Inr 142 CM - 0

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: INR 142
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
COURSE GUIDE INR 142
INR 142
Introduction to Public Administration
Course Team Emmanuel .A. Shom (Developer/Writer) -UM

Sylvester Iorliam PhD. (Editor) - BSU
Terhemba Ambe – Uva (Coordinator)-NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
First Printed
ISBN:
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ……………..
For
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………………………………………………..
Course Aims………………………………………………..
Course Objectives…………………………………………..
Working through the Course……………………………….
Course Materials…………………………………………...
Study Units…………………………………………………
Textbooks and References…………………………………
Assessment…………………………………………………
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………
Final Examination and Grading……………………………
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………..
Course Overview/Presentation……………………………..
What you will learn in this Course …………………………
What you will need in this Course………………………….
Tutors and Tutorials………………………………………..
Conclusion…………………………………………………
Summary…………………………………………………...
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Introduction
Welcome to INR 142: Introduction to Public Administration! This is a two credit unit
course available for students in the undergraduate International Relations at the two
hundred level. The course provides an opportunity for students to acquire a detailed
knowledge and understanding of theory and practice of public administration.
Administration is a word that has a variety of meanings. To administer means to
combine efforts and perform a piece of work that cannot be performed by one person
for the attainment of defined objectives. In looking at public administration, the public
administrators have engaged in, we have both the theory and practical aspects.
Students who have gone through this course would be able to apply different
approaches in public administration to the implementation of public policies. Students
would also be expected to know the mainstream literature in public administration and
their discussion, and be able to apply approaches to case studies. An interesting concern
of the course is to introduce students to the distinction between public administration
and private administration. While both of them provide services, public administration
has multiple goals to achieve and private administration has only one goal, which is
profit making.
This course guide provides you with the necessary information about the contents of
the course and the materials you will need to be familiar with for a proper
understanding of the subject matter. It is designed to help you to get the best of the
course by enabling you to think productively about the principles underlying the issues
you study and the projects you execute in the course of your study and thereafter. It
also provides some guidance on the way to approach your tutor-marked assignments
(TMA). You will of course receive on-the-spot guidance from your tutorial classes, which
you are advised to approach with all seriousness.
Overall, this module will fill an important vacuum in the study of Public Administration,
especially as it is interested in knowing how the machinery of administration works,
how policies are formulated and implemented and how the bureaucracy works.
Students will acquire an understanding of and the skills to overcome the problems of
policy implementation and bureaucratic bottlenecks. They will also be able to apply
administrative approaches to real world events at all levels of government.
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Course Aims
The course aims of this course are to:
(i) Explicate the concept of public administration

(ii) Present an overview of approaches in to the study of public administration
(iii) Distinguish between public and private administrations
(iv) Understand the distinction between public administration and politics.
(v) Apply different approaches in public administration at various levels of
government.
Course Objectives
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
(i) Define administration in general and public administration in particular

(ii) Differentiate between classical and behavioural approaches
(iii) Identify and explain various approaches in administrative inquiry
(iv) Describe various theories in public administration
(v) Apply public administration approaches to real administration in public sectors
(vi) Identify and discuss types of policies
(vii) Elucidate the major distinctions in dominant approaches in public
administration
Working through the Course
I would advise you to carefully study each unit, beginning with this study guide,
especially since this course provides an opportunity for you to understand the major
approaches in public administration. Also make a habit of noting down any question you
have for tutorials. In addition, please try your hand at formulating or identifying theories
relevant to, and that can be applied to administrative inquiry.
Course Materials
1. Course guide
2. Study units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment file
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5. Presentation schedule.
Study Units
There are three modules in this course, and each module made up of four units. Overall
therefore, you will find a total of twelve units in this course. Some units may be longer
and/or more in depth than others, depending on the scope of the course that is in focus.
The three modules in the course are as follows:
Module 1 Public Administration: An Introduction
Unit 1 Definitions of Public Administration

Unit 2 General Introduction to the Studies of Public
Administration
Unit 3 Importance of Public Administration
Unit 4 Scope of Public Administration
Module 2 Basic practices of Public administration
Unit 1 Functioning in Public Administration

Unit 2 Methods of inquiry in Public Administration
Unit 3 Civil Service
Unit 4 Development Administration
Module 3 Issues in Public Administration
Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Public Administration

Unit 2 Public issues in Administration
Unit 3 Practical issues in our society in Nigeria
Unit 4 Practical issues in the world
Each module is preceded with a listing of the units contained in it, and a
table of contents, an introduction, a list of objectives and the main content
in turn precedes each unit, including Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs).
At the end of each unit, you will find one or more Tutor-Marked
Assignment (TMA) which you are expected to work on and submit for
marking.
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Textbooks and References
At the end of each unit, you will find a list of relevant reference materials
which you may yourself wish to consult as the need arises, even though I
have made efforts to provide you with the most important information you
need to pass this course. However, I would encourage you, as a second year
student to cultivate the habit of consulting as many relevant materials as
you are able to within the time available to you. In particular, make sure
you consult whatever material you are advised to consult before attempting
any exercise.
Assessment
Two types of assessment are involved in the course: the Self-Assessment

Exercises (SAEs), and the Tutor-Marked Assessment (TMA) questions.
Your answers to the SAEs are not meant to be submitted, but they are also
important since they give you an opportunity to assess your own
understanding of course content. Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMA) on the
other hand are to be carefully answered and kept in your assignment file for
submission and marking. This will count for 30% of your total score in the
course.
Tutor Marked Assignment
At the end of every unit, you will find a Tutor-Marked Assignment which
you should answer as instructed and put in your assignment file for
submission. However, this Course Guide does not contain any Tutor-
Marked Assignment question. The Tutor-Marked Assignment questions are
provided from Unit 1 of Module 1 to Unit 4 of Module 3.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for INR 222 will take two hours and carry 70% of
the total course grade. The examination questions will reflect the SAEs and
TMAs that you have already worked on. I advise you to spend the time
between your completion of the last unit and the examination revising the
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entire course. You will certainly find it helpful to also review both your
SAEs and TMAs before the examination.
Course Marking Scheme
The following table sets out how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks
Four assignments (the best four of Four assignments, each marked out
all the assignments submitted for of 10%, but highest scoring three
marking). selected, thus totalling 30%
Final Examination 70% of overall course score.
Total 100% of course score.
Course Overview Presentation Scheme
Week Assignment
Units Title of Work
Activity (End-of-Unit)
Course
Guide
Unit 1 Definitions of Public Administration Week 1 Assignment
General Introduction to the Studies of Public
Unit 2 Week 1 Assignment
Administration
Unit 3 Importance of Public Administration Week 2 Assignment
TMA 1 to be
Unit 4 Scope of Public Administration Week 3
submitted
Module 2 Basic practices of Public administration
Unit 1 Functioning in Public Administration Week 3 Assignment 1
Unit 2 Methods of inquiry in public Administration Week 4 Assignment 1
Unit 3 Civil Service Week 4 Assignment 1
TMA 2 to be
Unit 4 Development Administration Week 5
submitted
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Week Assignment
Units Title of Work
Activity (End-of-Unit)
Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Public Administration Week 6 Assignment 1
Unit 2 Public issues in Administration Week 7 Assignment 1
Unit 3 Practical issues in our society in Nigeria Week 8 Assignment 1
TMA 3 to be
Unit 4 Practical issues in the world Week 9
submitted
Revision Week 10
Examination Week 11
Total 11Weeks
What You Will Learn In the Course
Introduction to public administration provides you with the opportunity to gain a

mastery and an in -depth understanding of approaches in Public Administration. The
first module provides you with in-depth understanding of the concept of public
administration, scope and importance of the concept. The second module will provide
you with an understanding of basic practices of administration. The remaining Module
will also introduce you basic contemporary issues in public administration both within
Nigeria and the rest of the world.
What You Will Need for the Course
You may need to purchase one or two texts recommended as important for your
mastery of the course content. You need quality time in a study-friendly environment
every week. If you are computer-literate (which ideally you should be), you should be
prepared to visit recommended websites. You should also cultivate the habit of visiting
reputable physical libraries accessible to you.
Tutors and Tutorials
There are fifteen (15) hours of tutorials provided in support of the course.
You will be notified of the dates and location of these tutorials, together
with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as you are allocated
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a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments,
and keep a close watch on your progress. Be sure to send in your tutor-
marked assignments promptly, and feel free to contact your tutor in case of
any difficulty with your self-assessment exercise, tutor-marked assignment
or the grading of an assignment. In any case, I advise you to attend the
tutorials regularly and punctually. Always take a list of such prepared
questions to the tutorials and participate actively in the discussions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, all the features of this course guide have been designed to facilitate your
learning in order that you achieve the aims and objectives of the course. They include
the aims and objectives, course summary, course overview, Self Assessment Exercises
and study questions. You should ensure that you make maximum use of them in your
study to achieve maximum results.
Summary
INR 142: Introduction to Public Administration provides a theoretical foundation upon

which you will develop mastery in public administration. It is aimed at equipping you
with analytical skills for the understanding of theoretical approaches in public
administration. Administration is a word that has a variety of meanings. To administer
means to combine efforts to perform a task for the achievement of a defined goal.
Upon completing this course you should be able to explain the various approaches
employed in public administration, including their weaknesses and strengths. You will
also be able to apply these approaches to real life administrative phenomena. This
course assumes your prior level of understanding.
I wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both interesting and
useful!
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Course Code: INR 142
Course Title: Introduction to Public Administration
Course Developer: Emmanuel Aondoaver Shom

Department of Political Science
University of Mkar, Mkar
Course Writer Emmanuel Aondoaver Shom

Department of Political Science
University of Mkar, Mkar Gboko
Course Editor Sylvester Iorliam PhD

Benue State University, Makurdi
Course Coordinator Terhemba Ambe-Uva

Victoria Island, Lagos
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Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Vitoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e – mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2011
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TABLE OF CONTENT

Administration
Module 2 Basic Practices of Public Administration
Unit 1 Functions Performed by Public Administration

Unit 2 Methods of inquiry in Public Administration
Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Public Administration

Unit 3 Practical issues in our society, Nigeria
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MODULE 1 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: AN

INTRODUCTION

Administration
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UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Administration
3.2 Basic Administrative Principles
3.3 Administrative Theories
3.4 Definitions of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration may be considered both as a field of action

and a field of study. As a field of action, public administration refers
to the mechanics and structures through which government policies
are implemented. As a field of study or a discipline, public
administration refers to the academic discipline which studies the
mechanics and structures through which government implements its
programs. This later sense, as a field of study, may also be referred
to as a principle or a philosophy. The specific issues that will be
examined in this unit include the definition of administration,
administrative principles, administrative theories, and public
administration.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is expected that by the end of this unit, students should endeavor

to:
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h Define and discuss the history of Administration

h Explain administrative principles
h Discuss administrative theories
h Define and list basic elements in public administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Administration
Administration is a universal concept and is also of universal

importance. According to Simon (1950), it is said to commence
immediately two people agree to co-operate to undertake a task, for
instance, to move a stone which none of them can move alone. Also
Nwosu (1985:3), noted that
Administration is inevitable in any given situation where a

piece of work has to be done, and this piece of work
requires the effort of more than one person to accomplish
it. We are involved in administrative behavior when we
co-operate with other people to accomplish such
objectives as erecting a community town hall,
constructing and managing schools, churches, hospitals,
vehicles, assembly plants.
Thus, Onuoha (1999) explains further that administration exists

whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups, and
such achievements require planning, organization, command,
cooperation and control. It involves the mobilization, deployment
and direction of human and material resources to attain the specified
objectives. When viewed from this perspective, certainly
administration is rightly considered a very old and global
phenomenon, which exists, even in the most basic human group.
We may therefore define administration as a capacity to coordinate
and execute many and often conflicting social demands in a single
organism so perfectly that they should all operate as a unit (Fayol,
1949). Increasingly, those definitions and explanations, among
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others, point to the fact that administration is both public and

private.
Administration has a long history which dates back to the beginning

of the history of mankind, with research revealing administrative
tasks and practices since recorded history. Researches carried out by
archaeologists and translators have revealed that going back to the
time of ancient Egyptian dynasties, the ancient Chinese Empire, the
ancient Greek city – states and Roman Empire, there is abundant
evidence of impressive analysis with contemporary administrative
tasks, merely by way of illustration, also the early Christian Church
also played a remarkable role in the emergence of administrative
practices. A Chinese administrative expert writing in 500 BC
remarked that:
Whoever pursues a business in this world must have a

system. A business which has attained success without
a system does not exist. From Ministers and Generals
down to the hundreds of craftsmen, every one of them
has a system. Now, if we govern the empire or a large
state without a system, we are not even less intelligent
than a common craft man (Adebayo, 2004).
In our modern societies, various groups of people from all walks of

life are woven together in a complicated process to achieve the
objectives of the organization. In both public and private
establishments, large numbers of employees have to be supervised,
coordinated and controlled. Thousands of workers have to be
brought together and distributed for work among the various
departments of which the various organizations are composed.
Workers are graded in different levels of authority, from directors
and managers at the top to messengers and laborers at the bottom.
Everyone has to be assigned his specific function and the
contribution of each must be towards the objectives of the whole.
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Self – Assessment Exercise 3.1
What is Administration? Discuss the history of administration.
3.2 Basic characteristic of administration
Administrative practice is based on some known characteristics

namely:
Hierarchy: Organization form a chain of superiors ranging from the

highest ranking to the lowest – ranking manager
Unity of command: Employees receive orders from one superior
Chain of command: organizations are divided into various but

functional sections, units, departments etc.
Span of Control: Employees are given authority and responsibility

that commensurate with their offices, which should not be more or
less.
Explain four basic principles of administration
3.3 Administrative Theories
Administrative theories are postulated to establish how resources of

organizations can best be managed. Administrative approaches are
broadly divided into Administrative Management, Scientific
Management, Bureaucratic Management and Human Relations.
Administrative Management
This theory was first formulated by Henry Fayol, and later Luther
Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. The theory concentrates on attempts to
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develop principles of administration which can be applied

everywhere. According to them, any administrative principle once
developed, should logically work in any kind of administrative
institution. Gulick and Urwick gave the discipline of public
administration, the acronym POSDCORD which means planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and
budgeting. According to Gulick and Urwick, POSDCORD
constitutes the key duties and functions of any administrator in an
organization. The acronym is criticized of having over –simplified
the work of an administrator. On their own part, still under
Administrative Management theory, James D. Mooney and Allan C.
Reilay formulated the four principles of organization which are: the
coordinative principle; the scalar principle (hierarchical structure);
functional principle (division of labour); and the staff/line principle
(Onuaha, 1999).
Scientific Management
This theory was propounded by Frederick Taylor. The key tenet of

scientific management is that human beings are adjunct to the
machine, thus the workers should be made as efficient as the
machine they operated in order to achieve optimum productivity and
efficiency. But human beings as adjunct of the machine can only be
applied to the lower echelon of the organization. The weakness of
the technique lies in the fact that human beings are not machine, and
do not become activated like machines. Workers are human beings
with values which require that they be differently treated in an
organization.
Bureaucratic Management
Bureaucratic theory was one of the earliest theories of organization.

It was formulated by Max Weber, who is fondly referred to as the
father of bureaucracy and bureaucratic theory. According to Weber,
bureaucracy is hierarchical, and promotion based on professional
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merit and skill. Bureaucracy is characterized by career service,

which relies on and adopts rules and regulations for its operations.
The career professionals are guided by impersonal relationship
among them, and between them and their clientele. Weber is
interested in learning how bureaucracy functions, why it functions
the way it does, and its possible effect on the whole society. Max
Weber’s thesis is that to understand organization one needs to
understand the procedures and activities of the bureaucracy, since
bureaucracy gives meaning to organization.
Human Relations
Human relations theory is another method of studying organizations.

