Lecture Note

Department of Computer Science,

Faculty of Computing,
Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Katsina – Nigeria

COS 101
Introduction to Computing Sciences
(3 Credit Units)
Table of Content

Chapter 1
History and Ccharacteristics of Computing Sciences
1.1 History of Computing Sciences
1.1.1 Generation of Computers
1.1.2 Specific Applications Due to Rapid Advancement in Knowledge
1.2 Computer Science
1.3 Cybersecurity
1.4 Data Science
1.5 Information and Communication Technology
1.6 Information Systems,
1.7 Information Technology
1.8 Software Engineering

Chapter 2
Computer Hardware
2.1 Input Hardware
2.1.1 Keyboard
2.1.2 Pointing Devices
2.1.2.1 Mice
2.1.2.2 Trackballs
2.1.2.3 Pointing Sticks
2.1.2.4 Touchpads
2.1.2.5 Light Pens
2.1.2.6 Pen-based System
2.1.1.3 Source Data Entry Devices
2.1.3.1 Scanning Devices
2.1.3.1.1 Bar-code Reader
2.1.3.1.2 Magnetic-ink Character Recognition (MICR)
2.1.3.1.3 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
2.1.3.1.4 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
2.1.3.2 Sensors
 2.1.3.3 Audio-input Devices
2.1.3.4 Voice-recognition Systems
2.1.3.5 Video-input Devices
2.1.3.6 Electronic Cameras
2.2 Output Hardware
2.2.1 Softcopy
2.2.2 Hardcopy
2.2.2.1 Printers
2.2.2.2 Plotters
2.2.2.3 Microfilm
2.2.2.4 Microfiche
2.3 Storage Harware
2.3.1 Primary or Memory Storage
2.3.2 Secondary Storage
2.3.2.1 Flash Drive
2.3.2.2 Hard Disk
2.3.2.3 CD-ROM Disk
2.3.2.4 CD-R Disk
2.3.2.5 CD-RW Disk
2.3.2.6 DVD
2.3.2.7 Magnetic Tape
2.3.2 Data Access Methods
2.3.2.1 Sequential Access
2.3.2.2 Direct Access
2.3.3 Unit of Measurement of Storage Harware
2.3.3.1 Kilobyte
2.3.3.2 Megabyte
2.3.3.3 Gigabyte
2.3.3.4 Terabyte
2.3.3.5 Petabyte
2.3.3.6 Zettabyte
2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.4.1 CPU Components
 2.4.1.1 Main Memory
2.4.1.2 Control Unit
2.4.1.3 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
2.4.2 Functions of Main Memory
Chapter 3
Computer Software
3.1 What is Software?
3.2 Functions of Software
3.3 Major Types of Software
3.3.1 System Software
3.3.2 Application Software
3.3.2.1 Advantages of Application Packages
3.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Application Packages
3.4 Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Software
3.4.1 Satisfies User Requirements
3.4.2 Cost
3.4.3 Reliability
3.4.4 Flexibility
3.4.5 Types of processing
3.4.6 Timing of processing
3.4.7 Integration with other System
3.4.8 Hardware requirements
3.4.9 Cope with volume of Data
3.4.10 Available Adequate Documentation
3.4.11 Succefully Used by Similiar Business Setup
3.4.12 Easy backup, start-of-the day and end-of-the day Procedure
3.5 Hardware and Software Selection Guidelines
3.5.1 Hardware Selection
3.5.1.1 Compatibility
3.5.1.2 Availability
3.5.1.3 Upgradability
3.5.1.4 Affordability
 3.5.1.5 Reliability
3.5.1.6 Sustainability
3.5.2 Software Selection
3.5.2.1 Ease of Use
3.5.2.2 Version
3.5.2.3 Portability
3.5.2.4 Affordability
3.5.2.5 Compatibility
3.6 Generation of Programming Languages
3.6.1 Machine Language
3.6.2 Assembly Language
3.6.3 High-level Language
3.6.4 Fourth-Generation Language
3.6.4.1 Query Language
3.6.4.2 Report Generator
3.6.4.3 Graphic Language
3.6.4.4 Application Generator
3.6.4.5 Application Software Packages
3.6.4.6 PC Tools
3.7 Programming Related Terms
3.7.1 Syntax
3.7.2 Semantic
3.7.3 Syntax Error
3.7.4 Program Logic
3.7.5 Logic Error
3.7.6 Program Listing
3.7.7 Exectable Statement
3.7.8 Coding
3.7.9 Source Program
3.7.10 Object Program
3.7.11 Loop
Chapter 4
Humanware (Human Resources)
4.1 Categories of Human Resouces in Organizations
4.1.1 System Designers
4.1.1.1 Database Administrators
4.1.1.2 Network Architects
4.1.1.3 Web Architects
4.1.1.4 Graphic Artists
4.1.1.5 Security Experts
4.1.1.1 Technology Specialists
4.1.2 System Builders
4.1.2.1 Application Programmers
4.1.2.2 Systems Programmers
4.1.2.3 Database Programmers
4.1.2.4 Network Administrators
4.1.2.5 Security Administrators
4.1.2.6 Webmasters
4.1.2.7 Software Integrators
4.1.3 System Analyst
4.1.3.1 Programmer/Analyst
4.1.3.2 Business Analyst
4.1.3.3 Requirement Analyst
4.1.3.4 Infrastructure Analyst
4.1.3.5 Change Management Analyst
4.1.3.6 Project Manager
4.2 Skills Set Needed by System Analyst
Chapter 5
Roles of Computer in Business and Society
5.1 Roles of Computer in Business Organizations
5.2 Roles of Computer in the Modern Society
5.3 Roles of Computer in Economic Growth and Develoment
Chapter 6
Information Systems
6.1 What is an Information System
6.2 Roles of Information Systems in Business Enterprise
6.3 Trends in Information Systems
6.4 Types of Information Systems
6.5 Perspectives of Information Systems
6.5.1 The Business Drivers Influencing the Information System
6.5.2 The Technology Drivers used by Information System
6.5.3 The Process for developing the information System
6.6 Business Value of Information System
Chapter 7
Information Processing
7.1 What is Data processing?
7.2 Methods of Data Processing
7.2.1 Manual Method
7.2.2 Mechanical Method
7.2.3 Computer Method
7.3 Types of Data Processing
7.3.1 Batch Processing
7.3.2 Online Processing
7.3.3 Centralised System
7.3.4 Discentralised System
7.3.5 Distributed System
7.4 Functions of Information Systems Department
7.4.1 System Development
7.4.2 Database Administration
7.4.3 Telecomminication
7.4.4 End-User Computing
7.4.5 Computer Operations
Chapter 8
Computer Network
8.1 What is Computer Network?
8.2 Types of Computer Network
8.2.1 Server-based Network
8.2.2 Peer-to- Peer Network
8.3 Data Transmission
8.3.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
8.3.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
8.3.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)
8.4 Multiplex
8.4.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
8.4.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
8.4.3 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
8.4.3 Wavelenght Division Multiplexing (WDM)
8.5 Open System Interconnection (OSI)- 7 Layers Model
8.5.1 Physical Layer
8.5.2 Data-link Layer
8.5.3 Network Layer
8.5.4 Transport Layer
8.5.5 Session Layer
8.5.6 Presentation Layer
8.5.7 Application layer
Chapter 9
Intranet, Extranet, Internet
9.1 Intranet
9.2 Extranet
9.3 Internet
Chapter 10
Word-processing, Spreadsheet, Graphic (Presentation)
10.1 Word-processing
10.2 Spreadsheet
10.3 Graphics (Presentation)
10.4 Hands-on Pratical
10.4.1 Microsoft Word or Latex
10.4.2 Microsoft Excel
10.4.3 Microsoft PowerPoint
Chapter 11
Browsers, Search Engines and Online Resources
11.1 Importance of Online Resources
11.2 Types of Browsers
11.3 Type of Search Engines
 Chapter 1
History and Characteristics of Computing Sciences

Overview
This chapter introduces the student to the history and characteristics of computing sciences,
which are some of the topics for beginners in computing. It also explains the key concepts
in the areas of Computer Science, Cybersecurity, Data Science, Information and
Communication Technology, Information Systems, Information Technology, and Software
Engineering. The chapter presents the importance of these various branches of computing
to society. At the end of this chapter are test items designed to stimulate learning and
possibly redirect the attention of readers to grey areas for proper understanding.

Objectives

By the conclusion of this chapter, students should possess the capability to:

1. get the fundamental Knowledge of the history and characteristics of computing

science

2. Point out the development of computer science together with the major
breakthroughs and vital developments in the history

3. Gain knowledge of the different fields of computing sciences such as information

and communication technology, cybersecurity, computer science, data science,
information systems, information technology, and software engineering

4. Answer chapter’s self-study exercises

1.1 History of computing sciences

The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself. Men
in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing machine for
counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools. Most African
countries, most especially West African countries traditionally used cowrie shells to perform
mathematical calculations. Cowrie shells were used as a type of abacus with the shells
representing different numbers. For instance, a single cowrie shell might signify the number
one, while a group of four cowrie shells might signify the number four. By operating the
cowrie shells and moving them around, people could compute addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of numbers.

In Nigeria, the Yoruba people developed the "ifa Odun," which is a binary number system
that was used for divination, computation, and other purposes. The abacus, which was
developed in Asia between 2700 and 2300 before common era (BCE) in Sumer, is a prime
example of a computing tool that was widely used in ancient times. John Napier, a Scottish
mathematician, developed the logarithm in 1614 for the easy computation of numbers.
Fourteen significant digits table was developed by him in 1624 for the logarithms of
numbers from 1 to 20,000. In 1632, William Oughtred, a clergyman and a mathematician
invented the slide rules based on John Napier’s ideas. Blaise Pascal, a French
Mathematician, and Philosopher built the first calculating machine which later became
commercially viable between 1642 and 1644. The machine is named the Pascaline, Adding
Machine, or Arithmetic machine. Pascaline was good in addition and addition but
elementary in multiplication and division. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, a German
mathematician, and philosopher studied the work of Blaise Pascal in 1671 and came up
with the discovery of the Step Reckoner calculating machine in 1673. The work improved
on Pascal’s invention with the addition of multiplication by repeated addition and shifting.

Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar of France, in 1820, made it a task to build

Arithmometer. Arithmometer was the first precision commercial mechanical calculator that
can accomplish elementary mathematical processes such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, in addition to performing complex tasks. In 1804, Joseph
Marie Jacquard invented another mechanical machine called the Jacquard loom which
mark the beginning of the automated system. The Jacquard loom was built to advance
the automation of the process of weaving complex patterns into fabric in the textile
industry. Charles Babbage, a scientist, inventor, and mathematician developed the
difference engine in the 1820s. A different engine was used to make difficult mathematical
tables which are needed for varieties of scientific and engineering computations of those
days. Lady Lovelace, an English mathematician, and author, also known as Duchess of
Lovelace, was an associate of Babbage who invented the Analytical Engine in the 19th
century. She was well known as the first Computer programmer because of her close work
with Charles Babbage.

Herman Hollerith, an American inventor who was employed in the United States (US)
Census Bureau in the year 1880, as a statistician developed the first electromechanical
tabulating machine displayed for the US Census Bureau in the year 1890. The census of
1890 could be counted within a year, as against counting it several years previously. The
breakthrough of census computation led to the establishment of Tabulating Machine
Company (TMC), which was renamed International Business Machine (IBM); the
beginning of developing business machines. In 1930, Alan Turing, a British mathematician
proposed a computational model that can simulate any computer algorithm or
computational process. Turing proposed the concept of a universal machine in his 1936
paper which laid the foundations of modern computer science. The first electronic digital
computer was manufactured in the late 1930s and early 1940s by John Atanasoff, a
physicist, and mathematician, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, at Iowa State
College (now Iowa State University). The name of the computer was Atanasoff-Berry
Computer (ABC). It was developed to find solutions to systems of simultaneous linear
equations

During the Second World War, there was a need for a calculating machine, especially in
the area of ballistic missile trajectory calculation, where trajectory tables and other essential
data were produced. Different groups all over Europe and America started independent
efforts to design computers. There was no awareness among these groups as to what others
were doing. Between the Second World War and now, several computers have been
designed and manufactured. They have very great capacities in speed, memory, and
versatility. They are however grouped into generations. The generation to which a
computer belongs depends on the technology upon which it was fabricated.

1.1.1 Generation of Computers

A. The First Generations of Computers ( 1940s – 1950s)

Computers first emerged in the 1940s and their first generation spanned until the 1950s.
These sets of computers were big, costly, and used vacuum tubes for their operations. This
era of computing brought about the invention of the first digital electronic computers
which were used for scientific and military purposes. Machine and assembly languages were
introduced during the first generation of computers, which were characterized by their
large size, high cost, limited performance, and slow operational speed. The first generation
of computers, which included the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC),
Universal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I), International Business Machines (IBM), and
Ferranti Mark I, is exemplified in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)

Characteristics of the first generation of Computers

The characteristic features of the earliest phase in the development of computing

technology are:

1. Vacuum tube

The first generation of computers was made up of glass tubes called vacuum tubes that
could be used as electronic switches. The vacuum tubes are very big and needed a lot
 of energy to function and are used for computations and switching operations. They
are often prone to failure due to the intensity of temperatures produced.

2. Machine Language:

During the first generation of computers, machine language, the lowest-level

programming language, was utilized. This language consisted of binary code, a
sequence of 0s and 1s, which is the only language that the computer can comprehend.
The code is time-consuming and difficult to understand. The binary code had to be
manually keyed into the computer.

3. Magnetic Drum Memory

The storage of data was done by the first generation of computers through the use of
magnetic drum memory which is a non-volatile memory that used magnetic fields to
keep output information. Magnetic drums, while slow, have limited storage capacity.

4. Punch Cards

Punch cards were used to input data and instruction into the first generation of
computer systems. A punch card was a piece of rigid paper that had holes perforated
in precise places to signify data or instructions. The punch cards were input into the
computer, and the computer would read the holes to control the data or
instructions.

5. Limited Applications

The first generation of computers had no capability to be used for many

applications. They were only used for scientific and military needs such as the
computation of complex mathematical equations and the simulation of the
behavior of physical systems.

