Roof

A roof (pl.: roofs or rooves) is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions
necessary to support it on the walls of the building or on uprights, providing protection against rain, snow,
sunlight, extremes of temperature, and wind.[1] A roof is part of the building envelope.

The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it covers, the available
roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concepts of architectural design and
practice, and may also be governed by local or national legislation. In most countries, a roof protects
primarily against rain. A verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits
the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, but
admits light.

A roof may also provide additional living space, for example, a roof garden.

Etymology
Old English hrof[2] 'roof, ceiling, top, summit; heaven, sky', also figuratively, 'highest point of something',
from Proto-Germanic *khrofam (cf. Dutch roef 'deckhouse, cabin, coffin-lid', Middle High German rof
'penthouse', Old Norse hrof 'boat shed'). There are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family.
"English alone has retained the word in a general sense, for which the other languages use forms
corresponding to OE. þæc thatch".[3]

Design elements
The elements in the design of a roof are:

the material
the construction
the durability
The material of a roof may range from banana leaves, wheaten straw or seagrass to laminated glass,
copper (see: copper roofing), aluminium sheeting and pre-cast concrete. In many parts of the world
ceramic roof tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries, if not millennia. Other
roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate,
Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles.

The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the underneath space is
bridged and whether or not the roof is pitched. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its
lowest to its highest point. Most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are
sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction elements such as drainpipes may remove the need for
pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition and aesthetics. So the pitch is partly dependent upon
stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities.
Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof and durable.
Other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent
weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is little rain, an almost flat roof with a
slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the
need for a sloping roof.

A person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer.

The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often the least accessible part of a
building for purposes of repair and renewal, while its damage or destruction can have serious effects.

Form
The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region. The
main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the
climate and the materials available for roof structure and the
outer covering.[4]

The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled,

mansard, hipped, butterfly, arched and domed. There are
many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of flat
sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
(generally if the angle exceeds 10 degrees).[5] Pitched roofs,
including gabled, hipped and skillion roofs, make up the Terminology of some parts of a Western
greatest number of domestic roofs. Some roofs follow organic roof
shapes, either by architectural design or because a flexible
material such as thatch has been used in the construction.

Parts
There are two parts to a roof: its supporting structure and its outer skin, or uppermost weatherproof layer.
In a minority of buildings, the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure.

The roof structure is generally supported upon walls, although some building styles, for example,
geodesic and A-frame, blur the distinction between wall and roof.

Support
The supporting structure of a roof usually comprises beams that are long and of strong, fairly rigid
material such as timber, and since the mid-19th century, cast iron or steel. In countries that use bamboo
extensively, the flexibility of the material causes a distinctive curving line to the roof, characteristic of
Oriental architecture.

Timber lends itself to a great variety of roof shapes. The timber structure can fulfil an aesthetic as well as
practical function, when left exposed to view.
Stone lintels have been used to support roofs since prehistoric
times, but cannot bridge large distances. The stone arch came into
extensive use in the ancient Roman period and in variant forms
could be used to span spaces up to 45 m (140 ft) across. The stone
arch or vault, with or without ribs, dominated the roof structures
of major architectural works for about 2,000 years, only giving
way to iron beams with the Industrial Revolution and the
designing of such buildings as Paxton's Crystal Palace, completed
1851. The roof of a library in Sweden

With continual improvements in steel girders, these became the

major structural support for large roofs, and eventually for
ordinary houses as well. Another form of girder is the reinforced
concrete beam, in which metal rods are encased in concrete,
giving it greater strength under tension.

Roof support can also serve as living spaces as can be seen in roof
decking. Roof decking are spaces within the roof structure that is
Roofs in the central of Ystad 2022.
converted into a room of some sort.

Outer layer
This part of the roof shows great variation dependent upon availability of material. In vernacular
architecture, roofing material is often vegetation, such as thatches, the most durable being sea grass with
a life of perhaps 40 years. In many Asian countries bamboo is used both for the supporting structure and
the outer layer where split bamboo stems are laid turned alternately and overlapped. In areas with an
abundance of timber, wooden shingles, shakes and boards are used, while in some countries the bark of
certain trees can be peeled off in thick, heavy sheets and used for roofing.

