Journal of Intercultural Management

Vol. 12 | No. 4 |December 2020 | pp. 70–90

DOI 10.2478/joim-2020-0052

Sylwia Przytuła Gabriela Strzelec

Wroclaw University of Economics Wrocław University of Economics,
and Business, Wroclaw, Poland
Faculty of Management, ORCID ID: 0000-0001-5672-6925
Wroclaw, Poland
s_przytula@wp.pl
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-9602-241X

Katarzyna
Krysińska-Kościańska
Wrocław University of Economics,
Wroclaw, Poland
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2679-1512

Re-vision of Future Trends in

Human Resource Management
(HRM) after COVID-19
ABSTRACT

Objective: The article is an attempt to make a diagnosis about the impact of the Covid-19
pandemic on HR practices including recruitment and selection, remote working, motivating
 Re-vision of Future Trends in Human Resource Management (HRM) after COVID-19

employees, re-skilling and communicating. This theoretical study is a kind of revision and dis-
cussion with the “future trends in HR” predicted a few years ago before pandemic.

Methodology: The research method was a review of the most recent research findings from
business practice and from scientific literature concerning the impact of the pandemic on vari-
ous fields of human resource management. Due to the growing flood of media information, the
authors wanted to select the most updated HR practices implemented in organizations from
the reliable and acknowledgeable sources.

Findings: The biggest challenges for HR after COVID-19 will be: restructuring the place of work
and the content of work, applying more advanced technology to recruitment, selection and
performance; more interests, appreciation and motivation from managers will be needed as
well as building trust, a sense of belonging among team members. The list of benefits will be
revised towards enhancing mental health and well-being. The reality after the pandemic will
require new competencies from managers and employees so re-skilling and re-training are the
most expected approaches.

Value Added: This article is becoming an important voice on the impact of a pandemic on the
HR practices. The emerging and current results of research on HR trends will allow targeting
education systems and equipping employees with the most predictable competences which
will be useful in the era after the pandemic.

Recommendations: The COVID-19 turmoil has changed the prepared strategic plans for devel-
opment of many organizations. This external factor hardened all continents and built new reality
where some tips and recommendation are highly welcome. Thus, we proposed few revisited
personnel solutions which HR professionals may implement. We also invite other scholars to
research the pandemic impact on many multidimensional levels: economic, political, social,
technological, ethical ones.

Key words: COVID-19, pandemic, HR challenges, remote working, reskilling, well-being

JEL codes: M54

Introduction

The dynamic changes taking place in the environment of an international

organization are reflected in the labor market and clearly translate into the
intra-organizational context of human resource management in the form
of strategic, structural and cultural conditions shaping the HR policy and
practice (Pocztowski, 2019).

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 Sylwia Przytuła, Gabriela Strzelec, Katarzyna Krysińska-Kościańska

The concept of volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA)

is gaining significance now. Indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic has been
recognized as a major exogenous shock that has altered the competitive
landscape for both small and large companies (Wenzel, Stanske, & Lieber-
man, 2020) and as follows from business practice, 34% of employers didn’t
have emergency plans prior the pandemic (SHRM, 2020a). The COVID-19
pandemic has revealed extraordinary vulnerabilities arising from widespread
global uncertainty. Uncertainty is no longer the context experienced by
just senior multinational corporations (MNE) leaders involved in managing
complex global supply chains, volatile financial markets, and unpredictable
geopolitical relationships. Rather, uncertainty has become the context for
numerous international employees who are working from home for the first
time, experiencing job instability and financial insecurity, and worrying about
their and their loved ones’ health and safety (Caligiuri et al., 2020).
Ł. Sułkowski called for more research and reflection on the social,
economic, organizational and cultural aspects of the Covid-19 pandemic
(Sułkowski, 2020). Therefore, by reviewing and tracking the latest business
and scientific research, one may get the impression that the current models
and strategies for human resource management, known best practices, as
well as predicted future trends (eg. Deloitte, 2017; The Future of Workforce
Development, 2017; Workforce of the future. The competing forces shaping
2030, 2017; Manpower, 2017; WEC Employment Conferederation, 2016;
Williams, 2016) completely recapitulated. The headlines of numerous arti-
cles say: re-visioning, re-structuring, re-skilling, re-training, as if the reality
we have known so far needs to be reformulated. It is not enough to adapt
in a given area or to improve existing practices. It is about laying new foun-
dations. The aim of this review article will be to show new trends practices
in HRM that need to be redefined in order to actually meet business goals
after COVID-19. The trends which were announced a few years ago regarding
strategic competences, diversity and inclusion, demographic issues, skills
gap, employee mobility and the role of technology in management should

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be revised (Krysińska-Kościańska, 2017; Przytuła, 2018; Strzelec, 2019).