6. Batch Processing

In the first generation of computing, all the input data are collected and then
processed together. The process of collecting and then processing input together is
called batch processing.

B. Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )

The second generation of computing started from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s. In
this second generation of computing, vacuum tubes were replaced with smaller and
more dependable transistors. The second generation of computers was smaller, faster,
and more efficient. Magnetics core memory which replaces the vacuum tube memory
and drum memory was faster and more dependable. However, machine and assembly
languages were used UNIVAC 1. At the same time, IBM 704 was developed in 1954 to
use transistors instead of vacuum tubes and had a magnetic core memory that allowed
 for larger storage capacity and faster processing. IBM 704 was also the first computer
to have a Fortran compiler, which gives room for programmers to write high-level
language code that could be translated into machine language. Some examples of
computers developed in this period are IBM 7090 and IBM System/360, Control Data
Corporation 6600 (CDC 6600), UNIVAC 1108, and Digital Equipment Corporation
Programmed Data Processor-8 (DEC PDP-8). Example of the second generation of
computers is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: The Second-Generation Computer

Many programming languages were developed in the second generation of computers.

Such programming Languages are Formula Translation (FORTRAN) developed in 1954 and
released in 1957 by John Backus and his team at IBM, Common Business-Oriented
Language (COBOL) produced by Grace Hopper in 1959 as a business application
programming language and Algorithmic Language (ALGOL) developed in 1958 by a
committee of computer scientists, among them, John Backus and Peter Naur. In addition
to machine and assembly languages, other programming languages emerged during the
first generation of computers. Among these were Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code (BASIC), created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth
College in 1964, and List Processing (LISP), produced by John McCarthy of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1962 specifically for use in artificial
intelligence (AI) research.

Characteristics of second-generation computers

The second generation of computers is defined by a distinct set of features, which include:

1. Use of Transistors

The most significant development of the second generation of computers was the
replacement of vacuum tubes with transistors. Transistors were well reduced in size, faster,
and more dependable than vacuum tubes, and they gave room for computers to be made
much smaller than earlier generations

2. Magnetic Core Memory

 Magnetic core replaced the Vacuum Tube Memory, Delay Line Memory, and Drum
Memory: which were used in the first generation of computers to store data.
Magnetic core memory that came into vogue in the second generation of
computing was faster and more dependable than the memory technologies of the
first generation, and it gives room for the storage of more data in a smaller space

3. Batch Processing

During the second generation of computers, Batch Processing was utilized as a means of
running programs. This involved processing assignments of data together in a single batch,
as opposed to processing them individually or in real time. The method is used when
dealing with large assignments of data that can be automatically executed such as
processing large-scale scientific and engineering simulations, besides commercial
applications such as payroll processing.

4. High-Level Programming Languages

High-Level Programming Languages such as Formula Translation (FORTRAN) and

Common Business-oriented languages (COBOL) were developed on second-
generation computers. These languages open the door to easy programming of
complex codes by programmers. It also commenced the development of
contemporary programming languages.

5. Operating Systems (OS)

Operating systems such as IBM's OS/360 that permit many users to run programs on the
same computer at the same time were developed when computer technology shifted from
vacuum tube-based to transistor-based systems.

C. Third Generation of Computers ( 1960s – 1970s )

The third phase or era in the evolution of computing technology began from the
early 1960s to the 1970s. It is generally believed that the introduction of the IBM
System/360 mainframe computer in 1964 marked the beginning of the third phase
in the evolution of computing technology while the commencement of the use of
the Intel 4004 microprocessor which was released in 1971 marked the end of the
third era in the evolution of computing technology. The third phase in the evolution
of technology brought in the development of integrated circuits, which gives an
avenue for greater reduction and the formation of smaller and more powerful
computers. Thus, the use of transistors was replaced with the use of integrated
circuits (ICs) which permits the development of smaller and more powerful
computers. The idea of time-sharing which permits many users to access a single
computer at the same time was introduced by the computers of the third era. There
were lots of improvements in hardware and software technology which led to more
 powerful, accessible, and user-friendly computers. The first personal computer (PC)
Altair 8800, based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor and came with 256 bytes of
memory designed by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) was
introduced in 1975. Examples of third-era of computers are IBM System/360, Digital
Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-11 (DEC PDP-11), Cray-1, HP
3000, and Virtual Address eXtension (VAX-11). Figure 1.3 displays an example of
the third generation of computers.

Figure 1.3: IBM 360 (Minicomputer)

The third-generation languages (3GL) were the first to be used for structured programming.
They were developed in the 1960s and were closer to natural language than the previous
generations and made programming easier for non-experts. The C Programming Language
was created at Bell Labs in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie, while Pascal was invented in 1970 by
Niklaus Wirth. COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC are other programming languages that
played a significant role in advancing the development of third-generation computers.

Many advances in the field of programming were linked to 3GL. Some of them are
structured programming, the ability to handle large data sets, and improved error checking.
Third-generation languages (3GLs) have paved the way for the emergence of more
advanced programming languages like Python, Ruby, and Java.

The features of third-generation computers.

The features of computers that are of the third generation are:

1. Integrated circuits
Third-generation computers were characterized by their use of integrated circuits, which
revolutionized computing by allowing multiple transistors and other components to be
combined on a single silicon chip. This breakthrough greatly reduced the size and
complexity of computers, while simultaneously improving their reliability and
performance.

2. Operating systems

This generation of computers developed an operating system that made it easier to

use and program computers. Two widely used operating systems during the third
generation of computing were IBM's OS/360 and DEC's TOPS-10.

3. High-level programming languages

During the advent of 3rd generation programming languages (3GL), several high-level
programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC were developed. These
languages enabled programmers to write more expressive and concise code, thus making
programming easier and more accessible to a wider range of people. In addition, the
development of software, and maintenance is very easy. It also assisted to widen the user
base of computers.

4. Time-sharing

With the introduction of third-generation computers, multiple system users were

able to access a computer simultaneously. This was a significant improvement over
earlier generations, where only one user could access the computer at a time. This
increased accessibility and made computing more efficient, allowing for greater
collaboration and productivity among users. The method that enables multiple
computer system users to access a computer simultaneously is known as time-
sharing.

5. Mainframes and minicomputers

There was massive development of mainframes and minicomputers in the third-

generation computers. These computers were very large and costly computers used
by businesses and government establishments, and minicomputers, which were
smaller and inexpensive, and used by smaller establishments and research
organizations.

D. Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s )

The fourth generation of computers saw sporadic changes in computer technology

from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, with the development of microprocessors
and personal computers revolutionizing the industry. It featured the production of
 integrated circuits made it possible to miniaturize and mass-produce computer
components, leading to a significant increase in computing power. Thus, it was
possible to build computers using large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale
integration (VLSI) technology. This knowledge permits the development of
microprocessors, which made computers even smaller and more powerful. Personal
computers (PCs) were also introduced in this era. Examples of fourth-generation
computers are IBM Personal Computer (PC), IIBM System/370, Apple Macintosh,
Commodore 64 (C64), and Atari 800. The fourth-generation programming
languages known as 4GLs were developed to allow the production of complex
business applications. These high-level languages were developed in the 1980s so
that non-programmers can develop applications that will handle large amounts of
data. Examples are Structured Query Language (SGL), Visual Basic, and
PowerBuilder, Ada. An example of this generation of computers is shown in Figure
1.4.

Figure 1.4: Fourth-Generation Computers

Features of fourth-generation of computers

The features of fourth-generation of computers are:

1. Microprocessors

The discovery of microprocessors gave birth to the building of fourth-generation

computers in the late 1970s and the mid-1980s. Several microprocessors were built
by different companies to contribute to the development of fourth-generation
computers. Intel developed Intel 4004 microprocessor which was the first
commercial microprocessor and was made available in 1971. Intel 8008 and 8080
which were the foundation of the first personal computer were made available in
1972 and 1974 respectively.
 Motorola produced the 6800 microprocessors in 1974 and Zilog announced the
Z80 microprocessor in 1976. Motorola 6800 microprocessor enjoyed a lot of
patronages from early home computers and video game consoles, while Zilog
microprocessors gained popularity among early personal computers, such as the
TRS-80 and the ZX Spectrum.

Microprocessors give room for better processing power and speed, much smaller
and more effective computers than the large, bulky vacuum tubes and transistors
used in earlier generations of computers

2. Increased memory capacity

The fourth-generation computers witnessed the development of dynamic random-

access memory (DRAM) technology which made it possible to construct extra
memory in computers, which then gives room for more complex and sophisticated
programs to be run in addition to permitting the formation of smaller, more
reliable, and cheaper memory chips. The introduction of microprocessors in the
fourth generation of computers brings into play a single chip integrated into the
central processing unit (CPU) and memory, combining two vital computing
components into one, which led to the development of microprocessors. This
increased the general memory capacity and allowed faster processing speeds and
reduced the need for distinct memory components.

3. Operating systems

The development of microprocessors, integrated circuits, and personal computers

lead to the advancement of more powerful operating systems (OS) with greater
functionality, efficiency, and user-friendliness. During that time, several operating
systems emerged, including MS-DOS, Macintosh System Software, Unix, MS
Windows, and OS/2, each offering unique features and capabilities to users. MS-
DOS was made available in the 1980s and used by IBM-compatible systems. It uses
a command-line interface and permits users to run programs, manage files, and
access hardware facilities. In 1984, Apple introduced Macintosh System Software,
which boasted a graphical user interface (GUI), allowing users to manage files
through drag-and-drop and access features via a menu bar. Unix operating system
was introduced in the 1970s and was generally used in the 1980s in workstations
and minicomputers. Featuring a command-line interface, it was designed as a multi-
user, multi-tasking operating system. MS Windows was first made available in 1985,
and it was issued as a GUI for IBM-compatible personal computers. In the late 1980s
and early 1990s, the popularity of the operating system increased with the release
of Windows 3.0 and 3.1, which introduced advanced graphics support, virtual
memory, and other features, making it more widely adopted. OS/2 was produced
 by the combined efforts of IBM and Microsoft in 1987 to pave the way for an
advanced operating system for personal computers. It was developed to be a multi-
tasking, multi-user operating system with GUI, however, it was not generally
accepted, hence, was suspended in 2001. All these characteristics made it easier for
users to interact with the computer and perform a wide range of tasks.

4. User-friendly interfaces

The graphical user interface which was first developed by Xerox in the 1970s and
became popular in the 1980s made fourth-generation computer usage easier for
average individuals. Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers (WIMP) interface was
introduced in the 1980s, gained general acceptance among Windows OS users, and
featured a desktop with icons representing programs, files, and folders, as well as
drop-down menus and pointers to navigate. Command Line Interface (CLI), though,
is not as user-friendly as the GUI was still in use in the 4GL. Touchscreens were
developed in the 1980s, though not used until later. In all, GUI permits users to
relate with the computer using icons, windows, and menus, rather than having to
type in complex commands.

6. Networking

Advanced networking technology was developed in the fourth generation of

computers which gives room for computers to interface, communicate and share
facilities easier than ever before. Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox
Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) in 1973, enabling computers to
connect to each other through a shared communication protocol for resource and
data exchange. Internet Protocol (IP) which allows communication between
different devices over a network was first developed in the late 1970s by Vint Cerf
and Bob Kahn as a way to connect multiple networks together, creating a larger
network of networks. Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks
(WANs) were introduced during this period for businesses to connect their
computers and share data across diverse locations.

The fourth generation of computers brought in important growth of networking

technology, which paved the way for the general acceptance of computer networks
and the development of the modern Internet.

7. Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction.

A lot of Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction as discussed earlier

were developed in fourth-generation computers. Complex software applications
became easier to write programs on, with the development of Programming
 languages at a higher level of abstraction such as C, C++, Java, Structured Query
Language (SQL), Lisp, Prolog, BASIC, among others.

E. The Fifth Generation of Computers ( 1980s – 1990s )

The idea of starting the fifth generation of computing called the “Fifth Generation
Computer Project” was started by the Japanese government with the Japanese Ministry
of International Trade and Industry, and some important Japanese technology
companies, such as Fujitsu, NEC, and Hitachi, taking part in the development in the
1980s. The goal was to develop a novel generation of computers that could use cutting-
edge artificial intelligence, natural language processing (NLP) capabilities, and logic
programming techniques. The project that was expected to be on, for ten years was
terminated in the 1990s due to their inability to achieve their goals. They were not able
to achieve their goals because of the increasing cost of the project and the helplessness of
the researchers to develop practical and useful applications for the technology they were
researching on. The stoppage of the project notwithstanding, it was able to promote the
development of computer science and artificial intelligence research, most especially in
the area of logic programming and knowledge representation. Furthermore, it inspired
research in parallel processing and distributed systems, which became a field in computer
science later. Some of the fifth generations of computer Languages (5GLs) are not so
distinct. The Languages were advancements in the fourth generation of computer
languages. Some examples of programming languages of the fifth generation of
computers are Prolog, Concurrent Prolog, Mercury, Official Production System 5 (OPS5),
LISt Processing (LISP), Miranda, Structured Query Language (SQL), Statistical Analysis
System (SAS), Adaptive Design Automation (ADA) and VHSIC Hardware Description
Language (VHDL) where VHSIC stands for Very High-Speed Integrated Circuit.

Figure 1.5: Fifth-generation computer.

Features of fifth-generation of computers

The features of fifth-generation computers are:

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

 One of the features of the fifth-generation computers’ artificial intelligence is the
ability to depend on parallel processing, natural language processing, and expert
systems, including the use of machine learning algorithms. In other words, the
computer of this generation should be able to do things that human beings
normally do such as knowledge of natural language, identifying patterns, and
making decisions.

2. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

NLP is a specialized study in artificial intelligence and part of the goals of fifth-
generation computers but was not achieved, though the research on it stimulates
future development in the field. The study area gives the capability to
comprehend and give answer to human language in a manner that is similar to
human-to-human interaction.

3. Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS)

KBS is an important component of AI and a fifth generation of computers that

aims to use a database of knowledge and reasoning methods to replicate the
problem-solving abilities of a human expert in a specific area. It is intended to
process natural language and use AI to reason and learn since it has a knowledge
base and an inference engine. In all, KBS has the power to save and retrieve huge
quantities of information and use it to reason and make decisions.