The 20th century saw the manufacture of composition asphalt shingles which can last from a thin 20-year
shingle to the thickest which are limited lifetime shingles, the cost depending on the thickness and
durability of the shingle. When a layer of shingles wears out, they are usually stripped, along with the
underlay and roofing nails, allowing a new layer to be installed. An alternative method is to install
another layer directly over the worn layer. While this method is faster, it does not allow the roof sheathing
to be inspected and water damage, often associated with worn shingles, to be repaired. Having multiple
layers of old shingles under a new layer causes roofing nails to be located further from the sheathing,
weakening their hold. The greatest concern with this method is that the weight of the extra material could
exceed the dead load capacity of the roof structure and cause collapse. Because of this, jurisdictions
which use the International Building Code prohibit the installation of new roofing on top of an existing
roof that has two or more applications of any type of roof covering; the existing roofing material must be
removed before installing a new roof.[6]

Slate is an ideal, and durable material, while in the Swiss Alps roofs are made from huge slabs of stone,
several inches thick. The slate roof is often considered the best type of roofing. A slate roof may last 75 to
150 years, and even longer. However, slate roofs are often expensive to install – in the US, for example, a
slate roof may have the same cost as the rest of the house. Often, the first part of a slate roof to fail is the
fixing nails; they corrode, allowing the slates to slip. In the UK, this condition is known as "nail
sickness". Because of this problem, fixing nails made of stainless steel or copper are recommended, and
even these must be protected from the weather.[7]

Asbestos, usually in bonded corrugated panels, has been used widely in the 20th century as an
inexpensive, non-flammable roofing material with excellent insulating properties. Health and legal issues
involved in the mining and handling of asbestos products means that it is no longer used as a new roofing
material. However, many asbestos roofs continue to exist, particularly in South America and Asia.

Roofs made of cut turf (modern ones known as green roofs, traditional ones as sod roofs) have good
insulating properties and are increasingly encouraged as a way of "greening" the Earth. The soil and
vegetation function as living insulation, moderating building temperatures.[8] Adobe roofs are roofs of
clay, mixed with binding material such as straw or animal hair, and plastered on lathes to form a flat or
gently sloped roof, usually in areas of low rainfall.

In areas where clay is plentiful, roofs of baked tiles have been the major form of roofing. The casting and
firing of roof tiles is an industry that is often associated with brickworks. While the shape and colour of
tiles was once regionally distinctive, now tiles of many shapes and colours are produced commercially, to
suit the taste and pocketbook of the purchaser. Concrete roof tiles are also a common choice, being
available in many different styles and shapes.

Sheet metal in the form of copper and lead has also been used for many hundreds of years. Both are
expensive but durable, the vast copper roof of Chartres Cathedral, oxidised to a pale green colour, having
been in place for hundreds of years. Lead, which is sometimes used for church roofs, was most
commonly used as flashing in valleys and around chimneys on domestic roofs, particularly those of slate.
Copper was used for the same purpose.

In the 19th century, iron, electroplated with zinc to improve its resistance to rust, became a light-weight,
easily transported, waterproofing material. Its low cost and easy application made it the most accessible
commercial roofing, worldwide. Since then, many types of metal roofing have been developed. Steel
shingle or standing-seam roofs last about 50 years or more depending on both the method of installation
and the moisture barrier (underlayment) used and are between the cost of shingle roofs and slate roofs. In
the 20th century, a large number of roofing materials were developed, including roofs based on bitumen
(already used in previous centuries), on rubber and on a range of synthetics such as thermoplastic and on
fibreglass.

Outer layer
 Slate, Jersey Terracotta tiles, Thatch, using rice straw,
Hungary Japan