In Deloitte Human Capital Report 2020, which has been issued BEFORE
the outbreak of COVID-19, the retrospective vision of changes which re-
shaped the business world since 2011 till 2019 is presented. Surprisingly,
these findings perfectly suit to the world we are living in today: “The world
today looks remarkably different from the one in which we launched the
first Global Human Capital Trends report in 2011. The past decade has been
marked by radical change, by a “newness” that has evolved at a pace that
can only be described as exponential. Technology invaded the workplace
at a speed that would have been unimaginable a decade prior. Workforce
demographics shifted substantially, with five generations in the workforce,
a decline in working-age populations in many advanced economies, and
an increase in the focus on equality for all workers as it relates to pay and
treatment. And as the workforce evolved, so did worker expectations – with
calls for organizations to do more to help improve individuals’ lives, address
societal problems, mitigate technology’s unintended consequences, and
act equitably and ethically.”
Therefore, future trends were predicted, but even the predictions from
2019 will not be fulfilled anymore and are outdated after this sudden, un-
expected global pandemic. Covid-19 has fundamentally changed how
businesses operate today and in the future.
Rethinking how MNEs use global teams and virtual collaboration and
international assignments could constitute important elements in a recon-
figuration of the HRM function. There is an opportunity for HRM research to
collect relevant and useful evidence to facilitate global work in the future,
by examining the role of the HRM function during and after the crisis. Even
large organizations with sophisticated pre-pandemic personnel policies
are likely to be re-writing the rules. For example, as travel restrictions ease,
employers and individuals will make decisions about whether, when, and
where they feel safe to travel. HRM scholarship can offer an evidence-base
for global mobility policies that will help employees to adjust to new ways of

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working in teams and the inevitable stress and uncertainty of post-pandemic

travel (Caligiuri et al., 2020).

Restructuring the workplace

After a few months of remote work, many organizations realized that the
physical space, offices, car parking are not needed anymore if employees
decide to work from home. Those employees who will agree to work in the
office will need specific circumstances to be safe, keeping distance and
have possibility to open windows to ventilate. These departmental zones
will form the foundation of a new “company ecosystem” — one that is more
efficient, serves the unique needs of teams better and is far less costly to
implement. Ultimately, this new approach will enable more effective teams
and improve culture and engagement (Igloosoftware, 2020).
Remote work can be structured so that employees split their time
between home and the workplace, on alternate weeks and on a rotating
schedule. It can include designated times for everyone to be physically
present – for instance, there might be a good reason for everyone to be
on site on e.g. on Monday of every month. Or a company could choose
a “work-from-anywhere model” in which employees can work remotely all
the time but still be able to visit any work location anytime if they wish to do
so for the purpose of affiliation (Kaufman et al., 2020). Organizations need
to re-write the rules concerning content and place of work to navigate the
exponential change that appeared with COVID-19. Increasing sanitation and
cleaning, implementing social distancing guidelines along with operational
changes like decreasing business travel and reducing the use of common
spaces like kitchens or recreation areas. These tasks are predominantly
assigned to HR department in which 87% of HR professionals recently
reported that their work has been crucial to their organization since the
pandemic began and over half of them felt their work is more appreciated
than before the pandemic (SHRM, 2020b).