4. Parallel Processing

Parallel Processing is an important characteristic of fifth-generation computers which

allows several instructions to be performed at the same time and also analyze large
volumes of data. It divides the work into smaller sub-units and performs them on
many processors.

5. Distributed Computing

This is a vital goal of the fifth generation of computers to produce machines that
are highly intelligent, flexible, and interactive. In distributed computing, machines
are aimed to accomplish a wide variety of jobs that need a large amount of
computing power, memory, and speed. It gives room for a large number of
computers to be linked together to form a single, powerful system, working
together to find a solution to a problem. In all, the fifth generation of computers
gives the opportunity to connect and utilize the processing power of multiple
computers, allowing for large-scale computations and data analysis.

6. Expert Systems

This is a component of the fifth-generation computers that are aimed at imitating

the decision-making functions of an expert in a specific area, using knowledge and
reasoning methods to give solutions to problems and make decisions. It is expected
to assist users to get solutions to complex problems by giving guidance and
 suggestions based on their knowledge of the specific area. In all, expect systems to
model and automate the decision-making processes of human experts in various
fields.

7. User-Friendly Interfaces

The definition of user-friendly interfaces of the Fifth-generation computers was not

absolutely agreed upon, however, it is known as intelligent computers and expected
to have user-friendly interfaces. The interfaces are developed to be intuitive,
efficient, and pleasant to use, that is, easy to use and understand, even for non-
expert users. Thus, the fifth generation of computers ought to relate with users in a
natural and casual manner, using natural language processing, speech recognition,
and other advanced skills. In other words, interact with the computer in a more
natural and intuitive way, such as through voice commands and touch screens.

1.1.2 Specific Applications Due to Rapid Advancement in Knowledge

It is pertinent to note that the first to the fifth generations of computers are discussed in
the previous sections, however, the question that comes to mind is that “Are there sixth-
generation computers”. The answer is that since the fifth generation of computers with a
focus on AI, the emphasis started shifting from the generation of computers or a total
refurbishment of computing technology to specific applications due to rapid advancement
in knowledge.

However, some experts suggested that the sixth generation of computers consists of
computers with the ability to perform advanced forms of artificial intelligence (AI), such as
deep learning and neural networks. It should also be able to possibly exhibit human-like
cognitive abilities, like reasoning, the ability to analyze problems and take actions.

There are suggestions in some quarters to also have the seventh generation of computers
be computers that relate well with their environment in a more sophisticated way than
present AI systems. These types of computers should be able to perceive and respond to
the world around them using a variety of sensors, together with visual, auditory, and tactile
sensors.

Furthermore, there are suggestions for having a classification called Quantum computers.
These are computers that use ideologies of quantum mechanics for computation. They
have the impetus to give solutions to glitches that are presently obstinate for traditional
devices, like large-scale optimization problems and cryptography.

There is also Neuromorphic computing (NC) which uses the structure and functions of the
human brain for modeling. It uses the idea of artificial neural networks that can learn and
adapt to new information just like the way that biological neurons work in the brain. NC
offers enhanced efficiency in data processing and facilitates a wide range of applications,
including but not limited to image recognition, natural language processing, and robotics.
NC has the capability to undertake jobs that are difficult for traditional computers, such as
recognizing patterns in complex data sets or processing sensory information in real time.
Neuromorphic systems can also be highly energy-efficient, consuming much less power
than traditional computers.

It is of utmost importance to recognize that the classifications of computers based on their

capabilities are not universally accepted. Although the concept of classifying computers
based on their utilization of parallel processing and artificial intelligence technologies was
proposed during the fifth generation of computers, it continues to evolve and is now
incorporated into various types of computing devices, ranging from supercomputers to
smartphones. This demonstrates the dynamic nature of technological advancements, as
well as the increasing integration of cutting-edge technologies into our daily lives.
Furthermore, there are other recent means of classification of computers based on the type
of job they are designed to do, their size, functionality, and capabilities. Other major
classifications of computers in this contemporary time are in the form of Personal
Computers (PCs), Workstations, Servers, Mainframes, Supercomputers, Embedded systems,
and Wearable computers. Moreso, some experts have faith in the fact that future
generations of computers may be based on totally different ideologies diverse from what
is currently in vogue in contemporary computers, such as biological or chemical systems.
Others suggest that the boundaries between human and machine intelligence may become
increasingly blurred, leading to a new era of cognitive computing.

1.2 Computer Science

Computer Science (CS) is the research into computer and computer systems with an
understanding of computing technologies, algorithms, and programming languages
Computer science encompasses both theoretical and practical facets, spanning the
development of software and hardware systems, the analysis and design of algorithms, and
the exploration of computational theory and foundations. Beyond these technical areas,
computer science also delves into the social, ethical, and economic ramifications of
computing technology. This multifaceted discipline explores the impact of technology on
society and considers how computing can be leveraged to address societal challenges.

The field of Computer Science encompasses a vast array of subjects, including but not
limited to artificial intelligence, computer architecture, databases, graphics, human-
computer interaction, networking, operating systems, programming languages, security,
software engineering, and theory of computation. This breadth of topics highlights the
interdisciplinary nature of Computer Science and the wide range of applications it has in
various industries. With its ever-evolving advancements and innovations, Computer
Science continues to push the boundaries of what is possible in the realm of computing
technology.
The study of computer and computational systems has an important influence on virtually
every part of modern life, from communication and entertainment to healthcare and
transportation. It is also a sporadically developing field, with new technologies and
applications evolving every now and then.

There are several occupational opportunities for CS professionals in diverse industries,

ranging from software development, IT consulting, finance, and healthcare, to government
establishments. CS professionals have the prospect of working as programmers, software
engineers, data analysts, network administrators, cybersecurity specialists, or researchers,
among other roles. The characteristics of computer science are:

1. Abstraction: this is the s capability to take complex systems and break them down
into simpler components or abstractions that can be operated more easily. These
abstractions can be used to design, analyze and optimize computer programs,
systems, and algorithms.
2. Algorithmic thinking: Computer scientists use analytical and problem-solving skills
to break down complex problems into smaller parts and design algorithms to solve
them (i.e., algorithmic thinking). This ability allows them to create powerful and
effective software systems that have applications across various industries. Through
their training, they approach problems in a structured and logical way, which is
important for programming and software development

3. Computational thinking: this is the ability to use a set of mental tools and ideas to
approach problems in a way that a computer can solve them. This involves
understanding algorithms, data structures, and programming languages to find
solutions to problems efficiently and effectively.
4. Creativity: the study of computer science comprises creative ways of finding
solutions to problems. It involves the ability of Programmers to think in a creative
way and come out with new solutions to solving complex problems. These ideas
and solutions ought to be communicated efficiently and effectively to others

5. Collaboration: this is an important skill in computer science that enable

Programmers to work in teams to develop software and systems. It also enables
Programmers to communicate effectively with others to find solutions to problems
together. It is pertinent to note that effective collaboration includes good
communication, empathy, and teamwork.
1.3 Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity protects computer systems, networks, devices, and data from unauthorized
access, theft, damage, and other cyber threats. The technologies, processes, and practices
safeguard electronic systems from malicious attacks on computers, mobile devices, servers,
and other electronic devices.

Cybersecurity is indispensable in this present digital world, where diverse sensitive

information is stored and communicated by electronic means. The penalties of an effective
cyber attack can be overwhelming, together with financial losses, damage to reputation,
and even loss of life.

The area of study of cybersecurity is enormous and continuously developing, with new
threats and vulnerabilities evolving day by day. Key areas of cybersecurity include network,
application, endpoint, and data security, cloud security, identity and access management,
threat intelligence, incident response, and Cyber security in governance, risk and
compliance (CRC).

There are so many employment opportunities for cybersecurity professionals. Such

opportunity includes Information Security Analyst, Penetration Tester, Security Consultant,
Cybersecurity Engineer, Incident Response Analyst, Network Security Engineer,
Cryptographer, Security Architect, Cybersecurity Specialist, Compliance Analyst, Risk
Management Analyst, Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analyst, Malware Analyst,
Forensic Analyst, Security Auditor, Security Administrator, Cybersecurity Trainer/Instructor,
and Security Researcher. The need for cybersecurity professionals is likely to continue to
raise as the threat landscape turns out to be more complex and the demand for defending
sensitive information upsurges.

The characteristics of cybersecurity are:

1. Confidentiality: this is the capability to preserve sensitive information and data
protected and secluded. It is accomplished through encryption and access control
mechanisms, such as passwords and multi-factor authentication.
2. Integrity: this is the capacity to make sure that data and information is accuracy
and consistency. Integrity also makes sure that data and information are not altered
or tampered with in any way. This is accomplished through data backup and salvage
mechanisms, as well as through measures such as digital signatures and hash
functions.
3. Availability: this is the ability of approved users to access information and systems
when they are required. This is accomplished through procedures such as
redundancy and fault tolerance, as well as through monitoring and administration
of network traffic and resources.

4. Authentication: this is the procedure for authenticating the identity of users and
having the assurance of the certainty of the identity. This is accomplished with
procedures such as passwords, biometric verification, and multi-factor
authentication.

5. Non-repudiation: this is a situation whereby a party cannot deny the legitimacy or

integrity of a message or business that they have sent or received. This is
accomplished through digital signatures and other cryptographic procedures that
offer a provable proof of authenticity and integrity.
1.4 Data Science
Data Science extracts insights from data through a multidisciplinary approach, providing
valuable business knowledge. It can draw on methods and techniques from fields such as
statistics, mathematics, computer science, and domain-specific knowledge in order to
derive insights and create solutions from data. Data Science uses a multidisciplinary
approach, including math, statistics, AI, and computer engineering, to analyze large
amounts of data.

The study of how to extract insights from data encompasses a variety of procedures and
approaches for collecting, organizing, and analyzing data. This comprises statistical analysis,
machine learning, data visualization, and data mining. It also includes the use of dedicated
software and programming languages such as Python, R, and SQL.

Several stages are involved in data science processes. Such stages are Data Collection, Data
Preparation, Data Analysis, Data Visualization, and Communication.

Several employment opportunities are opened to Data scientists. Some of them are
Machine Learning Engineers, Business Intelligence analysts, Data Analysts, Data Scientists,
statisticians, Quantitative analysts, Data engineers, Data architects, Artificial Intelligence
Researchers, and Predictive modelers. The demand for Data Scientists is on the increase in
diverse industries such as healthcare, finance, and marketing to improve decision-making
processes and gain a competitive advantage. The characteristics of Data Science are:

1. Multidisciplinary: this encompasses the application of skills and knowledge from

several fields such as statistics, mathematics, computer science, and domain-specific
knowledge.
2. Data-driven: this is profoundly dependent on data, and its principal objective is to
extract perceptions and knowledge from data sets. This comprises collecting and
organizing data, analyzing it, and using it to develop models and make forecasts.
3. Iterative: this contains an iterative procedure of survey, modeling, and evaluation.
This procedure includes continuous modification and improvement of models and
methods until the desired outcomes are achieved.
4. Problem-solving: In data science is the main goal is finding solutions to real-world
problems through the use of data. This contains recognizing the problems, gathering
relevant data, analyzing the data, and developing solutions that can be
implemented to address the problem
5. Creativity: Data science needs imaginative thinking to approach problems and
develop solutions. It contains investigating diverse methods, exploring new data
sets, and developing innovative methods to solve problems.
1.5 Information and Communication Technology

Information and communications technology (ICT) is a branch of computing science which

encompasses all forms of technology related to the communication, storage, and
processing of information. It includes a wide range of technologies such as computers, the
internet, broadcast technologies, and telecommunication systems. ICT is used in a variety
of ways, from helping businesses to streamline their operations to enabling people to access
information and services. It is also used to facilitate learning, improve healthcare, and
enhance communication between people.

ICT is made-up of three components: Information; which is the use of computers systems
to transform data into information, Communications; this is the transmission of
information through networks, Technology; the the technique applied for the transmission.
Information and communication technology (ICT) has a number of important roles in
various aspects of society, including:
1. Communication: ICT enables communication among people regardless of location,
through technologies such as email, messaging apps, and video conferencing.
2. Access to information: ICT provides means to access to a large volume of information,
through sources such as the internet and databases.
3. Education: ICT is applied in education to facilitate distance learning and provide access
to a wide range of educational resources.
4. Healthcare: ICT is used in healthcare to improve patient care and support telemedicine,
which allows patients to receive care remotely.
5. Economic development: ICT can contribute to economic development by enabling
businesses to increase efficiency and productivity, and by creating new job opportunities
in the tech sector.

1.6 Information Systems

Information Systems (IS) is a branch of computing science that focuses on the use of a
combination of software, hardware, and telecommunication networks to collect, process,
store, distribute information to support decision-making, control and coordination in an
organization for increased productivity through best practices and professional standards.
The basic components of information systems are:
1. Hardware; These are the physical devices that work together to accept, process, show
data, and information. Examples are monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard.
2. Software: These are the computer programs (instructions) that allow the hardware to
process the data.
3. Databases: These are the collections of associated files or tables containing related data
and information.
4. Networks: These are interconnected computer systems that allow diverse computers
to distribute resources.
5. Procedures are the commands for combining the components above to process
information and produce the preferred output.
Some of the benefits of an information system include:
1. Information Storage and Analysis
 Information systems store, update, and even analyze information, which can then be
used to obtain solutions to current or future problems. Furthermore, information
systems have the ability to integrate data from various sources, in order to keep an
organization up to date with internal performance and external opportunities and
threats.
2. Easier Decision Making
Information systems assist organizations in the decision-making process. However, with
the use of IS, it’s easier to deliver all the necessary information and model the results to
make better decisions
3. Behavioural Change
Information systems assist employers and employees to communicate rapidly and more
effectively. While emails are quick and effective, the use of Information Systems is more
efficient, since documents are stored in folders that can be shared and accessed by
employees.
4. Assist With Business Processes
Information systems help businesses in developing a great amount of value added-
systems in an organisation. For example, an organisation can integrate
information systems with the manufacturing cycle to ensure that the output it produces
complies with the requirements of the various quality management standards.