The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organization examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to
establish what relationship exists between motivation and job
satisfaction, and how these affect efficiency and productivity in the
organization.
The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo
in 1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and
managers, and among workers themselves. The development of the
theory continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is
today known as Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow
perceived human desire to be based first on psychological needs
which provide the foundation for the next greatest need, which is
security. These are followed by love or belonginess, self esteem, and
finally self actualization. According to him, all these human needs
collectively determine productivity in any organization.
Discuss four different approaches to the study of Administration
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3.4 Definition of Public Administration
Having understood the concept of administration, its characteristics,

and theories, it can be noted that when the concept of administration
is qualified with the word ‘public’ it simply means the practice of
administration in a particular segment of the society, that of the
public sector. Public administration is therefore governmental
administration and operates in the particular sphere of government.
It is the machinery for implementing government policy.
Public administration is concerned with the study of how a country’s

administration is organized and how it functions. Since it is the
machinery for implementing government policy, it follows that its
study must lead to the study of the most efficient ways of organizing
the executive branch of government, its institutions and its
procedures.
Public administration is the machinery, as well as the integral

processes through which the government performs its functions. It is
a network of human relationships and associated activities extending
from the government to the lowest paid and powerless individual
charged with keeping in daily touch with all resources, natural and
human, and all other aspects of the life of the society with which the
government is concerned. It is a system of roles and role
relationships that defines in as clear and practicable terms as
possible and in as much details as possible the intentions and
programmes of government; the means available internally and
externally to accomplish them; and finally, it is a system that causes
these intentions and programs to be realized in real life. It is a
pattern of routinized activities, involving decision – making,
planning, advising, coordination, negotiation, conciliation,
arbitration, command and data gathering, through which the
government carries out its responsibilities (Nnoli, 2003).
The significant elements in these definitions are:
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1. Cooperative group effort in public setting
2. It involves all the branches of government
3. There must be defined goals and objectives
4. There should be public policy
5. It distinguishes public administration from the private

administration
Self Assessment Exercise 3.4
Define and list the basic elements of Public Administration.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have explained that public administration is a governmental

administration or machinery for implementing public policy. Some
basic texts of renowned authorities are used as sources for the
exercise. These sources coupled with ideas of cerebrated
administrative theorists have made our discussions much clearer.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning and theories of public
administration by looking at the following aspects; definition,
principles, theories, and structure of public administration. We
learned that public administration is the machinery as well as the
internal process through which the government performs its
functions.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. What is public administration?
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2. List and explain the major limitations of three of the theories

of Administration.
3. State and explain two ways through which public
Administration is organized.
7.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READINGS
Simon, H. Smithburg, D. and Thompson, V (1950) Public

Administration. In Adebayo, A. Principles and Practice of
Public Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books
and John Wiley.
Nwosu, H.N. (1983) “The Universality of Administration” In,

Nwosu, H. N (ed.) Problems of Nigerian Government, Enugu:
Fourth Dimension
Onuaha, B. (1999) “Public Administration: Basic Principles,

Techniques and Process. In Adebayo, Augustus (ed.)
Elements of Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Fayol, H. (1984) Industrial and General Administration quoted in

Adebayo, A. Principles and Practice of Public
Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John
Wiley
Adebayo, (2004) Principles and Practice of Public Administration
in Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley
Nnoli, O. (2003) Introduction to Politics Revised Second Edition,

Enugu: Pan African Center for Research on Peace and
Conflict Resolution (PACREP)
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UNIT 2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDIES

OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The History of Public Administration
3.2 Public and Private Administration: Their differences
3.3 Public and Private Administration: Their similarities
3.4 Qualities of a Public Administrator
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration is a broad discipline that covers a variety of

issues which touches on maximizing the use of scarce resources to
satisfy human needs. The various issues that will be examined in this
unit include; introduce to you the studies of public administration;
the history of public administration; the distinction between public
administration and private administration, similarities between
public and private administrations, and qualities of a public
administrator.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students are required to:

h Discuss the history of public administration
h State the differences between private and public
administration
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h Mention the similarities between private and public

administration
h List the qualities of a public administrator
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The History of Public Administration
Public administration is not a creation of modern times. It has its

roots in history and dates back to the times of the ancient
civilizations. It is on record that:
h Dating back to 462 B. C. Pericles, a renowned leader in
ancient Greece, introduced a scheme for the compensation of
officials, thus facilitating the continued participation in
public administration by citizens who had to work daily for
their living (Bury, n d).
h The ancient Chinese Empire during the Han Dynasty, 202
BC, recognized the need to have a permanent body of
officials to implement government decisions.
h Again about the year 120BC, the Chinese Prime Minister,
Kung – sun Hung, in a memorandum addressed to the throne,
observed that the edicts and laws which were written in
elegant classical style were often not understood by the
officers whose duty it was to explain and interpret them to
the people. He therefore recommended that examinations be
held for the selection of men and that those who had shown
the best knowledge should have the first preference in
appointments to office requiring the use of the written
language. His recommendation was adopted and marked the
beginning of the civil service examination.
h It is also of interest to note that in AD 219 the ancient
Chinese had worked out a system of classifying men into
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nine grades according to their ability, knowledge, experience,

and character. This system was called Chung Cheng, that is,
Impartial Judge, a forerunner of our present day civil service
commission (Shih, 1941)

Discuss the history of public administration in the world
3.2 Differences between Public and Private Administrations
In order to clearly discuss and understand the subject matter of

public administration and the basic issues involved in it, it is
important to identify the differences between public administration
and business or private administration. Thus public and private
administrations differ concretely in a number of respects.
1. The goals that both are expected to serve are different. Since
their activities are guided by the nature of these goals the nature
and organizational framework of these activities are bound to
differ. Clearly the maximization of profit is the overriding goals
of private administration. All efforts must be channeled in this
direction, and all obstacles to its accomplishment must be
removed. The situation is quite different with public
administration in which the goal, in concrete terms, is not as
clear – cut and single minded. Profit, social welfare, national
prestige and political advantage are all to be accomplished
simultaneously. The public administrator must integrate them
with a lot less emphasis going to the profit motive than in private
administration. As a result of this mixing of goals the public
administrator must be more cautious and take less risk than his
private counterpart. He must be more diplomatic and less single
– minded than the private administrator. He must conciliate
more, negotiate more and consult more than in private
administration before arriving at a decision.
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2. Related to this difference in goals is the difference in the

assessment of the performance of these two administrations. In
much of the work of public administration, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to quantify the output or evaluate precisely the
activities of the administrators. For example, it is difficult to
quantify the performance of those engaged in diplomatic
activities, and the implementation of educational and health
service programs. The situation is quite different with private
administration. Here all inputs and outputs are evaluated in
monetary terms, particularly their relationship to the profit or loss
of the enterprise. This inability to compare performance lies at
the heart of the incomparability of public and private
administrations.
3. There is also a difference between the two types of

administrations with respect to the span of activities with which
they deal. The activity of the private enterprise is one of a narrow
focus, of the concentration of attention and resources on one line
of activity. Such activities are usually economic in character, and
concern only one specialized or specific aspect of economic life.
Public administration concerns itself with at once social,
economic, cultural and political activities. The resultant
diffuseness of attention adversely affects not only the time that
can be devoted to an in – depth examination of the various
aspects of the implementation of public programs, it also
hampers a clear definition of the programs themselves.
4. Unlike administrators in private administration, civil servants are

accountable to the public for every aspect of their official
activities. They are subjected by the public to a detailed scrutiny
of their use of resources and the nature of performance of their
jobs. They face scrutiny by the press, legislature, taxpayers, the
traditional surveillance of the courts, and by interest groups and
political parties. Although private administrators are influenced
27
by their public contacts, are subject to government regulations

and maintain a vast public relations activity, their activities are
still in general private in character. Their internal operations are
to a large extent their own business, closed to the public gaze.
The demands for public consultation and participation in the
activities of public administration are growing all the time due to
the increase in the number of pressure groups and agencies that
demand attention and the right to be consulted. All these
demands impose constraints on the public administrator in terms
of his/her originality, initiative and use of discretion in the
exercise of his/her judgment. They also slow down the process of
public administration because of the time involved in these
consultations. Caution becomes an important value. Risk taking
is banished. And flexibility or adaptability is difficult to attain.
5. Both administrations differ in their structure of decision –

making. In private administration the ultimate decision – making
group is very small, limited to the board of directors of the
enterprise. In addition, members of this group have a direct
personal and concrete stake in the output of the business. Thus,
the smallness of size enables decisions to be directed strictly to
the output, and for a result – oriented decision to be emphasized.
The ultimate decision – making group in the public
administration, the cabinet, is much larger than in the private
sector. It is, therefore, more unwieldy as a machinery for quick
action. Furthermore, its members are not personal owners of the
public enterprise and, therefore, can be more easily distracted
from the objectives of their decision – process.
6. The structure for the implementation of decisions in public

administration is much more decentralized than in private
administration. It consists of the various ministries of the civil
service. Therefore, much more than in private administration
efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service depends to a
28
greater extent on the effectiveness of the mechanism for

coordinating the activities of these decentralized units. This need
for coordination is much less compelling in private
administration where centralization prevails. Thus, in public
administration, the lateral organization of activities around
functions is an important aspect of the overall structure of the
system. In private administration this lateral organization is
absent. All these functions are performed within one and the
same structure. This centralized arrangement encourages unity of
command, greater flexibility in the allocation of resources and
faster adaptation to changing conditions.
7. In public administration, officials are employed until retirement,

are promoted largely by seniority, and remunerated at standards
rates within fixed pay scales and promotion grades. Such
conditions of service sometimes do not bear much relationship to
performance since no matter how inefficient the official turns out
to be he is already in a particular grade and can hang on until
retirement. In other words, he enjoys job security. By contrast, in
private administration an official can be relieved of his job
anytime his performance is deemed inadequate. The salary and
fringe benefits are usually high but job security is absent. The
consequence of this difference is that the private administrator is
under greater pressure to keep his job than the civil servant. He
is, therefore, likely to be more highly motivated than the latter.
Thus, public administration is much slower and more inefficient
than private administration because of its poor work habits and
ethics.
8. The hiring and firing of workers in private administration is swift

and merciless. In public administration, it is slow and humane.
Consequently, private administration can move faster in the
organization of its activities than public administration. It can
quickly add or drop staff, as it deems necessary to achieve its
29
objectives. Public administration does not enjoy this kind of

flexibility.
9. Discipline is much harsher in private than in public

administration. This is essentially because the private sector
thrives on the exploitation of man by man. Profit takes
precedence over human values. Although the conditions of work
are usually better than in the public they are much more
exploitative, considering what the worker produces in relation to
what he gets as wages and social security. Thus, the public
administrator is under much less pressure from the enterprise
than his private counterpart. He/she is, therefore, more relaxed
with his/her work, and more likely to develop a positive non –
mercenary attitude to his/her work. Public service cultivates
feelings of patriotism that are vital for the overall success of the
society. The public servant develops a sense of participation in
the history of his people in a very direct way. This positive
attitude is an asset to public administration that is denied to
private administration (Nnoli, 2003)
State the differences between public and private administrations
3.3 Public and Private Administration: Their similarities
Public and private administrations have the same essence. There are
therefore, similar in fundamental terms.
1. They are both designed to help those who wish to implement

their programs but are too few to do so. For public administration
government is helped, whereas in private administration the
owners of the enterprise, the board of directors, receive the aid.
30
Both administrations are guided by the goals that their employers

seek to achieve.
2. In their performance of their tasks both are hierarchically

organized and operate with clearly spelt out procedures regarding
command, obedience, promotions, discipline and work ethics.
3. Both administrations perform similar functions of data gathering,

provision of advice on alternative policy options, recruitment of
personnel, resource management, the advertizing of their
activities, interest articulation and aggregation, and the
negotiation, conciliation, arbitration and settlement of disputes.
4. They are both a similar form of organization of men in the

performance of these tasks and functions (Nnoli, 2003).
Mention the similarities between public and private administrations
3.4 Qualities of a Public Administrator

A good administrator must possess the following qualities:
1. Tact: He must be tactful in dealing with his political bosses. The

President or Governor, Minister or Commissioner, as the case
may be. An administrator must be efficient and brilliant and yet
there may be clamor for him to be moved somewhere else on the
grounds that he usually puts up the backs of those working with
him. When dealing with political bosses and members of the
public, a top administrator should avoid being arrogant,
pompous, or pedantic. This is equally important in minuting, in
submission in the file, in correspondence, and in discussion.
31
2. Modesty: Administrators have a duty to brief their bosses, both

when they are alone together and when they are in the public at
some meeting or conference. Such briefing, especially the ones
carried out in public, should be done as unobtrusively as
possible.
3. Sense of Judgment: Another quality most essential in an

administrator is a fine sense of judgment. Every moment of the
day an administrator is engaged on assignments which require
evaluation, weighing of evidence, assessing degrees of urgency
on various public issues, and assessing the mood and temper of
those sections of the public which are clients of the department,
and which the department has to consult or take into
consideration before arriving at decisions and formulating
policies.
4. Foresight: The Administrator should be able to forecast based on

his knowledge and experience, the probable consequences of
measures proposed for policy. He should, in addition, be able to
think of likely developments that may arise over the next year or
two. From his knowledge and accumulated experience, he should
have the skill to deduce likely developments, given a set of
factors and circumstances.
5. Ability to Delegate: Another essential quality necessary in an

administrator is the ability to delegate work to his subordinates.
It is a mark of poor administration for a top administrator to seek
to handle by himself all the essential assignments in the
department. In the process, he will create a bottleneck which will
cause endless delays, and he will ruin his own health.
List the qualities of a public administrator
32
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have given a general introduction to the study of public
administration where key issues in the discipline are discussed. The
understanding of these key issues will equip you to undertake further
analysis of critical areas of administrative issues. We sourced our
materials from reputable works of experienced administrators and
renowned scholars.
5.0 SUMMARY
Here, we have discussed key issues in public administration with
emphasis on the following; the History of Public Administration,
differences between public and private administration, their
similarities, and qualities of a public administrator. Even though
public and private administrations are comparatively different, yet,
they share some commonalities.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. How did public administration emerge?

2. What are the qualities of a public administrator? Discuss
three of them.
3. Discuss three differences and similarities of Public
Administration and private administration.
7.0 REFERENCES
Bury, J. B. (n.d), A History of Greece, New York: Random House,

Inc., Modern Library Edition
Shih, H. (1941), Historical Foundations for a Democratic China,
33
Edmund J. James Lectures on Government 2nd series,

Illinois: University of Illinois Press
Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics, Revised Second Edition,

Enugu: Pan African Center for Research and Conflict
Resolution (PACREP)
Adebayo, (2004), Principles and Practice of Public Administration

Weber, M. (1946), Essays in Sociology (Translated by H. H. Gerth

and C. W. Mills, New York: Oxford University Press
Weber, M. (1947), The Theory of Social and Economic Organization

(Translated by A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons, New York:
Oxford University Press,
34
UNIT 3 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Absorbing the work of governments.
3.2 Meeting the challenges of Government activities
3.3 Implementing government decisions
3.4 Detaching political activities from administrative
work
3.5 Negotiation, Conciliation, and Arbitration
3.6 Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration is a distinct field of administration, which is
very important for the success of any government. This peculiarity
arises out of the fact that public administration is an action part of
government, the means by which the purposes and goals of
government are realized. Specific issues to be covered here are:
absorption of the work of government, meeting the challenges of
government activities, implementation of government decisions,
detaching of political activities from administrative work,
negotiation, conciliation and arbitration and communication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is intended that by the end of this unit, you should be able to:
h Explain how public administration absorbs the bulk of work
of government that covers various aspects of the society’ life.
35
h Discuss the role of public administration in meeting the

challenges of continuous growth in size and complexity of
Government activities
h State how administration implement government decisions
h Describe how public administration detaches political
activities from administrative work
h Explain how public administration negotiate, conciliate and
arbitrate conflicting interests in the society.
h Mention the importance of communication in public
administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Absorbing the work of governments