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More technology in recruitment & selection

According to KPMG research, in 2019 HR specialists planned to invest spe-

cifically in HR technology that enhances HR analytics and allows for further
HR automation over the next two to three years. Sixty percent also agree
that embracing these new technologies will require a significant change of
roles within HR (KPMG 2020). Indeed, this plan has gained importance since
COVID appeared, as majority of recruitment and selection practices were
provided by e-bots or via ATS (application tracking system). Video interview
usage went up from 22% in 2019 to 58% this year. Drug test usage in selection
dropped 21%, likely due to lack of availability for in-person testing. Reference
checks also went up 9%, suggesting that organizations are looking for ways
to learn more about their candidates when other in-person methods are no
longer available (McKinsey&Company, 2020).
Technology is a key enabler for faster, cheaper and better delivery of
HR services and in some cases can have a transformational as well as un-
intended negative effect (Thite, 2019). The wealth of various online/mobile
communication solutions is advantageous on the one hand, and can be the
curse of abundance on the other. Employees are forced to change focus
from one platform, app, or project to the next when a new notification comes
through, threatening productivity and collaboration. The survey found that
55% of workers use at least two company approved apps just to do their
jobs on a daily basis. At the same time, 57% of employees use at least one
non-company approved app. Knowledge-sharing is also threatened by this
collaboration tool fatigue. The percentage of employees who avoid sharing
documents because they either can’t find them or it would take too long to
do so has increased to more than half of workers (51%) (Igloosoftware, 2020).

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 Sylwia Przytuła, Gabriela Strzelec, Katarzyna Krysińska-Kościańska

More Intrinsic Motivation, Engagement, Sense

of Belonging and Well-being Activities are Needed

The digital workplace of today is vastly different from the workplace a decade
ago — due to both age-old challenges as well as some new realities. There are
more tools, more flexibility in where we do our work and more communication
with coworkers, whether they sit next to us or work half a world away. But
the demand for a more engaged, effective remote workforce has increased
exponentially. It is more important than ever to listen and take action to help
employees succeed (Igloosoftware, 2020). According to Deloitte study,
enhancing engagement and sense of belonging has been organizational
priority for this time and those efforts will pay off in the near future. 79% of
organizations say fostering a sense of belonging in the workforce is important
for their success over the next 18 months (Deloitte, 2020b).
It is not only about knowing IT tools but about intrinsic motivation and
engagement to work. There are for example some predictions concerning
motivation of academics due to forced e-learning after COVID spread.
Sułkowski, Przytuła & Kulikowski (2020) predicted that forced e-learning
might lead to a decrease in motivational job characteristics (like task identity,
task significance, autonomy and social dimensions of work) for academic
teachers. Moreover, it might expose teachers to many e-learning disadvan-
tages exaggerated by the extraordinary and disturbing COVID-19 situation.
Besides, the psychology literature offers substantial evidence that one of
our fundamental human motivators is the need for competence. During the
COVID-19 pandemic, the lack of professional stimulation while working from
home is fostering more self-directed knowledge-seeking to satisfy the need
to learn, grow, and demonstrate competence. At a time when employees’
desire to learn, grow, and demonstrate competence is heightened, companies
that offer access to, or reimburse, employees’ online training achieve a clear
win-win; they increase talent capability and, concurrently, foster employee
motivation (Caligiuri et al., 2020).

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Historically, remote workers have felt out-of-the-loop and disengaged

from their coworkers, but that’s changing. The survey found that organi-
zations are making greater efforts to support their remote workforces, to
listen to their opinions and include them in company culture. In fact, 93% of
remote workers said their companies have made an effort to make them feel
included in the company culture and 62% say their concerns are taken as
seriously as their office-based coworkers’ concerns. 85% of remote workers
have had at least one meeting interrupted due to technology issues like lost
connections (Igloosoftware, 2020).
The most important HR trends pointed by employers this year was well-being
of their employees and sense of belonging. Employees’ well-being is now more
important than ever. Only the hierarchy of employees’ needs has changed,
because as a result of the new realities of work and constantly changing exter-
nal factors, the staff may feel a loss of balance, increased anxiety, decreased
efficiency, disturbed relationships with loved ones and colleagues, as well as
reduced physical condition. 80% of companies declare that the well-being of
employees will be important or very important for their success in the next 18
months, but only 10% are fully ready to implement this approach. According
to Deloitte survey, 97% of respondents believe that caring for the well-being
of employees is the company’s responsibility, 50% of respondents notice
a positive impact of well-being not only on the experience of employees, but
also on other areas, and 65% of respondents admit that well-being is not part of
the work model. While 97% of respondents believe companies are responsible
for the well-being of their employees, it is only 40% admit that they measure
the effectiveness of actions taken in this area (Deloitte, 2020a). What is more,
organizational culture (pointed by 43% managers), leadership behaviors that
reinforce organizational values of fairness, respect and psychological safety
(33%) and also personal relationships (24%) are the biggest factors influencing
an organization’s ability to create belonging (Deloitte, 2020b).

