuclear
It is with great sadness that our history recalls the end of World War II when the weapons as a deterrent.
atomic bomb was used by the USA against Japan and devastated the cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Their use has long been debated and both justified and
Key quote
rebuked using utilitarian principles. The problem with nuclear weapons is that
there can never really be any justification for their use per se. If used in a war So, let us be alert in a twofold sense:
today, many see an eventual end to the world’s population due to the devastating Since Auschwitz we know what man
impact such a war would have on the rest of the planet. No ethical theory would sit is capable of. And since Hiroshima
comfortably with this outcome. As a consequentialist theory, Utilitarianism could we know what is at stake. (Frankl)
see only pain and suffering and not even a long-term happiness. In short, there
is no pleasure in war. This debate, however, does not concern the actual use of Key quote
nuclear weapons but their use as a deterrent.
Japan knows the horror of war
However, many argue that the purpose of nuclear weapons is to serve as a and has suffered as no other
deterrent, ironically with the intention that the scenario above will not happen. nation under the cloud of nuclear
Others see them as a waste of resources when people are starving and see the disaster. Certainly Japan can
potential use of finances spent wisely elsewhere.
stand strong for a world of peace.
CND (The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) has long put forward the (Martin Luther King)
arguments for nuclear disarmament. In short, they propose:
1. Each nuclear missile today is 8 times the power of the nuclear bomb that was
dropped on Hiroshima in 1945, killing an estimated 240,000 people from blast
and radiation.
2. Nuclear weapons have no legitimate purpose and their use would be illegal
under virtually every conceivable circumstance as civilian casualties would be
unavoidable.
3. They are genocidal and completely immoral.
4. When confronted with any of today’s real security threats nuclear weapons are
irrelevant: they cannot address the actual threats of terrorism, cyber warfare
and climate change.
5. If Trident was used, not only would it kill indiscriminately but the radioactive
fallout from the detonation means that its effects would know no geographical Key terms
boundaries. Atomic bomb: a bomb which derives
6. Immediate survivors in the vicinity of any exchange of nuclear weapons would its destructive power from the rapid
face devastating long-term ill effects or death. release of nuclear energy
7. Recent research shows that even a so-called ‘small exchange’ of 50 nuclear CND: a pressure group calling
weapons could cause ‘the largest climate change in recorded human history’ themselves ‘The Campaign for Nuclear
Disarmament’
and potentially could kill more people than were killed in the whole of the
Second World War. Deterrent: a thing that discourages
or is intended to discourage someone
from doing something
221

The case for the use of nuclear weapons as a deterrent, as outlined by our
government, indicates the following:
1. Our retention of an independent centre of nuclear decision making makes clear
to any adversary that the costs of an attack on UK vital interests will outweigh
any benefits.
2. Decision making and use of the system remains entirely sovereign to the UK;
only the Prime Minister can authorise the launch of nuclear weapons, which
ensures that political control is maintained at all times.
3. The instruction to fire would be transmitted to the submarine using only UK
codes and UK equipment; all the command and control procedures are fully
independent.
4. We are committed to maintaining the minimum amount of destructive power
needed to deter any aggressor.
5. Our preference is for an invulnerable and undetectable system, which allows us
to maintain it at a minimum level of scale and readiness, but we believe that it
should also be capable of being held at high readiness for extended periods of
Key quote time.
To abandon our deterrent now 6. Invulnerability and security of capability are key components of the credibility
would be an act of supreme of our deterrent and contribute to overall stability.
irresponsibility. (Fallon) Michael Fallon, in March 2016, set out the full rationale for nuclear weapons as a
deterrent in a speech given to The Ministry of Defence:
Key term (www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-case-for-the-retention-of-the-uks-
Ministry of Defence: the British independent-nuclear-deterrent).
government department responsible He outlines much of his argument based upon the use of a deterrent as a
for implementing the defence policy for protection for society and argues, ‘Deterrence means convincing any potential
the UK
aggressor that the benefits of an attack are far outweighed by its consequences’.
This consequentialist approach is in line with utilitarian principles in that it could
Key quote be argued to support the harm principle; however, the dilemma for us is that the
arguments proposed by CND also do the same!
So let me say in conclusion …
before nuclear weapons, major Ministry of Defence HQ
powers embarked on two of the
most destructive wars imaginable.
Many millions died, millions
more suffered. Yet, for all the
conventional conflicts since, and
there have been many of them,
there hasn’t been major conflict
between nuclear armed states. The
devastating possibilities of nuclear
war have helped maintain strategic
stability. (Fallon)
4.17 What does CND do?
222

In applying Utilitarianism it may be best to look at different aspects of the theory,
but also bear in mind that due to the complexity of the issues and the complex
nature of the theory itself, there are different ways of applying it. 4.18 How does the consequentialist
approach of the Ministry of Defence
As with most moral issues, the outcomes are difficult to predict with any certainty.
fit in with utilitarian principles?
This is definitely true of nuclear war. The greatest happiness for the greatest
number is the criterion used by utilitarians in general; however, the calculation of
happiness seems an impossible task where a possible nuclear war is involved.
One of the key considerations would be ‘does the end justify the means?’ The idea
of a just war may be applicable as it is concerned with just causes but the likelihood
of success is questionable. Bentham’s basic ideas of the calculus and Mill’s
developments could be applied to two main areas: the extent of suffering and the
future prospect of peace and prosperity.
It would appear that the act utilitarian would not be constrained by Mill’s
refinement of higher and lower pleasures and his harm principle and so would Key quote
be free to advocate an argument either for or against using nuclear weapons as
a deterrent. Mill’s refinement and harm principle could possibly outweigh any The end may justify the means
arguments for anti-deterrent as the protection of society is crucial and a deterrent as long as there is something that
not only protects but at the same time any worries of attack subside. The rule justifies the end. (Trotsky)
utilitarian would be bound more by this.
Regarding the use of the happiness principle that aims to assess which course of
Key quote
action is the best one to take based upon happiness, and the principle of utility that
‘promotes pleasure and avoids pain’, it would all depend upon how one classifies Is it possible for a man to move the
happiness, pleasure and pain. Both sides of the debate propose very positive earth? Yes; but he must first find
scenarios. On the one hand, the use of money could be better spent and yet, on the out another earth to stand upon.
other hand, the safety and protection is an invaluable investment and insurance (Bentham)
for others. Alternatively, there could be great pain and suffering if we are not
protected and yet the same could be said if no deterrent were present and it would
trigger attacks. Admittedly, unless the attack were of a nuclear nature then the
consequences could be seen to be less serious if nuclear arms were abandoned.
AO1 Activity
Write down a dialogue between a utilitarian who uses the hedonic calculus
and a rule utilitarian over the issue of the use of nuclear weapons as
a deterrent.
Study tip
Do not spend too much time on the background materials in exam answers,
remain focused on the question.
223


Your new task is this: you will have to write another response under
with excellent use of evidence and timed conditions to a question requiring an examination of the application
examples including (where appropriate) of utilitarian theory to the ethical issue of animal rights. You will need to
thorough and accurate supporting use do the same as your last AO1 Developing Skills task but with some further
of sacred texts, sources of wisdom and development. This time there is a fifth point to help you improve the quality of
specialist language. your answers.
you understand something by being 1. Begin with a list of indicative content. Perhaps discuss this as
able to illustrate and expand your a group. It does not need to be in any order.
as rote learning).
information.

or examples.

any way.
224


content and skills
The extent to which Utilitarianism
promotes justice The extent to which Utilitarianism
We have seen that as a political economist, civil servant and Member of promotes justice.
Parliament, Mill was very interested in social reform and looking at how society
worked and what was best for people in general. Mill wanted to show that what
is right or wrong for one person in a situation is right or wrong for all and this has
major implications for society and social justice.
Mill argued that people should put the interests of the group before their own
interests. He pointed out that as society is made up of individuals, for society to
be happy, individuals collectively need to be happy also. It is therefore the ‘duty’ or
‘rule’ for society that it should protect the happiness of its subjects and maintain
justice throughout.
Mill also introduced his ‘harm principle’ based upon the principle of protection.
In his book ‘On Liberty’ Mill wrote, ‘That principle is … that the only purpose for AO2 Activity Possible lines
which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, of argument
against his will, is to prevent harm to others.’ He further stated, ‘The only part of
the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns Listed below are some conclusions
others.’ This clearly gives Utilitarianism its focus of justice for society as a whole that could be drawn from the AO2
and not just the individual. This then has been clearly established. reasoning in the accompanying text:
However, there is a potential problem with utilitarian theory as regards justice 1. Utilitarianism promotes justice
when we consider whether it is more important to work towards reducing because it is happiness for the
pain and suffering or to increase pleasure and happiness? This is a key issue for greatest number.
Utilitarianism. Clearly the focus is to promote happiness by avoiding pain, but 2. Utilitarianism does not promote
sometimes it may be necessary to focus on the pains and sufferings in order for justice because it is too concerned
this to be achieved. with the happiness of the
Firstly, there is the priority to decide upon. Is it more important to end someone’s individual.
pain or to satisfy someone’s pleasure? In addition, in some moral dilemmas there 3. Utilitarianism promotes justice
are no alternatives but those that bring pain and suffering. For example, the lesser because the work of Mill
of evils situations have no ‘happiness’ or ‘pleasures’, say for instance, in the case demonstrates it is focused on
of war or a just war. In addition, there are also the usual problems associated with eradicating social injustice.
ethical systems that only measure morality according to the consequence of an 4. Utilitarianism does not promote
action, such as ‘who makes the decision?’ and based upon ‘what perspective?’ since justice because it has completely
one person’s idea of pleasure and pain, and therefore justice and injustice, may the wrong focus on ensuring
differ from another. happiness and does not really
A key argument that sets out this challenge is if one is already content, why consider the pains of the few.
increase contentment at the expense of suffering? This is morally wrong. For 5. Utilitarianism promotes
example, just because many people are well fed does not mean we should continue justice only if applied from the
to leave the beggar to starve. This is certainly unjust. Nonetheless, it is here perspective of Mill rather than that
that Mill’s harm principle can be applied effectively and it is this that is the key of Bentham.
safeguard against just focusing solely on happiness. Mill’s principle identified the
fact that sometimes injustice needed rectifying and that this was also the task of
utilitarian theory to bring about justice in the long term.
In conclusion, it appears to be the case that even though Utilitarianism focuses on from the AO1 and AO2 material
pleasure that produces and maximises happiness, it is with Mill’s work that we see studied in this section. Select one
an awareness of social injustice and a ‘duty’ for the utilitarian thinker to address conclusion that you think is most
this. If it were left up to the utilitarian theory of Bentham alone, however, the convincing and explain why it is so.
answer may be different. Now contrast this with the weakest
and evidence.
225