1.7 Information Technology

Information technology (IT) is a branch of computing science that deals with the use of
computers, networks, computer software and other electronic or digital devices to create,
process, store, retrieve and exchange all kinds of data and information. Information
technology is responsible for such a large portion of our workforce, business operations
and personal access to information that it comprises much of our daily activities.

Listed are some good examples of Information Technology services:

1. Network: When two or more computer systems are connected via cables or
wirelessly.
2. Compute: Through the method of computing, or data processing, is an important
aspect of Information Technology. It helps in storing the data in the CPU.
3. Data Storage of Memory: The device where the information is stored without
directly being processed. It can be solid-state drives or cloud storage databases.
4. Security: Computer security assists organizations to protect their data and other
technological assets to be saved from any unauthorized access.
5. Technical Support: This is used to solve hardware, software ad network issues.

Listed are the benefits of information technology:

1. With the advancement in information technology, access to the system of an
organization from anywhere is possible. It is not necessary for the authority to be
in the office only. They can work from home as well. Easy access to the system from
anywhere has surely increased one’s productivity.
 2. There is a huge demand for IT professionals in various fields. The demand opens an
immense opportunity for IT professionals to explore the field and show their talent.
3. With the advancement of IT, the educational organization has changed its outlook
and has adopted a modern way of teaching and learning. Teachers and institutions
are using modern gadgets to teach their students. A computer with an internet
connection helps students to learn new things and understand the topics easily and
deeply.
4. Information technology assists patients because they can now connect with their
physicians and take advice online. Also, there are many virtual healthcare
applications available to provide guidance. Electronic health records and
telemedicine are delivering efficient and quality health to patients.
5. In the technology world, with information technology, the drawback of time and
distance in business activities has been eliminated. Now, buying and selling have
been made a lot easier since customers can buy online from vendors anywhere.
6. With wireless communication mediums, only a few seconds are needed to know
the news from any part of the world, news broadcasts have become so much easier.
7. The use of the Internet on mobile phones, tablets, laptops, Personal Data Assistant
(PDA), and other gadgets have been offering us unlimited access to entertainment
Platforms.
8. With IT, communication has become cheaper, easier, and faster than ever before.
Texting, chatting, video calling, and sending e-mails is so easy nowadays. There are
so many applications available online to provide these services.
9. With IT, the world is on one platform and there are no physical barriers between
countries. We have seen and understood the meaning of globalization. Today,

1.8 Software Engineering

Software engineering is a branch of computing science that deals with the design,
development, testing, deploying and maintenance of software products to solve
real-world problems using well-defined scientific principles, methods, and procedures
Software Engineering is the combination of two words, Software, and engineering.
The Software consists of integrated programs designed carefully with organized
instructions and codes. And engineering, which means inventing, designing, building,
maintaining, and improving devices and processes using scientific and practical
knowledge
Software engineering is important to society because of:
1. Meeting User Needs: Software engineering enables the creation of software that
meets the needs of users. By following established software development
processes, engineers can gather requirements, design solutions, and test software
to ensure it meets the needs of its users. This results in software that is user-
friendly and valuable to its users.
2. Quality Assurance: The software engineering process emphasizes the
importance of quality assurance. This includes designing software that is easy to
maintain, testing software thoroughly to ensure it functions as intended and
 providing support to users when they encounter issues. Quality assurance
ensures that the software is reliable, efficient, and effective.
3. Efficiency and Productivity: Software engineering can help organizations
increase their efficiency and productivity. By using software to automate routine
tasks, companies can save time and reduce costs. Software engineering also
enables the creation of custom software solutions that meet the specific needs
of an organization, further increasing efficiency.
4. Security: Cybersecurity is an increasingly important concern for businesses and
individuals alike. Software engineering can help create secure software solutions
that protect sensitive data and prevent unauthorized access. By building security
measures into the software development process, engineers can ensure that
software is secure from the start.
5. Scalability: As organizations grow, they need software solutions that can scale
with their needs. Software engineering can help create scalable software
solutions that can adapt to changing needs and growing user bases. This allows
organizations to continue using the software even as their needs change.

1.9 Summary

This chapter has introduced the student to history and characteristics of computing sciences
with a view to appreciating computer system and computing science. The the key concepts
in the areas of Computer Science, Cybersecurity, Data Science, Information and
Communication Technology, Information Systems, Information Technology and Software
Engineering were also presented. To this end, the importance of these various branches of
computing to the society were clearly explained.

Exercises

1. When did the first electronic computer appear?

2. When was the first personal computer introduced?

3. What is the classification of computers after the fifth generation?

4. What is quantum computing?

5. What is neuromorphic computing?

6. What is the future of computer classification beyond the sixth generation?

7. Write a short note on each of the five generations of computers

8. Succinctly explain the following terms:

a) computer science
b) Cybersecurity
c) Data Science
d) Information systems
 e) Software Engineering
f) Information and Communication Technology

9. List and explain various branches of computing sciences

10. Differentiate among the various branches of computing
11. Itemize the importance of various branches of computing sciences

References

Brinkman, B. A. (2021). Soft machines: The future of interactive computing. MIT Press.
Dessalegn Mequanint (ND) Introduction To Computer Science,
https://ebooks.aiu.ac.ke/show/703/pdf, accessed 10 April 2023
th

Gitelman, L. (2021). A cultural history of data practices. Routledge, accessed 12th April 2023

Ian Sommerville (2011)- Software Engineering, 9th Edition -Addison-Wesley

lamy.com/stock-photo/charles-babbage-analytical-engine.html?sortBy=relevant

Nofre, D., & Priestley, M. (2021). Histories of computing in education: International

perspectives. Routledge.

Oni O, Omidiora E, Olabiyisi S, Adetunji A, Oladosu J, Williams A and Omowaiye R.

(2007). ICT Fundamentals-A Comprehensive guide for Beginners, LAUTECH ICT
(ISBN: 978-245-376-5).

Pradeep K. and Priti S. (2004). Computer Fundamentals - 8th Edition Concepts, Systems &
Applications BPB Publications, ISBN 978817656752.

Ralph S. and George R. (2021). Fundamentals of Information Systems Cengage Learning.

ISBN-13978-0840062185 or 978-1133629627.
 Chapter 2
Computer Hardware

Overview
This chapter provides general knowledge about the Computer Hardware. It also describes
the physical components required for a computer system to function efficiently; the input
and output devices. The chapter presents and explain the different storage hardware and
their functions. It also highlights the different unit of measurement for storage. This chapter
clearly illustrates the different components of Central Processing Unit (CPU) and their
functions.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of Computer
Hardware. Specifically, students should be able to:
1. define Computer Hardware clearly.
2. describe different types of Input Hardware.
3. describe different types of Output Hardware.
4. illustrate the primary components of the CPU and describe their functions.
5. explain the uses of different disks, other storage media and their functions.

2.0 Computer Hardware

The term "computer hardware" is described as the external and internal tools you need to
do important tasks including input, output, storage, communication, processing and more.

Figure 2.1: External system hardware sample

Figure 2.2: Internal Hardware sample

2.1 Input Hardware

The phrase "Hardware" refers to all the tangible parts of a computer system that a user can
touch, such as the keyboard, visual display unit, system unit, mouse, printer, etc. A
computer system's input devices (hardware)are used to enter data into the system.
Examples are:

2.1.1Keyboards: The most frequent input devices are keyboards, which resemble
typewriters. They are made up of keys that stand in for letters, numbers, and unique
symbols. They also contain function keys, which vary in use based on the program being
used, from F1 to F12.

Figure 2.3: Keyboard

2.1.2 Pointing Devices

2.1.2.1 Mouse: With the invention of the mouse, the movement restriction of older input
devices was eliminated. The necessity for an input device that can assist with data entry by
picking an option on the desktop comes with the introduction of GUI. A computer user
may now rotate their screen 360 degrees, something that was previously impossible, with
the aid of a mouse. One type of mouse has a tracking ball that sends the signal to move
the pointer on the screen, while the other type is an optical mouse that detects movement
and moves the pointer on the screen.

Figure 2.4: Mouse

2.1.2.2 Trackballs
Using a trackball, you can input motion information into computers and other electronics.
Its top has a rolling, moving ball that can move in any direction, acting as a mouse-like
device. Instead of moving the complete gadget, simply roll the movable ball on top of the
trackball unit with your hand to provide motion input. The main function of computer
trackballs, which are often used in place of mice, is to move the cursor around the screen.
Similar to mice, computer trackballs have buttons that can be used as left- and right-click
buttons as well as for other commands. Trackballs can be found in various electronic
devices outside computers, such as arcade games, mixing boards, and self-service kiosks,
however they are most frequently used with computers. The trackballs on these gadgets
are frequently bigger than those seen on computer input devices.

Figure 2.5: Trackball

2.1.2.3 Pointing sticks

Similar to a joystick, the pointing stick may move and control the computer cursor. It is
intended for its height to be just above the keys. A pointing stick is a practical substitute
for a touchpad if a laptop lacks the necessary space. The sensitivity grading of the pointing
stick must be adjusted to recognize motions and taps intended for its use in order for it to
function as intended.
Figure 2.6: Pointing sticks

2.1.2.4 Touchpads
The development of the touch screen is thought to have revolutionized the world of input
devices. Smartphones, ATMs, railway inquiry systems, and many other devices use touch
screens widely. They are very simple to use. To choose an option, users only need to touch
it. When the choice is touched, the light beam is broken, the position of the option is
registered, and the program that controls that option is run.

Figure 2.7: Touchpads

2.1.2.5 Light Pens

The tip of a light pen has a photocell. To select the necessary choice, move it around the
screen and touch it. The light pen executes the file concealed by that option after detecting
the light emanating from it. The light pen is mostly utilized in computer-aided design (CAD)
and graphic design work. During

football broadcasts, light pens are frequently utilized by the commentators to draw free-
hand lines on the TV screen.
Figure 2.8: Light Pens

2.1.2.6 Pen based system

Pen-based computing describes mobile computers that input data into a computer using
an electronic writing pad and a light-sensitive pen. The writing is turned into digital input
and kept in a computer file. Due to the fact that the majority of people are at ease using
pens, pen-based computing is becoming more and more common. Sales and service
personnel, insurance agents, retail suppliers, delivery persons, inventory clerks, and
healthcare professionals who are frequently on the go can all benefit from it.

2.1.3 Source Data Entry Devices

2.1.3.1 Scanning Devices

Optical input devices enable computers to use light as an input source. A scanner is an
example of an optical input device. Barcode readers, optical mark readers, magnetic ink
character readers for magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), optical character readers
for optical character recognition (OCR), and optical mark readers are some other common
optical input devices.

Figure 2.9: Scanning Device

2.1.3.1.1 Barcode Reader

Barcodes are machine-readable vertical lines that are adjacent and have a varied width.
Books, groceries, and other items can be identified by barcode. Barcode scanners make use
of reflected light to read barcodes. The computer receives this data and uses the bars'
spacing and thickness to decipher the code. In order to read labels on books and in
department shops, handheld barcode readers are frequently utilized.

Fast and precise barcode readers are available. They help provide customers with faster
service and can also be used to count the number of each item sold or to retrieve an item's
price.

Figure 2.10: Barcode Reader

2.1.3.1.2 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Banks utilize MICR to process a lot of checks at once. The magnetic encoding numbers
printed at the bottom of a check are recognized using it. The numbers on the check are
printed with iron-containing ink and are legible to humans. These figures have magnets in
them. For character recognition, MICR uses a magnetic ink character reader. The magnetic
field causes the read head to detect the characters or numbers on the check when it is
passed through a magnetic ink character reader. In banks, readers are typically used to
process checks. The bank, branch, and check numbers are all located at the bottom of the
check. OCR cannot read documents as quickly as MICR.

Figure 2.11: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

2.1.3.1.3 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

OMR is employed to find marks on paper. By their blackness, the marks can be identified.
OMR reads the marks using an optical mark reader. The information is passed when the
OMR scanner scans the forms and recognizes the mark that is correctly positioned on the
paper and darker than the surrounding paper, it sends the information to the computer
for processing by application software. In order to do this, a light beam is used to capture
the presence and absence of marks on the paper that has been marked. By measuring the
reflected light, the optical mark reader locates the mark. The computer interprets and stores
the mark pattern

Figure 2.12: Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

2.1.3.1.4 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

OCR is a technique for scanning documents, converting it, and then identifying the image
as modifiable ASCII text using OCR software. OCR uses an optical character reader to
recognize characters. The optical character reader stores the scanned image as a bitmap
image, which is a grid of dots. As a result, the text that has been scanned cannot be edited.
OCR software is required in order to alter the scanned text. OCR software converts the
array of dots into text that the computer can read as words and letters. In order to
recognize the words and letters of text, OCR software compares the pattern on the scanned
image with the ones that are stored in the computer. Different file formats can be used to
store the text files produced by OCR. OMR is widely used to read the responses in
objective type tests, where students indicate their responses by darkening a particular circle
with a pencil. OMR is used to read a variety of forms, especially orders and questionnaires.
Figure 2.13: Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

2.1.3.2 Sensors

A sensor is an apparatus that detects changes in electrical, physical, or other characteristics

and produces an output to signal the recognition of the change. This sensor's output
typically takes the shape of an electrical or optical signal. Infrared (IR) sensors, ultrasonic
sensors, light sensors, smoke and gas sensors, proximity sensors, optical sensors, position
sensors, thermal or heat or temperature sensors, electric current or potential or magnetic
or radio sensors, humidity sensors, fluid velocity or flow sensors, pressure sensors, and
magnetic switch sensors are among the most commonly used types of sensors.

Figure 2.14: Sensors

2.1.3.3 Audio-input Devices

Speech or human voice can be used to give the computer with audio input. The computer's
audio input can serve a variety of functions. A sensor is a tool that detects variations in
electrical, among other things, it can be used to make phone conversations, have audio
and video conferences online, record voice, create audio files, include those files in emails,
or translate spoken words into text. Speak data into a computer using a microphone or
another audio input device. The sound card transforms the analog audio signals from the
microphone into digital codes so that the computer can store and use them. The sound
card additionally transforms the digital sound into analog signals that can be sent to the
speakers. cal, physical, or other characteristics and produces an output to signal the change.
Speech recognition, often known as voice recognition, is the process of turning spoken
words into written ones. The speech recognition system or voice recognition system is
made up of the audio input and voice recognition software. Examples MIDI keyboards,
microphones, or another type of digital musical instrument.