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Remote working

According to Boston Consulting Group the employees worked an estimated

25% of their time remotely before the pandemic, and it believes that this figure
could rise to approximately 50% or more (Kaufman et al., 2020). COVID-19 has
accelerated the adoption of remote working. More than 70% respondents
agree they valued digital solutions that deepened their connection with other
people, and 63% believe they will rely on digital technologies more than they
did prior to the pandemic even well after it subsides (2021 Global Marketing
Trends, 2020). Survey on 12 000 employers found the pandemic has forced
employers to move an unprecedented share of employees—some 40%—to
remote working but more than 25% of employees will work in hybrid models
that combine remote and onsite work.60% of respondents indicate they
want some flexibility in where and when they work in the future (BCG, 2020).
Because this shift has been involuntary, continues over a lengthy period,
and requires entire households to be house-bound, there is more potential
for employees to experience increased work hours, as well as increased
work-life conflict. For employees who were globally mobile, and now find
themselves working from home during the pandemic, the shift is particularly
significant and borders between work and family may require re-negotiation
and re-organization (Caligiuri et al., 2020).
Unfortunately, since March 2020 not so many “best practices” have
been available yet and learning how to lead a remote team is not so obvious.
Managing a remote workforce can be challenging because 85% of remote
workers have had at least one meeting interrupted due to technology issues
like lost connections (Igloosoftware, 2020). Other research reported that
93% of managers learn through trial and error, 60% answered that they read
articles, newsletters, or blogs. When it comes to the future of remote work,
the outlook seems to be very positive in the minds of remote managers and
87% of them believe that remote work really is the future and it will become
‘the norm’ within the space of 5 years (The Remote Managers, 2020). Simi-

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larly, according to SHRM survey 7 in 10 employers were struggling to adapt

to remote work (SHRM, 2020a).
Thus, it is a clear message to managers: to cope with virtual collaboration
on a large-scale during this crisis they must develop and reward employees’
virtual collaboration skills, foster perceived proximity, and design ICT, work
goals, and the communication structure in a way that fosters collaboration
(Caligiuri et al., 2020). As Oxford Economics predicts, remote work will be
a talent magnet in coming years and must be viewed as a long-term invest-
ment (Oxford Economics, 2020).

Re-skilling and re-training – towards new

competencies and new talents

The shortage of highly skilled specialists with international and intercultural

experience (e.g. expatriates) has become a big challenge for international
companies for the last two decades (Brookfield Global Relocation Trends,
2016; Dickmann, 2017; Manpower, 2017; Schuler, Jackson, Tarique, 2011)
and 40% of employers find it difficult to recruit workforce – which has been
the biggest increase since 2008 (Manpower, 2017).
In 2020 almost 87% of respondents say they either are experiencing skill
gaps now or expect them within a few years. In this situation the solution to
this problem could be hiring or skill building as stated by 56% of McKinsey’s
respondents (McKinsey&Company, 2020).
Employers must figure out how they can adapt to rapidly changing con-
ditions, how to find new skills for “distance economy” and companies have
to learn how to match those workers to new roles and activities. It is about
how leaders can reskill and upskill the workforce to deliver new business
models in the post-pandemic era. Reskilling programs most often focus
on building employees’ skills in critical thinking and decision making, lead-
ership and management of others, and advanced data analysis. All these
are the skills that the previous research has found (Przytuła, 2018) to be in

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greater demand in the coming years (McKinsey&Company, 2020). Agrawal

et al. (2020) pointed that the skill building should be focused on four areas:
digital, higher cognitive, social and emotional adaptability and resilience. In
response to this, HR executives generally identify with the significant need
to reskill the workforce and according to the 2019 Global CEO Outlook, 44%
of CEOs across major markets plan to upskill more than half of their work-
forces in new digital capabilities (such as advanced data visualization, ability
to code, etc.) big data, artificial intelligence, and cybersecurity (KPMG, 2019).
Reskilling was pointed by 75% employers as the most important HR trend in
2020 (Deloitte, 2020b) and in response employees are eager to reskill and
that three-quarters of nearly 1,500 full-time employees around the world are
more motivated to improve their technical or professional skills as a result
of COVID-19 (Oxford Economics, 2020).