Specification content The extent to which Utilitarianism provides a

The extent to which Utilitarianism practical basis for making moral decisions for
provides a practical basis for making
moral decisions for both religious religious believers
believers and non-believers. Much of the AO2 so far has dealt with society (i.e. secular notion that incorporates non-
believers) so it makes sense to focus on religious believers in this evaluation although
bear in mind the Specification does identify the term ‘non-believers’ for which other
appropriate evaluations, much of which you have read so far, can be used.
AO2 Activity Possible lines Some Christians could argue that Jesus’ death on the cross and his subsequent
of argument resurrection is a clear example of the principle of utility. This is because Christians
believe that Jesus died to give others happiness through eternal life. The act of self-
Listed below are some conclusions sacrifice enabled the greatest number to achieve the greatest happiness. This is the
that could be drawn from the AO2 foundational belief of Christianity.
reasoning in the accompanying text: In the same way as a utilitarian would claim that the ultimate goal is happiness,
1. Utilitarianism provides a practical Christians would agree in that ‘to love thy neighbour’ is a basic principle and will
basis for making moral decisions bring universal happiness to all if practised. Mill himself believed that his utilitarian
for religious believers because ethic had caught the very spirit of the Christian Golden Rule (to treat others as we
it has a clear concern for the would want them to treat us) which is also prevalent in other religions. Many claim
happiness of others. that religion is based upon making people happy, such as eradicating suffering in
2. Utilitarianism provides a practical Buddhism or serving the poor in Sikhism and Islam.
basis for making moral decisions In addition, Utilitarianism and religious believers may agree on certain issues, for
for religious believers as Mill example, if one partner in a married couple commits adultery, then for the other
himself saw the similarity in partner’s sake and for their children it may be better (less painful) for all concerned
concern for one’s neighbour. if they divorce. Religious believers also keep rules such as ‘do not steal’ and Strong
3. Utilitarianism provides a practical Rule Utilitarianism would also keep this rule because it would fulfil the principle
basis for making moral decisions of utility.
for religious believers because its Nonetheless, for some religious believers God’s rules and teachings ensure justice,
goal is pursuit of happiness. not a secular theory developed by man. They are divinely revealed, consistent and
4. Utilitarianism does not provide a universal and not subject to change; in essence, it is not up to individuals to decide
practical basis for making moral what happiness should be.
decisions for religious believers It is an integral feature of many teachings in religions, and certainly in Christianity,
because it is secular in nature and that through experiencing pain and suffering, which utilitarians avoid, people gain
does not recognise the sovereignty spiritually and become better human beings. People can then identify with the pain
of God. and suffering of others and focus on this instead of their own happiness. Following
5. Utilitarianism does not provide on from this, religions see spiritual goals as far superior to Mill’s lower and higher
a practical basis for making pleasures.
moral decisions for Christians Many religious people believe in moral absolutes such as ‘do not kill’ and other rules
because happiness for the greatest given by God, whereas Act Utilitarianism does not and looks at the consequences of
number excludes minorities and each act to determine whether the act is good or bad. In addition, religious believers
the parable of the lost sheep would state that rules such as ‘do not steal’ should only be followed as they are given
encourages the care for every by God and not because they promote the principle of utility.
individual. Utilitarianism is against the idea of divinely ordained moral codes and the idea of
Consider each of the conclusions ‘means to an end’, when it involves people, can challenge beliefs about the sanctity
drawn above and collect evidence and of human life. In the same way, the ‘means to an end’ principle can be seen to
examples to support each argument be lacking in compassion; for example, what about the religious teachings that
from the AO1 and AO2 material concern support of the weak?
studied in this section. Select one The most striking difference between Utilitarianism can be seen in Jesus’ parable
conclusion that you think is most of the lost sheep, which delivers a contrasting message, the total opposite
convincing and explain why it is so. of utilitarian thought, namely, that the individual counts just as much as the
Now contrast this with the weakest community.
Overall, there are obvious areas where Utilitarianism shares beliefs and
applications that are similar to religious teachings and practices but there are also
and evidence.
clear areas where they are very different.
226


of view.
Your new task is this: you will have to write another response under This means that the answer weighs
timed conditions to a question requiring an evaluation of the usefulness of up the various and different lines of
Utilitarianism in considering nuclear weapons as a deterrent. You will need argument analysed through individual
to do the same as your last AO2 Developing skills task but with some further commentary and response and arrives
development. This time there is a fifth point to help you improve the quality of at a conclusion through a clear process
your answers. of reasoning.


information.


any way.
Swap and compare answers to improve your own. 227

Questions and answers
Philosophy Theme 1 F.R. Tennant, then also developed the ‘aesthetic argument’
that God wanted us to enjoy our lives by the simple fact
AO1 question area: An explanation of the that humans possess the ability to enjoy music, art and
literature. 6
teleological argument
A strong answer Commentary
1 A simple introduction, the answer highlights the origins
The teleological argument originally started by Plato and
of the argument but does no more than reference Plato
Aristotle, is used to question design in the universe, based
and Aristotle.
on observation. 1
2 This section deals very well with Aquinas’s Fifth Way
Aquinas argued design qua regularity and believed ‘natural
and very confidently and clearly explains how Aquinas
bodies’ could not act in a regular fashion to accomplish
saw God as the designer of the universe. The analogy
their end without an intelligent force behind them. He
of the archer and arrow is fully linked to Aquinas’
developed the famous analogy of the arrow and the archer;
argument.
the arrow being an item of no intelligence it needs the force
of the intelligent archer, to move it towards the target (its 3 A concise explanation of Paley and referring to both
end). This was the fifth of his five ways ‘From The Governance of his ‘qua’ arguments (regularity and purpose).
of Things’, and when he used his analogy to refer back to the Linking Paley’s watchmaker to the universe’s designer
universe he said that God was the intelligent being behind is an important part of this argument and one that
the ‘natural bodies’ and the universe. 2 many candidates fail to do. It is pleasing to see it done
correctly here.
Following Aquinas, Paley wrote ‘Natural Theology’ where
he argued both sides of the argument. His first point was 4 Explaining the ‘qua purpose’ argument in detail
made by his famous analogy of the watch; if you were to demonstrates the answer’s clear understanding of
stumble across a stone on a heath you would disregard it as Paley’s contribution to the design argument. Reference
normal, but if you were to find a watch you would question to Newton is also apt.
where it came from and how it was made. Paley looked at 5 The answer then progresses to discuss Tennant’s
the complexity and specific purpose of the watch and said it contribution to the anthropic principle. This is
must have been designed that way by an intelligent watch accurately done and demonstrates that key facts have
maker. He then looked at the universe and concluded that it been presented with accuracy and relevance.
too must have an intelligent designer due to its complexity; 6 Again, the answer skims over Tennant’s aesthetic
‘This being we call God’. 3 principle. Concepts of benevolent designer are missed
The second part of Paley’s argument was design qua here.
purpose and to demonstrate this he used the human eye
and its complex function, Newton’s law of motion and even Summative comment
the simplest things like why birds have wings. He used these The student clearly understands the subject and has written
examples to state that surely, design is more probable than an essay demonstrating this. Some parts are explained
chance. 4 well but this is not always balanced. Better explanation
In later years, as a more recent development, F.R. Tennant of Tennant’s aesthetic principle would have allowed the
developed the ‘anthropic principle’, showing that this answer to access additional marks and raise the overall
world is specific to our needs, that even if one molecule standard of the answer.
was different, things would be chaotic but they aren’t. He
developed three natural types of evidence; firstly, that the
world can be analysed in a rational manner. Secondly, that
the inorganic world contains the basic necessities to sustain
life. Finally, the theory of natural selection, that we can
progress and develop. 5
228

AO2 question area: Teleological argument by Anselm. God was the greatest thing conceivable. 2
Existence was part of perfection, so God being perfect
A weak answer to an assessment of ‘Scientific must exist. 3 He likened this argument to a triangle and
evidence strongly supports the teleological three angles. 4 The argument is deductive and is therefore
argument.’ proof that God exists. 5 Kant criticised the argument on the
grounds that existence is not a real predicate and got rid of
Most philosophers would disagree with this because a lot the triangle altogether which I think is a very good point
of scientists believe in the big bang as well as the theory and that Descartes has been shown as wrong. 6
of evolution. Richard Dawkins is a philosopher who would
disagree with this statement as he followed Charles Darwin Commentary
who came up with natural selection. Dawkins thinks its
1 Material about Descartes needs to relate to the focus
non-scientific to believe in a designing God. 1
of the question. Biographical detail about philosophers
David Hume argued against the teleological argument as he is usually irrelevant and wastes time. For every minute
believed humans have no experience of the universe being spent on writing an irrelevancy, there is a minute
designed so we cannot believe the teleological argument. wasted instead of writing something relevant.
Some weaknesses are the leaky bucket theory no matter
2 The wrong definition. Students often get confused
how many buckets you have if they all have a hole in it
between the Anselm’s and Descartes’ arguments. The
won’t carry water. 2
correct definition needs explaining.
There are also strong points to the argument like it’s a
3 The argument needs setting out as a formal argument
logical explanation, its part of the cumulative case and it’s a
with premise and conclusion. It also needs to be
posteriori. In conclusion there are many strengths and also
explained.
many weaknesses but they both are supported by views and
have reasons/ evidence to back it up. 3 4 The illustration needs explaining and linking back to
Descartes’ ontological argument.
Commentary 5 It is only proof if it is a sound and valid argument. The
1 A limited attempt to demonstrate how scientists have type of argument does not demonstrate its truth value.
disagreed with the design argument is presented here. 6 This is a challenge and also evaluative and the question
Names and ideas are, however, accurate although these only asked to explain the argument (AO1). For this
ideas are not developed. question, no marks would be awarded for any critical
2 Hume’s argument and the leaky buckets argument are evaluation (AO2).
presented, again in a limited way. These ideas really
need to be developed for the answer to gain a higher Summative comment
mark for AO2. The answer is very limited. Not only is it brief but it has
3 The final paragraph attempts to deal with the counter- inaccuracies and does not always focus on the correct
arguments but unfortunately the points listed do assessment objective.
not really address the question relating to scientific
evidence. There is no clear conclusion presented in this AO2 question area: Ontological argument
part of the essay. For AO2 it is essential that a conclusion
A strong answer to the assessment of the claim that
is always offered.
the ontological argument is not a valid proof for the
Summative comment existence of God.
The student has made a limited attempt at responding In response to the question of whether or not the
to the argument but, with no conclusion and minimal ontological argument is a valid proof for the existence
evidence to support his views. of God then we need to look at the strengths and
weaknesses. 1
Philosophy Theme 2 First of all, it has been established that the argument is
one of logical, deductive reasoning. Once the premise is
AO1 question area: An explanation of accepted it is difficult to argue against. In addition, it has
Descartes’ ontological argument stood the test of time – some philosophers still accept a
developed aspect of it such as Norman Malcolm. Finally,
A weak answer philosophically, it has made an argument for the existence
Descartes lived in 17th-century France and was famous of God credible according to Plantinga, and therefore for
for his phrase ‘I think therefore I am’ 1 . He argued for many this means that it is serious enough to consider as a
God’s existence using an argument that resembled that proof for God’s existence. 2
229

However, Kant has demonstrated that the whole argument 5 An excellent evaluative paragraph using a correct
can be rejected. It is clear that there is a difference between explanation of the nature of deductive proof and then
proving something is the case theoretically and proving it indicating the difference between concept and empirical
is the case in reality. Kant accepted Descartes illustration of reality. A good use of a Plantinga quote to establish the
the triangle in theory but in reality he responded that this point that ‘proof’ and ‘rational acceptability’ are two
does not mean it exists and rejected it. 3 different things.
Another problem is that it deals with concepts and then 6 A great conclusion with some personal observations
makes a sudden shift to ‘reality’ like a magician suddenly that are clearly linked to the evaluation as a whole.
pulling a rabbit from a hat; it is clearly apparent that the There are even some interesting questions raised. A very
rabbit came from the hat but you know that something is mature response.
wrong and involves some kind of trickery. 4
In considering the idea of valid proof we have to be clear Summative comment
about what we mean by proof. The argument is deductive Overall this is a very mature response and one that would
and so should be necessarily true and beyond all doubt. be suitable for A Level. Those studying for AS can learn
However, we have seen that some philosophers have from this as well as those who are studying for A Level.
been able to criticise and reject these ‘truths’ or ‘proofs’. It With the greater emphasis on AO2 at A Level, this is the
seems to me that there is a difference between accepting sort of depth needed for an answer.
something as true and a proof on one level (rationally,
conceptually, in theory) but then accepting that this then Philosophy Theme 3
relates to reality is another matter altogether. This is the
real area for debate amongst philosophers regarding the AO1 question area: An explanation of the
ontological argument and I think that Plantinga is correct in problem of evil
his observation that the argument’s successes can be found
in the fact that it establishes ‘not the truth of theism, but A strong answer
its rational acceptability’. It is here where the Ontological ‘The problem of evil’ is a problem put forward by
argument has value and this should not be underestimated non-believers to the believers of ‘The Classical God of
or devalued. 5 Theism’ questioning why evil exists if the qualities they
The ontological argument is an intriguing area of believe their God to have, (omnipotence – all-powerful,
philosophy, but maybe the answer as to its value is best omnibenevolence – all-loving and omniscience – all-
reflected by the fact that it was built from a context of knowing) has. 1
faith. Anselm clearly operates from the stance of a believer. When discussing evil, we must define what we mean
In this way one could argue that the premise is loaded, and here I am going to define evil as anything that causes
or alternatively – if one is more sceptical – one could say suffering. We must also distinguish between natural and
that the whole argument is invalid because of its obvious moral evil; ‘Natural evil’, is an evil outside of our free will
bias. Some would go as far as to say that you need faith and control, an example being ‘Hurricane Katrina’ or the
before the argument begins. Then again, is there ever any ‘Lisbon earthquake’. ‘Moral evil’, is an evil that an individual
argument presented that does not have its own interests or or group chooses by exercising their free-will, for example,
hidden agendas from which to operate? If this is the case, the ‘Holocaust’ or the ‘Kidnapping of Madeline McCann’. 2
can we ever really establish any type of ‘proof’ in relation to
The inconsistent triad looks at each aspect. The triangle
God? 6
contains three statements of proposals: omnibenevolent,
omnipotence and evil, only two of which can ever be true,
Commentary
according to Epicurus, developed by Hume. 3
1 Although the introduction is brief and there need not
If we take away evil, we are left with the fact that God is all
always be an introduction, it does direct the examiner
loving and all knowing. Due to the world that surrounds us
to the answer that follows and links to the second and
it is evident that evil does exist, although some argue that
third paragraphs.
evil is just an illusion and perspective and that what we see
2 A good summary of the strengths in evaluative style, as evil God does not. Non-believers argue that if God was all
contrasting with paragraph 3. loving and all knowing, his creation would not suffer, even
3 Weaknesses are explained well. for ‘temporary evil’. 4
4 This is good evaluation, using an analogy to try to give
the sense of how the ontological seems to work and
‘feel’. It is a follow up to paragraph 3.
230