Figure 2.15: Audio-input Devices

Speech Synthesizer: With the aid of a microphone, data is input into a speech synthesizer
in the form of a human voice. This data is transformed into electronic signals by the system.
Following that, these signals are compared to patterns that are already stored in a
computer system. The speech synthesizer has the issue that if a person changes the way
they talk, the computer might not be able to recognize their voice pattern.

2.1.3.4 Voice-recognition Systems

Voice recognition is the process of decoding a human voice using computer software or
hardware. Without using a keyboard, mouse, or click on buttons, voice recognition
software is widely used to control a device, issue commands, or write. Here are some
scenarios where voice recognition might be used: Automated phone systems are used by
many businesses nowadays to help direct callers to get the appropriate department. Have
you have ever been instructed to "Say or press number 2 for support" and you responded
"two," voice recognition has been used. You may search and ask inquiries on your
computer, tablet, and phone using Google Voice, a service. Voice recognition is used to
communicate with digital assistants like Google Assistant, Apple's Siri, and Amazon Echo,
which assist with question-answering. Car Bluetooth - If your vehicle has Bluetooth or
Handsfree phone pairing, you can make calls using voice recognition by saying things like
"call my wife" while keeping your eyes on the road.

2.1.3.5 Video-input Devices

The computer receives video input from a video camera and a digital camera. Full-motion
video images can be captured with a video camera. Images can be compressed and saved
on a computer disk after being converted to digital form. A typical type of video camera
is the webcam. To take pictures of the user using the computer, it is mounted on top of
the screen of the device. The user can connect video equipment, such as camcorders, to
the computer using a video capture card.

Figure: 2.16: Video-input Devices

2.1.3.6 Electronic Cameras

Still photos can be captured with a digital camera. You can move your photographs to an
external storage device and use it with your computer after its memory (RAM) is full. As
an alternative, you can use a port on your computer—typically FireWire or USB—to
download the images, which you can then edit for use in your own publications.

Figure 2.17: Electronic Cameras

2.2 Output Hardware

2.2.1 Softcopy
A digital document file kept on a computer or drive is known as a "soft copy." It is not a
printed version of any document; rather, it is an electronic version. Depending on the type
of document, you can open and edit a soft copy using software programs including
database programs, processing programs, presentation software, and many more. A
temporary copy is the output of a soft copy, which is stored in computers, USB devices,
etc. The soft copy cannot be touched because it is a virtual object. This makes it another
name for a virtual copy of a file or document. Soft copies are easily shared and sent over
a network connection, such as social media, email, etc. Compared to hard copies, they are
a more affordable and practical form of communication. E-books, E-News, papers, scanned
notes, PDF notes, etc. are a few examples. Compared to hard copies, soft copies are more
resilient and long-lasting. Hard copies are very simple to fold, twist, burn, rip, or destroy.
When a user makes numerous backups and stores the soft copy in a suitable hardware
setup, it remains resistant to destruction.

2.2.2 Hardcopy
A hard copy is a printed version of a computer-generated digital document file on paper
or another transparent material. The output is physically printed on paper and is
consequently occasionally referred to as a permanent copy. It could be a picture, some
text, a drawing, or another printable file. They are called "hard copies" because they are
tangible physical objects that humans can touch. So, it qualifies as a physical copy as well.
Books, newspapers, printed document files, notebooks, and other materials are a few
examples.
Hard copies still matter for a variety of reasons, even in the digital age. When someone
loses or mistakenly destroys their digital data, the hard copies in some situations may serve
as a backup. In addition, some people find it quite simple to manage and distribute hard
copies. In some cases, people can also utilize these copies as templates or schemas that
have been scribbled up with a pencil or pen.

2.2.2.1 Printers
Printers are used to produce hard copy of output and are divided into two categories; one
is an impact printer and second is a nonimpact printer:

Impact Printers: Similar to a typewriter, impact printers operate. Similar to how characters
on paper are created on typewriters when an arm with an embossed character strikes the
ribbon and leaves an impression, impact printers use a head made up of several pins
(typically nine or twenty-four) that strike the ribbon to create an impression of a character
on the paper. Dot matrix printers are another name for impact printers. The following
categories can be used to categorize dot matrix printers: Character printers print individual
characters one at a time, first from right to left and then from left to right.

Figure 2.18: Printers

Nonimpact Printers: The paper is never touched by these printers. With the aid of heat or
a laser, they create a character's picture on the paper. The following categories can be used
to categorize nonimpact printers:
A thermal printer: They are focusing on the idea of heat. The use of heat-sensitive sheets
allows for the formation of dotted-form characters. This printer's limitations include the
need for a unique type of paper and the inability to print numerous copies at once.
Laser Printers: These printers make use of laser technology in order to print. The ink
powder (also known as toner) is poured onto the drum and deposits itself on the characters
that have been generated there after being charged by the laser beam. These characters are
printed on the paper as it revolves on the drum. Although a laser printer has a high initial
cost, the cost per page of printing is relatively low.

Inkjet Printer: Compared to laser printers, inkjet printers are less expensive, but printing
costs are higher. Utilizing an electric field, this printer sprays ink onto the paper through its
nozzles. The characters are created by the paper absorbing the ink.
Plotters: Plotters have a printing arm that can revolve 360 degrees. Plotters are mostly
used for printing technical designs that are used in CAD or CAM (computer-aided design
or manufacturing).

2.2.2.2 Plotters
A plotter is a type of printer that receives computer orders and uses a variety of pens to
create drawings on paper. Large graphs and designs, such as construction maps,
engineering drawings, architectural blueprints, and business charts, are printed out on
paper using this method. It can either be a standalone device with an inbuilt processor
or a peripheral component you add to your computer system. When compared to a
printer, it produces the data in hardcopy at a comparatively slower rate. It is simple to
draw parallel, continuous lines between points. It is primarily employed in specialized
fields like engineering, architecture, and drawing.

Figure 2.19: Plotter

2.2.2.3 Monitor (Visual Display Unit): A monitor resembles a TV screen and is used for
showing output.
Figure 2.20: Monitor

2.2.2.4 Microfilm
Documents are compressed and stored on photographic film as part of the microform
storage technique. Microfiche and microfilm are the two types of microforms. Microfiche
is a flat sheet of microfilm, whereas microfilm is a roll of images that resembles a movie
reel. Microform storage can readily store thousands of documents without taking up much
space because the papers are typically shrunk to roughly 1/25 of their normal size. A roll
of photographic film is used in microfilm storage, a type of microform storage, to hold
images of your papers. Depending on the kind of documents you need to keep, a typical
roll of microfilm is either 16mm or 35mm in size.

Figure 2.21: Microfilm

2.2.2.5 Microfiche

Instead of being a roll, microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm. A typical microfilm is 4 inches
by 5 inches and holds roughly 98 letter-sized pages. Microfiche sheets may be simpler to
organize due to their structure and shape, although having a much lesser storage capacity.

Figure 2.22: Microfiche

2.3 Storage Hardware
Memory is a place where the information is saved in a computer system alongside the
instructions. Primary memory as well as secondary memory are the two categories into
which a computer system's memory can be divided.

Figure 2.23 Memory

2.3.1 Primary or Memory Storage

Primary Memory: The memory that resides inside a computer system is called primary
memory. The primary memory is transient in nature since data is kept there in the form of
electronic charges. The data that has been written to primary memory will be erased the
instant the machine is turned off. Bits and bytes serve as the memory's unit of measurement.
One character in a computer system requires one byte of memory space for storage. For
instance, three bytes of memory space are required to hold the word "RED" in a computer
system. Two categories of primary memory can be further separated.
ROM: The memory that resides inside a computer system is called primary memory. The
primary memory is transient in nature since data is kept there in the form of electronic
charges. The data that has been written to primary memory will be erased the instant the
machine is turned off. Bits and bytes serve as the memory's unit of measurement. One
character in a computer system requires one byte of memory space for storage. For
instance, "RED" can be stored in a ROM, which stands for "Read Only Memory," where
we can only read. Whatever is written in a ROM chip cannot be changed or removed.

ROM has a few variants as follows:

PROM stands for programmed read-only memory, where information can be entered only
once and cannot be changed after that. PROM can be purchased empty and subsequently
loaded by the user with a program. The contents of PROM cannot be changed once they
have been loaded with the program.
.
EPROM is sometimes referred to as erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM),
where data may be repeatedly rewritten. The EPROM chip must be withdrawn from the
CPU and subjected to ultraviolet rays in order for new data to be written into it Electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory, or EEPROM, is a type of memory that can be
repeatedly updated without being taken out of the CPU using specialized electronic pulses.
RAM stands for random access memory, and as its name implies, we can read, write, and
erase anything that is stored inside. Because data can be read from and written onto a ram
chip, RAM is also referred to as read/write memory. Because it is volatile memory, any
data entered into the RAM is erased as soon as the computer is turned off. Various types
of RAMS on a PC are:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It needs to be refreshed periodically by the CPU so that the data
contained in them is not lost.

Figure 2.24 DRAM

SRAM (Static RAM): In it, data contained remains stored properly; therefore, it does not
need to be refreshed by the CPU. This type of RAM has a higher speed than DRAM and is
costly, too.

Figure 2.25 SRAM

2.3.2 Secondary Storage: Secondary memory is a form of external, permanent storage for
computers. Data is kept in this memory on hard drives, floppy disks, magnetic tape, and
optical disks as magnetic particles, pits, and pits.

2.3.2.1 Magnetic tape

An audio tape is comparable to magnetic tape. The start of the tape is marked with a metal
foil known as a marker. Data is saved one character at a time, with each character being
recorded in parallel across the width of the tape in either a 7-bit or 9-bit format. Records
are used to store data on tapes, and these records are spaced apart by an inter record gap
(IRG). Only when there is a record gap below the read/write heads does the tape stop
moving. A single side of the tape is covered with a magnetic material. Data is periodically
read from the cassette and written to it. Before it is able to identify a certain record, the
machine must read each record that is in front of it, which takes time. The majority of
tapes are used for storage purposes instead of being sometimes utilized for writing and
reading.

Figure 2.26 Magnetic tape

2.3.2.2 Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is created using mylar material that has been magnetic oxide-coated. The
round portions of this flexible material are either 3.5 or 5.25 inches in diameter. They are
known as floppy disks because of the flexible material that was used in their manufacture.
These were portable, inexpensive, and small, making it easy to transport them from one
location to another. Data is kept on the tracks of a floppy disk as magnetic particles. The
disk is mounted into the disk drive using a hub in the center. There are many chances that
a floppy disk will become unusable because of its exposure to dust, scratches, etc. because
a large slit is provided for the read/write head to access the data. The floppy disk allowed
for the simple storing and retrieval of data. Compared to magnetic tape, the floppy disk
had a longer lifespan, but the data security was reduced.

Figure 2.27 Floppy Disk

2.3.2.3 Hard Disk

In order to store large amounts of data, magnetic disks, often known as the "hard disk" or
Winchester disk, were first created in 1956. The round platters in a hard drive are covered
in magnetizable material and can be constructed of any metal, including aluminum. The
disk capacity affects the number of platters. The capacity of the disk to store data increases
with the number of platters. It is necessary to format the disk before you can save any data
on it.
Figure 2.28: Hard Disk

2.3.2.4 Optical Disk

The newest hardware innovations and faster system processing speeds created a demand
for speedy and efficient storage. In earlier data storage devices, data was stored as magnetic
particles, but with the advancement of optical technology, it is now possible to store data
as pits, which are tiny particles made by a laser beam. Data can be stored very close to one
another because they are stored on an optical disk as light particles, which don't produce
a magnetic field. In optical disks, streams of digital data are burned onto a thin layer of
metal or other material that is deposited on a disk in the shape of tiny pits. These pit
patterns are read by a laser light beam. The disk has a maximum storage capacity of 600
MB.

Figure 2.29: Optical Disk

Optical disks are available in the following forms:

1. CD/CD-ROM (Compact Disc or CD-Read-Only Memory): This is a very commonly used
term and usually refers to non-writable discs.

2. CD-R (Writable Discs, also known as CD Recordable): A user can only burn (store) data
on a CD-R once, or numerous times when utilizing multisession mode, until the disk's
storage capacity is reached. Data cannot be altered or erased after it has been written.

3. Rewritable Discs/CD Rewritable, or CD-RW. This implies that a user has the ability to
not only write data but also to remove existing data from the disc and replace it with new
data.
4. Digital Versatile Disc/DVD Read-Only Memory (DVD/DVD-ROM). offers the same
functionality as a CD-ROM, but a DVD typically has six times more storage space than a
CD.

4. (Writable DVD or DVD Recordable; DVD-R/DVD+R). bigger capacity with the same
features as CD-R.

5. (Rewritable DVD/DVD Rewritable) DVD-RW/DVD+RW. higher capacity with the same

features as CD-RW.

6. Double or dual layer DVD. The disc space on double-layer discs is double that of a
typical DVD. Blu-ray disc recordable, or BD-R. It is a Blu-ray disc that can only have data
written on it once.

8. BD-RE (Blu-ray Disc Rewritable). It is a Blu-ray disc that is recordable and erasable (BD-
RE), meaning that it can be recorded on and erased as many times as necessary. The Blu-
ray format for digital optical disc data storage replaces the DVD format in terms of data
storage. Hours of high-definition and ultra-high-definition footage can be stored on Blu-
ray discs.

2.3.2.5 Pen Drive

The term "pen drive" (often known as "PD" by users) refers to a portable storage device
that may be quickly transported from one location to another. A pen drive is relatively
simple to use; all a user needs to do to get it started is insert it into a Universal Serial Bus
(USB) connection.