Global and Virtual Mobility and its Mental

Consequences

COVID-19 has changed not only how people work but also the basic patterns
of movement and travel. These changes may require relocating activities
to other countries. Companies may pick up talent locally but then will have
to get new employees up to speed on their new roles-through re-skilling.
Globally mobile employees face unique challenges even during “business
as usual” circumstances. In the wake of an unprecedented pandemic, which
has upended daily life across the globe, these challenges are exacerbated
by being in a new country. Navigating the ins and outs of an assignment
abroad is already a long and potentially stressful process for globally mo-
bile workers; during a period of uncertain health and economic outcomes,
anxieties are further amplified (MetLife, 2020). During the pandemic, life has
changed a lot for many who were international business travelers and globally
mobile employees in MNEs; their current ‘‘grounding’’ may mean they are
experiencing a sense of loss. Their frequent travel, hotel accommodation,

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and business dinners have been replaced by stay-at-home restrictions and

virtual meetings. The stress caused by the demands of virtual global work
is real; many employees are experiencing long work hours to accommodate
time zones and performance challenges in less than ideal remote working
conditions (Caligiuri et al., 2020).
Mental health and stress are the leading sources of concern for employees
working and living abroad. This was true before the start of the pandemic and
has only intensified in the months after. Employees need their employers’
help, and globally mobile employees need assistance from their company’s
well-being programs to bridge the knowledge gap as they navigate living
in a new country. In the era of COVID-19, explaining health insurance, life
insurance and disability benefits are paramount, particularly for inpatriates
who may not be accustomed to the local healthcare system (MetLife, 2020).
Meanwhile, over one third of employers were providing resources to support
healthy adjustment to remote work including: mental health podcast, CDC
toolkits, newsletters, books (SHRM, 2020a).
The needs have not changed significantly between the time before pan-
demic and the new reality. Constantly the most important need for well-being
is regular physical activity (according to 67,5% respondents). Mental balance
is the most important (from 35% before the pandemic to 43.9% in the new
reality). While prior pandemic only 3% of employers offered benefits related to
mental condition, nowadays 72,6% of employees expect benefits related to
mental condition, and the most desirable forms concern coping with stress
(according to 54.7% respondents) and the strategy of calmness, peace and
mindfulness (51%) (Activy, 2020).
Almost two thirds of companies are allowing current mobile employees to
temporarily return to their home country, 43% of companies agreed on early
end of assignment, 22% did not offer any additional support, 14% agreed to
temporary relocation to an alternative location and 11% of respondents were
offering additional cash support to cover additional costs. As far as strategic
plan is concerned, 44% of companies said they will return to business as

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usual as soon as possible with the same number of moves and only 12%
see the COVID-19 will have a fundamental impact on how we view workforce
mobility and the need for international moves (PwC, 2020).

Communicating and Enhancing Social Ties

An average person in 2020 will generate 200-300 contacts daily on the in-
ternet thanks to different channels providing continuous online connection
(Przytuła, 2018) and “a sensor economy” will emerge, based on devices that
are aware of surroundings and location, and recognizing services and com-
munication needs. The current crisis sheds light on the challenges of social
and interpersonal ties between people. 71,1% of respondents indicated that
the integration of employees in the company has decreased, and 59.4% of
them declare that they need integration with other employees in the new
reality (Activy, 2020). For those who had not built strong working relationships
before the crisis, working and managing at a distance and through virtual
communication media has made it hard to maintain (Caligiuri et al., 2020).
Delivering technical infrastructure and providing software seem to be
obligation of employers that follows from the psychological contract towards
employees, who provide their own office equipment, electricity, online ca-
pacity to continue working in remote circumstances. But above all managers
are in charge of shaping new socio-cultural patterns (Sułkowski, 2020) or
new social contract. Research on managing expatriate assignments in MNEs
shows that communication and support from managers is an important
buffer against job stress experienced by employees. This knowledge can be
applied to the pandemic situation of working from home. For some people,
social isolation as well as uncertainty about their health, job, and future will
have a negative impact on their mental health. Any stigma linked to mental
health might prevent some employees from seeking help, and MNE senior
managers should therefore communicate with empathy, encourage wellness
resources, and offer practical support for employees’ health and safety

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(Caligiuri et al., 2020).