Therefore, either: God is all loving but not omnipotent and 5 This demonstrates a very competent unpacking of
evil exists. That means he wants to take away the evil and the removal of the omnipotent/omnibenevolent
suffering that we face but he lacks the power to do it. This characteristics and, again, shows why each of these
is a problem for believers as it contradicts what they believe ‘solutions’ is ultimately inadequate. This, again, shows
God is. Or, God is all powerful, not all loving and evil exists. evidence of good understanding. The key facts and ideas
This would mean that whilst God has the power to remove related to the inconsistent triad are presented with
evil he chooses not to because he doesn’t care enough, or, accuracy.
even worse, he may enjoy watching us suffer. Once again 6 Using Epicurus’ dilemma to underline the point made
this poses the same problem of contradiction. 5 by the inconsistent triad is an intelligent application of a
As Epicurus concluded, ‘Either God wants us to abolish evil philosopher’s viewpoint to support the reasoning of the
and cannot, or he can but does not want to. If he wants to essay answer.
but cannot he is impotent. If he can, but does not want to 7 The answer here deals with the particular problems
he is wicked.’ 6 raised by animal, immense and innocent suffering. All
Non-believers also raise the argument of the amount examples are apt and serve to illustrate the point being
of suffering needed; why didn’t two million die in the made.
holocaust as opposed to six million? The very fact that so 8 Again, using a philosopher’s viewpoint to underline the
many people died is appalling and this immense suffering points made in the previous paragraph demonstrates
seems to go against what believers think about God. not only clear understanding but also the ability to
They also argue why should animals suffer abuse? They organise the material in a clear and coherent way.
cannot learn and develop; therefore, their suffering has
no meaning. If, as some religions (e.g. Christianity) teach, Summative comment
animals have no souls – how can suffering be useful or
The student has produced a fairly full answer in the time
‘soul-making’ likewise as animals are not descended from
available for the question set. The information is relevant
Adam and Eve, why should they suffer as humans do? It
and, whilst information is not always presented thoroughly,
makes no sense. There is also the problem of innocent
the presentation of material is sufficient to fully meet a high
suffering, such as the children starving in the developing
level of response.
world. They are not improving their souls, they are slowly
and painfully dying and this cannot be justified. Even if evil AO2 question area: The problem of evil
is temporary it is not compatible with a loving God who
wouldn’t want innocents in his creation to suffer. 7 A weak answer to an assessment of ‘Religious
As Hume stated, ‘The gravity of suffering is too much.’ 8
solutions to the problem of evil fail to
convince anyone.’
Commentary
Religious solutions to the problem of evil do not always
1 A good introduction which sums up why there is a
convince. Many people will question why God, if there is
problem of evil – defining the God of Classical Theism’s
even a God at all, would let suffering become so extreme
characteristics demonstrates clear understanding on the
and not put a stop to it. For example, immense suffering
answer’s part.
such as what the Nazis did to the Jews in the Holocaust
2 The answer then develops by defining evil and the is one of the biggest types of evil that has occurred. Why
types of evil, with examples. Setting up the parameters would an all loving God let millions of people die? 1
of why there is a debate in the first place shows good
Innocent suffering such as the children and families in
understanding of the subject material and allows the
Africa, who struggle for survival in their everyday life.
main part of the argument to be developed upon a
Would an all-powerful God not want to use his power to
platform of agreed-upon definitions.
give them better quality of life? Also animals suffer because
3 Reference to the inconsistent triad is important to any they have less authority and are smaller than humans, is
essay of this type; however, more could have been done this fair? 2
here to develop how the inconsistent triad came about
Religious solutions such as Irenaeus’ and Augustine’s
and the nature of such a philosophical device.
theodicy are convincing arguments to prove God’s existence
4 The explanation of the illusion/problem of perspective in the problem of evil. It is our choice as humans to disobey
of evil is apt and explained clearly. The answer continues our God who made a world free from flaws. And this is why
its explanation by showing how this is an insufficient he designed Heaven and Hell, for the good and the bad to
justification in trying to solve the problem of evil. go to. Also, evil is not a substance and therefore it cannot be
claimed that God created it. 3
231

In my opinion, I think that religious solutions are are authentic as how can something which cannot be
unconvincing. I feel that there are far too many errors in described be real. Equally some suggest that if God is
the argument for the problem of evil and if God created the omnipotent, all-powerful, then why can’t he show himself
world and everything in it, then I feel that it is wrong to say to everyone and not just a select few. 2
that God the designer did not also design the evil that we Secondly, some people question whether mystical
have to face. The main critique is for the God of Classical experiences are authentic as they can be deceptive.
Theism as it seems impossible to say that he or any other Psychologists Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud note how these
God can be all knowing, loving and powerful, if evil still religious images can be merely things conjured up through
exists in the universe. 4 our lives. This leaves the question are they authentic.
Equally the ‘miracle of the sun’ in which thousands of
Commentary people in Fatima, Portugal, declared they saw God when
1 The introduction starts well but then just uses looking at the sun has been explained by scientists that
information which is AO1 in nature. An opportunity to looking at the sun for prolonged amounts of time can result
make this more evaluative is missed and it is important in hallucinogenic conceits. This can question authenticity.
that, as an introduction to an evaluation, such an Finally, scholar Walter Stace believes some people can
opportunity should be grasped. have extroversive mystical experiences in which the divine
2 Again, similarly to 1 , the answer is restating is transgressed physically. An example of this is the 1994
information that it has already used in AO1. So far the evangelical Christian neo-charismatic group Toronto
question set has not been answered. Blessings. Characteristics include laughing hysterically
3 Augustine’s and Irenaeus’ theodicies are skimmed over and weeping uncontrollably. They state it is the physical
and a superficial analysis of what they state is given. manifestation of the Holy Spirit. Yet many believe these
This is limited and would need to be expanded on people are secretly drunk and are emphasising these
significantly to contribute adequately to the evaluation. experiences for show. This also questions the authenticity.
3
4 The concluding paragraph (it’s always essential to have
one in an AO2 response) provides a personal point of In conclusion, it appears that other explanations can explain
view, based on evidence, but is limited in scope. The mystical experiences which is why some people question
inconsistent triad is restated but, overall, reasoning is whether they are authentic. 4
simplistic and basic.
Commentary
Summative comment 1 A good, clear and focused introduction to the subject
This answer demonstrates that the issues were only partly with a scholarly quote to support the introduction. This
appreciated and the analysis was limited. Evidence provided is good practice and sets the stage for the rest of the
to support the reasoning was minimal and therefore this response.
response would not get a high mark. 2 Reference to William James and Rabbi Israel Tov are
usefully inserted to support the points of view that
Philosophy Theme 4 the very nature of mysticism makes it difficult to
authenticate.
AO1 question area: Religious experience: 3 A number of relevant examples are now given in the
an explanation of mysticism next section of the response. These are highly relevant
although the answer needs to explain precisely how
A weak answer they challenge authenticity rather than just writing the
Mysticism is an experience of the divine. Bauderschmidt sentence ‘This questions the authenticity’ which only
described it as an ‘altered state of consciousness’ that shows partial understanding. A missed opportunity to
results in ‘unity with the divine’. Mystical experiences impress the examiner with his subject knowledge.
cannot be physically measured which leads many to 4 The ‘conclusion’ is unnecessary for AO1; it is only in AO2
question whether they are authentic. 1 where conclusions are required.
Firstly, philosopher William James who outlines four
characteristics of mystical experiences shows how Summative comment
some question whether they are authentic. James first The answer presents information that is mainly accurate.
characteristic is ineffability; this is that the recipient It clearly has an understanding of the topic but here it is
cannot explain what has happened to them. Mystic Rabbi only basic and occasionally patchy. It would need to extend
Israel Tov stated he ‘couldn’t authenticate’ his experience. explanations in order to improve the overall mark.
Immediately people question whether mystical experiences
232

AO2 question area: Religious experience: The final sentences imply a conclusion but this is not
mysticism directly focused on the original question. It is often good
practice to refer to the question in the final conclusion
A strong answer to an assessment of ‘A mystical so as to demonstrate to the examiner that the issue has
been fully understood and responded to.
experience should not be devalued by the challenge
of authenticity.’ Summative comment
Some Christians and mystics argue against the idea that The answer makes an intelligent response to the question
‘authenticity’ should devalue the worth of an experience, but does not develop the answer sufficiently. The implied
certainly. For example, F C Happold, one of the prime conclusion is not directly relevant to the question and this
defenders of mysticism, claimed that ‘mysticism exists in a weakens the evaluation as a whole. As such, the answer is
different sphere of experience to science altogether’, thus fairly strong but to get a higher mark the answer needed to
implying that scientific evidence against the existence of add to arguments with additional material and provide a
authentic mystical experiences should not detract from the clear and focused conclusion.
sense of religious authenticity the recipient might attribute
to his or her experience. 1 Ethics Theme 1
Some, however, have argued against this view of the value
of mysticism, such as A F King, and have instead posited Meta-ethical theory
that, if one considered any experience valid based simply
on the fact that the recipient underwent it in their own AO1 question area: Divine Command
mind in a non-scientific ‘sphere of thought’ then the views theory.
of mentally ill people and hallucinatory drug users would
have to start to be taken seriously alongside defenders of A weak answer
mysticism – after all, such people also have experiences Followers of the Divine Command theory accept that there
and visions which seem real to them but are scientifically is an overall standard for morality but that the standard
dubious, and are locked away in hospitals or prisons, is part of God. They believe God decides what is good and
not listened to and praised by the Church for having what is bad. 1
encountered God first-hand. 2 Robert Adams argued that morality is grounded in the
This argument can be refuted, however, by defenders of character of God, who is perfectly good and so therefore his
mysticism fairly easily via the idea that mental patients and commands are good as well and so God knows what is the
those who have hallucinations are often the recipients of best for us. 2
such negative experiences – one of the reasons mystical If whatever God thinks and does is simply by definition
visitations are considered valuable is because they are not good, regardless of what it is, then does it make sense to
irrational, but serve to heighten the recipient’s well-being worship God for his goodness? 3
and impart useful spiritual knowledge onto him or her
If God commands things because they are good, then God is
(James’ ‘noetic quality’). Indeed, William James further
not really in control and cannot be creator. This may mean
defends mysticism against the aforementioned argument
that God is not really there. 4
by stating that the transience of an experience – its ability
to stay with the recipient and change his/her life despite its Commentary
fleeting nature – is the quality which proves it is of worth
and distinguishes it from the hallucinations by mental
1 The first part of the paragraph starts well but then the
patients, who normally forget. 3 word ‘overall’ would be better replaced with ‘objective’.
The second point needs to be related to the idea of God
Commentary willing or commanding something as good.
1 The use of scholarly names adds support to the 2 This is not really the best explanation of Robert Adams’
answer’s opening argument. Supporting the claim in development. It should make clear it is a development of
the question, the answer provides appropriate critical Divine Command theory and explain why.
analysis and comment. 3 This is a good question but there needs to be more
2 The next paragraph sees a direct response to the elaboration and relate it to the Euthyphro dilemma.
answer’s first argument and, again, uses scholarly Really this could have been the first paragraph if
evidence to promote the point being made. developed and then linked to the theory of Divine
Command. At present there is really no link.
3 The final paragraph counters the counter argument
and provides a more sympathetic approach to the issue.
233