One of the identified importance of Public Administration is its
ability to absorb the work of governments. There is noticeable
increase in the activities of government all over the world. They deal
with:
1. Foreign governments at the same time as they must oversee
internal and external trade.
2. The industrial and agricultural growth of the country; this
involves embarking on measures that will create a conducive
environment for both foreign and local investors
3. The health of the population by establishing specialists and
general hospitals as well as clinics for tertiary, secondary and
primary health care delivery and maintenance of facilities therein
4. Educational development through setting up of primary,
secondary, and tertiary as well as Universities across the nation,
most significant is also the servicing of these institutions.
5. Provision of power: governments across the world have a
demanding task of power generation which is the life wire of all
the economic and social activities
36
6. Defense: the task of ensuring both internal and external security

remains one of the topmost activities of government, security
challenges have increased over the years
7. Management of finance: aware of the vast needs of the public
and the lean resources always at the disposal of governments,
governments have the responsibilities of employing effective
measures for management of state resources
8. Encouragement of development in science and technology:
governments embark on measures aimed at encouraging
scientific and technological innovations
9. Promotion of sporting activities: Various sporting activities are
encouraged by the government to keep her citizens healthy and
entertain the populace (Nnoli, 2003)
It is not possible for a few ministers, chief executive and his political
advisers, the legislator and the judges and magistrates who make up
the three arms of government to be able to do all these. Even if they
have the competence, they do not have enough time and energy to
take care of all these activities within the time necessary to satisfy
the population. They need the additional hands found in the civil
service or public administration.
Explain five areas in which public administration assists in running

the government?
3.2 Meeting the challenges of Government activities

Government activities have not only grown in size, they have also
grown in complexity. And such a complexity demands different
kinds of expertise for various activities. Therefore, even if
individuals in government have the time and energy to carry out all
their functions they will not have among themselves alone the
necessary expertise to go round their specialized activities. Thus,
37
they need the variety of experts found in the public administration

such as:
h Teachers for managing educational institutions and
impacting knowledge into students and pupil in such
institutions
h Doctors whose responsibilities are to save lives through
preventive and curative measures using the equipments in the
hospitals and clinics established by the government
h Industrialists for sustaining the industries established
h Accountants, whose task is to keep proper records of financial
dealings of governments in addition to working out strategies
of generating revenue for financing the activities of
government
h Engineers that invent, operate and maintain equipments and
machines procured to serve various purposes in all
departments of government
h Soldiers whose responsibility is to maintain both internal and
external security etc.
Members of government do not know everything; and they do not

necessarily know more than everybody in their own area of
expertise. They need the help of experts and better minds.
Discuss five key areas through which public administration help in

meeting up with the challenges of continuous growth in size and
complexity of government activities?
3.3 Implementation of government decisions
So many processes are involved in the making and implementation

of government decisions that apart from the problem of high level
38
expertise there is the problem of an intricate division of labour that

must be solved.
1. There is the need for a clerk to file the letters,

2. Others to gather information,
3. Still others to ensure that the conditions of work are agreeable to
the civil servants,
4. Some to post letters, keep documents, write memoranda, gather
statistics, negotiate with individuals and groups, and so on and so
forth.
It is not efficient for one individual to perform many of these

functions at the same time. Experience has shown that more is
produced or achieved under conditions of a division of labor than
under conditions where no such division of labor exists. Therefore,
the demands of increased productivity, performance or achievement
require a complex division of labor in which many more people are
involved than those in government.
State the ways through which division of labor can lead to increase
in productivity in public administration?
3.4 Detaching political activities from administrative work
Those in government are usually politicians who have proved

themselves as experts in the manipulation of political forces.
1. Yet they have constantly to respond to political pressures in their
effort to remain in power.
2. To fend off the challenges of political rivals.
3. Reward political friends.
4. Form new alliances and consolidate existing ones.
39
Under these conditions they need to be assisted by others who will

emphasize the management of natural and other non – political
resources, and ensure that the government’s management of the
political resources does not severely damage the management of
these other resources.
Public administration enables the government to manage its non –

political resources and activities, an area in which the politician is in
any case less technically qualified, leaving him/her free to attend to
his/her expert profession of political manipulation and intrigue, and
to be rest assured that his/her socio – economic programs that are
often crucial for his political survival will not suffer.
Describe how public administration detaches political activities from

administrative functions.
For a government to protect persons and property against violence,

to collect taxes, and control traffic and health hazards, it must make
regulations. In order to settle disputes between parties, it must
conciliate and negotiate. In order to arrive at a just decision when
faced with conflicting demands from opposing interests and
functions in the community, a government must be continually
engaged in balancing. This balancing involves consultations,
negotiation, and compromise. Then, of course, there is the equally
important obligation on the part of a government to provide services.
From the foregoing, one can see certain uses and process from the
bedrock of the responsibilities of a government. These include
regulating, conciliating, balancing, compromise, service – providing.
Regulatory functions involve the making of rules and regulations
40
and the issuing of policy directives. For the rational and effective
performance of these roles there must be prior planning, and
gathering of information and data. It will also be necessary to hold
consultations with representatives of sectional groups and to
reconcile conflicting interests and points of view. All these tasks rest
on public administration. It is after these essential preliminaries have
been carried out that rules and regulations, and directives are issued
by government.
Explain the importance of public administration in resolving the

conflicting interest of groups and individuals in a nation.
3.6 Communication
In public service, administrative officials perform a considerable
portion of their task through communication which could either be in
oral or in written forms. One of the hallmarks of an administrator is
to develop the habit of communication by discussion – telephone
discussion, meetings and conferences, interviews with members of
the public and clients of the department. A good deal is achieved
through face – to – face discussion.
In spite of the obvious advantages of oral communication and

personal contact, it is inevitable that senior officials have to
communicate frequently through the written word. They have to
write minutes in files, prepare memoranda and draft speeches for
their chief executives – the President, Governor, Ministers, State
Commissioners, and Chairmen of statutory bodies and agencies.
h Minutes are views, opinions, advice, information, or

directives expressed in writing during the course of day – to –
day work in the office. They are usually enclosed in paper
jackets known as files. Each file bears a reference number by
41
which it is easily identified. For the purpose of tidy

arrangement and easy reference, each file is devoted to a
single specific subject.
h The decision to prepare the memorandum in a department

may originate directly from the Minister/ Commissioners who
are the political heads of departments or the permanent
secretary. A matter may have been subject of consideration in
the department and on which the Minister and his officials
have exchanged minutes in the file, each one expressing his
own views as a result of the data and information assembled
on the issue. Matters may reach a stage at which the Minister
is convinced that it is necessary to consult, inform or seek
approval of the Executive Council. At this stage, the Minister
will direct his permanent secretary to prepare a memo.
Alternatively, the process may be the reverse. The Permanent
Secretary and his subordinates may have been examining a
particular issue through the exchange of minutes in the file. A
point may be reached at which an important issue of policy
calls for determination and as he may prepare a memo.
h Public officials in the civil service, in the universities, local

government service, statutory corporations, etc. very often
have to write speeches for their chief executives. The chief
executive may be the President of the nation, the Governor of
a state, the Vice Chancellor of a University, a Minister of
State, a State Commissioner or the Chairman of a statutory
corporation or any governmental agency.

Mention the procedures through which senior officials communicate
through written communication in an organization.
42
4.0 CONCLUSION
It has been ascertained that public administration is the hub through

which social, political and economic development takes place within
a state. Indications are apt that through professionalism,
administrative duties lean more towards national interest than
individual interest. Textbooks are the main source for the exercise;
ideas from various scholars have been employed.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit dealt with the importance of public administration. An

important role of public administration is sustaining government’s
work. Some of the areas highlighted in this unit include; meeting the
government activities; implementation of government decisions;
negotiation, conciliation and arbitration; and detaching political
activities from administrative work.
1. Explain how public administration supports government

activities.
2. Discuss the ways through which public administration meet the
governments activities
3. Describe the procedure through which public administration
detach political activities from administrative duties.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Enugu: Pan African Center for Research and Conflict Resolution
(PACREP)
43
UNIT 4 SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Organization
3.2 Efficiency
3.3 Politics and Administration Dichotomy
3.4 Interdisciplinary
3.5 The Environment of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration has evolved over time, it has played a key role
in the organization of the structures of government and its usefulness
to other disciplines cannot be overemphasized. This unit attempts to
identify the critical areas that are the concern of public
administration. These include; organization of countries’ structure of
government, promotion of efficiency in the running of the various
structures of government, public administration and politics, the
interdisciplinary nature, and its environment.
2.0 Objectives
At the successful completion of this unit, you are expected to:
h Describe the organization of nations administrative systems
44
h Discuss the concept of efficiency with respect to public

administration
h State the dichotomy between Politics and Administration
h Examine Public Administration as an interdisciplinary field
of study
h Describe the Environment of Public Administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Organization
The study of public administration grew out of awareness that the

machinery of government especially the executive branch, its
institutions and its procedures has to be organized in the most
efficient way. Thus, in the study of public administration, policy and
administration go hand in hand.
Policy is concerned with decisions as to what to do;
It lays down the broad objectives of what is to be done.
It is concerned with the most efficient way of implementing
policy decided by the policy makers
At the same time administration is also concerned with
serving and assisting the policy – making process.
Policy is concerned with ends while administration is
concerned with means. But very often means do influence
ends.
Describe the organization of public administration
3.2 Efficiency
It is sometimes assumed that public administration is mere conveyor
belt which mechanically executes the instructions passed to it by the
policy – makers. This view may have been likely more especially in
45
the early days when the tasks of government were few and the
machinery required was simple.
As late as the mid – nineteenth century, Andrew Jackson, President

of the United States, asserted that the tasks of government were
sufficiently simple that any person of intelligence could perform
them without preparation or training. Even in modern times when
the responsibility of government for social and economic
development has assumed great magnitude and demands exacting
standards of efficiency, the impression still persists that the functions
of public administration are not to be taken too seriously.
This erroneous impression is particularly true of countries like

Nigeria which, for the most part of their political existence, had been
under foreign guidance, the generality of the public regarded work in
the public service as hard work in the service of foreign overlords.
Public administration therefore grew out of awareness that the

machinery of government was inadequate and sometimes totally
unsuitable to perform the functions of modernizing government.
Notable among the policy makers who were quick to notice the
deficiencies in the government administration of their day and to
urge the need to improve the system was Woodrow Wilson. In 1887,
when he was the Professor of Political Science at Yale in the USA,
he stressed the importance of studying the administrative institutions
of government. Woodrow Wilson stressed that the task of public
administration was to:
1. Strengthen the paths of government
2. Make its business less un – business – like
3. Strengthen and purify its organization
4. To crown its duties with dutifulness
Since Wilson’s time, many writers on public administration, first in

the USA and in recent times in Britain and Europe, have sought to
46
emphasize the importance of the concept of efficiency in the

functions and processes of governmental administration (Adebayo,
2004).
Self - Assessment Exercise 3.2
Discuss the various levels of efficiency in public administration
3.3 Politics and Administration Dichotomy
The relationship between politics and administration is often viewed

from two perspectives.
1. As being dichotomous
2. Both areas are not clearly distinct but interconnected.
Perhaps the most notable exponent of the dichotomy thesis was

Woodrow Wilson. In an article written in 1887, he argued that; the
policy of government … will have no taint of officialdom about it. It
will not be the creation of permanent officials but of statesmen
whose responsibility to public opinion will be direct and inevitable
(Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999).
According to Leonard White, whose book is reputed to be the first

devoted entirely to public administration, the general thrust of the
field of public administration maintains that:
h Politics should not intrude on administration;
h Management lends itself to scientific study;
h Public administration is capable of becoming a value free
science in its own right;
h The mission of administration is economy and efficiency
However, there are other scholars who hold the opposite viewpoint
and have argued that there is no rigid distinction between politics
and administration. One of the exponents of this position, Paul
Appleby has remarked that, public administration is policy making –
47
public administration is one of the numbers of basic political

processes by which people achieve and control government
(Appleby, n d).
Since the beginning of the debate, some scholars have gone on to

suggest that public administration is more part of management
science than political science. Those scholars present strong
theoretical reasons for choosing management with emphasis on
organization theory as the paradigm of public administration.
Examples of scholars who advanced this viewpoint are K. M.
Henderson, J.G Marchand, and Herbert Simon, and J. D. Thomson.
The entire trend of thought contained in the debate has been well
presented by one author who categorized the viewpoints into four
competing paradigms which began about 1900. According to the
author, the shifts began from about 1900 with the first phase of
school of thought ending at about 1926, during which date the
dichotomy between politics and administration was upheld.
The second paradigm 1927 – 1937 was the high noon of orthodoxy
and prestige of public administration which was marked by the
thoughts of Henri Fayol and Frederick Taylor. This was the high
point of the administrative management school. The debate at this
time insisted on the existence of certain scientific principle of
administration which could be discovered, and administrators would
be experts in their work if they learnt how to apply those principles.
It was at this stage that PODCORB was introduced and popularized
(Nicholas, 1986). This period was followed closely by a third school
of thought which produced scholars like Herbert Simon, Robert Dahl
and Dwight Waldo. These scholars argued that it was not feasible to
develop a universal principle of administration; there should be a
more human process of decision – making (Nicholas, 1986).
The third school of thought coincided with the behavioral period in

political science, 1950 – 1970, when public administration focused
48
on what became comparative and development administration.

Another name for this approach was cross – cultural public
administration. According to Fred Riggs, one of the prominent
authors at the time, the aim of comparative administration was to use
that field to strengthen public administration theory (Nicholas,
1986).
Close to the same period as comparative public administration,

another paradigm evolved, 1956 – 1970, which shifted attention
towards management science or administrative science. This
approach of looking at public administration offered techniques, at
times highly sophisticated, requiring expertise and specialization. At
this time it was argued that instead of being part of political science,
public administration should remain in the area of management
science.
State the dichotomy between politics and administration
3.4 Interdisciplinary
From public administration as management, the discipline moved to
what may be considered the present state of the discipline – the new
public administration – 1970 to the present which emphasized that
public administration should be studied along with science and
society. The new public administration reflects the new interest in
the relationship between knowledge and power, bureaucracy and
democracy, technology and management and technology and
bureaucracy. Also the period is witnessing interdisciplinary
programmes in science, technology and public policy. Emphasis has
shifted away from the traditional concern for efficiency,
effectiveness, budgeting and administrative techniques to a new
public administration much aware of normative theory, philosophy
and activism; thus the new questions it raises are on ethics, the
49
development of the individual members in the organization, the

relation of the client with the bureaucracy, and the broad problem of
urban growth, technology and violence (Nicholas, 1986)
In sum therefore, political science and management are the major

influences on the present stage of development of public
administration. The present stage pays extra attention to areas of
organization theory and information science, emphasizing areas like
the state, local government, executive management, administrative
law, and all those questions which seek to explain what the public
interest is in democracy and under a highly bureaucratic set up that
is confronted by high technology. Accordingly, core areas of the
present state of the study are:
(a) Environment of public administration (ecology)
(b) Quantitative methods, public budgeting and financial
management;
(c) Personnel administration
(d) Public policy environment
Self – Assessment Exercise
Examine the interdisciplinary posture of public administration
Public administration exists in a peculiar socio – economic and political

environment that affects its behavior and performance
1. It operates in an intense and pervasive political atmosphere. This is

natural since public administration is part and parcel of the political
process. Although politicians in government tend to absorb much of
the political pressures on government, enough still filters through to
the public administration to significantly affect its work. For
example, public administrators cannot take account of only the
technical and professional factors in their work. They must integrate
50
them with political considerations that are often unpredictable on a

day – to – day basis. Political considerations may cause an industrial
project to be embarked upon against all technical and professional
wisdom. Yet, at the same time the government expects the
administrator to use resources judiciously and to apply professional
expertise in the solution of national problems.
2. There is a widespread expectation of benefits from public

administration at little or no cost to the citizen. This is particularly
the case in the ex – colonial countries of Africa and Asia where there
is a strong heritage of government involvement in many welfare
functions. A consequence of this great expectation is that the
populace is not eager to calculate or make allowances for the cost of
providing these amenities. Thus, public administrators must walk the
tight rope of satisfying these popular demands with little or no
resources at their disposal.
3. The resources needed by public administration are so diffuse and

dispersed that there is a serious problem of coordination. The spatial
division of labour in the system is designed to help out but it creates
its own problems of coordination.
4. Associated with this diffuseness of resources is the diffuseness of

roles necessary for public administration. Unlike a private economic
enterprise where there is a single minded focus on one project, the
objectives of even the ministries cannot be precisely defined and,
therefore, neither can the roles necessary to accomplish them be
precisely defined.
5. Public administration takes place in the full glare of the public eye.
It is in a sense everyone’s business, and what is more, some people
outside the civil service take this business seriously. They are ever
ready to proffer suggestions on how to perform better, to call for
more action, to criticize and identify weaknesses and failures, and to
51
make political capital out of such failures. Thus public

administrators are under constant public pressure; their attention is
divided; and they are distracted. Under such conditions efficiency
suffers. But this is a necessary sacrifice for the values of freedom
and democracy. It is unthinkable that public administration should
be a secret affair of the civil servants (Nnoli, 2003).
Describe the environment of public administration
4.0 CONCLUSION
Attention has been drawn on the scope of public administration

where diverse areas have been identified with the concept. Different
views of seasoned administrators and academics in the area have
been explored; this provides the major source of information for our
discussion on the subject matter.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have discussed in this unit, the organization of public

administration, public administration and efficiency, politics and
administration dichotomy, the interdisciplinary posture of public
administration and the environment of public administration.
1 How would you explain the relationship between policy and

administration in your study of public administration?
2. Why is public administration considered as an
interdisciplinary field of study?
3 How would you describe the environment of public
administration?
52
Adebayo, A. (1984), Principles and Practice of Public

Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John
Wiley
Appleby, P. (1949) Policy and Administration, Alabama: University

of Alabama Press
Nicholas, H. L. (1986), Public Administration and Public Affairs 3rd

ed., New Jersey: Prentice – Hall

Enugu: Pan African Center for Research and Conflict
Resolution (PACREP)
53
MODULE 2 BASIC PRACTICES OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1 Functions Performed by Public Administration

Unit 2 Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration
54
UNIT 1 FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sustaining the incumbent government in power
3.2 Provision of Employment
3.3 Identification and Management of Resources
3.4 Provision of social welfare services to the populace
3.5 Conducting Foreign Affairs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration performs a variety of functions which
complement the activities of the various branches of government.
This unit therefore will discuss the various functions performed by
public administration. Among the roles highlighted in unit are (a)
sustaining incumbent governments in power (b) provision of
employment (c) identification and management of resources (d)
provision of social welfare services to the populace (e) conducting
foreign affairs, and negotiation, conciliation and arbitration of
conflicting interest in the state.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
h Describe how public administration sustains the incumbent
government in power
h Explain how public administration provides employment
opportunities
55
h State the position of public administration in the

identification and management of state resources
h List the responsibilities of public administration in the
provision of social welfare services to the populace
h Mention how public administration conduct foreign affairs
h Discuss the role of public administration in negotiating,
conciliating, and arbitrating the conflicting interest in the
society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sustaining the incumbent government in power
The most fundamental and important function of public
administration is to maintain the incumbent government in power.
This involves certain measures:
h Generating goodwill for the government from the majority of

the population
h Maintaining the ruling class in control of state power.
These primary and fundamental functions guide all other functions.