Figure 2.30 Pen Drive

2.3.2.6 Flash Memory

Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that consists of memory "blocks" that may
be erased and reprogrammed. It functions similarly to an EEPROM, with the sole exception
that flash memory is faster since data is erased at the block level rather than the byte level
as it is in EEPROMs. Flash memory is widely used for preserving control code, which is
similar to the basic input/output system (BIOS) of a desktop or laptop computer. Flash
memory lets you do block (rather than byte) size writing, which makes updating the BIOS
when it needs to be changed (rewritten) simple.
Figure 2.31: Flash Memory

2.3.2 Data Access Methods

2.3.2.1 In the direct access method, the same way that the disk was thought of as being
divided into equal-sized blocks, the files are viewed as a series of blocks or records. This
technique has the advantage of allowing us to randomly access any block. The relative
access method is another name for the direct access method. The operating system is the
only one who knows the precise block address. The operating system uses the relative
block number that a user provides when requesting access to a specific block to determine
the exact block address. Hard drives, CD-ROMs, memory sticks or flash disks, and similar
devices can all use direct access methods. Direct access enables the possibility of random
access.

2.3.2.2 Sequential Access Methods

A technique for accessing data from a storage medium is called sequential access, often
referred to as serial access. Sequential access requires the device in question to traverse
across all of the data to find the location it is attempting to read or write to. This
approach is frequently compared to random access, in which the computer may go
directly to a predetermined point in memory. Sequential access is frequently used in
conjunction with tape drives. It is appropriate for tape drives because they only allow
serial or sequential data access.

2.3.3 Unit of Measurement of Storage Hardware

A storage device's capacity is frequently expressed in units of kilobytes, megabytes, and
gigabytes. The following information may aid readers in comprehending these units. One
binary digit, or bit, can represent either a 0 (zero) or a 1. The smallest unit of measurement
is a bit. Eight bits make up a byte, which may hold values between 0 and 255. You can
think of a byte as the amount of room needed to store one character.
A Kilobyte = 1024bytes; Approximately A kilobyte (KB) = 1000 bytes
1,000,000 bytes = 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1000 Kilobytes
1,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Gigabyte (GB)= 1000 Megabytes
1,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1000 Gigabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Petabyte (PB)= 1000 Terabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Exabyte (EB)= 1000 Petabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1000 Exabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Yottabyte (YB)= 1000 Zettabytes

2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) is frequently referred to as the computer's
brain. The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) make up the CPU.
Additionally, the CPU has a number of registers, temporary storage spaces for data and
instructions. The mathematical and logical operations carried out by the ALU on the data
provided to it. CU is in charge of planning how information and instructions will be
processed. The other computer units' activity is managed and coordinated by CU. Registers
are used by the CPU to store data and instructions while processing. Instructions and data
are stored in memory prior to execution by the CPU, which carries out the stored program
instructions. The memory provides information and instructions to the CPU for processing.
It does the arithmetic and logical processes necessary for data processing while interpreting
the program instructions. The processed data or result is then sent to the memory. CPU
oversees the activities of other components of the computer and serves as an administrator.
The CPU, sometimes referred to as the microprocessor, is created as a single Integrated
Circuit (IC) chip. The motherboard of the computer hosts the CPU and connects it to the
rest of the hardware. The motherboard is a circuit board with electronic circuits engraved
on it.

Figure 2.32 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2.4.1 CPU Components

An input device is used to enter data into a computer system. The control unit guides the
data into the memory once it has reached the central processor unit. This means that as
soon as data is entered into a computer system, it is initially stored in the system's primary
memory, known as random-access memory (RAM). Data from the memory is transferred
to the arithmetic and logical unit when a command is delivered to a system for processing.
The outcome of processing is again directed to a system's memory by the control unit.
Once an instruction is issued to produce the output, this result from the memory is directed
to an output device by the control unit. Let us understand this with an example.
10 Let X = 35
20 Let Y = 45
30 Let Z = X + Y
40 Print Z
50 End

A memory location with the names X and Y will open in the RAM of the system as soon
as the variables X and Y are given the values 35 and 45, respectively. The next directive is
Z = X + Y. The ALU will now process the data from the RAM, and the result (which is 35
+ 45 = 80) will be saved in another position "Z" in the system's RAM. When the control
unit receives the order to "print Z," it will read the value stored at location Z in the RAM
and show it on the computer system's monitor. The command “End” will tell the computer
that program is over.

Central Processing Unit: A computer system's central processing unit (CPU) is frequently
referred to as its brain. Similar to how the brain in humans directs all activity, in a computer
system the CPU directs all processing activities. The following are its primary components:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit: All of the operations take place in the arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU). The ALU performs logical analysis and decision-making in addition to doing
mathematical calculations. The capabilities that set a computer system apart from a
calculator are logical comparison and decision-making.

Control Unit: The control unit (CU) serves as the system's supervisor. The CU is in charge
of coordinating and synchronizing all tasks carried out by a computer system. The CU
controls the movement of data from one area of the CPU to another and vice versa, acting
as a traffic cop. The management of the process of loading and unloading programs and
data from memory falls under the purview of the control unit. It is also in charge of
sequentially carrying out (executing) program instructions. The concept of a "register" to
store interim computational values is included in this.

Memory: A primary memory is memory that is located inside a central processing unit.
The device is shaped like a silicon chip, and data is stored there as electronic pulses. The
numbers "1" and "0" represent the existence and absence of current, respectively. This
memory stores information as binary 0s and 1s.

2.4.2 Functions of Main Memory

1.The CPU and main memory are in direct communication.
2.The information and instructions are kept in memory to be processed later.
3.The main memory, also known as the primary memory, momentarily stores
instructions and data before transferring the task to the CPU for additional processing.
4. The main memory takes control of storing the data and tasks that are now needed for
execution. When the OS loads itself, all of the important operating system (OS) programs
are already installed in the computer's main memory.

2.4.3 Summary
This chapter has introduced the student to all the computer system's physical components
referred to as computer hardware. This consists of the input processing units; keyboards,
microphones, mice, output processing units; printers, plotters, speakers, and storage units;
floppy disks, hard disks optical disks etc.

Exercises:
1. Discuss the various types of computer hardware.
2. Describe the basic components of CPU and its functions.
3. Discuss the block diagram of a computer system.
4. What do you understand about input devices? What are the various input devices?
5. What do you understand about output devices? What are the various output devices?
6. What is meant by secondary storage or secondary memory? Discuss the various
storage devices used in a computer system.
7. What do you understand about memory? How many types of memory are there?

References
1. Paul B., Andrew G and Simon H (2015); Business Information Systems Technology,
Development and Management for the E-Business, ISBN 978-0-273-73646-2, 5th edition,
2015, Pg 1-704.
2. Gupta. C. P & Goyal. k (2020); Computer Concepts and Management Information
Systems Mercury Learning and Information, ISBN: 978-1-68392-586-6 2020. Pg 1-245.
3.Subhash V (2021); PC Hardware Explained, ISBN 978-93-5457-183-1. 26 December
2021, Pg 1-89.
4. Kevin W. (2017); Elluminet Press Essential Computer Hardware, 2017, Pg 1-167.
5.www.techterms.com accessed 15th April 2023
6.www.tehopedia.com accessed 15th April 2023
 Chapter 3
Computer Software

Overview
This chapter introduces the students to software, its functions, types, criteria for selecting
appropriate software, the guidelines for selecting hardware and software, programming
languages generations and terms related to programming.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the essential knowledge of software.
Specifically, students should be able to:
a) define software;
b) list and explain the types and functions of software;
c) list the criteria and guidelines for choosing appropriate software and hardware;
d) list and describe the generations of programming languages with examples; and
e) list programming related terms and explain them.

Computer Software
3.1 What is Software?
In defining software, it is necessary to know what a program is. A program can be defined
as a set of instructions coded in a particular programming language for a computer or any
other digital device to follow in order to accomplish a task. Software is then defined as a
combination of programs and the documentation (description of the software to the user
in text, video or illustration form) of the programs. It should be noted that software is a
plural noun and thus, there is nothing like softwares.

3.2 Functions of Software

The functions of any piece of software depends on its type. However, the following are
the functions that software perform generally:
i. It directs the computer on the actions to take to accomplish any specific task.
ii. It provides a means of managing and communicating with the hardware.

Looking at the funtions of software based on its type, basically, any software can either be
a system software or an application software. Esentially, a system software carries out
functions related to the hardware and it consists of the operating system, the translator
and the utility software.
Specifically, an operating system as a type of system software provides the following
general functions:
i. It manages the different hardware components of the computer system.
ii. Provision of an interface for interacting with the computer system.
iii. Controlling the execution of programs.
iv. Management of input/otput devices.
v. Management of files.
vi. Detection of hardare and software errors.
 vii. It allocates computer resources like the CPU, the RAM, storage, etc.
viii. It carries out accounting task of who used what computer resources and when.
ix. Provision of protection and security for system resources.
x. Provision of support services to application software. For example, the opening
of a file for processing by a word processor.

A language translator converts the source code in a particular programming langauge to a

form executable by the target machine. A utility software helps to ensure proper funtioning
of the computer system by helping to analyze, configure and maintain the computer
system.

3.3 Major Types of Software

There are two major types of software namely application software and system software.

3.3.1 System Software

System software is a kind of software that serves as the intermediary between the hardware
and application software. It provides the needed environment for application software to
run and for the user to interact with the computer system. System software includes the
operating system, the translator and other utility software the computer needs to function.
Examples of operating systems are Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Ubuntu, Android OS,
Chrome OS and Apple iOS. Translators include compilers (e.g Visual C#, Visual C# Express,
Turbo C++, javac, etc ), interpreters (e.g Python interpreter, PERL interpreter, Ruby
interpreter, PHP interpreter, etc) and assemblers (e.g Turbo Assembler, Microsoft Macro
Assembler and High Level Assembler (HLA)). Examples of utility software are backup
software, anti-virus software, disk defragmenting software, disk management software, etc.

3.3.2 Application Software

An application software is a software type that carries out specific tasks for the specific
needs of the users and could either fall into the category of a general purpose application
software or a special purpose application software. A general purpose software can be
used to perform more than a specific task e.g Microsft Word can be used for typesetting,
spell-checking, find and replace contents of a document, etc. A specific purpose application
software is used to accomplish specific tasks in specific domains e.g an insurance software
is used to perform functions specific to insurance.

3.3.2.1 Advantages of Application Packages

Below are the benefits of having an application software/packages:
i. Availability of Support Services: All standard application packages have online
presence from where users can get assistance for any problem and to make inquiry.
ii. Availability of Software Updates: Once a user has a licence for his copy of the
application package, he is entitled to getting updates that fix bugs in the software
and provide security.
iii. A variety of programming languages are available to develop application packages.
 iv. Ability to Multitask: Many application packages provide multitasking capability. For
instance, in Microsoft Word, one can be typing and at the same be spell-checking
the document.
v. A standard application packages provides room for its developer to promote its
other software solutions.
vi. Provision of Standard Features: Standard application packages provide features that
can be trusted for accomplishing their peculiar tasks.
vii. They can be used to carry out tasks in a faster manner.
viii. Standard application packages have security measures built into them to prevent
them from hackers.
ix. Some application packges have provison for storing files in the cloud.
x. Applcation packages can be developed to meet specific needs.

3.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Application Packages

The following are the demerits of application packages:
i. Different application packages from different developers cannot communicate with
themselves because of incompatibility issues.
ii. High dependency on application packages prevent users from being creative as they
are constrained by what the package provides for them in accoplishing their tasks.
iii. Applcation packages are limited in the kind of operations they can perform. For
instance, they cannot directly access the memory or the registers of the CPU.
iv. Application packages developed for a specific company may not meet the needs of
another beacause of variations in operations.
v. Some packages after installation, can make the computer system slow as they
heavily consume memory space. For instance, any applicaton that processes image
file, video files and sound files consumes a lot of memory.
vi. No software is error free and so does application software.
vii. Developing a standard application package takes time as the development has to
go through the entire software development life cycle.
viii. Building a standard application package is not cheap as it takes time and
experienced developers who are expensive to contract.

3.4 Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Software

This section discussses the criteria for selecting suitable software and they are the following:
3.4.1 User Requirements Satisfaction
Every customer has expectations of what the software they want to buy or to be developed
for them should do for them. The requirements are the functions, behaviours and
constraints expected of any software. In selecting any software, it must be ensured that
specified users’ requirements are met by the software.

3.4.2 Cost
This entails software development cost or the cost of purchasing the software and
maintainance cost. Cost can also be in terms of the computing resources used by the
software which can be in terms of memory space, disk store, CPU usage and GPU usage.
Software that uses the least cost is preferred.

3.4.3 Reliability
A piece pf software is said to be reliable if under all kinds of conditions, it is able to perform
its specified tasks.

3.4.4 Flexibility
Software fexibility concens itself with how easy the software can be adapted or changed
to meet the user’s and environmental needs.

3.4.5 Types of Processing

A decision has to be made as per if the software can be used to carry out the type of
processing the user wants. The processing could be scientific, online, batch, real-time,
commercial, etc.

3.4.6 Time of Processing

This involves involves the speed with which the software accomplishes a task. The faster,
the better.

3.4.7 Integration with other Systems

This involves determining if the software can be integrated with other systems in order to
provide enhanced functionality.

3.4.8 Hardware Requirements

Hardware requirements involves checking to see if the software can run on the available
or desired hardware. Consequently, the desired package must meet the business’ hardware
requirements.

3.4.9 Coping with Volume of Data

This is otherwise referred to as scalability and it involves ensuring that the software can
cope with the volume of data envisaged or being currently processed by the
user/customer/business.

3.4.10 Availability of Adequate Documentation

Software documentatin contains necessary information about software in terms of its
development, how to deploy it and its use to all the stakeholders. The stakeholders include
the users, the developers, the managers, the software architects, the testers, etc.

3.4.11 Succesful Usage by Similiar Business Setups

If a particular application package has been successfully used by organizations whose
operations are similar to another, it provides confidence for that organization that if
adopted, the package will as well be useful to it and that it will not be a misfit that will
throw money down the drain.

3.4.12 Easy Backup, Start-of-the-day and End-of-the-day Procedure

The package should provide facilities to initialize the system and close it on a daily basis so
as to account for all the operations/transactions that have taken place.