Banana leaves, Date palm branches, Neot Metal sheeting,

Cameroon Semadar, Israel Namibia

Repairing thatch, Stone used as roofing Turf roof in Norway

Gassho-zukuri material in Himachal
farmhouse, Japan Pradesh, India

Functions
A roof assembly has more than one function. It may provide any or all of the following functions:
1. To shed water i.e., prevent water from standing on the roof surface. Water standing on the roof surface
increases the live load on the roof structure, which is a safety issue. Standing water also contributes to
premature deterioration of most roofing materials. Some roofing manufacturers' warranties are rendered
void due to standing water.
2. To protect the building interior from the effects of weather elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and
snow.
3. To provide thermal insulation. Most modern commercial/industrial roof assemblies incorporate
insulation boards or batt insulation. In most cases, the International Building Code and International
Residential Code establish the minimum R-value required within the roof assembly.
4. To perform for the expected service life. All standard roofing materials have established histories of
their respective longevity, based on anecdotal evidence. Most roof materials will last long after the
manufacturer's warranty has expired, given adequate ongoing maintenance, and absent storm damage.
Metal and tile roofs may last fifty years or more. Asphalt shingles may last 30–50 years. Coal tar built-up
roofs may last forty or more years. Single-ply roofs may last twenty or more years.
5. Provide a desired, unblemished appearance. Some roofs are selected not only for the above functions,
but also for aesthetics, similar to wall cladding. Premium prices are often paid for certain systems because
of their attractive appearance and "curb appeal."

Insulation
Because the purpose of a roof is to secure people and their possessions from climatic elements, the
insulating properties of a roof are a consideration in its structure and the choice of roofing material.

Some roofing materials, particularly those of natural fibrous material, such as thatch, have excellent
insulating properties. For those that do not, extra insulation is often installed under the outer layer. In
developed countries, the majority of dwellings have a ceiling installed under the structural members of
the roof. The purpose of a ceiling is to insulate against heat and cold, noise, dirt and often from the
droppings and lice of birds who frequently choose roofs as nesting places.

Concrete tiles can be used as insulation. When installed leaving a space between the tiles and the roof
surface, it can reduce heating caused by the sun.

Forms of insulation are felt or plastic sheeting, sometimes with a reflective surface, installed directly
below the tiles or other material; synthetic foam batting laid above the ceiling and recycled paper
products and other such materials that can be inserted or sprayed into roof cavities. Cool roofs are
becoming increasingly popular,[9] and in some cases are mandated by local codes. Cool roofs are defined
as roofs with both high reflectivity and high thermal emittance.[9]

Poorly insulated and ventilated roofing can suffer from problems such as the formation of ice dams
around the overhanging eaves in cold weather, causing water from melted snow on upper parts of the roof
to penetrate the roofing material. Ice dams occur when heat escapes through the uppermost part of the
roof, and the snow at those points melts, refreezing as it drips along the shingles, and collecting in the
form of ice at the lower points. This can result in structural damage from stress, including the destruction
of gutter and drainage systems.

Drainage
The primary job of most roofs is to keep out water. The large area of a roof repels a lot of water, which
must be directed in some suitable way, so that it does not cause damage or inconvenience.

Flat roof of adobe dwellings generally have a very slight slope. In a Middle Eastern country, where the
roof may be used for recreation, it is often walled, and drainage holes must be provided to stop water
from pooling and seeping through the porous roofing material.

Similar problems, although on a very much larger scale, confront the builders of modern commercial
properties which often have flat roofs. Because of the very large nature of such roofs, it is essential that
the outer skin be of a highly impermeable material. Most industrial and commercial structures have
conventional roofs of low pitch.

In general, the pitch of the roof is proportional to the amount of precipitation. Houses in areas of low
rainfall frequently have roofs of low pitch while those in areas of high rainfall and snow, have steep roofs.
The longhouses of Papua New Guinea, for example, being roof-dominated architecture, the high roofs
sweeping almost to the ground. The high steeply-pitched roofs of Germany and Holland are typical in
regions of snowfall. In parts of North America such as Buffalo, New York, United States, or Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, there is a required minimum slope of 6 in 12 (1:2, a pitch of 30°).

There are regional building styles which contradict this trend, the stone roofs of the Alpine chalets being
usually of gentler incline. These buildings tend to accumulate a large amount of snow on them, which is
seen as a factor in their insulation. The pitch of the roof is in part determined by the roofing material
available, a pitch of 3 in 12 (1:4) or greater slope generally being covered with asphalt shingles, wood
shake, corrugated steel, slate or tile.

The water repelled by the roof during a rainstorm is potentially damaging to the building that the roof
protects. If it runs down the walls, it may seep into the mortar or through panels. If it lies around the
foundations it may cause seepage to the interior, rising damp or dry rot. For this reason most buildings
have a system in place to protect the walls of a building from most of the roof water. Overhanging eaves
are commonly employed for this purpose. Most modern roofs and many old ones have systems of valleys,
gutters, waterspouts, waterheads and drainpipes to remove the water from the vicinity of the building. In
many parts of the world, roofwater is collected and stored for domestic use.