They include:
h Advising the government on how best to implement

programs: On the bases of its long tradition and experiences
in handling resources and its store of data on every aspect of
life of a society, public administration is in a very good
position to advise the government on possible alternative
courses of actions and their implications for the government
and society.
h Public administration also performs the function of

informing the public at large about government programs and
56
what progress is being made to realize them. The goal here is

to avoid any conflict between the people and the government
arising from the people’s ignorance of what the government
is doing, as well as to help generate support and goodwill for
the government. The ministry of information usually
performs this function.
A complementary function of public administration is that of

informing the government about the attitudes of the people,
including various groups in the society, towards government
policies and programs. Such information is often necessary
to enable the government to order or reorder its priorities.
The various field agencies of government ministries and
departments often provide it.
Describe how public administration sustains an incumbent

government in power
3.2 Provision of employment
An important function of public administration is the provision of

employment for the population. This function can be quite crucial in
the ex – colonial societies of Asia and Africa where the government
is often the largest employer of labor. Most, if not all, of those thus
employed work within the public administration. Such employment
opportunities include:
h National and Regional Ministries like education, health,

science and technology, finance, information, sports, defense,
external affairs, interior, agriculture, industry etc.
h Public enterprises, such as agro – allied industries,

petrochemical companies, power generating companies,
transport companies, mining industries, communication
companies, etc.
57
h Government agencies which include financial regulatory

agencies, import and export promotion bodies, anti graft,
agencies, human rights bodies etc.
h Educational and health institutions at the primary, secondary

and tertiary levels
h Local government departments etc.
In this way the civil service is a source of the means of livelihood,

in the form of wages and salaries, for thousands, if not millions, of
the population.
Explain the ways through which public administration provides

employment opportunities.
3.3 Identification and Management of Resources
Another function of public administration is that of identifying all

the resources available to the government from within its territory,
and managing these resources adequately. It is the government’s
bureaucracy that is responsible for conducting or supervising
surveys to assess the existence of:
Various minerals within the country
The unused agricultural potential of the nation
Resource endowment with respect to the organization of

industrial enterprises
The availability of the various categories of labor force and
The various resources that can be procured from external

sources, as well as the prices for their procurement.
58
The government bureaucracy not only identifies all these resources,

it also organizes the most profitable and useful way of bringing them
into productive activity to the benefit of the ruling class in particular
and the population in general.
Such resource management has as its goal the task of ensuring that
government programs are tailored to the resources available to the
government, and to eliminate all waste in harnessing these resources
to the relevant government programs.
State three areas where public administration can identify and

effectively manage the resources of the state
3.4 Provision of social welfare services to the populace
Public administration is also very crucial in the organization and

provision of social welfare services to the population.
h It is responsible in many countries for ensuring constant and

adequate supply of water, electricity, health care and
educational facilities.
h It is responsible for public works such as urban and other

road constructions.
h The dredging of rivers, the building of port facilities,

irrigation facilities, the organization of famine relief when
necessary.
h sanitation, drainage facilities, the control of erosion and other

natural disasters.
h the payment of pension and other labor benefits
59
h In some countries it organizes the provision of housing, day

care facilities for pre – school children and public
transportation.
In this way public administration influences directly the standard

of living and the life style of the people.
Other functions include
h The planning of the nation’s economic life in both the short

term and the long term,
h Taking care of the finances of the society, especially the

balance – of – payment function or the foreign exchange task.
h It must gather and store all possible information on every

aspect of national life and preserve important documents for
future use and scrutiny.
h The practical details and the equitable and fair use of the
instrument of justice, as well as law and order, are also the
responsibility of public administration. Public administration
must ensure that the courts function smoothly and are not
overloaded, that the prisons are not congested or run
inhumanly, and that the law enforcement agencies do not act
arbitrarily.
h In addition, the civil service must co ordinate all the

multifarious activities of its various departments and agencies
to ensure that they are not working at cross – purposes.
List five welfare services that can be provided by public

administration to the general public.
3.5 Conducting Foreign Affairs
60
In the field of international affairs, public administration must win

friends and influence peoples and nations for the country. To do this:
It must portray the country in as favorable light as possible,

learn as much as possible about other countries, negotiate
with them for the best possible advantage for the country in
the procurement of external resources, and the procurement
of the country’s domestic resources by foreign countries
It must operate to increase the number of the nation’s friends

and reduce the number and strength of its enemies.
It must act in such a way that the nation is not subject to

foreign invasion, and if such an attack becomes inevitable
that is has enough strength and foreign friends to help ward it
off.
In the performance of this task it may have to negotiate,

threaten, conciliate, arbitrate and settle disputes. And by
liaising with the ministry of defense, the ministry of external
affairs has the duty of protecting the independence and
territorial integrity of the country. The ministry of defense
additionally ensures that the internal challenges to the power
and authority of the ruling class are crushed.
Mention five areas where public administration can conduct the

foreign affairs of a nation
In the course of its duties public administration must of necessity

come into contact with various interest groups and political parties
with competing interests and programs that they wish the
government to respond to. In some cases these interests conflict with
one another.
61
In its formulation and execution of public policy the government

bureaucracy may not necessarily confine itself to these expressed
and organized interests. It may articulate and aggregate interests on
its own initiative in important areas where no interest groups or
political parties have shown any interest, or even where they have
shown interest.
Of course, its function in this regard is not limited to the articulation

and aggregation of interests. It goes ahead to convert these interests
into policies in conformity with government programs. But before
this can be done public administration may first be involved with
interested groups and parties in a protracted process of negotiation,
conciliation, arbitration and settlement of disputes.
This is a dramatic process when conflicts over conditions of service

of the various sections of the working population are concerned, or
when the government wishes, for example, to control the prices of
foodstuffs.
Discuss two procedures that can be used by public administration in

articulating and aggregating the interests of individuals and groups
in a state without rancor.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Public administration is seen here as a veritable tool for social,

political and economic development of a state. Some important areas
are then put in perspective for discussion so as to ascertain the level
to which public administration functions. Public administration has
continued to play a critical role in sustaining the government in
power and providing essential public goods to the citizenry. While
different countries have different public administration, the basic
functions of public administration are performed by all states.
62
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary, this unit has highlighted the various functions

performed by public administration. Although not exhausted, we
have looked at the following functions: Sustenance of the incumbent
government in power, Provision of Employment, Identification and
Management of Resources, Provision of social welfare services to
the populace, Conducting Foreign Affairs, Negotiation, Conciliation,
and Arbitration.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED
1. Explain how public administration can be used to generate

employment opportunities by governments
2. List and explain four major ways of identifying and managing
resources through administrative setting.
3. State four processes through which administrative structures
reconcile conflicting interest of groups and individuals in
embarking on development projects.

(PACREP)
63
UNIT 2 METHODS OF INQUIRY IN PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Method of inquiry in public administration

3.2 Descriptive Method of inquiry in public administration
3.3 Experimental Method of inquiry in public
administration
3.4 Survey Method of inquiry in public administration
3.5 Case study Method of inquiry in public administration
3.6 The Institutional Method of inquiry in public
administration
3.7 Comparative Method of inquiry in public
administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration has evolved and developed over time, this has
been possible because of relentless investigations into issues
bothering on the improvement of the discipline. Major methods of
inquiry into the discipline that will be discussed here are historical
method, descriptive method, experimental method, survey method
and case study method.
At the successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:

h Explain Historical Method
h Examine Descriptive Method
h Describe Experimental Method
64
h Discuss Survey Method

h State Case study Method
h Define Institutional Approach
h Explain Comparative Approach
MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Historical Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
Historical sources may be classified into two major categories,

namely, documents and relics. Documents are usually written
whereas relics are generally archaeological or geological remains
such as tools and utensils. Relics are not written. For instance, a
letter written by President Goodluck Jonathan would be a document
from the standpoint of the information it contains but would be a
relic from the standpoint of spelling errors or other aspects which are
not part of what Jonathan intended to transmit. Among the various
documentary sources are:
1. Official records, minutes of meetings, committee reports and
legal documents
2. Institutional records, attendance rolls, university bulletins
3. Memoirs, biographies, diaries, personal letters, books on the
philosophy of a known scholar, and so on.
Historical sources can further be classified into primary and

secondary sources;
h Primary sources are data provided by actual witness to the
incident in question.
h Secondary sources of data come from a middleman who acts
between the original witness and the present consumer.
Secondary data are subject to an inherent danger of inaccuracy.

Whenever evidence is transmitted form one individual to another, it
65
tends to become distorted. Occasionally secondary sources have

been so carelessly compiled that they are in a category of unverified
hearsay or rumor. For this reason, reliable historians rely as much as
possible on primary sources, using secondary sources only as
hypotheses to bridge the gaps between the various pieces of primary
data, and at times the historian may have to rely on secondary
sources. He must bear in mind the limitations of such data. In the
event that numerous gaps in the primary source cause his over –
reliance on secondary source, he should refrain from attempting the
study at all.
Explain historical method of inquiry in public administration
3.2 Descriptive Method

Descriptive method is concerned with the collection of data for the
purpose of describing and interpreting existing conditions, prevailing
practices, beliefs, attitudes and ongoing process. Descriptive inquiry
is that investigation which specifies the nature of given phenomena.
The specification can be simple or it can be complicated. The
importance of descriptive inquiry in public administration as well as
other fields of educational endeavor clearly implies complexity of
phenomena. The need for systematic ways of telling what a situation
is, means that the situation is no longer simple. It can no longer be
understood directly and without synthesis.
Descriptive inquiry gives a picture of a situation or a population.

Any consideration of phenomena generally begins with a full
understanding of the phenomena. Accurate descriptions are
imperative for making a wide range of policy decisions. For example
the Nigerian department of labour makes detailed surveys of
unemployment; these attempt to describe unemployment in the
Nigerian economy for the purpose of knowing what the situation is.
66
Such surveys provide the basis for eliciting possible policies

considered and those ultimately accepted as a result of the inquiry,
represent value decisions. While the research findings may have
been useful, it cannot be concluded that the policies were determined
scientifically.
Descriptive inquiry is basic for all types of research in assessing the

situation as a prerequisite to inferences and generalizations. While
descriptive inquiry is a prerequisite for finding answers to questions,
it is not in itself sufficiently comprehensive to provide answers.
Descriptive inquiry cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
From description the investigator cannot deduce conclusively the
cause of the phenomena or predict what the future phenomena will
be. Descriptive inquiry using the same design done at specified
periods of time can, indeed, show trends in description from which
hypotheses can be gleaned and later tested under controlled
experimental conditions.
Explain the basic assumptions of the descriptive methods of inquiry

in public administration.
3.3 Experimental method

The steps of experimental method are essentially those of the
scientific method. They may be outlined as follows:
1. Selecting and defining the problem: The problems amenable
to experimentation generally should be converted into a
hypothesis. This hypothesis can be verified or refuted by the
experimental data. The variables to be investigated should be
defined in operational terms.
2. Reviewing the related literature: This shows how the present
research fits into the scheme of things. It surveys the research
previously done on the problem and evaluates what this
67
research has and has not accomplished in solving the problem

currently under study. Thus in this review, the research
should point out very carefully the similarities and, more
importantly, the differences between that research and his
current study. In order to do this effectively, the researcher
must do more than consider the findings as they are reported.
He must examine the findings critically in light of the
research methodology, the specific procedure employed, the
control, the sampling and the measuring instruments used.
3. Drawing up the experimental design: This section should
place primary emphasis on the question of control,
randomization, and replication and should include a
clarification of such basic aspects of the design as the place
and duration of the experiment. It is generally advisable to
conduct a pilot study because of the complexity of an
experiment in order to ensure the adequacy of the design.
4. Defining the population: It is important to define the
population precisely so that there can be no question about
the population to which the conclusions are to apply.
5. Conducting the study: It is important here to insist on close
adherence to plans, especially as they relate to the factors of
control, randomization, and replication. The duration of the
experiment should be such that the variable under
investigation is given adequate time to promote changes that
can be evaluated and to insulate the influence of such
extraneous factors as novelty.
6. Assessing the outcomes: Careful consideration must be given
to the selection of the criterion on the basis of which the
results are to be assessed, for the efficiency of the experiment
depends largely on the fairness of the criterion used.
7. Analyzing and interpreting the results: The researcher is
concerned with the operation of the factors under
investigation. He must be especially sensitive to the
possibility that the results of his/her study arose through the
68
operation of uncontrolled extraneous factors. The researcher

must further insulate at a given probability level the
possibility that the experimental findings are simply the
results of chance. In no other area of research is the need for
competence in statistical procedures so clearly indicated as in
the analysis of experimental data as the basis for their valid
interpretation.
8. Drawing up conclusions: the conclusions of the study must be
based on the findings of the study. Care must be taken not to
over – generalize the results obtained. The results also pertain
only to the conditions under which they were derived, and,
since control may have distorted the natural situation, care
must be taken to restrict the conclusions to the conditions
actually present in the experiment.
9. Reporting the result: The study must be reported in sufficient
detail so that the reader can make an intelligent judgment as
to its validity (Fisher, 1957)
Describe experimental research
3.4 Survey Method

The survey method is interested in the accurate assessment of the
characteristics of whole populations of people. Only rarely,
however, do survey researchers study whole population; they
normally study samples drawn from populations. From these
samples, the researcher infers the characteristics of the defined
population or universe. The study of sample from which inferences
about population can be drawn is needed because of the difficulties
of attempting to study whole populations. Random samples often
furnish the same information as a census at much less cost, with
greater efficiency sometimes, greater accuracy.
69
Sample surveys attempt to determine the incidence, distribution, and

interrelations among sociological and psychological variables.
Survey research focuses on people, the vital facts of people, and
their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behavior.
Surveys are particularly versatile and practical, especially for the

administrator, in that they indentify present conditions and point to
present needs. Surveys do not make the decisions for the
administrator, but they can provide him with information on which
to base sound decisions.
Surveys can be conveniently classified by the following methods of

obtaining information: personal interview, mail questionnaire, panel,
telephone and controlled observation. Of these, the personal
interview far overshadows the others as the most powerful and
useful tool of social scientific survey research (Osuala, 2005)

Discuss survey research
3.5 Case Study Method

Case study has a long history in social science research and has been
used extensively in public administration more especially in the area
of motivation. For example both Freud and Piagnet typically used
case studies to develop their theories. Criticism of their techniques
damaged the case study approach, but the increased acceptance of
qualitative research and in particular, participant observation has, as
corollary, revived the acceptability of the case study.
The case study can either be quantitative or qualitative, or even a

combination of both due to the constraints of a sample of one or a
single unit being studied. With the restrictions that brings for
statistical inference, most case studies lie within the realm of
qualitative methodology. Case study is used to gain in – depth
70
understanding replete with meaning for the subject, focusing on

process rather than outcome, on discovery rather than confirmation.
Case study must involve the collection of very extensive data to

produce an understanding of the entity being studied. Shallow
studies will not make any contribution to administrative knowledge
(Osuala, 2005).
State the importance of case study as one of the methods of inquiry

in public administration.
3.6 Institutional Approach
This is the earliest approach to the study of governmental

administration. It was largely based on the legal rights and
obligations of government. The approach tended to emphasize
formal relationships and separation of powers among the three tiers
of government – legislature, executive and judiciary. Under this
approach, generalizations were often based upon analysis of formal
organization practices and the constitutional delegation of authority
and responsibility to the three arms of government. Policy and
administration were often dichotomized, with the assumption that
the role of administrators was almost entirely confined to merely
carrying out policy designed by the formal political arms of
government (Onah, 2005).
What is the basis of analysis under institutional approach?
3.7 Comparative Approach
71
This approach owns its development to comparative politics. The

Second World War marked the development of comparative
approach among academic studies of public administration. This
development was as a result of the following:
h The creation of several new international organizations
h The United States volunteered to assist in promoting economic
recovery programmes in Europe and the Far East
h Western countries led by USA developed programmes of aid and
technical assistance to benefit the Asian and African countries
that became independent from the late 1940s through the 1950s
and 1960s.
h The concern of some public administration scholars with the
search for a science of public administration
As a result of the reasons stated above, many American public

administrators and some academic experts of the discipline were
sent to foreign countries in the late 1950s either to assist in
administering economic programmes or as technical experts to
strengthen the public administration institutions of some of the
newly independent countries. From their concrete experiences this
experts discovered that the existing assumptions of public
administration elaborated in USA were inapplicable to the realities
of the foreign countries. The first efforts by some of these experts to
compare notes on the subject took place at the conference on
comparative public administration held at Princeton in 1952. This
conference therefore gave birth to the comparative approach to the
study of public administration (Adamolekun, 1983).
Explain the basic issues that were responsibility for the development
comparative approach to public administration
72
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has outlined and discussed the various methods of inquires
used in public administration. The discussions show that the success
in the administrative work depends to a large extent on the efficient
method of gathering and applying the information at various levels.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit considered the following approaches for discussion;

Historical Method, Descriptive Method, Experimental Method,
Survey Method, Case study Method, The Institutional Approach,
and Comparative Approach. It discussed their theoretical
assumptions, usefulness and weaknesses as a mode of inquiry in
public administration.