3.5 Hardware and Software Selection Guidelines

This section provides guidelines for hardware and software selection to meet the needs of
an organization or a customer.

3.5.1 Hardware Selection

There are numerous numbers of hardware components that are coupled together tightly
or loosely for a computing system to function properly. These hardware are usually made
by different hardware manufacturers to work with different hardware and software
components. Below, we provide hardware selection guidelines:

3.5.1.1 Compatibility
Hardware compatibility means different hardware components work together seamlessly.
For example, to upgrade or replace your system’s RAM or hard drive (HDD), you need
to ensure that they are compatible with your system’s CPU, bus, motherboard and the
operating system. Generally, a hardware component comes with detailed documetnation
of its specification and compatibility description.

3.5.1.2 Availability
Availability involves ensuring that the hardware components are availabile in the market.
This is necessary in case of the need for the replacement of any malfuntioning part.

3.5.1.3 Upgradability
Hardware upgrades are sometimes necessary to improve or enhance the performance of
computing systems. Three essential hardware upgrades to improve PC performance can be
done on the RAM, the hard drive or SSD (Solid State Disk) storage and CPU cooling system.
The higher the capacities of these components, the better the performance of the system.

3.5.1.4 Affordability
Affordability has to do with determining if an organization/individual has the finacial
strength to acquire a particular hardware. It is not advisable to opt for a piece of hardware
that one cannot afford.

3.5.1.5 Reliability
Hardware reliability is the probability of hardware components to function within the
specified conditions for a specific period without failure. Reliability is also considered as an
important part of dependability. Hardware may pass a reliability test from the
manufacturer, but may fail after purchase. The easiest way to evaluate a hardware
component for reliability is to see the warranty policies provided by a component
manufacturer. In case of a failure, it can be returned to a vendor for replacement or repair.
The warranty period is usually between 1 to 3 years. But the general perception is that a
longer warranty period indicates a better reliability.

3.5.1.6 Sustainability
Hardware sustainability relates to its compatibility, availability, upgradability and
reliability. Among the hardware sustainability concerns nowadays is its environmental
friendliness; hence the term “green IT hardware” is applied. When purchasing hardware,
sustainability considerations should include the following:
i. Low power consumption;
ii. Use of recycling materials;
iii. A holistic concept in packaging for waste avoidance;
iv. Resource-saving components;
v. Focus on long life cycles; and
vi. Low possible maintenance requirements and high reliability.

3.5.2 Software Selection

Similar to hardware selection, several considerations are made when selecting the software
for computing systems. This sub-section discusses guidelines for software selection under
the following quality attributes:

3.5.2.1 Ease of Use

Software usability should capture the user-friendliness. This includes the ease of navigation,
availability of standard menu and language customization, documentation, and other
related factors.

3.5.2.2 Version
Software product usually comes in versions. Each subsequent version usually comes with
improvements over the previous versions. When selecting software, the latest version is
always preferred. However, installation requirements need to be properly checked to
ensure the computing system meets the installation specification as provided by a software
product vendor.

3.5.2.3 Portability
Software portability refers to the ease of using the same software in different computing
environments. The computing environment here refers to different operating systems. E.g.
Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Unix, etc. So, when selecting a software product, consideration
in terms of how easy it is to make it run on different operating systems is important.

3.5.2.4 Affordability
Software affordability refers to the cost associated with acquiring a software product for a
computing system. This cost is not limited to the cost of licensing the technology, but also
includes the cost of operation and maintenance throughout the entire lifetime of the
software product. Depending on whether a software product is of the type COTS
(commercial off-the-shelf ) or customized software built in-house or by a software
company, the cost of technology over its whole life needs to be calculated. Another
software product acquisition option is a subscription-based software – software as a service
(SaaS) model. The following rule-of-thumb guidelines are used to assess whether the terms
quoted by a software vendor are right: cost of licensing the software product, standard
maintenance costs, premium customer support costs and professional services costs.

3.5.2.5 Compatibility
Software compatibility means a software product is able to operate properly together with
other components of a computing system. When selecting a software product or upgrading
existing software to a higher version, issues of compatibility and backward compatibility
need to be considered.

3.6 Generation of Programming Languages

A computer program is written in a computer language as a sequence of instructions to
perform a specific task by the computer. From generation to generation of computers,
computer languages evolved from low level machine languages to higher level languages.
Computer languages are described as “lower” or “higher”, based on their closeness to the
machine instruction sets (0s and 1s - low level language) or to the human natural language
(more English-like - high level language).
The summary of computer languages evolution are as follow:
i. 1940s – Machine languages
ii. 1950s – Assembly languages
iii. 1960s – High-level languages
iv. 1970s – Very high-level languages (fourth-generation languages)

3.6.1 Machine Language

Machine language is the earliest programming language. Each computer has its set of
instructions made of strings of 0’s and 1’s. These sets of instructions constitute the machine
language– corresponding to low (0) and high (1) voltage signals. Also, it is referred to as
binary digits because the binary number system contains only two alphabets – 0 and 1.
These are convenient ways to express machine instructions directly as sequence of low or
high voltage signals.

3.6.2 Assembly Language

Admiral Grace Hopper in the early 1950s was the first to conceive the idea of a program
that is based on special symbols (mnemonics) and could convert to machine instructions.
She was a mathematician and a US naval officer. This symbolic language uses symbols to
represent various machine instructions from the instruction set. However, computer does
not understand symbolic language directly, hence the need for a translator to translate
expression in symbols to machine instructions. Assembler is developed as a special program
that translates symbolic code into machine language. Hence the name assembly language.

3.6.3 High-level Language

The invention of assembly language greatly enhanced programming efficiency and led to
increase in the number of people that could program a computer. However, the language
is still machine dependent – it required programmers to concentrate on the hardware that
they were using. Besides that, assembly language was very tedious to work with it, because
each machine instruction had to be individually coded. Hence, high-level language was
developed to improve programmers’ efficiency. So, programmers would no longer focus
on the hardware but focus on the problem being solved.
High-level languages (3GLs) are machine independent. This means that they are designed
to work with many different computers irrespective of architectures and organization of
the computers. This allows programmers to concentrate on the application problem
solving rather than the computer intricacies. Examples of high-level programming
languages are; C, C++, and JAVA.

Table 3.1: Differences amog Machine, Assembly and High-level Languages

Feature Machine language Assembly language High-level

language
Form Strings of 0s and 1s Mnemonics codes English-like
Dependency on Dependent Dependent Independent
Machine
Translator Not needed Assembler is Compiler or
Requirement needed Interpreter is
needed
Required Time of Less Less High
Execution
Ease of Work Difficult Difficult Easy
Memory Less Less More
Requirement

3.6.4 Fourth-Generation Language

The 4th generation languages (4GL) are known as a very high-level languages. There is no
consensus about what constitutes fourth-generation languages, however, the concept
existed from the 1970s down to the 1990s. Its development progressed concurrently with
the development of 3GLs (high-level languages) with some overlap.
The 4GLs are essentially shorthand programming languages, identified as “non-procedural”
or “program-generating” languages. Compared to 3GLs, they are a lot easier and faster.
The 4GLs are mainly found in use for databases, reports and websites development. Some
3GLs such as Python, Ruby, and Perl incorporate 4GL abilities within a general-purpose
3GL environment. Also, add-ons for some popular 3GLs exist with 4GL-like features,
producing languages that are are both 3GL and 4GL. This has made a distinction between
3GL and 4GL very difficult.

3.6.4.1 Query Language

Query languages are used to make queries in databases and information systems. They exist
in four categories namely:
i. Data query language (DQL)
ii. Data definition language (DDL)
iii. Data control language (DCL)
iv. Data manipulation language (DML).
The structured query language (SQL) is a well known example of query language.

3.6.4.2 Report Generator

A report generator is a very high-level programming language used for business
applications. Its purpose is to retrieve and update data from a source such as a database,
XML (extensible markup language) streams or a spreadsheet. It uses the data to produce
an easy-to-understand interface (i.e. document in a format that satisfies a particular human
readership). A report generator has a drag-and-drop feature that makes it easy to generate
easy-to-understand reports.
The four essential elements that are key to report generation process are:
i. Data collection
ii. Data synthesis
iii. Analysis and insight
iv. Report generation and distribution.

3.6.4.3 Graphic Language

A graphic language uses graphical elements to represent and control computer programs.
It allows a programmer to create programs by connecting icons that represent commands
or data structures instead of writing text-based code. The icons are connected to form
flowchart diagrams. Elements of graphic language include form, structure and expressions.

3.6.4.4 Application Generator

Application generators, also called code generators allow rapid development of computer
programs. They are usually used for business information systems to create a prototype,
and later, the prototype is reprogrammed in languages such as C/C++ or Java or directly
converted to code.

3.6.4.5 Application Software Packages

The software packages are designed to be used by the end-user to solve generalized or
specialized tasks. They are created to perform a specific task for a user.

3.6.4.6 PC Tools
Programming tools are tools or utilities that programmers/developers use when
developing software to enhance their work. They are also used in maintaining software.
3.7 Programming-Related Terms
In this section are presented, computer programming related terms to help students get
familiar with them.
3.7.1 Syntax
Syntax is one of the two main components of a language that a programmer needs to be
familiar with. It comprises the rules that define the structure of a language. Violation of
any rule of a language results in a type of error called syntax error.

3.7.2 Semantics
Semantics is the second of the two main components of a language. It is the meaning of
every well-formed statement (sentence) of a language. For a well-formed sentence in a
language, in addition to the correctness of syntax, a sentence must make sense semantically.

3.7.3 Syntax Error

When there is a violation of the syntax of a language, it results in an error referred to as a
syntax error.

3.7.4 Program Logic

A program logic is the step-by-step execution of the program’s requirements and design to
perform a specific task. It is the instructions in a program arranged in a prescribed order to
perform a specific programming task.

3.7.5 Logic Error

Logic error is another type of programming error. It is an error that occurs when a program
logic fails to solve the intended problem. This type of programming error is difficult to
notice since the compiler can’t catch it because every statement in the program is well
formed. A logic error can only be discovered during a testing phase of a program when
the test set gives a different output from what is expected.

3.7.6 Program Listing

Program listing consists of the lines of code in the source code of the program.

3.7.7 Executable Statement

An executable statement is a well-formed statement that instructs the computer to carry
out a processing action. Declaration and comments in the source code are not executable
statements.

3.7.8 Coding
Coding is an act of writing computer programs in a particular language in solving
computational problems.

3.7.9 Source Program

It is an original program written using a programming language. It also refers to as program
source code.
3.7.10 Object Program
Object program is the translated form of source code in machine language. Thus, it is a
fully compiled or assembled program ready to be executed at runtime.

3.7.11 Loop
A loop refers to the repetition of a sequence of instructions until a certain condition is
reached.

Summary
Software has been described as the instructions written in a specific programming language
for execution by the computer. It generally directs the computer to carry out specific
actions towards accomplishing a task and it controls the hardware. Software could
generally be categorized into system software or application software. For organizations
and individuals to obtain maximum benefits from software, they must follow certain
criteria in selecting appropriate software for themselves. They must also follow certain
guidelines for selecting both hardware and software they require and all have been
discussed in this chapter.

Programing languages have history captured on generation-by-generation basis and this

history has also been presented in this chapter together with their features. For students of
Computing, in 200 Level, they are supposed to be familiar with programming technical
jargons which have been listed and explained in this chapter.

Exercises
1. Differentiate between software and program.
2. What functions do software perform generally?
3. What benefits do you think should accrue to an organization seeking to purchase an
application software?
4. What are the things to consider when purchasing or upgrading a computer?
5. Explain why it is so difficult to make a clear distinction between 3rd-generation and
4th-genration programming languages.
6. What functions are performed by the operating system?
7. Differentiate between sytem software and application software.
8. Why would you discourage an organization from purchasing an application package?
9. Why is successful usage of a package by an organization whose operations are similar
to the one that wants a piece of software an important criterion in selecting the
usage/purcahse of an applicationpackage?
10. What is the distinction between the syntax and semantics of a programming
language?
References

Asetek Liquid Cooling Home (n.d.). Liquid Cooling vs Air Cooling – What is the better
cooling solution for PC enthusiasts and gamers?. Liquid Cooling Home.
https://www.asetek.com/liquid-cooling/gaming-enthusiasts/air-vs-liquid/ .
Eusgeld I., Freiling, F.C., & Reussner, R. (2008). Hardware Reliability. In LNCS 4909 (Eds.),
Dependability Metrics (pp. 59–103). Springer-Verlag.
James P. (2022, March 10). Three Essential Hardware Upgrades to Improve PC
Performance. Asteck. https://www.asetek.com/blogs/three-essential-hardware-
upgrades-to-improve-pc-performance/
Paul, M. (2015, January 29). 5 Affordable Hardware Upgrades for a More Efficient New
Year. CIO. https://www.cio.com/article/251163/5-affordable-hardware-upgrades-for-
a-more-efficient-new-year.html
Rehman, J. (2023). Advantages and disadvantages of application software.
https://www.itrelease.com/2022/09/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-application-
software/
Ruben S. (2021, December 8). Sustainable IT: Hardware: Why, How & What. Linkedin.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sustainable-hardware-why-how-what-ruben-scholtz/
Sebesta, R. W. (2015). Concepts of Programming Languages (11th Edition). Pearson Inc.
Tanenbaum, S. A. & Bos, H. (2015). Modern Operating Systems (Fourth Edition). Pearson
Education, Inc.
 Chapter 4
Humanware (Human Resources)

Overview

This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about Human ware. It sheds light on the
importance of human resources in computer ware and computing generally. Key concepts
and definitions of terms were broadly covered.

Objectives

This chapter focus on providing students with the basic knowledge of humanware.
Specifically, students should be able to:

a) Define humanware clearly.

b) List and explain Categories of Human Resources/ personnel in Organizations

c) Understand the Concept System Designers

i. Database Administrators
ii. Network Architects
iii. Graphic Artists
iv. Security Experts
v. Technology Specialists
d) Understand the concept of System Builders

i. Application Programmers
ii. Systems Programmers
iii. Database Programmers

Introduction

When we speak about "humanware," we refer to a self-creating, inventive interaction

between hardware and human resources, in actuality; the hardware requires human
intervention to function. Hardware technology is just a part of technology if we were
allowed to describe it as a means of producing outputs. Technology then can become
meaningful once the function of human resources, interconnecting and interacting with
hardware, is in place clarified.