4 This is really moving away from the focus of the The virtues have been the subject of much scholarly
question area as the issue is not really one of power but discussion; for example, some scholars see a similarity
of the nature of good and God’s goodness. The issues with Isaiah 61:1–3 because of the references to freedom
that ‘God is not really in control and cannot be creator’ from poverty, declaring hope for the righteous, who
and it ‘may mean that God is not really there’ are not are in despair, and mentioning comfort for those who
explained at all and so are irrelevant. mourn. Other scholars see it as describing the opposite
characteristics to those in Proverbs 6:16–19 which detail
Summative comment vices. Overall, it can be seen that virtues clearly have a
Although the basics are there, they are really basic and there basis in the Christian religion, there is no doubt about
is just a glimpse of understanding of the Divine Command this. However, the real question is how important are they
theory. in relation to the rules and teachings in Christianity? Are
they more important? Do they work together with the
AO2 question area: Evaluating whether rules of religion or is there a priority when it comes to
virtues are consistent with Christianity. application of them to moral issues? This is the real debate
for Christians. 6
A strong answer
Commentary
There is a long history teaching about virtues in the
Christian tradition, and this can be traced back to the 1 A good introduction that sets out Christianity’s
Old Testament, for example in the book of Ecclesiastes. connection with virtues and also indicates how the
Christianity and its teachings are usually associated with evaluation may go. It is one-sided but not totally, as the
rules and commandments but in the Sermon on the final paragraph demonstrates.
Mount, Jesus clearly promotes specific inward qualities or 2 A good summary of the Beatitudes.
virtues. It is for this reason that virtues are consistent with 3 The answer selects a particular virtue and explains why
Christianity. 1 and how it is consistent with Christianity.
Each virtue is considered ‘blessed’ and has a corresponding 4 The answer selects another virtue and again explains
spiritual reward. Jesus’ blessing is praise and affirmation why and how it is consistent with Christianity.
in recognition of the virtuous quality demonstrated. The 5 A final virtue is selected and the answer again explains
virtues identified by Jesus are: poor in spirit; mourning;
why and how it is consistent with Christianity. Note
meek; a hunger and thirst for righteousness; mercy; purity
that only three virtues are selected but the depth of
of heart; peacemakers; and, the persecuted for the sake of
the answer allows this and clearly relates each to the
righteousness. 2
evaluation, rather than an answer that just lists them.
One example of consistency with Christianity is that the 6 The answer relates back to other references in the
term poor in spirit is often interpreted as an understanding
Bible by making reference to the work of scholars. The
of poverty in relation to the whole person; that is, physical,
conclusion is drawn that is inevitably one-sided but the
mental and spiritual. For example, people who may have
candidate then acknowledges that inconsistencies may
their rights taken from them or are oppressed in some
arise not when considering whether the virtues are
way. They have an awareness of their own insignificance,
Christian but in their application to moral issues.
hopelessness and helplessness before God. This is consistent
with religious teaching. 3 Summative comment
Another example of consistency is those who hunger and This is a very good answer because it has a clear line
thirst for righteousness. This is often understood as a desire of argument. Whilst there is the acknowledgement of
for the virtuous outcome of justice in life in relation to the inconsistencies when compared to application of other
kingdom of God. It is often understood as depicting the religious teachings – and this could have been the basis
virtue of seeking righteousness or justice on a personal, of the counter argument – the answer demonstrates how
spiritual, social and global sense and can be applied to the a response can be more one-sided and still be able to
actions of the Church worldwide in fighting against poverty perform well.
and injustice. 4
Finally, those who display the virtue of mercy are certainly
consistent with Christianity. Through humility and an
awareness of God’s mercy Christians are encouraged
to display mercy towards others, not because it brings
the reward of God’s mercy, but because it is a virtuous
disposition in itself, for example in giving to the poor or in
the act of forgiveness. 5
234

Ethics Theme 2 One way that correct reasoning can be developed is

through the cultivation of certain virtues. Aquinas identified
Natural Law three theological virtues (revealed in the Bible) that are
known as the three revealed virtues; he actually referred
AO1 question area: Examining Aquinas’ to them as ‘articles of faith’. They are faith, hope and love.
For Aquinas, these are the superlative virtues that define
Natural Law.
and direct all other virtues. As they are the absolute and
A strong answer superlative they are perfect. Although they cannot be
fully achieved in this world, being far above the capacity
The theology of the Roman Catholic Church follows the
of a human being, they should be aimed for. Aquinas also
strict rules and guidelines set out by Aquinas’ Natura Law
encourages the development of cardinal virtues such as
theory. Natural Law states that all moral decisions can
inner strength-fortitude or temperance (everything in
be made using our God-given reason. Aquinas developed
moderation). For Aquinas, these were the main framework
Aristotelian ideas that everything has a purpose described
for moral behaviour that helped human beings become
this as our ‘telos’. Aquinas, unlike Aristotle, believed this
more God-like in their application. Scholars such as Peter
purpose was given by God. Our ‘telos’ is to reach fellowship
Vardy agree that the idea of improving the self and soul is
with God through the decisions we make using our ability
very appealing to religious believers who aim to get closer
to reason. Any action that does not bring about causality
to God. 4
or fulfil its final purpose is wrong. Aquinas’ basic argument
was that through reason we can identify ways to behave Aquinas believed that the main purpose of sex was
that apply to all human beings without exception. They are reproduction as outlined in the primary precepts. Any
good acts because they lead us towards the main human sexual activity that frustrates this final cause, such as
purpose or goal. The most fundamental one that underpins homosexual sex, is therefore wrong. This is why many
them all is ‘act in such a way as to achieve good and avoid Roman Catholics hold the view that homosexual sex is not
evil’. 1 permissible because it does not lead to the fulfilment of the
‘telos’ of sex, i.e. reproduction. 5
Aquinas determined that Natural Law has five primary
precepts for action – worship God, self-preservation and Commentary
preservation of the innocent, live in an ordered society, to
1 Although the answer has been approached by
learn, continuation of the species through reproduction and
addressing the Roman Catholic Church, it clearly
to defend the defenceless. He then explained the secondary
explains why throughout and relates this example
precepts, which demonstrate the primary precepts in
to Natural Law. It has carefully selected accurate and
action. For example, in order to live in an ordered society,
relevant information. Specialist vocabulary is also used
we need the secondary precept ‘do not kill’. Many Roman
accurately.
Catholics still accept the use of Natural Law because it
gives them a clear set of rules by which to lead their lives. 2 The answer has clearly linked the primary and
Aquinas’ theory in work can be seen when we look at the secondary precepts here, not only to each other, but also
Roman Catholic Church and ethical issues. For example, the to Roman Catholic teachings and to Biblical evidence.
Roman Catholic Church upholds the precept of ‘an ordered 3 The answer has clearly defined interior and exterior acts
society’ by maintaining an absolutist approach to issues here and explained why these concepts are important to
such as abortion and euthanasia, which would break this religious believers.
precept. Aquinas’ primary precepts are also supported by 4 In addition to this, the response has identified both
the Bible, for example in Genesis it states the one of our the revealed and the cardinal virtues and their link
main purposes is reproduction. 2 to a human’s personal development. The answer has
Aquinas made a distinction between the intention of an supported the point it makes with a scholarly opinion.
act and the act itself. For those looking on, it may well be 5 Here the answer has clearly identified why Roman
judged that an action was good. However, if the onlooker Catholics would support Natural Law’s view on
knew the real motive or intention, then it may well be seen homosexual acts.
rather differently. Likewise, it is not acceptable to do a bad
act intentionally even if the aim is to bring about good Summative comment
outcomes. Many practising Roman Catholics still accept his This is a very comprehensive summary indeed covering
ideas and believe that doing the right action for the right all the key aspects of Aquinas’ Natural Law theory with
reasons will improve oneself and enable humans to get some good examples used. The answer has also shown a
closer to God. 3 thorough understanding of the issues raised by Natural Law
in the application of them.
235

AO2 question area: Evaluating whether or Ethics Theme 3

not Natural Law is effective in dealing with
ethical issues. Situation Ethics
A weak answer AO1 question area: Examining Fletcher’s
Some would argue against this statement as how can we reasons for rejecting the two extremes of
be sure that the ‘telos’ or purpose of a particular object or legalism and antinomianism.
action as defined by Natural Law is correct. For example,
Natural Law says the main purpose of sex is reproduction, A weak answer
but what if it’s main purpose is pleasure? 1 Fletcher believed in agape, which means that you should
Also Natural Law is based on the belief that God created love everyone and not just follow rules unless the rules are
a world and everything within it for a purpose, but many loving. Legalism follows rules without love so he rejected it
people would challenge this idea. An atheist would have no as rules should be loving. 1
reason to follow this theory as they don’t believe in God. 2 Antinomianists were people who said that you could do
Aquinas believed that all of mankind has the same universal whatever you wanted and rebelled against rules. They
nature, but is there such a thing as a universal human would not love other people but only themselves. This is
nature? For example, Eskimos think it is acceptable to allow why Fletcher rejected them because they did not follow the
elderly relatives to die in the cold to stop them becoming a rules. 2
burden on their family. 3 Fletcher’s way of agape is the middle way between the two
extremes. Christianity follows legalism and that is why he
Commentary rejected it and became an atheist. Many people followed
1 Whilst the point raised here is valid, it could have been him. 3
explained more clearly. Why is the concept of the
‘telos’ so important within Natural Law? God designed Commentary
everything with a purpose and therefore fulfilling its 1 This is not an accurate description of agape. It lacks a
intended design is good. The answer could have pointed depth of understanding and is too simplistic. It also
out a way in which it could not be effective, for example misunderstands how Situation Ethics views rules.
homosexual relationships. Opportunity missed. 2 This is partially accurate but not at all well explained.
2 A valid point partially supported by reasoning. 3 The legalism of Christianity was not the reason Fletcher
3 The candidate needs to explain why Aquinas believed lost his faith but the first bit is accurate, although again,
there was a ‘universal human nature’. He could have not developed enough.
introduced the idea of wrong reasoning and real and
apparent goods but instead focuses on a criticism Summative comment
without first fully explaining the idea. The example The answer demonstrates very weak understanding of
of Eskimos is relevant and good but loses its impact Fletcher’s reasons and it lacks detail and depth to even
without proper debate. consider it as scraping into the A Level standard!
Summative comment AO2 question area: Evaluating whether