Differentiate between institutional and comparative approaches.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Adamolekun, L. (1983) Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Perspective, New York, Longman Ltd.
Fisher, R. A (1957) The Designs of Experiments, London: Oliver

and Boyd
Jones, T. (1971) Conducting Political Research, New York: Harper

and Row Publishers
Onah, R. C (2005) Public Administration, Nsukka: Great AP

Express Publishers Ltd.
Osuala, E. C (2005) Introduction to Research Methodology; The
73
Millennium Edition, Enugu: Cheston Agency Ltd
74
UNIT 3 CIVIL SERVICE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Functions
3.2 Principles of Civil Service
3.3 Control of the Civil Service
3.4 The Colonial / First Republic Civil Service
3.5 The New Civil Service in Nigeria
3.6 Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
An understanding of the nature of Civil Service in a society is very

vital for the study of the administrative practices of such place. Civil
Service is the hub through which public administrative work centers
on. Important areas considered for discussion here are the definition
and functions, principles, control of civil service, the new civil
service in Nigeria and civil service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is intended that by the end of this unit, you should be able to:
h Define and list the functions of Civil Service

h Mention various principles of civil service
h Describe the control of civil service
h Examine the colonial/First Republic Civil Service in Nigeria
h Discuss New Civil Service in Nigeria
h Examine Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
75
h Examine civil service reform under Obasanjo 1999 – 2007
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition and Functions
Civil service is the body that normally functions with the executive
arm of government comprising of men and women who constitute
the permanent staff of the departments of government. They are
professional administrators. Sometimes they are generally refered to
as public service.
Functions of the Civil Service
i. Conversion of policies that have been formulated by the

cabinet into action
ii. Enforcement of laws enacted by the legislature
iii. Provision of expert advice on either positive or negative

implications of policies intended to be formulated by
government
iv. Planning, organization and supervision
v. Advice on measures of improving the quality of life of

citizens and making government more efficient
vi. Ensuring continuity of government in spite of changes
Define and state the functions of the Civil Service?
3.2 Principles of Civil Service
Civil service has some guiding principles in discharging its duties,

these principles include:
76
i. Political Neutrality: The first principle guiding the

performance of the public service is political neutrality. By
this we mean that a public officer does not become involved
in partisan politics. He serves the government of the day with
dedication. If that government is replaced by another one, he
serves the new government with the same degree of loyalty
and dedication. He does not allow his personal views to
interfere with his performance of his functions.
ii. Impartiality: Similar to political neutrality, the civil servant

serves all members of the public to the best of his ability. He
does not favour anyone. He does not belong to any political
party or faction, at least, not openly.
iii. Anonymity: In an effort to protect the neutrality and

impartiality of civil servants, they are made to operate behind
the glare of publicity. They advise their ministers and
political executives but they do not make open or partisan
speeches. The ministers and politicians make such public
statements and defend programmes. Anonymity extends to
the actual operations of the service. Decisions taken are
regarded as the decision of all. Everybody is responsible for
it. This is the principle of collective responsibility which also
ensures the neutrality of any particular individual.
iv. Permanence: Governments come and go but the civil service

remains. Public officers are not changed each time there is a
change in government. As long as they do their work properly
and do not commit any crime, their tenure of office is
guaranteed.
v. Merit and Achievement: Another principle of the civil service

is that recruitment into the service is based on merit. This
means that certain standards and educational qualifications
are set, and only those who satisfy them are considered for
77
employment. This is different from some traditional systems

where sons succeed their fathers automatically. In addition,
under civil service rules, promotions are based on merit and
achievement and not on patronage or favor by a godfather
(Leo and Oyewole, 1988)
Mention the principles of civil service
3.3 Control of the Civil Service
Any organization where people operate without laws controlling

their actions will be vulnerable to anarchy. To avoid this, an
elaborate network of rules and regulations govern the behavior of
civil servants. These are divisible into internal and external controls:
The internal control includes:
h The general orders: These are the body of regulations which

outline the conditions of service and responsibilities of public
officers. Closely related to this is the Financial Instructions
which prescribes the procedures for the collection of spending
of public funds. It is important to note that civil servants are
expected to pass examinations on the General Orders as part
of their knowledge and experience
h Control by the Ministry of Establishments: This Ministry

deals largely with all matters affecting the conditions of
service of public officers. Its regulations affect all other
ministries, and thus it can guarantee uniform standard in
matters such as grading incremental credits and so on.
h Control within the Hierarchy: Each Ministry is hierarchically

structured with the Permanent Secretary being the overall
78
supervisor of the ministry. He can discipline those under him

in many ways. For minor offences, the officer may be
cautioned. In more serious cases, a query may be issued and
in the most serious cases, a disciplinary committee may be set
up, or the matter may be sent to the Public Service
Commission for investigation and necessary punishment.
The external control of civil service
There are other mechanisms outside the civil service which exercise
some control on the service:
h Control by parliament: The Legislature authorizes funds for

various ministries and departments. Through this power of
the purse, it could review the performance of the officers to
see whether or not they have carried out government policies.
If a department has failed to perform satisfactorily, the budget
for it may be cut.
h Control by administrative courts: Tribunals or Public

Complaints Commission. By whatever names they are called,
these are institutions set up to ensure that public officers are
above board in the performance of their duties. Citizens who
feel that an officer has not performed well can approach a
tribunal or complaints commission for redress. Such
complaints are investigated and recommendations made. As
the public becomes more aware, the kind of control exercise
by tribunals and public complaints commission will become
more important.
h Control by the Court: In case of gross abuse of office, an

officer will be handed over to the court for necessary
disciplinary action.
Describe the ways through which civil servants can be controlled
79
3.4 The Colonial / First Republic Civil Service in Nigeria
The civil service in Nigeria during the colonial era and the first
republic was organized along the lines of the British Civil Service
with four main classes – the Administrative, the Executive, Clerical
and Manipulative Classes.
These four classes used to operate as if there were watertight

compartments. It was difficult for a civil servant to move from one
class to a higher one. The Administrative class was the highest and
most prestigious and people used to call them the senior service.
People in this class worked closely with the politicians in advisory
capacity.
The members of the administrative class were university graduates

with good degrees who in addition passed the entrance examinations
and interviews. The entry qualifications for the other levels were
lower, so are the salaries and benefits. These classes provide needed
supporting services to the Administrative class.
Self - Assessment Exercise 3.4
Examine the colonial/ First Republic Civil service in Nigeria
3.5 The New Civil Service in Nigeria
The new civil service in Nigeria marked a departure of the old rigid
system to a more flexible and result oriented system. For example,
following the Udoji Commission Report of 1974, the Federal
Government of Nigeria decided to abolish the four classes. In its
place a unified grading system was introduced. Instead of having
classes, the jobs in the public service were graded from level 1 to 17.
The highest positions were 17 while the lowest were 1. All public
officers and jobs were fitted into this unified system.
The merit of this new system is that a good officer who starts his/her
career on level 1 can move up to any level his ability can carry him.
80
This was an improvement over the old system under which it was
impossible to move from the Clerical to the Administrative level.
The new system enables everybody to be in the same unified

structure and merit and efficiency can carry one to the highest levels
(Adebayo, 2004).
Discuss the new Civil Service in Nigeria
3.6 Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
In Nigeria, during the four years of the Second Republic, we seem to

have adopted an amalgam of the American and the British Systems.
Even though we operated a presidential system of government, we
had Permanent Secretaries whose positions were in fact recognized
by the Constitution. Indeed, the Constitution described them as
Chief Executives in the Ministries or Departments in addition to
other departmental heads in a ministry. The fusion led to some
degree of uncertainty, as to what the relative roles were between the
Minister/ Commissioner and his Permanent Secretary and this in
turn led to conflicts in the departments.
In some of the governments in the federation, there were sharp

disagreements between Ministers/Commissioners and their
Permanent Secretaries. The Ministers/ Commissioners, on assuming
office, approached their task with the assumption that since Nigeria
had embraced the presidential system of government, there were the
Chief Executives of the departments in every respect. It is a sound
and reasonable assumption. The permanent secretaries, on the other
hand were trained to operate on laid – down rules and regulations,
and until these were changed or modified, the Permanent Secretaries
went by such regulations. Thus the existing Civil Service
Commission Regulations delegated to Permanent Secretaries certain
81
powers of appointment, promotion and discipline up to a certain

level in the Civil Service.
The Financial Instructions and Public Administrative Law made the

Permanent Secretary the Accounting officer of his Ministry and the
General Orders gave the Permanent Secretary, as Head of
Department, responsible over a great number of personnel matters,
for example approval of vocation leave and matters relating to
discipline, promotion and development of staff in the department.
Examine the Nigerian civil service from 1980 to 1988
3.7 Civil Service Reforms under Obasanjo 1999 to 2007
Obansanjo’s reforms centered on the following aspects:
1. Anti – Corruption, Transparency and Accountability: Corruption

remained an intractable problem that constrained development
efforts in Nigeria. On assumption of office, Chief Olusegun
Obansanjo, observed that the time – tested approach in
conducting government business had degenerated to such an
extent that the Public Service were abandoned either due to sheer
ignorance or for selfish reasons (Ekpenkhio, 2003). The
President emphasized that transparency in Government
Procedures was necessary to usher in a great and dynamic
economy to ensure a just and egalitarian society. The reform
programme focuses on specific measures to curb corruption,
improve transparency, and accountability in the conduct of
government business.
2. Monetization of Fringe Benefits: As part of its efforts to reduce

the cost of governance and ensure efficiency in resource
allocation, the Federal government decided to monetize the
fringe benefits of public servants. The fringe benefits to be
monetized where residential accommodation, furniture
82
allowance, utility allowance, domestic servant allowance, motor

vehicle loan, medical allowance and entertainment allowance.
3. The Pension Reform Act 2004: The Pension Reform Act came
into existence in 2004 the main objectives of the Act were to:
a) Ensure that every pensioner who worked in either the Public

Service of the Federation, Federal Capital Territory and the
Private Sector receives his retirement benefits as and when
due;
b) Assists improvident individuals by ensuring that they save in

order to cater for their livelihood during old age and;
c) Establish a uniform set of rules/regulations and standards to

the administration and payments of retirement benefits for the
public service of the federation, Federal Capital Territory and
the Private Sector (Ezeani, 2005)
Examine Civil Service Reform under Obasanjo1999 - 2007
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed civil service in Nigeria. We explained how civil

service is a veritable factor for the development of the country. The
civil service has witnessed various reforms from the Colonial/First
Republic to the reforms during Obasanjo’s civil rule, the essence has
been to reposition and equip the civil service for efficient service
delivery.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have in this unit treated definition of public administration,

functions of Civil Service, principles of civil service, the control of
civil service, the colonial/First Republic Civil Service in Nigeria,
83
New Civil Service in Nigeria and Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to

1988.
6.0 TUTOR –MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. What is civil service?

2. List the principles of civil service
3. Describe the New Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Dare, L and Oyewole (1988), A/L Government Textbook for West

Africa, Ibadan: Onibonoje Press & Book Industries (Nigeria
Limited)
Ezeani, O. E (2005), Administrative Reforms in a Post – Colonial

State: An Appraisal of Nigeria’s Experience under Obasanjo
Regime (1999 – 2005) in, University of Nigeria Journal of
Political Economy, 1 (1)
84
UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Theories
3.3 Traditional and New Public Administration
3.4 Obstacles of Development Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since its inception, traditional public administration has been

characterized by insurmountable problems which amount to
bureaucratic bottlenecks. This situation does not augur well for
development. Of course, the worst hit is the Developing Nations
who are still grappling with providing the basic necessities of life.
Development administration is therefore a new concept designed to
overcome these obstacles. This unit therefore will focus on the
definition of development administration, theories and traditional
and new public administration
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
h Define development administration

h State the theories of development administration
h Examine traditional and new public administration
h Mention the obstacles of development administration
85
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 DEFINITION
Development administration is concerned with plans, policies,

programmes and projects which focus on nation building and socio-
economic development. It aims to achieve socio-economic goals
through the talents and expertise of bureaucrats.
Development administration focuses on the results to be achieved

rather than the traditionalist view of strict adherence to rules and
hierarchy. Strict adherence to rules creates rigidness, delay and
procrastination.
1. Development per se is oriented towards change in a destined

direction. Thus, development administration is change oriented
and rejects status quo.
2. Every development functions have a goal to be achieved. i.e.
economic development has the goal to improve the quality of life
such as better literacy rate, life expectancy and reduction in
poverty
3. For the goals to be achieved, to relate the means to ends,
planning and temporal dimension is a salient feature. Planning
aids in deciding the resources required for the goal, the time in
which it needs to achieve.
4. Development administration has an innovative dimension; it is
flexible enough to design new methods, procedures, policies
which would save time, increase effectiveness and quality.
5. Administrators under this concept are required to be committed
to the policies, plans and programmes. The commitment is not
necessarily to the political parties, who enacts the policies but to
the values that an administrator should upheld in his/her
profession.
6. Development is ultimately aimed to the people, hence it should
accord primacy to the public the administration should be client
oriented.
7. For the development functions to be effective and for it to be
people oriented, participation of people is emphasized in
86
formulating plans, implementation and sharing the benefits

derived. Thus Development administration should focus on
"planning with people" rather than "planning for people". It
should be people centered rather than production centered. i.e.
not in maximizing production, goods and services but to address
the needs of people, empower people.
Development administration has two concepts administration of

development and administrative development. Administrative
development is increasing and improving the capabilities of
administrative system. It involves modernization of administrative
structure, capabilities of personnel, attitudinal and behavioral
changes among the administrators.
Self – assessment exercise 3.1
What is Development Administration?
3.2 THEORIES
New Public Administration is particularly relevant to the developing

nations where qualitative transformation of public administration is
needed.
1. Public Choice Theory
Vincent Ostrom, an advocate of Public Choice Theory, viewed

bureaucrats as preferring self-interest to public interest. Public
Choice School views the citizen as the ultimate source of
administrative power because he/she is considered as a rational
consumer of public goods and services. Public Choice School
developed the “Theory of Administrative Egoism”, according to
which bureaucrats, in general, are self-aggrandized and whose
interests are antithetical to public interest.
2. System Theory
87
Biographical and autobiographical writings on administrators and

reminiscences of former administrators are closely related to the
‘historical approach’ to the study of Public Administration. The
chief contributor of the System Analysis is Herbert Simon. The
systems analysis identifies the basic unit of the system to be the
‘individual’ (not the sub-system) Sub-systems are ‘dynamic’ in the
sense that they undergo continuous change as a result of interaction
with other sub-systems within the system. The term ‘administrative
lag’ connotes the imbalance between aspirations and performance of
administration. This is a major obstacle for development in the third
world nations.
3 Fusion Approach
The Scientific Management Theory of Frederick W. Taylor

emphasized ‘standardization’ and ‘cooperation’. However,
according to Taylor, the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards
and of enforcing the cooperation rests with the management alone.
In Fusion Approach – the interests of organization is fused with
those of the workers. Individual workers are considered as important
as the organization itself. Classical theory and the Human Relations
theory are considered anti-polar. But, the goals of both the theories
are same, and thus concerned with economy, efficiency and use of
scientific methods in organization (Rodman, n.d)
State the various theories of Development Administration
3.3 TRADITIONAL AND NEW PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
Herbert Simon widened the scope of Public Administration by

relating it to psychology, sociology, economics and political science.
There are basically four problems confronting public
Administration, viz:
1. Inadequate funds
2. Uncertainty and confusion over the status of the discipline
88
3. Institutional shortcomings; and