Research conducted by the Boston Consulting Group indicated that
75% of employees said that during the first few months of the pandemic
they were able to maintain or improve productivity on their individual tasks
(such as analyzing data, writing presentations, and executing administrative
tasks). For collaborative tasks (including exchanges with coworkers, working
in teams, and interacting with clients), the number is lower. What was sur-
prising in this analysis that social connectivity is what enables employees
to be collaboratively productive. And collaborative productivity is essential
for any company looking to improve communication, increase efficiency,
accelerate skill acquisition, or harness innovation (BCG, 2020).

Conclusion

Concluding the above research and survey findings it is obvious that COVID-19
as a global, external factor made the HR business practices introduce new
rules, policies, tools to adjust employees to the new situation and still to
continue business purposes.
All the strategies and plans that were made even one year before pandemic,
have to be revised, changed, reshaped. For several months various organi-
zations have tested some solutions which might serve now as a benchmark
for others and as a point of reference in restructuring their own HR policies.
Below we presented a list of predicted changes and potential practices
diagnosed by some business analysts (Table 1):

Table 1. Future trends for HR practices after COVID-19

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Research/survey Predicted changes after COVID-19

BCG • the future of work will be increasingly hybrid – a blend of
(Kaufman et al, 2020) onsite and remote locations;
• focusing on well-being and social connectivity to help em-
ployees to recover faster from traumatic, painful, and stress-
ful period;
(Igloosoftware, 2020) • make remote workers feel included in the company culture;
• focus on how to empower, engage, and make employees
productive and support them the right IT tools at their dispo-
sal;
(KPMG, 2019) • the power of the next generation of HR is in creating a
holistic and mutually reinforcing “whole system” approach to
building the workforce (and organization) of the future;
• it lies in an organization’s ability to integrate new capabi-
lities, taking a worker-centric view while addressing cultural
shifts and embracing an increasingly digital workforce;
McKinsey (Agrawal et • build a skill set that will help employees in key parts of your
al, 2020) business respond well to changes;
• expand the ability to operate in a fully digital environment;
• develop cognitive skills to ensure that critical players can
respond to the need for redesign and innovation;
• strengthen social and emotional skills to ensure effective
collaboration;
• build adaptability and resilience skills to thrive during an
evolving business situation;
(McKinsey&Company, • filling most gaps will require a mix of approaches, such as
2020) hiring and reskilling;
(MetLife, 2020) • helping globally mobile employees succeed means under-
standing the unique challenges and stressors many of them
face and offering solutions that can foster a flexible work-life
integration;
• globally mobile employees are struggling across every com-
ponent of holistic well-being;
• A holistic look at well-being includes four key components:
• Mental health: Condition of psychological and emotional
well-being
• Financial health: State of personal and family financial se-
curity
• Social health: Ability to form satisfying interpersonal rela-
tionships
• Physical health: Level of illness, injury and general lifestyle;
(2021 Global Marketing • to build trust in these turbulent times, brands should look
Trends, 2020) at what people value – rather than what they look like – and
ensure their promises are in sync with their competence to
deliver on them;

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BCG • for recruiting, HR leaders can accelerate tech-enabled recru-

(Kaufman et al, 2020) iting methods, such as video interviewing, automated resume
review, and gamified evaluations;
• for onboarding, companies need to determine what a remo-
te “day 1” and “onboarding week” will entail;
• virtual coffee chats, welcome videos with greetings from
current employees, and virtual networking can work wonders
to foster engagement and immediate buy-in;
(Oxford Economics, • respondents have acknowledged that several factors (inclu-
2020) ding work/life balance, diversity and inclusion, compensation)
will become more important in attracting and retaining ta-
lent due to COVID-19;
• new ways of working demand new skills, including technical
capabilities and workplace behaviors that must be learned on
the fly;
• managers need to make sure reskilling efforts do not fall
by the wayside, and prioritize communication and constant
contact with their workforce;
(Activy, 2020) • health has become an absolute priority in every dimension
– physical and mental;
• the importance is increasing mental balance so the offer of
employer’s benefits should contain: mindfulness, exercises
for the condition and healthy spine, learning proper bre-
athing, facial yoga, webinars about building resilience, wor-
king remotely at home with a child.

Source: own study.

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