Although the answer shows some grasp of the main issues Situation Ethics provides an adequate basis
here, the analysis or comment is limited and any points for making ethical decisions.
made are really undeveloped. The arguments given are only
partially supported and lack deeper evaluation or analysis. A strong answer
The answer also lacks any argument which support the
Some would argue that Situation Ethics as a relativistic
‘agree’ viewpoint and a conclusion.
theory is flexible and practical. It takes into account the
complexities of human life and helps people make tough
decisions, whereas from a legalistic perspective all actions
seem to be wrong. 1
Situation Ethics allows people the individual freedom to
make decisions for themselves and to consider the situation
they are in before acting. Many people nowadays prefer the
prescriptive legalistic approach, which gives you no choice
about what to do. Also people can consider if the desired
236

end goal (in this case love) is likely to be achieved before 6 A very good conclusion that is balanced and also has the
taking action. This is a major strength because it means, just strength of warning us that just because a system has
as with the legal system, there are other factors to consider problems does not mean it fails or is inferior to another.
before making a judgement. 2 Very clever.
As a relativistic theory, Situation Ethics allows you to make a
choice between the ‘lesser of two evils’, whereas a legalistic Summative comment
approach would not allow you to do this. For example, a A very mature, reflective and evaluative response that
legalistic approach would face difficulties in that there is focuses more on a range of views than developing specific
a conflict of principles. This is clearly seen in the cases of ones, but the interjected evaluation and clever conclusion
double effect in Natural Law. 3 demonstrate its quality.
However, others may argue that relativism gives too much
freedom to the individual to decide what action to take. Ethics Theme 4
It has been seen that time and time again humans are
prone to making mistakes or being influenced by personal Utilitarianism
gain rather than love. Clearly this could lead to unfair and
immoral behaviour and is a major weakness because the AO1 question area: Examining Bentham’s
freedom Situation Ethics has does not bring with it a quality hedonic calculus.
control beyond the individual and so it can be open to
abuse at worst or vague misuse. 4 A strong answer
In addition, many religious believers would claim that the Bentham stated in his book An Introduction to the Principles
moral standards within society have declined since people of Morals and Legislation that ‘Nature had placed mankind
have rejected absolutist religious principles in favour of under the governance of two sovereign masters, pleasure
more relativistic and teleological systems, although you and pain.’ Bentham believed that humans are aim to seek
could argue that this is not a strong criticism as its basis is a pleasure and avoid pain. This is the idea on which he
personal view on what standards should be. Nonetheless, based his principle of ‘utility’ or ‘usefulness’ – to aim for
there is the problem that people cannot accurately predict the ‘the greatest happiness for the greatness number’. He
the consequences of their actions. Therefore, they do not developed the relativistic and teleological theory known as
know if the desired goal of love will be achieved. How will Act Utilitarianism. It was called ‘Act Utilitarianism’ because
this be measured? 5 it treats each situation as being unique and believed that
consequences of an action are what make our actions right
Finally, religious believers would argue that all people
or wrong. 1
should follow divine law as God is the ultimate source of
moral authority. They cannot rely on principles devised by However, he realised that it was hard for an individual to
sinful mankind. work out what the happiest consequences might be, so
he devised the Hedonic Calculus to help people discover
In conclusion, there are both strengths and weaknesses
this. The calculus consisted of seven criteria which would
in considering Situation Ethics as an adequate basis for
be used to judge whether an action was right or wrong.
making ethical decisions. What is clear, however, is that a
The first of these seven criteria was intensity and refers to
legalistic approach and a situationist approach both have
how intense the happiness will be. The second is duration
their issues and so the weaknesses of Situation Ethics does
and this means how long the happiness will last. The
not mean it is inferior to a legalistic approach. 6
third criterion is certainty, how sure are you that what
Commentary you are going to do will lead to happiness? The fourth
is propinquity or remoteness, meaning how far your
1 A good introduction and explanation of why Situation
happiness will reach. The fifth criterion is fecundity, which
Ethics is seen positively.
means how likely is your original action, which initially
2 Relates the argument to contemporary society with leads to happiness, to lead to further happiness. The sixth is
effective explanation. purity, which means how free from pain is this action likely
3 This is a good point, although the example from double to be? The seventh criterion is extent and refers to how
effect could have been developed more. many people will receive happiness. 2
4 Notice the personal reflections interjected in response to To give an example, imagine there was a burning house and
a point made. A good evaluative skill. trapped inside were a scientist who has the cure for cancer
5 Again more evaluation is included in response to the and your elderly father? Who do you save? Bentham would
issue raised. say you should save the scientist because saving her will
bring strong happiness to the millions of people suffering
237

from cancer (intensity and extent). It would also allow AO2 question area: Evaluating whether
the cancer suffers to live longer – the duration of their or not Utilitarianism is too weak to work in
combined happiness would last longer than the happiness
of your elderly father. Saving the scientist would definitely
contemporary society.
lead (certainty) to pleasure, as millions of people would be
A weak answer
happy to be saved from a previously terminal disease. The
initial happiness from saving the scientist and therefore Utilitarianism as an ethical theory has many flaws. For
the cancer suffers will lead to further happiness for their example, when you fulfil ‘the greatest happiness for the
friends and family (fecundity). The action would not be greatest number’ principle, a minority are allowed to suffer.
completely free from pain (purity) as your father will die, Also this principle allows the justification of any act which
but the happiness will be far reaching and many people goes against religious teachings. Many people would argue
will experience the happiness if you save the scientist that Act Utilitarianism’s lack of rules would lead to moral
(extent). 3 chaos. In addition to this, many people have different ideas
of what happiness is, so how can you make a judgement on
Commentary this basis? Utilitarianism as a consequential theory asks us
to predict consequences, which is impossible. 1
1 The answer has started well by accurately quoting
from Bentham’s book. It then successfully defines the On the other hand, Utilitarianism is fairly successful as most
principle of ‘utility’ and uses key terminology such as people want to aim for happiness. Hospitals and medical
‘hedonist’ and ‘consequentialist’ accurately. The terms practices make decisions using the Utilitarian principles.
‘relativistic’ and ‘teleological’, although correctly related Using Utilitarianism could help to promote a community
to Bentham’s form of Utilitarianism, could have been spirit through the pursuit of the common goal of happiness.
2
more clearly defined here.
2 The answer has clearly defined the purpose of the
Commentary
hedonic calculus but could, however, have stated why
it is called the ‘hedonic’ calculus and explained that 1 An attempt has been made to construct an argument
the term ‘hedone’ is the Greek work for ‘pleasure’. The here, but the points raised are only partially supported
answer has also been able to list the seven criteria it by reasoning or evidence. For example, the argument
contains and to accurately define five out of the seven about a minority being allowed to suffer is correct, but
criteria, which is enough. ‘Intensity’ is not correctly there is no evidence or further reasoning to support this
defined and means how strong the happiness is. In or any of the other arguments given here.
addition to this, propinquity or remoteness actually 2 Whilst there is recognition of more than one view here
means how close in time is the happiness? These are not the points raised continue to be only partially supported
major issues overall but it highlights the importance of by reasoning or evidence. For example, how do
using technical terminology correctly. hospitals make decisions using the principles outlined
3 In this paragraph the answer has demonstrated a by Utilitarianism? How does Utilitarianism promote a
clear understanding of how Act Utilitarianism can be community spirit through happiness?
applied to a particular situation using six out of the
Summative comment
seven criteria. The answer has also actually shown
an understanding of ‘intensity’ here even though the Overall, this answer shows some grasp of the main issues
definition in the previous paragraph was not clear. The but the analysis or comment is limited. The arguments
only criterion that has not been successfully applied given are only partially supported and lack deeper
here is ‘remoteness’. evaluation or analysis. It is clearly not a strong answer and
there are many areas for improvement.
Summative comment
Although not perfect, this answer is of a good standard.
There are obviously areas for improvement for it to
gain anywhere near to full marks but it is clear that the
candidate will do well.
238

Quickfire Answers
Philosophy Theme 1 Philosophy Theme 2
1.1 Evidence or experience. 2.1 Deductive proof makes use of logic rather than
1.2 God. evidence.
1.3 i. Marble, statue and sculptor 2.2 To deepen the understanding of faith.
ii. Wood, burning wood, fire. 2.3 That something (in this case God) cannot not exist.
1.4 In the world of sense. 2.4 The triangle and the mountain/valley analogies.
1.5 It is necessary to admit a first efficient cause that 2.5 If it were self-contradictory or logically absurd.
is itself uncaused – this can only be (according to 2.6 He did not believe it was possible to define things
Aquinas) God. (including God) into existence.
1.6 The universe and all things within it. 2.7 Existence was not a defining predicate.
1.7 Something that must exist and cannot not exist.
1.8 That it has a cause of its existence.
Philosophy Theme 3
3.1 Moral evil and natural evil.
1.9 Something that has no beginning and no end.
3.2 Any suitable response according to stated definitions
1.10 The fundamentalist Christian churches of America.
– e.g. murder and earthquakes.
1.11 Things without intelligence did not have the ability to
3.3 The God that possesses the characteristics of
direct themselves towards an end – they required a
omnipotence, omniscience and omnibenevolence.
guiding intelligence to do this.
Also the God worshipped by the three main western
1.12 The stone was a natural object with no apparent religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
purpose, whereas the watch was a complex machine
3.4 The incompatibility of an omnipotent and
that had a specific purpose.
omnibenevolent God allowing evil to exist.
1.13 The world provides the things necessary for life; the
3.5 Where the three statements: God is omnipotent;
world can be rationally analysed; evolution led to the
God is omnibenevolent and Evil exists cannot co-exist
development of intelligent human life.
without a logical contradiction.
1.14 The designer wanted his creation to enjoy existence
3.6 The account of The Fall in Genesis, chapter 3.
not just survive.
3.7 The lack or absence of something that should be
1.15 That just because everything in the universe has a
present in normal circumstances.
cause does not mean that the universe itself had a
cause (what is true of the parts is not necessarily true 3.8 It allowed God to send Jesus into the world to atone
of the whole). for humankind’s sin and to provide a way back to
perfect harmony with God.
1.16 Analogy only works where two similar things are
compared – this was not possible with the universe as 3.9 How can a perfect world go wrong?
the universe was unique. 3.10 It contradicts the idea that humankind was originally
1.17 That life on earth developed and changed according to created perfect.
the external stimuli of the environment. 3.11 Genesis 1:26 – ‘Let us make man in our image after
our likeness’.
3.12 To allow humankind to grow into God’s likeness by
understanding that all actions have consequences –
both positive and negative.
3.13 It takes no account of animal suffering; the immensity
of suffering or the unfair distribution of suffering;
neither does it encourage individuals to choose to do
good in the here and now if all people will eventually
end up in Heaven.
239

Philosophy Theme 4 Ethics Theme 2

4.1 Corporeal; imaginary and intellectual. 2.1 Happiness, eudaimonia.
4.2 That those who convert demonstrate this by a change 2.2 God was seen as the source of the Natural Law.
in the way in which they live their life – this can 2.3 Deontological because what should be done is seen as
quite often be a significant change that is externally being determined by fundamental principles that are
apparent or it may be an internal change that is not based on consequences.
evidenced through the beliefs and subsequent actions
2.4 The fact that the term casuistry comes from the
of the converted.
word ‘case’ suggests that a given context and ‘end’
4.3 The suspension of the exterior senses. results are considered and so the teleological aspect of
4.4 A watered garden. Natural Law is often accepted.
4.5 Ineffability; noetic quality; transiency and passivity. 2.5 Casuistry is essential: it involves the careful use of
4.6 A state of intense awe experienced by the individual thought in applying general principles to particular
or group. circumstances.
4.7 Description-related; subject-related and object-related 2.6 There are different words for love in the Greek
challenges. language.
4.8 It may still have meaning for the individual and make 2.7 Prudence is sound judgment; temperance is
a difference to both their life and the lives of those moderation or balance; courage is endurance; and,
they come into contact with. justice is guidance.
2.8 Aquinas made a distinction between the intention of
Ethics Theme 1 an act and the act itself.
1.1 The nature of ethics, for example ‘why do we act like 2.9 Real good is in line with Natural Law with intention
we do?’ and apparent good is an act that appears good but
1.2 Reference to a person and their behaviour in ethics. leads to bad. An example of an apparent good would
be following our desires for something that seems
1.3 One that has set moral rules that cannot change.
good at the time but not in line with our good overall
1.4 Teleology. in relation to Natural Law such as eating as much as
1.5 Omnibenevolence. possible because the food tastes good.
1.6 The Euthyphro dilemma. 2.10 24 weeks.
1.7 Character of a person. 2.11 1967.
1.8 Focuses on the ethical virtues developed in a person. 2.12 (1) A woman’s physical health is threatened by having
1.9 It was used by Aristotle to describe the perfect the baby / any existing children would be harmed
virtuous state of happiness. mentally or physically by the woman proceeding to
have the baby. (2) There is a high risk the baby would
1.10 Nicomachean Ethics.
be handicapped.
1.11 Moral virtues are to do with behaviour, intellectual
2.13 Birth, consciousness, ensoulment, viability, etc.
virtues are to do with the mind.
2.14 One person kills another with intention or allows
1.12 Justice is a collective outcome of virtuous behaviour.
another’s death at their request.
1.13 Ecclesiastes.
2.15 1961.
1.14 Psychological egoism points out that we always act
out of self-interest whereas ethical egoism says that
we should act out of self-interest.
1.15 An action for the benefit of others.
1.16 He thought we were always bound to some system of
duty.
1.17 When we embrace our ownness and recognise our
unique nature.
240