4. Lack of interaction between scholars and administrators.
New Public Administration emphasised four factors: relevance,

values, change and social equity. Under the traditional Public
Administration, there was a mismatch between the supply of public
administration and the demand of the people. Though the Public
Administration functioned well, it failed to solve the contemporary
problems. Hence, the New Public Administration demanded that
there should be relevance between Public Administration and the
contemporary social problems. Traditional Public Administration
emphasized value-neutrality. For example, both rich and poor will
be treated equally without any favour for one side. However, New
Public Administration championed the cause of the disadvantaged
sections in society and openly sided with them. Thus, it emphasized
value factor in administration. New Public Administration
specifically emphasized that the basic function of administration is
to distribute the resources in such a way as to reduce the economic
and social inequalities. This is to maintain social equity. New Public
Administration has attacked the traditional concept of maintaining
status quo (same status) and advocated innovation and change.
What are the differences between the traditional and new public
administration?
3.4 Obstacles to Development Administration
The obstacles to development administration are many and varied

and interconnected, but we might usefully discuss them under four
headings: (1) shortages of skills and tools (2) difficulties of
organization and structure (3) political difficulties and (4) cultural
and attitude barriers.
1. Shortages of skills and tools
a) There is a shortage of trained personnel, which is the most

obvious and widely noted difficulty in development
89
administration. The shortage generally affects all levels of

administration, but is particularly acute with regard to
'support administration', i.е. middle- and lower-echelon
personnel, and local administrators. One expert has stated that
ten people are needed for 'support administration for every
one person at the top.
b) An additional problem is that the emerging nations' interest in

foreign affairs absorbs many of their skilled people, and this
further reduces the number available for development tasks,
Secondly, there is a great waste of the limited talent that is
available for administration. There are often large numbers of
skilled people in administration, but with the wrong skills.,
e.g, people who studied liberal arts or law (The tradition of
the amateur 'generalist' dies hard,) These subjects have
prestige but little usefulness., and thus many new
administrators are in effect untrained. Much of the right kind
of training is wasted because trainees seek other work or get
no chance to use their skill. New schools and institutes for the
teaching of public administration are often provided, for both
students and teachers, for those people who can be spared
from their work, i, e, the least useful.
c) Another aspect or consequence of the shortage of personnel is

the rapid turnover in individual positions, as skilled men are
shifted around from one position to another. Some of it is
voluntary, and due to the lack of uniform systems of pay,
classification, and advancement. But most of it is a relic of by
gone days of the generalist administrator, when one
administrative job was not basically different from any other,
and when frequent rotation could broaden the generalist's
outlook. "But today, when specialized experience takes time
to acquire, frequent transfers or transfers to positions where
there is no opportunity to use scarce skills, tend to aggravate
the acute shortage of experienced managerial leadership,
90
Moreover, because of frequent shifts in, or lack of, staff, it

has not been unusual to find projects languishing or even
abandoned."
d) The skill lacking is not merely advanced economic or

administrative expertise, but simple office skills: filing
systems, internal communications, trained stenographers,
clerks, accountants, etc. Without the ability to preserve and
organize internal records, an administration is more or less
amnesiac. Yet training institutions often teach advanced
concepts and techniques borrowed from advanced countries -
philosophical bases of administration, human relations,
computer technology etc., and neglect the 'nuts and bolts'.
e) Elementary statistical data are often unreliable, fragmentary,

or non-existent.
2. Difficulties of organization and structure
There are problems involved in the location of the central planning

agency in the over-all governmental structure. Each of the several
possible arrangements has its own hazards; all planning
responsibilities can be concentrated in a cabinet-level ministry of
planning. Planning units can be established in the Ministry of
Finance or in the Ministry of Economic Affairs. An independent
planning commission can be established, perhaps, as in Pakistan,
located in and responsible to the Office of the President or the
Commission may constitute a cabinet committee composed of the
interested ministers (finance, economic affairs, labour, education,
agriculture, etc.). The essential problem is co-ordination., In
Jamaica, the Department of Housing was planning a housing project
on the same land which the Ministry of Agriculture was preparing to
flood for an irrigation project. In Madagascar, the Ministry charged
with repairing a highway after the Ministry of Telecommunications
91
had placed telephone cables underground, repaired the highway

before the Ministry of Telecommunications had laid the cables:
Co-ordination has at least two major aspects: co-ordination of the

several departmental objectives in one over-all, balanced plan, and
co-ordination of planning, financing, and execution. One source of
problems is that these two requirements are to some extent
incompatible. On the one hand, coordination of departmental
objectives seems to require a planning unit independent of any
particular ministry.
3. Political difficulties
The vulnerability of developing administrations to political

vicissitudes is due to the fact that these bureaucracies politically
engage themselves to a far greater degree than are their counterparts
in advanced countries. That is, the bureaucracy may not merely be
an arm of the executive, but the executive - in-fact. It may be the
only body in the society capable of formulating clear social and
political goals. If the legislature is feeble (as is often the case), the
bureaucracy may be the arena of political struggle among interest
groups, or may become an interest group itself, allying itself with the
ruling oligarchy. In fact (to look at this from another point of view),
it is usually desired that the bureaucracy go beyond its specialized
mechanical functions and become an active promoter of the political
goal of change.
4. Cultural and attitude barriers
Because of the bureaucracy's significant political role in developing

societies, the bureaucracy's adjustment to the tasks of development
is crucial. The ingrained conservatism of most of these bureaucracies
thus becomes a major obstacle. Development requires an
administration mobilized for transformation not for mere
'administering'. But bureaucracies, like any established institutions,
tend to prefer stability and continuity; staff colleges tend to imbue a
92
code of behaviour that emphasizes rules and routines. Universities,

though more autonomous than staff colleges may be even more
stubbornly resistant to change in their approaches to training.
Cultural factors can be among the most deep-rooted barriers to

modernization and they have their particularly administrative
manifestations, Plans may fail to be implemented or to take root
because the new institutions or patterns of behaviour are
incompatible with tradition. For example, mass education violates
the tenets of a caste system. Resistance to change will be formidable
whether the incompatibility is real or imagined (Waterston, 1964;
Riggs, 1956; Stone, 1964)
Mention the various obstacles of Development Administration
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, Development Administration has been seen as an

attempt to fashion out administrative system that will meet the
development needs of the third world nations devoid of the rigidity
of traditional administrative practices. Development Administration
places more emphasis on results rather than rigid procedures.
However, this mode of administration has inherent weaknesses such
as shortages of skills and tools; difficulties of organization and
structure; political difficulties and; cultural and attitude barriers.
5.0 SUMMARY
The relevance of the traditional public administration to the

developing nations facing socio – economic challenges and
development challenges has been disputed. Development
administration, because of its flexibility and focus on nation
building, and socio – economic development is better suited for the
93
developing nations. Development administration focuses more on

the result to be achieved than on the roles and procedures.
Essentially, it is change – oriented, people – centered, goal –
centered, innovative, participatory based and committed.
1. What is Development Administration? Explain the main

elements in the definition.
2. State and examine the various theories of Development
Administration
3. What would you consider as the main obstacles of
Development Administration?
Donald C. Stone, D. C (1965), ‘Government Machinery Necessary

for Development', in Martin Driesberg, ed, Public
Administration in Developing Countries,
Riggs, F. W (1956), 'Public Administration: A neglected Factor in

Economic Development', Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, vol, 305 May
Waterston, Albert (1964), 'Administrative Obstacles to Planning’,

Economía Latinoamericana, vol. 1, №3, July
94
MODULE 3 ISSUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1 Basic concepts of Public Administration

Unit 3 Practical issues in our society, Nigeria
95
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Bureaucracy
3.2 Organization
3.3 Chief Executive
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Like other disciplines in social sciences, public administration has

some peculiar concepts which are often employed for analytical
purposes. Some of the concepts that will be discussed in this unit
are bureaucracy, organization, chief executive and the environment
of public administration
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you are expected to:

h Define bureaucracy and list its features
h Discuss the concept of organization
h Explain the responsibilities of chief executive
h Describe the environment of public administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Bureaucracy
96
The term bureaucracy is often heard and used in connection with the
conduct of public affairs and the activities of public officials in
particular. What exactly is the meaning of the term?
No clear definition has been given of bureaucracy than that of the
eminent German sociologist, Max Weber, according to him:
The fully developed bureaucratic mechanism
compares with other organizations exactly as does the
machines with the non – mechanical modes of
production. Precision, speed, unambiguity, knowledge
of the files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict
subordination, reduction of friction and of material
and personal costs – these are raised to the optimum
point in the strictly bureaucratic administration … Its
specific nature develops the more perfectly the more
bureaucracy is dehumanized the more completely it
succeeds in eliminating from official business, love,
hatred, and all purely personal irrational and
emotional elements which escape calculation (Weber,
1947).
In order to qualify as a bureaucratic organization, Max Weber
specifies the following eight requirements which an organization
must meet:
1. The regular activities required for the purpose of the
bureaucratically governed structure are distributed in a fixed way
as official duties.
2. A specified sphere of competence has been marked off as part of
a systematic division of labor.
3. The official is subject to strict and systematic discipline and
control in the conduct of his office.
4. All operations are governed by a consistent system of abstract
rules … and consist in the application of these rules to particular
cases.
97
5. The organization of offices follows the principles of hierarchy;

that is, each lower office is under the control and supervision of a
higher one.
6. Officials are subject to authority only with respect to their
impersonal official obligations.
7. Candidates are selected on the basis of technical qualifications.
In the most rational case, this is tested by examinations or
guaranteed by diplomas certifying technical training or both.
They are appointed, not selected.
8. Being a bureaucratic official constitute a career. There is a
system of promotions according to seniority or to achievement or
both (Weber, 1947).
In conclusion, it is important to note that while bureaucracy has

inherent elements that make its processes often cumbersome and
distasteful to its public clients, yet it is indispensable and indeed an
instrument for the achievement of efficiency in all large
organizations. It is concerned with the most efficient means of
planning and control, and the fact that these processes are often
misused and abused by inefficient, corrupt, and stubborn officials is
not a case for the total condemnation of bureaucracy (Adebayo,
2004)
Define bureaucracy and list characteristics of a bureaucratic

organization
3.2 Organization
Organization is defined in many ways and each definition tries to

reflect a particular perspective which scholars adopt about
organizations. One of such definitions views organization as a highly
rationalized and impersonal integration of a large number of
98
specialists cooperating to achieve some announce specific

objectives. Another definition sees organization as a system of
consciously coordinated personal activities or forces of two or more
persons.
The various definitions help to identify some common

characteristics of organizations.
1. Organizations are purposeful, complex human collectives
2. They are characterized by secondary (or impersonal)
relationship;
3. They have specialized limited goals
4. They are characterized by sustained cooperative activity;
5. They are integrated within a larger social system;
6. They provide services and products to their environment;
7. They are dependent on exchanges with their environment;
8. In relation to public organizations, they draw their resources
(taxes and legitimacy) from the polity and are meditated by the
institutions of the state
If we carefully examine these characteristics, they jointly reproduce

what may be referred to as working universal principles of
organizations. They are three in number:
1. There must be division of labor
2. There must be identification of the services of the authority
3. There must be establishment of relationships.
Self – Assessment Exercise3.2
Discuss organization
99
3.3 Chief Executive
In developing his fourteen principles of management, Henri Fayol

identified Unity of Command as one of his principles. To him, that
principle simply means one man one superior, Fayol explained in
another principle, the principle of Authority that one man will have
the right to give orders. He further warned that authority should not
be considered without reference to responsibility. He noted again
under his Unity of Direction the one man as superior head will have
one plan for a group of activities with the same objectives.
The principles have been widely applied to administration at various

forms of modern organization. In modern organizations, the one man
with authority and responsibilities of all the activities in an
organization is referred to as the chief executive. Explaining more
about the chief executive, Corson and Harris noted that the chief
executive should be responsible for decision – making, planning of
work to be done, formulating objectives and goals establishing and
reviewing organization’s policies and programs, directing and
supervising employees, exercising control on other important
activities of an organization.
The functions of chief executives vary from organization and from

time to time; but essentially the same list of managerial duties is
performed by executives at all levels of administrative
responsibility. Every administrator or chief executive spends
considerable portion of his time in conversations, correspondence,
conferences and interviews. The task of a chief executive have been
viewed by many as sets of functions only performed in a rare field
atmosphere and on a grandiose scale, as mainly complex and most
intricate activities requiring great intellectual capacity. It can
however be denied that the task of administration requires only
qualities and attributes of the highest order, it is therefore important
to recognize the fact that administration does not comprise solely
100
actions of great magnitude. It is the simple as well as difficult, every

day decision and acts which in the aggregate become administration.
The efficient executives are those who realize that they must relieve
themselves of the less important work and devote more time to such
administrative functions as planning and coordination which they
cannot afford to delegate. As has been popularly known,
constructive thinking is most likely to occur when the executive has
mastered the art of unhurried management (Adebayo, 2004)
Explain the concept of Chief Executive
Public administration exists in a particular socio – economic and

political environment that affects its behavior and performance.
1. It operates in an intense and pervasive political atmosphere. This is

natural since public administration is part and parcel of the political
process. Although politicians in government tend to absorb much of
the political pressures on government, enough still filters through to
the public administration to significantly affect its work. For
example, public administrators cannot take account of only the
technical and professional factors in their work. They must integrate
them with political considerations that are often unpredictable on a
day – to – day basis. Political considerations may cause an industrial
project to be embarked upon against all technical and professional
wisdom. Yet, at the same time the government expects the
administrator to use resources judiciously and to apply professional
expertise in the solution of national problems.
2. There is a widespread expectation of benefits from public
administration at little or no cost to the citizen. This is particularly
the case in the ex – colonial countries of Africa and Asia where there
is a strong heritage of government involvement in many welfare
101
functions. A consequence of this great expectation is that the

populace is not eager to calculate or make allowances for the cost of
providing these amenities. Thus, public administrators must walk the
tight rope of satisfying these popular demands with little or no
resources at their disposal.
3. The resources needed by public administration are so diffuse and
dispersed that there is a serious problem of coordination. The spatial
division of labour in the system is designed to help out but it creates
its own problems of coordination
4. Associated with this diffuseness of resources is the diffuseness of
roles necessary for public administration. Unlike a private economic
enterprise where there is a single minded focus on one project, the
objectives of even the ministries cannot be precisely defined and,
therefore, neither can the roles necessary to accomplish them be
precisely defined.
5. All of these problems of the diffuseness of resources and roles are
the consequence of the very wide attention span which public
administration must maintain. It is involved in so many areas of the
life of a society and in so many activities that an overlap of several
areas of these activities is inevitable. But such an overlap leads to a
blurring of roles with negative consequences for efficiency, for
example, through the wastage of resources due to duplication.
6. Public administration takes place in the full glare of the public eye.
It is in a sense everyone’s business, and what is more, some people
outside the civil service take this business seriously. They are ever
ready to proffer suggestions on how to perform better, to call for
more action, to criticize and identify weaknesses and failures, and to
make political capital out of such failures. Thus public
administrators are under constant public pressure; their attention is
divided; and they are distracted. Under such conditions efficiency
suffers. But this is a necessary sacrifice for the values of freedom
and democracy. It is unthinkable that public administration should
be a secret affair of the civil servants.
102
7. Public administration, however, takes place under conditions of job

security for the civil servants. In the light of their constant exposure
to contact with the public and the consequent public criticism, this
job security has some positive effect on the continuity of policy. It
prevents precipitous actions from being taken against civil servants
on the basis of public complaints some of which may be politically
motivated and many of which may be the result of a lack of
understanding of the various government regulations. On the other
hand job security may enable incompetent civil servants to continue
in office to the detriment of the effectiveness of public
administration.
8. Finally, public administration may easily be compared out of context
with private administration. For example, very often the various
private administrations of banks, commercial houses, industrial and
other enterprises compete for personnel with public administration.
They are usually in a position to pay much higher wages and salaries
and to offer more attractive fringe benefits. They are thus able to
attract good personnel away from public administration. This is not
all. Workers in the civil service often compare their standard of
living very unfavorably with that of their counterparts in private
administration. The net consequence of this comparison is low
worker morale in the public sector. Truancy prevails; sometimes the
civil servant feels that he/she must engage in some private business
of his own at the same time as he maintains his civil service job.
Worse still he/she may feel the need to augment his/her income by
indulging in corrupt practices such as the inflation of contract sums
in order to increase his/her commission from the award of such
contract to those he/she sponsors. Such practices not only breed
waste and inefficiency in the management of scare public resources,
they damage the moral fabric of the nation and, therefore, the long –
term survival of the government and the ruling class. These practices
cause more havoc in African and other poor countries of the world
where the wages are generally quite low and where wastage of
103
public resources is most intolerable than they do in other countries

of the world (Nnoli, 2004)
Describe the environment of public administration
4.0 CONCLUSION
Every discipline has its own terminologies. These concepts are the
defining features of a discipline. In this unit, attention has been
focused at understanding the basic concepts in public administration.
While such concepts are numerous, we were interested in looking at
bureaucracy, organization, Chie Executive and the environment of
public administration.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have treated the basic concepts in public administration in this

unit by explaining Bureaucracy, Organization, Chief Executive and
the Environment of Public Administration
1. Define Bureaucracy and mention its basic features

2. State and Explain the responsibilities of the chief executive
3. Discuss the environment of public administration
7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS


(PACREP)
104
Weber, M. (1947), The Theory of Social and Economic Organization

(Translated by A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons, New York:
Oxford University Press,
105
UNIT 2 PUBLIC ISSUES IN ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Public policy
3.2 Implications for the concept of public policy
3.3 Stages of the policy process
3.4 Politics and policy
3.5 The Public Service
3.6 The importance of public service
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References /Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration is a system of administration that operates in

government settings as such it involves a variety of public issues.
The particular issues that will be examined here are public policy,
implications for the concept of public policy, stages of the policy
process, politics and policy, the public service and the importance of
public service.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will enable you to:
h Define Public policy

h List the implications for the concept of public policy
h mention the stages of policy process
h Examine the link between politics and policy
h Explain public service
h Mention the importance of public service
106
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Public policy
Public policy may be defined as a proposed course of action of a

person, group or government within a given environment providing
obstacles and opportunities which the policy was proposed to utilize
and overcome in an effort to reach a goal or realize an objective as a
purpose. According to James Anderson, public policy is a purposive
course of action followed by an actor or set of actors in dealing with
a problem or matter of concern (Anderson, 1979). Examples of such
public policies are: Industrial Policy of Nigeria (1988) Agricultural
Policy of Nigeria (1988), Indigenization Policy (1972),
Commercialization and Privatization Policy (1988), Health for All
Policy, Universal Basic Education etc. Thus public policy is the
policy developed or formulated by government bodies or officials
for the interest of all the people. It is the government bodies and
officials who have the authority in any political system to make
policies. Examples of these bodies are elders, paramount chiefs or
traditional chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators,
councilors or Monarchs. All these people perform one role or the
other on behalf of government, and in such processes, and capacities
they make and implement public policy.
However, other bodies, actors, or individuals can, and do indeed

influence public policy formulation e.g. political parties, the mass
media, interest groups and individual citizens.
Self – Assessment Exercise3.1
What is public policy? Give three examples of public policy.
107
3.2 Implications for the concept of public policy
- Public policy is directed towards a purpose, it is a goal – oriented

action. It is not a random or chance behavior. Public policy does
not just happen.
- Public policy consists of courses or patterns of action by

governmental officials. It is not their separate individual or
discrete decisions. E.g. A policy will include not only the
decision to make a law about environment, but also subsequent
decision relating to the enforcement of the environmental law.
- Public policy is what governments actually do in regulating

trade, controlling inflation, drugs, and promoting health and
public housing, etc. public policy is not what governments intend
to do or say they are going to do.
- Public policy may be positive or negative. For example, a

government may decide to do something or may decide to do
nothing about a particular matter. Public policy is based on law,
therefore it is authoritative. Accordingly, it must be obeyed.
Failure to obey the law on that policy will attract sanctions like
imprisonment or fine.
So far as it is observed in practice, the commonest practitioners of

bureaucratic method of administration, and the greatest formulators
and implementers of public policies are members of the public
service of any public organization.
List and explain four implications of public policy?
3.3 Stages of the Policy Process
Policy making has increasingly become a crucial aspect of the

function of government. The formulation of public policies and the
108
translation of these policies into specific programmes and projects

may be seen as a series of disparate activities which makes up a
never ending whole. Dunn (1981) therefore aptly observes that the
whole complex of policy formulation and implementation is best
taken as a process.
Let us now consider a list of the stages in policy process. In this

regard, Jones (1984) identifies the following set of five activities:
problem identification, policy formulation, legitimation, application
or implementation, and policy evaluation.
h Problem Identification: This stage involves demands (or

pressure) from interest groups and political parties on the
legislature for action to resolve a public problem (i.e. human
needs, deprivation or dissatisfaction). Issues become part of
the public agenda when there is a shared perception that a
problem must be shelved or an issue resolved. Thus, at this
stage the task of articulating and aggregating the interests of
the people is accomplished through organized pressure
groups which ensure that their demands are ultimately
represented on the policy agenda of the government.
h Policy formulation: this is a stage where government decides

on what is to be done and how it is to be achieved. The
formulation of policy proposal is usually the responsibility of
the executive arm of government.
h Legitimation/Authorization: This primarily involves

legislative action, to accord the proposed policy authority and
legitimacy. What happens to the policy proposal, whether or
not it gets adopted, depends to a great deal on the preferences
and values of the dominant group (or coalition) in the
legislature. If the policy is authorized by the legislative body,
it means that appropriate or requisite resource allocation is
also made for its implementation.
109
h Application or implementation: This state involves translation

of goals and objectives of policy into concrete achievements
through varied programmes. This is the stage at which the
implementing agency grapples with reality; hence it is the
most difficult stage in the policy process.
h Evaluation: This is the final stage in the policy process. Three

sets of activities are involved in the evaluation of policies viz:
measuring outputs (performance measurement); comparing
output performance against the desired results; and correcting
any deviations or inadequacies (Adamolekun, 1983). It is
necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that
evaluation exercise should not be limited to quantifiable costs
and benefits. The unquantifiable and intangible aspects must
be taken into account.
Mention four stages of policy process
3.4 Politics and policy
There is a considerable relationship between politics and policy. The

concern of politics is with what David Easton (1965) refers to as the
authoritative allocation of values Easton’s definition of politics is
very instructive because it points to the critical elements in the
linkage between politics and public policy.
First, is the issue of values; values are the things that people desire
and pursue with a fair amount of intensity. Values are not only
many, but they vary with individuals. What is at issue here is the
scarcity of resources relative to the many and varied values of
individuals.
Allocation therefore, becomes an imperative function of politics

because of the obvious lag between societal resources and the many
and conflicting claims that people make. It bears emphasizing that
110
the allocation function is reserved exclusively for what is called an

authority, the reason being that were allocation to be left free for all,
society will, in all probability, return to the anarchy of the state of
nature.
It is sufficient to note that it is authority which legitimizes the

political process by which values are allocated. Significantly,
authorities properly so –called are responsible for resolving the
conflict of interests which necessarily arises out of the competing
demands which people make. There is a paradoxical aspect to
politics which is evident from this discussion, namely, that the
political process is at once a conflict generating and a conflict
resolution process. As authorities seek to allocate values, they make
judgmental decisions which are favorable to some and unfavorable
to others. The cumulative decisions which authorities make are what
we generally refer to as public policies. This is another way of
saying public policy is the output of the political process of value
allocation.
The linkage between politics and public policy should by now be

fairly obvious. Public policy is what authorities do when they are
seized with the political process of sharing societal resources among
competing values.
Examine the relationship between politics and public policy?
3.5 The Public Service
The public service represents the employees of government. They

are those responsible for the functioning of government through the
implementation of government policies. Such policies include
welfare services rendered to the citizens.
111
The public service is therefore made up of workers in government

ministries, parastatals and agencies. Workers in the Ministry of
Education, Central Bank of Nigeria, Power Holding Company of
Nigeria, NITEL, Nigerian Railway, etc. are all members of the
public service. Within the public service, we have the civil service,
which constitute the inner core, or the heart of the public service.
From the period of Nigerian independence in 1960 to 1967, there

were five public services (the Federal Public Service, the Public
Service of Eastern Region, Northern Region, Mid – Western Region
and Western Region).
At the end of Nigerian civil war in 1970 a Public Service Review

Commission (The Udoji Commission) was set up to among other
things harmonize the structure and organization of the public service
of Nigeria (Public Service Review Commission Main Report, 1974).
In 1974 the Udoji Commission came out with a recommendation for
results oriented and unified structure of public service for the whole
country. This implies that recruitment, appointment, promotion,
remuneration, retirement, discipline, dismissal became governed by
the same conditions all over the country.
In 1988, there was another review, the Philips Civil Service Review
Panel (The Nigerian Federal Civil Service in the Mid 80s and
Beyond) which according to the government was aimed at
streamlining the public service along the lines of the presidential
system of government, with the purpose of making the public
service responsive to the Structural Adjustment Program (Federal
Civil Service Review Panel, n d). One of the recommendations of
the review was that heads of ministries be called Directors Generals
instead of Permanent Secretaries. The review also recommended
specialization in the ministry where the officer found
himself/herself. The appointment of the Director Generals became
political and the Director Generals were required to retire with the
president who appoints them.
112
Another review of the civil service was undertaken by the Allison

Ayida Panel of Civil Service Reform which submitted its report in
July, 1995. The Panel examined the 1988 reform and suggested far –
reaching changes. Based on the panel’s recommendation, the
Provisional Ruling Council, PRC, directed that the post of Director –
General should revert back to the status of Permanent Secretary and
accounting officer of the Ministry (Federal Republic of Nigeria,
1997).
Explain the Nigerian Public Service
3.6 The importance of Public Service
The relevance or importance and centrality of the public service to

public administration cannot be over – emphasized.
a) It is the public administration that ensures the continuity

of government
b) Public service acts as custodian and protector of the public

interest and public treasury against violation by the ruling
class
c) The public service particularly the civil service is

supposed to be politically neutral and
d) It is also supposed to faithfully serve any political master

in office
e) The public service enjoys security of tenure of office and

anonymity in the performance of their duties.
Mention five importance of public service to public administration
113
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have described many public issues that are involved in public

administration. This is critical for proper handling of resources in a
political entity. Contributions of renowned authors through classified
texts and journals are found very useful for this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
In our discussions in this unit we have dealt with public issues in

administration by looking at the following aspects; Public policy,
Implications for the concept of public policy, Stages of the Policy
Process, Politics and Policy, Public Service and The Importance of
Public Service
1. What is public policy?

2. List and explain the stages of policy process
3. Mention four importance of public service
Adamolekun L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Perspective, New York: Longman Inc.
Anderson, J. (1979), Public Policy Making, New York: Thomas

Nelson and Son Ltd.
Easton, D (1965),
Dunn, W. N. (1981), Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction, New

Jersey: Prentice – Hall
Jones, C. (1984), An Introduction to the Study of Public Policy,

California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
114
Federal Civil Service Review Pannel (n.d)
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1997)
Public Service Review Commission, Main Report, 1974
115
UNIT 3 PRACTICAL ISSUES IN NIGERIA
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Development
3.2 Public Service Review Commissions
3.3 Structures of Public Administration
3.4 Decision Making Process in Nigerian Public Service
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigerian public administration touches on practical issues of

development. Historically, it has passed through various stages. The
main issues that will be examined in this unit are: Historical
development of public administration in Nigeria, Wage Review
Commissions, the Structures of Public Administration and Decision
making process in Nigerian public service.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
h trace the major historical development of public

administration in Nigeria
h discuss the Wage Review Commissions
h describe the structures of Nigerian Civil Service
h discuss decision making process in Nigerian public service
3.1 Historical Development
The growth and development of public administration in Nigeria is

influenced by the following factors:
116
1. British Colonialism: The fact that Britain colonized Nigeria and

established British public service structure and procedures in the
administration of the colonial territory, influenced the growth
and development of public administration in Nigeria. Indeed, it
was the colonial public administration which managed the
colonial territory (Nigeria) from about 1861 to 1954 when
regional governments were created, and made the territory to
operate a federal structure. Thus, the public services of the then
regional governments from 1954 to 1960, and up to 1966, were
direct offshoots of the early British colonial public service
administrative structure in terms of ethics and values, culture and
tradition, training procedures and espirit de corp associated with
the public service. Nigeria’s social–cultural conditions or the
social settings made up of very many ethnic and cultural groups,
and many languages also have affected the growth and
development of public administration in Nigeria. Those factors
have created problems of balancing management and control in
the public service. In fact they are partly responsible for the
problem of nepotism and tribalism often associated with the
management of the public service in Nigeria.
2. Another influence on the public administration closely related to

social setting, is Nigeria’s federal structure adopted in the 1954
Lyttleton constitution. That constitution was largely responsible
for the regionally oriented development of the public service
administrative structure. The federal structure enabled the
creation of federal and regional services, and also the regional
outlook and consciousness of the services, particularly from 1960
to 1966.
3. The civil war of 1967 to 1970 was another significant influence

on public administration in Nigeria. The impact of the war was
felt in all segments of the Nigerian society. At the end of the war
the military apparently had such power and authority in the
federation which could not be easily challenged by any of the
117
constituents of the federation. That enabled the military to

establish what was called a result – oriented and unified grade
structure public service for the entire country through the
recommendations of the 1974 Public Service Review
Commission (Udoji Commission) (Public Service Review
Commission, Main Report, 1974). That public service reform has
continued to influence the structure and procedures of public
administration in Nigeria till date.
List and explain the major historical developments in Nigerian

public service
3.2 Public Service Review Commissions
In Nigeria and other erstwhile colonial countries whose civil service

system has been influenced by the British pattern, the problem is to
find a means of using administrative talent and experience and also
specialist skill and expertise at top management level in such a way
as to ensure maximum utilization of available manpower and at the
same time promote harmony in the public service. The Public
Service Review Commission in Nigeria, over time has set up the
following commissions for purposes of reforms in the public service:
Tudo Davis 1945, Harragin 1946, Miller 1947, Gosuch 1955,
Mbanefo 1959, Morgan 1963, Adebo 1970, Udoji 1974, etc.
The commissions thus invite memoranda from all concerned

deliberately publish and submit reports to the state. The Government
study the reports, reject, and accept certain aspect of the report as it
sees fit. After such a study of the report, a white paper is released
which effect appropriate reforms.
Mention major Public Service Review Commission in Nigeria.
3.3 Structures of Public Administration in Nigeria
118
Public administration is organized in two ways: laterally and

vertically. Laterally, the government creates ministries or
governmental departments on the basis of different areas of interests
of its activities. Usually, such ministries as those of defense, external
and home affairs, and finance are part of this structure. Others may
be split up into smaller units or combined into larger units as the
government sees fit on the basis of its view of how best to carry out
its programs and the available funds for this purpose. The chief
executive and, therefore, head of government is charged with the
task of delineating the various ministries and appointing the
ministers who head them. Among other ministries usually associated
with government are: Communication, Agriculture, Industry,
Information, Establishment, Labor and Productivity, Justice, etc. It is
these ministries that collectively form the civil service or public
administration.
This ministerial organization is based on a lateral division of labor in

the performance of government activities. Thus, for example, the
ministry of information takes responsibility for the dissemination of
news about government; the finance ministry coordinates all the
financial transactions of the government; the ministry of defense
uses armed forces to protect the society from external attack and the
ruling class from external and internal attack and displacement; the
external affairs ministry conducts the nation’s foreign policy; and
the ministry of the interior looks after internal security through such
institutions as the police, prison, customs, and immigration control
and civil defense.
In addition to the ministries, public administration includes some

permanent governmental agencies that perform vital specific tasks.
These agencies vary from country to country. In some countries but
not in others some of them may attain the status of a ministry.
Among them is the bureau of statistics whose function is data
gathering and analysis on all aspects of a nation’s life; others are the
119
census bureau, and the public service commission that recruits the
senior level personnel of the public administration. For purposes of
coordination of their activities with those of the other departments of
the administration, certain parent ministries supervise them. For
example, the ministry of economic development and planning often
looks after the bureau of statistics.
The lateral organization of governmental institutions makes the

coordination of the activities of these various ministries and agencies
an important aspect of public administration. Such coordination is
often evident at the time of budgeting and when preparing national
development plans. Therefore, budgeting and development planning
are mechanisms for inter – ministerial coordination. Their goal is to
ensure that all the lateral units of the government are working
harmoniously in the pursuit of all their various programs. However,
on a more regular basis, coordination is achieved by the activities
and the decisions of the cabinet. Here most of the heads of the
ministries are represented and discuss the implementation of
government programs under the chairmanship of the chief executive
of the state. Since the ministers are the official political heads of the
ministries their presence at the cabinet meetings ensures that the
views and interests of the ministries are represented. However, not
all ministers are of cabinet rank and so not all of them attend cabinet
meetings all the time. But when matters directly affecting a ministry
are concerned its minister will attend even though he/she is not of
cabinet rank. Otherwise, another minister of cabinet rank looks after
its interests in the cabinet.
Thus the cabinet, through its periodic review of the activities of the
various ministries, is able to coordinate the ministries and
government agencies. On a day- to – day basis, coordination of the
activities of the various lateral sections of the civil service is done by
a section of the public administration known as the cabinet office. In
Nigeria Executive Office of the President under the headship of the
120
Secretary to the Government performs this function. On a lesser

scale it is also performed by the office of the Head of the Public
Service that deals with the more technical questions of the efficiency
and smooth working of the bureaucratic machinery of government.
Needless to say, effective coordination of the various arms of the
public administration is the wheel around which its efficiency and
effectiveness revolve.
In addition to the lateral organization of the public administration

into ministries, there is also a vertical organization of each ministry
as a hierarchy of authority roles in which command flows
downwards and obedience flows upwards. Thus, public
administration is a command structure with those at the higher level
commanding and those at the lower level obeying. The higher the
level of authority the greater the degree of responsibility of the role
occupant within the system, at the top of this hierarchy is the
minister who is the political head of the ministry. He takes
responsibility for the performance of his ministry, taking the credit
for success and the blame for failure. A serious failure by his
ministry may cost him his job as minister and may even send him
into political disgrace. Therefore, he must maintain a tight control
over the other members of his ministry in the performance of their
duties. In this task, he has the aid of a tightly knit set of rules,
regulations, norms and procedures to which the civil servants must
conform strictly. However, apart from the function of laying down
the broad policy outlines for his ministry, the job of the minister is
essentially one of supervision of the activities of his subordinates.
(Nnoli, 1984)
Describe the structures of public administration
121
3.4 Decision Making Process in Nigerian Public