Areas prone to heavy snow benefit from a metal roof because their smooth surfaces shed the weight of
snow more easily and resist the force of wind better than a wood shingle or a concrete tile roof.

Insulation, drainage and solar roofing

Snow on the roofs of The flat roofs of the Steeply pitched,

houses in Poland Middle East, Israel gabled roofs in
Northern Europe

The overhanging eaves Green roof with solar

of China panels, Findhorn,
Scotland

Solar roofs
Newer systems include solar shingles which generate electricity as well as cover the roof. There are also
solar systems available that generate hot water or hot air and which can also act as a roof covering. More
complex systems may carry out all of these functions: generate electricity, recover thermal energy, and
also act as a roof covering.

Solar systems can be integrated with roofs by:

integration in the covering of pitched roofs, e.g. solar shingles,

mounting on an existing roof, e.g. solar panel on a tile roof,
integration in a flat roof membrane using heat welding (e.g. PVC) or
mounting on a flat roof with a construction and additional weight to prevent uplift from
wind.

Gallery of roof shapes

Roof shapes
 Five roofs of Pitched roof with Säteri roof (with vertical Mansard roof, county
Toji-ji, Kyoto decorated gable, break in pitch), Sweden jail, Mount Gilead,
Chiang Mai, Thailand Ohio

Conical roof, Nanhai Flat roofs, Sloped flat roof, house, Butterfly roof in
Academy in Taipei Haikou City, Western Australia Paradise Palms in the
Hainan, China southwestern United
States

Gallery of significant roofs

The polychrome tiles The glazed ceramic Ashlar masonry dome Imbrex and tegula tiles
of the Hospices de tiles of the Sydney of the Great Mosque of on the dome of
Beaune, France. Opera House. Kairoun, Tunisia Florence Cathedral.
 The marble The copper roof of The lead roof of King's The glass roof of the
dome of the Speyer Cathedral, College Chapel, Grand Palais, Paris.
Taj Mahal. Germany. England.

See also
Blue roof
Building-integrated photovoltaics
Domestic roof construction
List of Greco-Roman roofs
List of roof shapes
Roof cleaning
Rubber shingle roof
Solar shingle
Tensile architecture
Thin-shell structure

References
1. Harris, Cyril M. (editor). Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Third Edition, New York,
McGraw Hill, 2000, p. 775
2. "Roof" (https://www.etymonline.com/word/roof). etymonline.com. Online Etymology Library.
3. "roof, n." (https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=roof%2C+n.). Oxford English
Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution
membership (https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.)
4. "Roofing Materials to Protect You From the Elements" (https://www.huffpost.com/entry/roofin
g-materials-to-prot_b_8959516). HuffPost. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
5. C. M. Harris, Dictionary of Architecture & Construction
6. "Chapter 9 - Roof Assemblies" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150903034500/http://publicec
odes.cyberregs.com/icod/irc/2012/icod_irc_2012_9_par135.htm).
publicecodes.cyberregs.com. Archived from the original (http://publicecodes.cyberregs.com/i
cod/irc/2012/icod_irc_2012_9_par135.htm) on 2015-09-03. Retrieved 2015-08-31.
7. "Six Steps to Building a 150 Year Roof" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210818184240/http
s://kocaeliwebtasarim.medium.com/six-steps-to-building-a-150-year-roof-4624749b33c2).
kocaeliwebtasarim.medium.com. Archived from the original (https://kocaeliwebtasarim.medi
um.com/six-steps-to-building-a-150-year-roof-4624749b33c2) on 2021-08-18. Retrieved
2021-08-18.
8. "Green and Cool Roofs" (https://drawdown.org/solutions/green-and-cool-roofs). Project
Drawdown. 2020-02-06. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
9. Farhan, Syed Ahmad; Ismail, Fouad Ismail; Kiwan, Osamah; Shafiq, Nasir; Zain-Ahmed,
Azni; Husna, Nadzhratul; Hamid, Afif Izwan Abd (2021). "Effect of Roof Tile Colour on Heat
 Conduction Transfer, Roof-Top Surface Temperature and Cooling Load in Modern
Residential Buildings under the Tropical Climate of Malaysia" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu
13094665). Sustainability. 13 (9): 4665. doi:10.3390/su13094665 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2
Fsu13094665).

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