Quickfire Answers
Ethics Theme 3 4.12 An approach to animals that supports the rights of

animals to be free from abuse and to be looked after,
3.1 Two extremes of legalism and antinomianism.
e.g. RSPCA.
3.2 Not entirely, it was simply one concise and well-
4.13 An approach to animals that establishes laws and
publicised statement of a trend in Christian ethics that
regulations to control animal experiments and to
had been growing for decades.
ensure animals are treated with dignity.
3.3 The use of reason.
4.14 Langley argues that there is evidence of poor
3.4 It is not some ‘thing’ but something we ‘do’. performance of animal models in medical research.
3.5 Agape in Jesus’ teachings and Paul’s writings. 4.15 Understanding Animal Research (UAR). UAR states
3.6 The Hebrew word closest to its meaning. that it ‘supports the humane use of animals in
3.7 Pragmatism, relativism, positivism and personalism. biomedical research, and believes that animal research
is a vital part of the scientific process’.
3.8 It means ‘self-emptying’ and signifies agape.
4.16 Bentham’s ‘insuperable line’ as he called it, was that
3.9 Love.
it was the ability to suffer rather than the ability to
3.10 No, also in social justice. reason that provided the framework and standard of
3.11 He argued that human laws and attitudes towards how we treat other animals.
sex and homosexuality that were influenced by the 4.17 It is a pressure group calling themselves ‘The
Church were outdated, inconsistent and hypocritical. Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament’ that argue
3.12 An example of intolerance and injustice against against having nuclear weapons.
homosexuals. 4.18 Because Fallon stated, ‘Deterrence means convincing
3.13 1967. any potential aggressor that the benefits of an
attack are far outweighed by its consequences.’ This
Ethics Theme 4 consequentialist approach is in line with utilitarian
4.1 The end, telos. principles in that it could be argued to support the
harm principle.
4.2 Those that bring the greatest good for the greatest
number.
4.3 Barrister.
4.4 Intensity, duration, extent, etc.
4.5 Utilitarianism is considered to be a relativistic theory
as it means there are no universal moral norms or
rules and that each situation has to be looked at
independently because each situation is different.
4.6 Mill argued that there were higher and lower
pleasures (not all pleasure was the same) and pleasure
should be measured by quality not just quantity.
4.7 Reading philosophy.
4.8 Eating.
4.9 It protects all individuals in society.
4.10 A strong rule utilitarian believes that any rules
formulated and established through the application
of the ‘principle of utility’ should never be broken as
they guarantee happiness for society. A weak rule
utilitarian tries to allow for the fact that in some
situations breaking a rule originally created because it
generally fulfils the principle of utility may be the right
course of action, because in this particular situation
breaking the rule is more likely to fulfil the principle of
utility than keeping the rule.
4.11 Early examples of the productive nature in medical
research of dissection and vivisection.
241

Glossary
Absolutist: an ethical system that believes there exists a Beatitude: blessing given by Jesus for certain personal
standard of right and wrong that is fully and totally binding on virtues
all human beings
Bigotry: intolerance and narrow-mindedness
Actual infinite: something that is actually infi nite in extent
Birth: the point at which the child is separated from the
or in extent of the operations performed – it literally has no
mother and becomes a separate entity
beginning and no end
Blastocyst: a group of multiplying cells
Actuality: when something is in its fully realised state
Casuistry: the art of applying key principles to an ethical
Act Utilitarianism: a form of Utilitarianism associated with
case
Bentham that treats each moral situation as unique and applies
the hedonic calculus to each ‘act’ to see if it fulfi ls the ‘principle Chesed: Hebrew word that describes an exclusive kind of
of utility’. Any action is right if it produces ‘the greatest love in a particular relationship
happiness for the greatest number.
CND: a pressure group calling themselves ‘The Campaign for
Aesthetic: related to the concept and appreciation of beauty Nuclear Disarmament’
Agape: Greek word for pure, unconditional love Community ethos: the character or spirit of a community
Aheb: Hebrew word for love that is seen to be similar to the Compendium: a thorough collection of material
idea of agape
Conscience: traditionally an internal, intuitive guide to good
Akrasia: incontinent, that is, lacking self-restraint and or bad; Fletcher reinterpreted this notion as a description of
uncontrolled ethical action
Akrates: one who is weak-willed and overcome by vices Consciousness: awareness of self
Altruism: selfless concern for the well-being of others Consequentialism: an ethical theory based on considering
consequences
Animal Aid: a charity that promotes animal welfare and
argues against the use of animals for medical research Consequentialist: people should make moral judgements
based on the outcome or the consequences of an action
Anthropic: related to being human
Contingent: anything that depends on something else (in
Anthropology: the study of human beings, their culture and
the case of a contingent being – it is contingent upon another
social development
being for its existence, e.g. a child is contingent upon its
Antinomianism: a theory of ethics that does not recognise parent)
the authority of but promotes freedom from external rules, from
Conversion: in the religious context the change of state from
the Greek word meaning lawless
one form of life to another
Apologist: an individual who writes or speaks in defence of a
Corporeal: of a material nature, physical
particular cause or belief
Cosmological and teleological arguments: two examples
A posteriori: a statement that is based on actual
of inductive arguments that use the evidence of, and within,
observation, evidence, experimental data or experience –
the universe to attempt to prove the existence of the God of
Classical Theism
Apparent good: apparent good is a vice or sin that takes
Courage: a cardinal virtue involving physical, moral or
us further away from the ideal human nature that God had
spiritual endurance and strength of character
planned for us
Deductive proof: a proof in which, if the premises are true,
Applied ethics: the debates that arise when ethical issues
then the conclusion must be true
are considered
Deontological: a theory that explores obligation or duty
A priori: without or prior to evidence or experience
Deterrent: a thing that discourages or is intended to
Arete: a Greek word meaning virtue
discourage someone from doing something
Atomic bomb: a bomb which derives its destructive power
Dissection: the action of dissecting a body or plant to study
from the rapid release of nuclear energy
its internal parts
Attribute: a descriptive characteristic that someone or
Distillation: a process of extracting key, quality material
something possesses
Dreams: in terms of visions, the unconscious state where
Beatific vison: the state of perfect happiness through
knowledge or understanding is gained through a series of
supernatural union with God
images or a dream-narrative, that would not normally be
available to the individual in the conscious state
242

Glossary
Ecstatic: an overwhelming feeling of bliss or peace Geological: the science relating to how the earth was formed
Efficient cause: the ‘third party’ that moves potentiality to God of Classical Theism: the God that is generally
actuality associated with the Western monotheistic religions of
Christianity, Islam and Judaism
Eigenheit: ownness, the idea of mastering oneself
Greatest happiness principle: a calculation used in
Einzig: uniqueness, the freedom from all impositions leaving
utilitarian theory to assess the best course of action to take
pure individuality
Hedonism: an ethical theory that defi nes what is right in
Einzige: ego
terms of pleasure
Embryo: an animal in the early stage of development before
Hexis: a Greek word used by Aristotle for a person’s manner
birth; in humans, the embryo stage is the fi rst three months
of behaviour
after conception
Homosexual: being sexually attracted to people of one’s own
Empirically: using knowledge gained through the
sex
experiences of any of the five senses
Inductive proof: argument constructed on evidence and/or
Enkrates: one who is tempted, but strong, and lives in the
experience that puts forward a possible conclusion based on
mean
these
Ensoulment: the point when the soul enters the body
Ineffable: that being of which a person cannot speak as no
Epistemic distance: a distance measured in terms of words can describe the experience
knowledge rather than space or time
Intellectual: in terms of visions, that which brings the
Ethical egoism: the normative view that holds that all action recipient(s) knowledge and understanding
ought to be motivated by self-interest
Intermediate cause: this refers to a cause that relies on
Ethics: from the Greek ‘ethike’ meaning habit or behaviour something else to have triggered it (remember the 2nd domino
and closely related to the word ethos, it is a study of the in the line!)
framework of guiding principles that direct an action
Internal act: an action that is consistent with intention
Ethos: a Greek word used by Aristotle for character of a whether good or bad
person
Intrinsic maximum: a term often associated in the context
Eudaimonia: a Greek word used by Aristotle to defi ne the of the ontological argument with English philosopher, Charles
end purpose of human life to be happiness, flourishing or Dunbar Broad, to refer to the necessary properties of God – in
fulfi lment that they must all possess this intrinsic maximum in order
for the defi nition of God as the greatest possible being to be
Euthanasia: literally meaning a gentle or easy death, it is
accurate
the controversial and, in some cases, illegal action of allowing
a terminally ill person to die with dignity, avoiding pain and Justice: a cardinal virtue involving guidance in how we act
suffering towards others
Evil: anything that causes pain or suffering Kenotic: from a Greek word meaning to empty or make
oneself completely receptive to something
Evolutionary theory: scientific theory, originally proposed
in the 19th century that posited that life developed from Legalism: an approach to ethics that accepts the absolute
simpler to more complex life forms via a process of natural nature of established rules or principles
selection and genetic mutation
Literalist: interpreting the text of the bible in a literal
Existentialism: a philosophy that proposes the individual is sense – that is, every word should be taken at face value;
free and responsible to determine their own development interpretation is not required
External act: an action that is seen to be good or bad but Medical abortion: abortion by means of the abortion pill
one that does not correlate with, nor is consistent with, the
Meta-ethics: the debates that arise when the nature of ethics
intention behind it
is considered
Faith: a strong belief or trust in something or someone
Ministry of Defence: the British government department
Fallacy of composition: philosophical notion that what is responsible for implementing the defence policy for the UK
true of the parts is not necessarily true of the whole (i.e. atoms
Moral: a term used to describe ethical behaviour
are colourless but this does not mean that a cat, which is
made of atoms, is colourless) Moral evil: evil caused as a result of the actions of a free-will
agent
Foetus: the unborn baby from the end of the eighth week
after conception (when the major structures have formed) Mysticism: a religious experience where union with God or
until birth the absolute reality is sought or experienced
Free will: the theological and philosophical concept that Natural evil: evil caused by the means of a force outside of
states that humans have the ability to choose freely between the control of free-will agents – usually referred to as ‘nature’
good and evil
243