Administration
Lucy (1991) describes decision – making as an integral part of

organization’s management which occurs in everyday function and
at all levels. According to her, decisions in Nigerian Organizations
are taken at three levels:
1. Top management or Executive: These are decisions leading to
ends rather than means. Decisions taken at this level are directed
towards the attainment of the goals of the organization. Goals are
statements that describe desired future conditions worthy of
organizational effort and commitment. Goals consist of the
following attributes:
i. They reflect an organization’s basic purposes
ii. They focus on results, not just the performance of the task.
iii. They call for a major commitment of human and material
resources for their attainment.
2. Middle level management: This breaks the broad goals into
specific ends or objectives. While goals are broad in character
and describe desired future conditions, objectives are more
specific and spell out actions to be carried out towards goals
attainment.
3. The operatives or rank and file: They are concerned with making
decisions that effectively implement the policy directives
received from the above. The immediate action to achieve the
objectives is taken at the lower level. For example, in the
University System, the lecturers are regarded as the operatives
because they direct teaching and research which lead to the
production of high level manpower (University Graduates). If
wrong decision is made at the level of the operatives, the entire
goal of the organization will flop. Consequently, decision at this
level of delegation of duty is, as a matter of course, very
important
122
In addition to the above types of decision making, other types of

decision making include:
h Group Decision Making: this ensures efficient and effective

utilization of people within the organization and its environs,
to make use of their intellectual abilities for the growth of the
organization. Decisions are expected to be made in a social
environment where each participant contributes his ideas
towards the realization of the set objectives. No idea is
useless no matter how stupid it sounds. Group decision calls
for varied views which when properly articulate, lead to
improved decision.
h Committee Decision: This is a form of group decision that is

increasingly being used as effective administrative process.
Committees are formed for various reasons:
i. Sometimes, large deliberative, legislative, executive

and administrative bodies may have a variety of
business to attend to and therefore lack the time and
conducive atmosphere to effectively investigate and
discuss in appropriate details the matters before them.
Committees are then set up to attend to some of the
issues.
ii. Technical issues that require the knowledge / expertise

of a special category of persons demand the
information of committees.
iii. The use of committees is a form of delegation of

authority in administration which makes the detailed
and thorough handling of different aspects of an
organization’s activities possible. They may be
standing (permanent) or ad hoc (temporary)
123
Discuss decision making process in Nigerian Public Administration
4.0 CONCLUSION
The practical issues in public administration in Nigeria have been

explained here. It is important to note that public administration has
peculiarities upon which it operates. The nature of public
administration in any society depends to a large extent on its
background and mode of decision making.
5.0 SUMMARY
Areas covered in this unit include: Historical Development of

Public Administration in Nigeria, Provisions of Public Service
Review Commission, Structures of Public Administration, and
Decision Making Process in Nigerian Public Service.
1. Discuss three reasons why committees are formed for

purposes of decision making.
2. Explain four (4) historical events in Nigerian Public Service
3. Describe the structures of Decision – making in Nigeria.

124
Lucy, T. (1991), Management Information System 6th Edition,

London: Education Low Prices Books a Scheme

(PACREP)
Public Service Review Commission, Main Report 1974
125
UNIT 4 PRACTICAL ISSUES IN THE WORLD
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Public Administration and African Experience
3.2 French Administrative Practice
3.3 The United States of America
3.4 British Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public administration is a very interesting area of study and it has its

peculiarities in various parts of the world. We will therefore consider
selected nations in this unit for discussion. Those to be considered
include African nations (which are assumed to share similar
experience), France, America and Britain.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you are expected to:
h Describe Public Administration in Africa

h Discuss administrative practice in France
h Explain the practice of Public Administration in the United
States of America
h Discuss the British Administrative System
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
126
3.1 Public Administration and African Experience
African countries are characterized by an attempt to use the

apparatus of government to hasten socio – economic development,
and overcome their backwardness. Their success in this regard is
reflected in the improvements in their educational and health
standards, the development in their road and transport systems, the
modernization of their communications systems, and their self –
assertion in international affairs. All these achievements, and many
more, have been made possible, in part, by the activities of their
public administrations. Nevertheless much still remains to be
accomplished. The living standard of the African people is far from
being enviable. And part of the constraints in further improving the
situation may be traced to the inadequacies of the African public
administrations.
The general underdevelopment of the African countries is the most

pervasive constraint on the effectiveness of African public
administration. Most importantly, it is reflected in the poverty of the
essential material resources which they control and which can be
used for development projects. Although Africa is rich as a continent
many of its countries are clearly destitute of resources. Those
countries such as Congo (DRC), Garbon and Nigeria that have very
valuable natural resources do not exercise effective control over
them. Under these circumstances public administration is unable to
undertake important socio – economic and cultural projects. All
government programms need material resources for their
implementation, and unless these materials are available not much
can be done to implement them.
Similarly, the shortage of skilled manpower in African countries

adversely affects their public administration. Public administration
needs such personnel as specialist doctors, highly trained teachers,
telecommunications’ experts, engineers of different specializations,
agronomists, veterinary doctors and myriad of other professionals
127
for the effective execution of government programs. Most of these

are not available in most of the African nations which, furthermore,
have very little means of importing all the manpower they need from
outside their countries. The net effect of this shortage is low level of
performance of African public administrations.
This shortage of skilled personnel exists side by side with a general

overloading of the staff positions of African public administrations.
At the lower ranks and non – technical levels there are usually more
staff than necessary. This situation has arisen because of the key
positions that the civil service occupies in the African employment
markets. It is by far the secondary and post secondary school
leavers. This often expands the staff size of African public
administration. As a result, most African civil service institutions
tend to be unwieldy and difficult to manage. Truancy and under –
utilization of personnel prevail to the detriment of personnel co –
ordination and performance.
Similarly, there is a general overloading of the African public

administration with services. Although most African states are
organized along capitalist lines there has developed a heritage of
state participation in a wider range of activities than is usual with a
capitalist system. This heritage is traceable to the colonial origin of
the states and its functions of organizing a capitalist system of
production initially without local capitalists, and holding down a
conquered population. Over the years great expectations have been
developed by Africans with respect to the provision of all manner of
amenities and benefits by the government. However, the
governments usually do not have the capacity to satisfy these
expectations. The net effect is a pervasive crisis of confidence within
the public administration that adversely affects its performance.
At the same time that African public bureaucracies were overloaded

with services because of their colonial background, they are also the
objects of negative and sometimes hostile attitudes and feelings,
128
again because of their colonial past. They are associated in the minds
of the people with the arbitrariness, brutality and injustices of the
pacification measures, the forced labour policies, and the wickedness
of the tax collectors. Consequently, while the people expect to
receive benefits from the administration they are unwilling, and in
fact are sometimes opposed to giving it support. Without such
support the public administration cannot perform well.
African public administrations have not had a long bureaucratic

tradition. Most of them date from the beginning of colonialism. And
since then their functions have expanded very rapidly. This means
that many of the problems they have to solve are presenting
themselves for the first time. There is very little in terms of
precedents and institutional experiences that they can rely on in
solving these problems. Their difficulties are compounded by their
imitative character. They tend to be modeled rigidly after their
counterparts in the former metropole. Thus, they are unable to react
effectively to some indigenous problems and circumstances. And
unfortunately, the system has not been innovative enough to attempt
some changes geared towards adapting the administration to local
conditions.
Part of the ineffectiveness of African public administration arises

from excessive bureaucratic politics within them. Officials devote
proportionately more time than is reasonable to the serious business
of promotion and moving ahead within the system in which very
little emphasis is placed on merit and performance. Relatively little
time is, consequently, left for the tasks that administrators are
expected to perform.
In this struggle for personal advantage within African public

administrations, the ethnic factor often intrudes and is cleverly
manipulated. Unable to trust himself under the system of promotion
by merit, the African bureaucrat invokes the myth of ethnic hurdles
and detractors, and manipulates ethnic sentiments in order to be
129
promoted. In the process, subjectivism replaces objectivism in the

performance of administrative duties. Political factors loom much
larger than necessary in administration, with technical competence
being relegated to the very background of bureaucratic priorities.
With administrative mediocre in charge because of the political
dominance of their ethnic groups, effectiveness in the discharge of
institutional responsibilities becomes a matter of little significance.
Meanwhile, the growth of ethnic sentiments and conflicts generally
in the society is thus promoted.
Similarly, intergenerational conflicts within African public

administrations adversely affect their performance. With the
attainment of national independence and the consequent
indigenization of the civil service, coupled with the exodus of
foreign public administrators, the African civil service was quickly
filled with African officials most of whom did not have the requisite
qualifications and were young in age. Sooner than later a new
generation of African civil servants was recruited with better
qualifications but forced to take subordinate positions under these
earlier groups whose competence they disdained. The consequences
was an inter – generational conflict within the institution and this
inevitably hampers its effectiveness.
African public administrations are also adversely hampered by poor

work ethics within them. Civil servants do not take their public
assignments as seriously as their private responsibilities. This in the
result of the foreign origin of the African governments in
colonialism, they were alienated from the population at large and
could, therefore, not inspire commitment and fervor in public
officials. Although these governments are now African – controlled
they are still plagued by the hangovers of this colonial past.
African public administrators tend to be inflexible in the

performance of their tasks. Consequently, they are unable to adapt
easily to changing circumstances. This inflexibility arises from the
130
personal insecurity of the administrators. Hastily promoted because

of the need to Africanize the institution or to replace departing
foreigners they are not confident of their ability to make the correct
decisions. They find refuge in bureaucratic norms, procedures, rules,
and regulations, and follow them religiously. And as they become
quagmired in them they are unable to build up the requisite
experience in innovative decision – making and execution and to
develop the necessary confidence. They are threatened by younger
and more daring colleagues and may spend most of their official
time and energy trying to make their positions secure from these
younger and more flexible challenges.
African public administrators are plagued by role confusion. There is

very little understanding by public administrators of what their
responsibilities entails and how it is distinguished from similar and
related responsibilities. The consequence is the perennial
phenomenon of passing the buck. Hardly anyone is willing to
commit oneself to a decision for fear that one would exceed one’s
official bounds or make the wrong decision. Under these
circumstances, it is difficult to get anything accomplished. This role
confusion is the result of the limited education of the administrators,
their personal insecurity, and the amorphous or imprecise character
of their assignments.
The problem of role confusion in African public administration is

reinforced by inadequate co – ordination of its various activities. For
example, the ministry of commerce in Nigeria often issued import
licenses without clearing with the Central Bank that there was
enough foreign exchange to support those licenses. The result was
confusion within the system that obviously damaged its
effectiveness. The budget and development plan that are supposed to
improve co – ordination end up as checklist of projects by various
departments for which funds are voted. Their mutual consequences
for one another are hardly explored.
131
The political instability of African governments also adversely

affects African public administration. The denunciation of the
policies and programs of the previous government often accompany
the frequent changes of government on the continent. Under the
circumstances, it is difficult to create a strong bureaucratic tradition
on the basis of continuity of activities and experiences. In addition, a
great degree of uncertainty and confusion is introduced into the
administrative process to the detriment of efficiency and
effectiveness.
Finally, African public administration tends to be excessively

oriented to the distribution rather than the production of goods and
services. The disease of their respective governments equally affects
them. These petty – bourgeois regimes are incapable of the
discipline necessary for productive activity. They must depend for
their benefits from society on their sharing of the national cake.
Their public administration must help in this task. It is not an
accident that production has continued to deteriorate all over Africa
(Nnoli, 2003).
Describe the African Experience of Public Administration and state

four obstacles confronted by the African Public Administration.
3.2 French Administrative Practice
In France the political and administrative roles are blurred. There is

what has been termed political marginal politicization of the civil
service by the political system. French top civil servants often play
political roles as mayors or councilors. Moreover, they are entitled to
stand for election to Parliament and, if elected, they keep their civil
service rights in cold storage and later return to their posts in the
civil service. This is strictly true in theory; in actual practice, few
civil servants who turn politician ever return to the civil service. In
most cases they embark on a full – time political career.
132
The French system leans very heavily towards the specialized forms
of administrative education, for not only does it include lengthy
training courses specially designed for the main groups of
administrators, but their prior University education is also heavily
dominated by the requirements of the system. Also the general do
not form a single class as in Britain, while the highest administrative
corps specialized in various aspects of technical management. In this
way the British system of polarization between generalists and
specialists, which has been inherited by Nigeria, is avoided, and
members of both leading corps receive broad training in general
management as well as in specialized skills.
Discuss the relationship between politics and administration in the

French Administrative system
3.3 The United States of America
In the USA the trend has been a steady movement away from
patronage towards the merit system, that is, a civil service based
mainly on recruitment by merit for career officials. Even then, it is
estimated that there are a reasonable number of political
appointments at the top of the American civil service and
governmental agencies. These appointments are excluded from the
normal civil service recruitment and promotion procedure. The
appointees hold political loyalty only to the government which
appoints them. They are not therefore strictly bound by the civil
service convention of political neutrality. Their tenure of office is
invariably limited to the period that the government which appointed
them stays in power. To this extent, this category of civil servants
cannot be truthfully described as standing for the continuity of
policy or corrective of party government.
133
Explain the concept of continuity in the American public

administration?
3.4 British Administration
The modern public administration in British witnessed a significant

development through the establishment of Central Policy Review
Staff – popularly called Think Tank in 1974. It is involved in regular
presentations to the government of synoptic views of government
strategy and detailed analysis of selected particular issues
(Goodnow, 1914). Members of the Think Tank are not political
appointees; half of them are civil servants and the remaining half are
outside appointees, on short – term appointment, and recruited on a
non – political basis. They are subject to strict civil service rules and
discipline.
The other body – the policy unit – are not civil servants. They are a
small group of political sympathizers appointed on a purely political
basis to assist the Prime Minister with the political aspects of
departmental work. Their main function is to examine papers going
before the Ministers, and draw attention to problems and difficulties
having party political implications and look for land mines
especially in politically sensitive areas. The policy unit – and the
corresponding appointments by departmental Ministers –was the
result of the recommendations of the Fulton Report. It was based on
recruitment, in specific fields of government, of persons recognized
as specialists in their particular disciplines. They have clear political
affinities to the political party of government and most of them had
been advising the government when the party was in opposition.
They are the special advisers to government (Adebayo, 2004).
134
Discuss public administration in Britain.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It has been noticed that public administration is been practiced

differently in various parts of the world. Our studies therefore
considered African nations, France, Britain and the United States of
America where contributions of competent authorities have been
found as useful sources.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed aspects of the African experience of public

administration, French Administration, British Administration and
the United States of America. It identified the unique features of the
African, French, Britain and American systems of public
administration, bringing to fore their strengths and weaknesses.
1. Why is public administration in African not as effective as

that of the Western Europe?
2. How useful is the policy of specialized education to the
success of public administration in the France?
3. How does emphasis on merit ensure efficiency in the
American Public Administration?


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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: INR 142

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC

Course Team Emmanuel .A. Shom (Developer/Writer) -UM

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

The course aims of this course are to:

(i) Explicate the concept of public administration

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

(i) Define administration in general and public administration in particular

Working through the Course

Module 1 Public Administration: An Introduction

Unit 1 Definitions of Public Administration

Module 2 Basic practices of Public administration

Unit 1 Functioning in Public Administration

Module 3 Issues in Public Administration

Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Public Administration

Textbooks and References

Two types of assessment are involved in the course: the Self-Assessment

Tutor Marked Assignment

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Course Overview Presentation Scheme

What You Will Learn In the Course

Introduction to public administration provides you with the opportunity to gain a

What You Will Need for the Course

Tutors and Tutorials

INR 142: Introduction to Public Administration provides a theoretical foundation upon

Course Code: INR 142

Course Title: Introduction to Public Administration

Course Developer: Emmanuel Aondoaver Shom

Course Writer Emmanuel Aondoaver Shom

Course Editor Sylvester Iorliam PhD

Course Coordinator Terhemba Ambe-Uva

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2011

Module 1 Public Administration: An Introduction

Unit 1 Definitions of Public Administration

Module 2 Basic Practices of Public Administration

Unit 1 Functions Performed by Public Administration

Module 3 Issues in Public Administration

Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Public Administration

MODULE 1 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: AN

Unit 1 Definitions of Public Administration

UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration may be considered both as a field of action

It is expected that by the end of this unit, students should endeavor

h Define and discuss the history of Administration

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Administration

Administration is a universal concept and is also of universal

Administration is inevitable in any given situation where a

Thus, Onuoha (1999) explains further that administration exists

others, point to the fact that administration is both public and

Administration has a long history which dates back to the beginning

Whoever pursues a business in this world must have a