Naturalism: that which arises from real life or the world of Proslogion: a work written by Anselm, used as a meditation,
nature but including within it the classical form of the ontological
argument
Natural world: the world of nature, comprising of all objects,
organic and inorganic Prudence: a cardinal virtue involving sound judgement
Necessary being: Aquinas’ contention that a non- Psychological egoism: the descriptive view that all human
contingent being is necessary for contingent beings to exist. action is motivated by self-interest
It is this necessary being that is the source of all existence for
Quickening: traditionally, when the child is fi rst felt to move
all other contingent beings
inside the mother
Noetic: knowledge gained through mystical experience that
Real good: real good is a characteristic that will help people
would otherwise not be available to the recipient through
to become closer to the ideal human nature that God had
ordinary means
planned for us
Normative ethics: the debates that arise when ethical
Reason: the use of logic in thought processes or putting
theories are considered
forward an argument
Objective: a theory that is independent of personal view
Redemption: the act of saving something or someone. In the
Omnibenevolence: God’s all-loving nature Christian context it refers to Jesus saving humanity from evil
and sin
Omnibenevolent: all-loving
Reductio ad absurdum: an argument that shows a
Omnipotent: all-powerful
statement to be false or absurd if its logical conclusions were
Ontological argument: argument for the existence of God to be accepted
based on the concept of the nature of being
Relational factors: different interpretations of the same
Passive: in this context, where the mystical experience is words or terms, depending on the viewpoint of the observer
‘done to’ the recipient – it is not instigated by the individual
Relativist: an ethical system that believes there is no
or group but is instead due to some kind of external force or
absolute right or wrong
influence
Relativistic: this means there are no universal moral norms or
Perfection: the complete absence of flaws also the ultimate
rules and that each situation has to be looked at independently
state of a positive trait
because each situation is different
Polyamorous: having a (loving) sexual relationship with
Rule Utilitarianism: a view associated with John Stuart
more than one individual with the knowledge and consent of
Mill. Rule utilitarians believe that by using the ‘principle of
all partners
utility’, that is, the greatest happiness for the greatest number,
Posit: to put forward, or state, a fact or belief, usually as the one can draw up general rules, based on past experiences,
basis for an argument or conclusion which would help to keep this principle.
Potential: the possibility, at conception, of becoming a Sanctity of life: the belief that life is sacred or holy, given by
human person God
Potential infinite: the potential infi nite is something that Sensory: a vision where external objects/sounds or figures
could continue on, were effort to be applied. E.g. it would be convey knowledge and understanding to the recipient
possible to always continue a number line if we wanted to, or
Situation Ethics: a relativist theory of ethics made famous by
we could always come up with a bigger number
Joseph Fletcher
Potentiality: the ability to be able to become something else
Sophron: one who effortlessly lives according to the mean
Prayer: in simple terms, communication with the divine
Soul-making: a process where the soul is developing
Predicate: a defi ning characteristic or attribute towards spiritual perfection by gaining the wisdom to
always make the correct moral choices when faced with the
Premise: a statement or proposition used to construct an
ambiguities of life as a human being
argument
Strong Rule Utilitarianism: a strong rule utilitarian
Principle of utility: an action is right if it promotes and
believes that any rules formulated and established through
maximises happiness
the application of the ‘principle of utility’ should never be
Privation: the absence or loss of something that is normally broken as they guarantee happiness for society.
present (i.e. a privation of health means that a person is ill and
Subjective: a theory that is dependent on a personal view
not healthy)
Surgical abortion: abortion by means of the suction method
Pro-choice: supporting women’s rights to have abortions
Teleological: a theory concerned with the end purpose or
Pro-life: against abortion
goal of an action
244

Glossary
Telos: the term can have a number of meanings but generally Utilitarianism: an ethical theory that maintains that an
refers to the ‘end’ (as in fi nal destination); ‘goal’ or ‘purpose’ action is right if it produces the greatest happiness for the
of something – the term is frequently found in Aristotle’s greatest number – the ethical nature of actions is therefore
philosophy based on consequences for human happiness
Temperance: a cardinal virtue involving balance and Viability: the ability to grow and develop into an adult,
restraint especially the ability of the child to exist without dependence
on the mother
Temporal: things relating to time
Visions: the ability to ‘see’ something beyond normal
Thaler: currency used in 18th-century Prussia
experiences – e.g. the vision of an angel; such visions usually
The Fall: the events of Genesis chapter 3, where Adam convey information or insight concerning a specific religious
and Eve face God’s punishment for disobeying his divine tradition
command not to eat of the fruit from the tree of knowledge of
Vivisection: the practice of performing operations on live
Good and Evil
animals for the purpose of experimentation or scientific
Transcendent: that which lies beyond the everyday realm of research
the physical senses
Weak Rule Utilitarianism: weak rule utilitarian tries to
Transient: an experience that is short lived yet has far- allow for the fact that in some situations breaking a rule
reaching and/or long-lasting consequences originally created because it generally fulfi ls the principle
of utility may be the right course of action, because in this
Ultimate cause: in the sense of Aquinas’ writings, this is the
particular situation, breaking the rule is more likely to fulfi l
end cause in the sequence that could not have occurred had
the principle of utility than keeping the rule.
there not been preceding efficient and intermediate causes
(think about this as the penultimate domino in the line to fall) Wolfenden report: a government-initiated investigation to
explore the problems of prostitution and homosexuality, fi nally
Understanding Animal Research: a Mutual Society (not-
published in 1957
for-profit organisation) that explains why animals are used in
medical and scientific research Zygote: a cell formed by the union of a male sex cell (a
sperm) and a female sex cell (an ovum), which develops into
Unitive: the feeling of complete oneness with the divine
the embryo according to information encoded in its genetic
material
245

Index
abortion 113, 115–116, 145–146, 154–155, 159–161, 163–165, classical problem of evil 57–60, 62–63, 71
169, 175, 188 CND (The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) 221
absolutism 109, 127, 146, 170, 214 commandments 111, 121, 145, 149, 170, 175, 180
actual infinite 10–11 community ethos 125
actuality 7 compendium 185
Act Utilitarianism 203, 206, 213–214, 223, 226 conscience 142, 146, 175–176, 178, 186
Adams, Robert 112, 115 consciousness 85, 87, 92–93, 96, 133–134, 137, 161, 165, 167
aesthetic argument 19, 22 consequentialism 110, 112, 155, 178, 203, 214, 221–222
agape 113, 148, 164, 173–178, 180–181, 183–186, 188–189, 195, contingent 9, 54
197–198 conversion 65, 82–83, 89
agapeic principle 113, 195, 197 corporeal (visions) 80
aheb 183 cosmological argument 6–11, 13–14, 21, 24, 37–38, 47
akrasia 120 challenges to 24
akrates 120 courage (cardinal virtue) 149–150
altruism 127, 129, 197 Craig, William Lane 10–11, 14, 21, 47
Animal Aid 217–218 Darwin, Charles 27, 29
animal experimentation 216–221 Dawkins, Richard 22, 67, 104
Anselm 33–35, 40, 42, 46, 50–51, 53–54 deductive proof 32–35
anthropic principle 18–19, 22 deontological 110, 124, 140, 142, 146, 189, 198, 211
anthropology 94, 99, 101 Descartes, Rene 40–42, 46, 51, 53
antinomianism 172–175, 181, 184, 195 design argument 13, 16–18, 22, 24, 29, 47
apologist 10 deterrent 221–223
Aquinas 6–10, 14, 16, 21–22, 47, 60, 127, 140–143, 145, 148–151, dissection 216–217
163, 170, 177, 180, 183
distillation 185, 197–198
a posteriori 6, 13, 21–22, 29, 37, 47
dreams (visions) 80
apparent good 151
Divine Command theory 110–113, 115–116, 180
applied ethics 108
doctrine of the mean 120–121
a priori 32, 37, 46–47, 51, 100
double effect 150–151, 154–155, 164, 167, 169
arete 118
ecstatic 84–87
Aristotle 6–7, 118–121, 127, 141, 154, 170, 205, 209
efficient cause 7, 9
atheist 11, 34, 89, 146
eigenheit 133
atomic bomb 221
einzig 133, 134
attributes of God 38, 40–41, 51, 62–63
einzige 132
Augustine/Augustinian theodicy 65–68, 70–71, 73, 83, 89,
115, 177, 183 embryo 159, 161
Barclay, William 180–181, 188–189, 197–198 empiricism 6, 48, 92, 99–100, 105
beatific vision 148–149, 170 enkrates 120
Beatitudes 121–123, 180 ensoulment 161
Bentham, Jeremy 200–203, 205–206, 209–210, 213, 217, 220, Epicurean hypothesis 25
223, 225 Epicurean paradox 62
big bang theory 14, 21, 24, 26, 30 Epicurus 25, 57, 60, 62
bigotry 135, 137 epistemic distance 73–74
blastocyst 159 ethical egoism 129–135, 137–138
Bonaventure 96 ethics, definition of 108
boss principle 183 ethos 118–119, 135
Buddhism 90, 113 eudaimonia 118, 124, 140, 205, 209
cardinal virtues 149–150 euthanasia 110, 113, 115–116, 155, 164–167, 169, 188
casuistry 142–143, 145, 149, 164, 167, 174–175 Euthypro dilemma 111–112
cause and effect 8–9, 21, 24, 29–30 evidence-based argument 13, 29–30
chesed 184 evil
Christianity 10–11, 21–22, 34, 38, 46, 60, 65–67, 70–71, 73–75, problem of 57–60, 62–63, 65–68, 70–71
80–83, 85–87, 89–90, 113, 116, 121–123, 133, 141, 143, 154, types of 56–57
163–164, 170, 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 191, 195, 197–198, 226 evolution 18, 27, 67–68
246

Index
evolutionary theory 27, 68 internal act 150–151

existentialism 131, 175 intrinsic good 180, 205
external act 150–151 intrinsic maximum 50
faith 21, 33–34, 38, 46, 62, 70–71, 73–74, 78, 83, 89–90, 141, 148, Irenaean type theodicy 73–75, 77–78
177, 184 Islam 38, 46, 84–85, 113, 226
fallacy of composition 24 James, William 82–83, 89, 92–93, 96
falsification principle 100 Jesus, teachings of 121–123, 127, 176–177, 180–181, 184–186,
feminism 124, 172 197–198
Fifth Way 16 Judaism 22, 38, 46
Finnis, John 154, 170 justice 66, 77, 120–122, 124, 127, 129, 133, 149–150, 154–156,
First Way 6–8, 21 169, 180, 185, 188–189, 193, 195, 197, 206, 214, 225–226
Fletcher, Joseph 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 188–189, 191, 195, Kainz, Howard 163–164, 169
197–198 Kalam cosmological argument 10–11, 14, 21
Flew, Anthony 100–101 Kant, Immanuel 42, 46–47, 51, 53–54, 161
foetus 159–161, 163–164 kenotic 186
fool (Anselm) 34 legalism 154, 172–176, 181, 184–185, 189, 195, 197, 214
fortitude (cardinal virtue) 149–150 literalist 67
Franks Davis, Caroline 99, 105 Mackie, John L. 58–60, 63
free will 56–57, 59–60, 65–66, 68, 70–71, 73–75 Malcolm, Norman 42–43, 47
Freud, Sigmund 101, 103 medical abortion 159
fundamental principles (Fletcher) 185–186, 195 meta-ethics 108, 129
fundamentalist Christian 11 Mill, John Stuart 209–211, 213–214, 220–221, 223, 225–226
Gaunilo of Marmoutier 42, 46–47, 50, 53–54 Ministry of Defence 222
geological 68 modern problem of evil 58–60, 63
God Modified Divine Command theory 111–112, 115
a posteriori arguments for 6, 13, 21–22, 29, 37, 47 moral
a priori arguments for 32, 37, 46–47, 51, 100 contradictions 68
attributes of 38, 40–41, 51, 62–63 dilemma 127, 150, 225
necessary existence 35 evil 56
perfections of 37–38, 40–42, 46, 50–51, 53–54, 68, 73 values 108–109
God of Classical Theism 13, 24, 38, 40, 57–60, 62–63, 71 virtues 119–120
Golden Rule 226 mountains and valleys analogy 41
greatest happiness principle 200, 203, 206–207, 210–211, mysterium tremendum 94, 97
214, 220, 223, 226 mysticism 84–85
happiness principle see greatest happiness principle natural evil 56–57
harm principle 210, 214, 222–223, 225 Natural Law 124, 127, 140–143, 145–146, 148–151, 154–156,
hedonism 201–203, 213–214, 220 163–164, 166–167, 169–170, 173, 176, 180, 183, 188
hedonic calculus 202–203, 213–214, 220 natural selection 18, 27, 29
hexis 118 natural world 18
Hick, John 67, 74 naturalism 27, 94, 101, 115, 154
Hinduism 83 naturalistic fallacy 154
Hippocratic Oath 162 necessary being 9–10
Holocaust 60, 75 New Testament 113, 176, 183, 185, 198
homosexuality 113, 115, 145–146, 154–155, 191–193, 195 noetic 84, 92, 96
Hume 24–26, 29, 101, 103, 105 normative ethics 108
inconsistent triad 58–60, 63 nuclear weapons 221–223
inductive argument 6–11, 13–14, 16–19, 21–22, 24–26, 47 numinous experience 94, 96–97
challenges to 24–26 objective 89, 100–101, 108–109, 111, 145, 185, 198, 214
inductive proof 6, 32 Ockham’s razor 30
ineffable 84, 90, 92, 96 Old Testament 34, 113, 115, 121, 183
infinity 10–11, 14 omnibenevolent 40, 58–59, 62–63, 68, 73, 75, 112, 115
injustice 34, 120, 124, 127, 135, 142, 155–156, 161, 188, 191–192, omnipotent 38, 40, 58–60, 62–63, 111
198, 200, 206, 214, 225 omnipresent 38, 51
intellectual virtues 119 omniscient 38, 40, 51, 60, 68
intellectual (visions) 80 ontological argument 32–35, 37–38, 42–43, 46–47
intelligent design see design argument challenges to 50–51, 53–54
intermediate cause 9 classical form 33
247

Otto, Rudolf 94, 96–97 sensory (visions) 80
Paley, William 16–18, 22, 25–26, 47 Situation Ethics 146, 155, 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 188–189,
Paradox of Omnipotence 59 191, 195, 197–198
passive (mystical experience) 93, 96 sophron 120
Paul, Gregory S. 60, 63 soul-making 73–75
Paul (St) 82, 148, 175–177, 180–181, 185–186, 197 statistical problem of evil 60, 63
perfection (spiritual) 73–75, 77–78, 141–142, 148, 151, 170 Stirner, Max 131–135, 137
perfections of God 37–38, 40–42, 46, 50–51, 53–54, 68, 73 Strong Rule Utilitarianism 211, 213–214, 220, 226
Persinger’s Helmet 103–104 subjective 47, 89–90, 94, 100, 108–109, 124, 127, 188, 205, 214
personalism 184, 197 suffering 38, 56–60, 62–63, 66–67, 70–71, 73, 75, 77–78, 99, 105,
pleasures, higher and lower (Mill) 209–210 123, 164–166, 181, 200, 205–206, 214, 217, 219–223, 225–226
polyamorous 192–195 surgical abortion 159
polytheistic 38 Swinburne, Richard 89, 101, 103, 105, 106
posit 6, 30 teleological argument/theory 6, 16–19, 22, 24–26, 29, 37–38,
47, 110, 118, 124, 142, 178, 186, 200, 203, 211
positivism 100, 103, 184
challenges to 24–26, 29, 47
potential for life 161
also see design argument
potential infinite 11
telos 16, 140, 178
potentiality 7
temperance (cardinal virtue) 149–150
pragmatism 93, 184
temporal 10
prayer and religious experience 86–87
Tennant, Frederick 18–19, 22, 47
predicate 51, 53–54, 180, 185
Teresa of Avila 81, 85–87, 92, 101
premise 13, 32, 34, 37, 46–47, 52, 59
thaler 51
primary precepts 143, 154, 170
The Fall 66–67, 70–71, 142
Prime Mover 7, 27, 170
theist 11, 14, 21–22, 24–26, 38, 62
principles of credulity and testimony 101, 105–106
theological voluntarism see Divine Command theory
principle of utility 201–202, 210–211, 213, 220, 223, 226
Third Way 9–10
Pritchard, H. A. 129–130
transcendent 38, 84
privation 65–66, 68, 70–71
transcendent mysticism 84
pro-choice 161
transient 85, 93, 96
pro-life 161
triangle analogy 41
Proslogion 33–35, 42
Turing, Alan 192
prudence (cardinal virtue) 149–150
ultimate cause 9
psychological egoism 129
Understanding Animal Research (UAR) 218–219
quantum physics 24, 30
unitive 84–85, 96
quickening 161
universe
rape 56, 163–164, 169, 209, 213
cosmological argument 6–11, 13–14, 24
real good 151
teleological argument 16–19, 22
reason, relationship with faith 34
Unmoved Mover 7
redemption 66, 71
universalisability 210
reductio ad absurdum 50, 53
Utilitarianism 146, 167, 200–203, 205–206, 209–211, 213–214,
relational factors 161 225–226
relativism 109, 124, 155, 175, 178, 184, 189–190, 197, 203 viability 161
religious experience 80–87, 89–90, 92–94, 96–97, 99–101, virtue theory 118–124, 126–127, 146, 180–181
103–105
challenges to 124
challenges to 99–101, 103–105
Jesus’ teachings on 121–123, 127
revealed virtues 148–149
visions 80–81
Roman Catholic Church 146, 154, 162, 164, 166–167, 169–170,
175, 197 vivisection 216–218
Rowe, William 60, 63 watch analogy of complex design 16–18, 25
Rule Utilitarianism 209, 211, 213–214, 220–221, 223, 226 Weak Rule Utilitarianism 210, 214, 221
salvation 70, 74–75, 77–78, 83, 205 Whirling Dervishes 85
sanctity of life 161, 166 Wolfenden report 191, 193
scientific evidence/world 14, 16, 21–22, 24, 26–27, 29–30, 47, working principles (Fletcher) 184, 195
67–68, 99–101, 103, 105 zygote 159–160, 162
Second Way 8–9
secondary precepts 143
self-interest 108, 116, 124, 129–138
248

WJEC/Eduqas
Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS
Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching,
learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and
tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams.
● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust
● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with
the information
● A skills-based pathway of learning helps you make links between the specification
content and the final exam
W EC/Eduqas Re g ous Stud es for A Leve Year 1 & AS

● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout
Ph osophy of Re g on and Re g on and Eth cs

● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key
facts within each topic
● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective:
AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of
knowledge and understanding
AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation
● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both
specification content and the issues that are raised
● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student
answers and examiner commentaries
WJEC/Eduqas
About the authors:
Religious Studies
Karl Lawson is an experienced teacher of Religious Studies, having taught for over twenty-five years in schools in
both England and Wales. He is an experienced examiner with over twenty years of experience at GCSE and A Level
and is a senior examiner for a major awarding body.
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds.
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies.
He has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently a freelance writer and examiner.
He is author of several books and articles for A Level Religious Studies.
Richard Gray
WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas
Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS
Buddhism Christianity Judaism Islam H ndu sm

ISBN 978-1-908682-99-4 Richard Gray
Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching, Written by an experienced examiner with an in-depth understanding of teaching,
learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and learning and assessment at Year 1 and AS Level, this book’s engaging visual style and
tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams. tone will support you through the course and help you prepare for your exams.
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Buddhism
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Christianity
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Judaism
WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Islam
● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust ● Endorsed by WJEC / Eduqas, this book offers high quality support you can trust
● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with ● Detailed content is presented in a clear and appealing way to help you engage with
the information the information the information the information the information
Karl Lawson
● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification ● A skills-based pathway of learning helps bridge the gap between specification
content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam content and the final exam
● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout ● Key terms that you need to know are clearly identified and defined throughout
● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key ● Quickfire questions provide you with regular opportunities to consolidate the key
facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic facts within each topic
Karl Lawson
● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective: ● Activities clearly target each Assessment Objective:
AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of AO1 activities help you identify, present, explain and develop the skills of
knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding knowledge and understanding
AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation AO2 activities help you think about issues and develop the skills of evaluation
● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both ● Developing Skills section provides help with applying your knowledge of both
specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised specification content and the issues that are raised
● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student ● Questions and Answers section provides exam-style questions with student
answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries answers and examiner commentaries
WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas W

About the author:
Religious Studies
About the author:
WJEC/Eduqas About the author:
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey has taught Religious Studies for 28 years, specialising in Judaism. She has been Head of
Religious Studies
About the author:
Religious Studies
About the author:
Huw Dylan Jones For has been a Head of RE for over 30 years as well as an Assistant Head. He is currently
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. Department for 22 years. During her career she has undertaken a variety of roles including that of Advisory Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. Principal Examiner for the AS Level Eastern Religions specification for a major awarding body.
Religious Studies
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He Teacher for RE in Mid Glamorgan, training NQTs and providing INSET provision for teachers of RE and non- Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He Richard Gray has studied at The University of Sheffield where he won the Epworth Prize, before taking up a British
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS specialists.
Richard Gray has studied at The University of Sheffield where he won the Epworth Prize, before taking up a British for A Level Year 1 & AS has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently freelance writer and examiner. He is
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies. for A Level Year 1 & AS Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds.
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He
Judaism
Academy scholarship at Lancaster University. He has also studied as Research Fellow at The University of Leeds. has also been a senior examiner at A Level for 16 years. Richard is currently freelance writer and examiner. He is
Islam Hinduism
Richard has taught A Level Religious Studies for more than 20 years and is a former Head of Religious Studies. He author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies
Buddhism Edited by Richard Gray

Christianity
author of several books and articles for A level Religious Studies.
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey
Gwynn ap Gwilym
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Richard Gray
key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts key concepts
Richard Gray
● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble, ● Covers all four areas of study – Musical Forms and Devices, Music for Ensemble,
Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music Film Music and Popular Music
● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising ● Fully supports you in all aspects of performing, composing and appraising
● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills ● Free audio clips and web links to music performances that demonstrate key skills
and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic and techniques identified and discussed within each topic
Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme
Gwynn ap Gwilym
Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme
Helen Gwynne-Kinsey
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical advice on completing the required log, evaluation and programme ● Includes practical a
notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification notes for the WJEC specification
About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author: About the author:
9 781908 682994
Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three Jan Richards has enjoyed a long teaching career across Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, including experience in three
secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing secondary schools and a sixth form college and for 35 years worked as a Head of Department / Head of Performing
Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and Arts. An experienced author of teacher resources from Key Stage 3 to A level, including material on set works and
student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body. student support, she has also been involved in examining and specification development with a major Awarding Body.
WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE WJEC/Eduqas GCSE
Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music Music
Richard Gray Richard Gray
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards
Jan Richards


Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards Jan Richards
9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925 9 781908 682925
ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4
9 781908 682925 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4 ISBN 978 1 908682 99 4
9 781908 682925
ISBN 978 1908682 97 0 ISBN 978 1 908682 95 6 ISBN 978 1 911208 01 3 ISBN 978 1 908682 98 7 SBN 978 1 911208 00 6
9781908682994 AS RE PH LOS Cove ndd 1 07 11 2016 08 45

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WJEC/Eduqas

Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS

W EC/Eduqas Re g ous Stud es for A Leve Year 1 & AS

Ph osophy of Re g on and Re g on and Eth cs

Buddhism Christianity Judaism Islam H ndu sm

WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Christianity

WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Judaism

WJEC/Eduqas Religious Studies for A Level Year 1 & AS Islam

WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas WJEC/Eduqas W

for A Level Year 1 & AS

Buddhism Edited by Richard Gray

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Music

Edited by Richard Gray

Edited by Richard Gray

9781908682994 AS RE PH LOS Cove ndd 1 07 11 2016 08 45

9781908682994 AS RE PHILOSOPHY_001-248.indd 1 20/10/2016 12:51

9781908682994 AS RE PHILOSOPHY_001-248.indd 2 20/10/2016 12:51

Questions and answers 228

9781908682994 AS RE PHILOSOPHY_001-248.indd 3 20/10/2016 12:51

T1 Arguments for the

Arguments for the

existence of God – inductive

1.1 What is needed for an inductive

references to both religious/philosophical works and to the views of scholars. The

This section covers AO1

Specification content Aquinas – First Way

content and skills

The only way to do so is to gather

evidence. So, you begin your search

arguments: two examples of

for clues. After some time, you Features of the books

inductive arguments that use the

evidence of, and within, the universeThe books

process (or conclusion) as a whole.

to attempt to prove the existence of the

God of Classical Theism the murder scene, you have examined

Key terms theof technical, religious and philosophicalDetective

body, you have had forensics