This broader and deeper definition of technology is what we mean by "humanware."

Rather than relying solely on hardware technology or social organization, it is believed
that the answers to the challenges in consideration are found in the field of "humanware."
(Ill ( n.d.)

Hardware Human
Resources

Figure 4.1: Newer Technology Interdependence Concepts in Human Resources

and Hardware

This viewpoint is helpful in comprehending significant variations among manufacturing

systems. All production systems involve hardware and human resources interacting to some
extent.

The degree of interdependence between human resources and hardware, or the extent to
which certain human capabilities are essential to the efficient operation of the hardware,
and the extent to which the use of the hardware as a component of a production system
affects the performance of people, can be used to describe this interaction. The more
dependency there is between factors, the more dependent the total production system is
on human resources, and the more susceptible the system is to human variability.

The upper arrow, which implies that hardware technology influences human resource
capabilities, is less immediately obvious. We frequently explore how the employment of
hardware technology, in the context of a certain production system, can develop and
strengthen the traits that make human resources effective. Instead, we frequently think of
particular hardware technologies as requiring specific capabilities. Here, we focus on this
later, dynamic perspective of "humanware," in which the production process is seen as
opening up the possibility for continuous, continuing learning (as opposed to a one-time
"learning curve" impact).
Maybe it should be understood, but the bottom arrow in Figure 1 illustrates the impact of
human resources on hardware technology performance. For the equipment to be used
properly, safely, and effectively, machine operators must possess the requisite skills and
expertise.

However, the concept of "humanware" encompasses a broader understanding of the

contribution of human resources, one that contradicts a static view of hardware
technology, namely that the design and configuration of the hardware technology itself
improves as a result of incremental improvements created by the individuals who use it.

4.1 Categories of Human Resources in Organizations

The term "human resource" was first used by American institutional economist John R.
Commons in his book The Distribution of Wealth from 1893. Human Resource
departments were not, however, formally constituted until the 20th century and given the
authority to settle conflicts between employees and their employers.

Human Resources is the department of an organization tasked with finding, employing,

screening, and training job prospects. The company also oversees employee benefit
programs .

Human Resources plays with the 21st century's fast evolving business environment and
rising demand for qualified people, plays a critical role in aiding firms.

The Human Resources division is an essential component of the business regardless of size.
Its obligations include boosting worker productivity and protecting the company from any
issues that might arise within the workforce. The duties of HR include overseeing salaries
and benefits, recruiting, selecting, and letting go of candidates, as well as remaining up to
date on any laws that may affect the company and its workers

A productive, functioning workers, which employees and managers are responsible for, is
the most important component of a successful business. In order to achieve this, one must
view workers as resources for the business rather than as expenses. Like any other resource,
talented employees may be effectively used to advance an organization

4.1.1 System Designers

A systems designer is an expert at designing systems in the information technology sector

that correspond to the requirements of the customer or business. In addition to conducting
research and analysis, collecting and analyzing operational data and customer feedback,
testing designs in a number of ways, working with engineers, diagnosing issues, and
formulating plans to enhance operations are among their duties. They could evaluate the
current systems and design improvements as necessary. Additionally, while abiding by the
company's policies and guidelines, a systems designer may offer technical support and
direction to workers.

Today's system design methodologies appear to imply that the system design process
entails problem solving, or the fixing of an unreliable reality. These techniques also make
use of the irrationality of system designers' behavior (Stolterman, 1991).

The computer codes that power video games are created by a system designer. Early on in
the development process, they are engaged to evaluate the game's scope and design as
well as to set up the platforms that will make the game a reality. System designers do tasks
similar to those of computer hardware engineers, but they may also be expected to exercise
significant creative and problem-solving skills. In addition to establishing crafting
components, talent trees, and level tables, they might be necessary to trace character
development from conception to implementation. In the gaming industry, a systems
designer's role and duties includes, but not limited to the following:

1. Investigate and evaluate the resources that are on the market.

2. Assemble all necessary hardware and software
3. Asset management and data entry for game databases
4. Create prototypes, manage testing, and put changes into practice
5. Make specialized software
6. Improve, balance, and iterate player development and experience
7. Game data tuning and balancing
8. Monitoring the quality assurance procedure and making modifications
9. When creating software, follow accepted design principles.Own or co-own game
content following the lead.
10. Own or jointly own supplementary game material.
11. Create a prototype and refine the key gameplay components.
12. Balance and customize the gaming experiences to ensure the product's critical and
commercial success.
13. Work through design modifications with the development team and plan how the
strategy will be put into action.
14. When creating cases for user interaction planning, be sure to keep the requirements
of the customer in mind.
15. Maintenance of the template document.
16. Utilize a challenging asset development procedure while quickly learning
proprietary tools.
17. To describe new material, provide specs; while considering input for
documentation.
18. Take constructive criticism and give good feedback
 19. Report problems and developments to management and any JCI contractor or
customer.
20. Provide owner with on-site system training.
21. Observe safety regulations to ensure the security of your workers and contractors.
22. Develop fresh gaming mechanics and ideas in collaboration with the design team.
The qualifications needed to work as a systems designer.

1. Powerful analytical and critical thinking

2. Thorough familiarity with gaming gear and software
3. Excellent problem-solving abilities Excellent communication abilities
4. Experience leading teams
5. Understanding of game scripting
6. Powerful familiarity with player advancement systems, stat curves, and game loops
7. The capacity to recognize, explain, and explain basic mechanics
8. Understanding of the game development process and 3D gaming programs
9. Ability to comprehend and resolve complicated issues
10. Using logic and analysis to solve difficulties
11. Strong communication abilities
12. Ability to lead others' work
13. The capacity to work both independently and collaboratively
14. Willingness to maintain IT knowledge and skills on a regular basis
What programs and equipment do system designer’s employ?

System designers should be well-versed in 3D animation, demonstration, and programming

languages. During the game creation phase, they will need to put together the necessary
hardware and software. For the sake of the game, certain specialized software may need
to be created. The materials required for creating software as part of the production
process must be taken into consideration by the system designer.

Systems designers could require expertise in some of the following pieces of software:

 C
 C++
 Unreal 4
 Maya
 Adobe Creative Cloud
 Substance Painter
Other human resource personnel whose modus operands and routine of work are classified
under System designer’s role are numerous, some of such position that will be discussed in
this chapter include; Database Administrator, Web architects, graphic designers, security
specialists, network architects, and technology experts.

4.1.1.1 Database Administrators

Who are database Administrators?

Database administrators, also known as DBAs, are IT professionals responsible for the
design, implementation, maintenance, and management of computer databases. They
work with database management systems (DBMS) to ensure data is stored, organized, and
accessed efficiently and securely. DBAs are responsible for ensuring that databases are
available, reliable, and scalable to meet the needs of the organization they support. They
work closely with developers, network administrators, and other IT professionals to ensure
that the database system supports the business goals and objectives of the organization.

Some of the specific tasks that database administrators perform include designing and
implementing database structures, managing and maintaining database performance,
securing data, planning for disaster recovery, troubleshooting, and problem-solving,
managing database backups and recovery, and ensuring data integrity. They are also
accountable for staying current with new developments in technology and database
management trends to make sure that the database system is efficient, effective, and secure.

Some of a DBA's primary duties are to:

1. Designing and implementing database structures: To design and implement the best
database structure for an organization's requirements, DBAs collaborate closely with
developers and other IT specialists.
2. Controlling and maintaining database performance: DBAs keep an eye on database
performance, spotting and resolving problems that could slow it down. They also
guarantee the efficient and effective operation of the database.
3. Data security: DBAs are in charge of making sure that data is safe and shielded from
theft, loss, and illegal access. They put security measures in place including backups,
access limits, and encryption.
4. Disaster recovery planning: DBAs are in charge of creating and putting into action
disaster recovery plans to make sure that vital data can be restored in the case of a
disaster.
5. Identifying and fixing database problems, such as performance problems, errors,
and data corruption, is the responsibility of DBAs.
6. Taking care of database backups and recovery: DBAs are in charge of securing data
and restoring it if it is lost or corrupted.
7. Data validation and verification techniques are used by DBAs to guarantee that data
is correct, consistent, and dependable.
DBAs also try to stay current with new technology and trends in database management in
addition to these duties. To guarantee that the database is integrated with other IT systems
and supports the aims and objectives of the firm, they work along with other IT experts,
such as network administrators and software developers.

What programs and equipment do database administrators employ?

Database administrators use a variety of programs and equipment to perform their duties.
Here are some examples:

1. Database Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS software such as Oracle, Microsoft

SQL Server, MySQL, and MongoDB are commonly used by DBAs to manage and
maintain databases.
2. Operating Systems: DBAs must be familiar with the operating system on which the
DBMS is running. Examples include Windows Server, Linux, and UNIX.
3. Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools: Tools such as SQL Profiler, Oracle Enterprise
Manager, and MySQL Workbench are used by DBAs to monitor database
performance, diagnose issues, and optimize the system.
4. Backup and Recovery Software: DBAs use software such as Oracle Recovery
Manager (RMAN), SQL Server Backup and Restore, and MySQL Enterprise Backup
to perform backups and restore data in case of data loss.
5. Security and Access Control Software: DBAs use software such as Oracle Database
Vault, Microsoft SQL Server Security, and MySQL Enterprise Security to implement
security measures such as access controls, authentication, and encryption.
6. Hardware: DBAs work with hardware such as servers, storage devices, and network
equipment to ensure that the database system runs smoothly and efficiently.
DBAs employ a variety of scripting languages, including SQL, Python, and PowerShell, in
addition to these tools and applications to automate repetitive processes and make
adjustments. In order to organize their work and communicate with other IT experts, they
also make use of project management and collaboration applications like JIRA and
Confluence.

Types of Database Administrators

There are several different types of database administrator (DBA) roles, each with different
responsibilities and areas of focus. Here are some of the most common types of DBAs:

1. Database Development DBA: This type of DBA focuses on the design, development,
and implementation of database systems. They work closely with software
developers and other IT professionals to ensure that the database supports the needs
of the organization and meets performance and scalability requirements.
 2. Database Production DBA: This type of DBA is responsible for the ongoing
maintenance, optimization, and management of production database systems. They
ensure that the database is available, reliable, and secure, and work to resolve any
issues that arise.
3. Database Backup and Recovery DBA: This type of DBA is responsible for ensuring
that database backups are performed regularly and that data can be recovered in
case of data loss or corruption. They work to develop and test backup and recovery
strategies and procedures to ensure that data is always available and recoverable.
4. Database Security DBA: This kind of DBA is in charge of establishing and upholding
security precautions to guard the database against illegal accessibility, theft, or loss.
To protect sensitive data, they seek to create access controls, encoding, and various
other security measures.
5. Data Architect: This type of DBA focuses on the design and management of data
models and database architectures. They work to ensure that the database system is
designed to meet the organization's needs and can scale as needed.
6. Data Warehouse DBA: The design, development, and management of data are the
responsibilities of this kind of DBA warehouse systems. They work to ensure that
data is properly stored, organized, and accessible for reporting and analysis.
7. Cloud Database Administrator: This type of DBA specializes in managing database
systems that are hosted in the cloud. They are responsible for configuring and
managing cloud-based database services such as Google Cloud SQL, Microsoft Azure
SQL Database, or Amazon RDS.
4.1.1.2 Network Architects

A network architect is a professional who designs and oversees the implementation of

computer network infrastructure for an organization. Network architects work with other
IT professionals, including system administrators and network engineers, to develop and
maintain the network architecture that supports an organization's technology needs.

The primary responsibilities of a network architect include:

1. Designing network architecture: Network architects plan and design the overall
network infrastructure for an organization, including the hardware and software
components required for the network to function effectively.
2. Evaluating network performance: Network architects monitor and analyze the
performance of the network, looking for areas where improvements can be made
in terms of speed, reliability, and security.
3. Recommending improvements: Based on their analysis of network performance,
network architects recommend changes and improvements to the network
infrastructure to optimize performance and address any issues.
 4. Implementing network infrastructure: Once a network design has been developed
and approved, network architects oversee the implementation of the infrastructure,
working with system administrators and network engineers to ensure that the
hardware and software are properly installed and configured.
5. Managing network security: Network architects are responsible for ensuring that the
network is secure, implementing measures to protect against cyber threats and
unauthorized access.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Network architects keep abreast
with new developments and ideas in network architecture, evaluating new products
and services that may be beneficial to their organization.

Figure 4.2: Diagram showing Network Architect’s flow.

Examples of Network Architects

1. Information Technology (IT) Industry: In the IT industry, network architects are

responsible for designing and implementing the network infrastructure that supports
an organization's technology needs. They work closely with system administrators
and network engineers to ensure that the hardware and software components of
the network are properly configured and maintained.
2. Financial Services Industry: In the financial services industry, network architects
design and implement the network infrastructure that supports critical financial
systems and applications. They work to ensure that the network is secure and meets
compliance requirements for data privacy and protection.
3. Healthcare Industry: In the healthcare industry, network architects design and
implement the network infrastructure that supports electronic health records (EHRs)
 and other healthcare applications. They work to ensure that the network is secure,
reliable, and compliant with regulations such as HIPAA.
4. Manufacturing Industry: In the manufacturing industry, network architects design
and implement the network infrastructure that supports production processes and
supply chain management systems. They work to ensure that the network is reliable,
secure, and optimized for the needs of the organization.
5. Education Industry: In the education industry, network architects design and
implement the network infrastructure that supports learning management systems
(LMSs) and other educational technologies. They work to ensure that the network
is reliable, secure, and optimized for the needs of students, teachers, and
administrators.
Types of Network Architect

There are various forms of network architects, including:

1. Enterprise Network Architect: Designs and implements complex network solutions

for large organizations.
2. Cloud Network Architect: Specializes in designing and managing networks for
cloud-based applications and services.
3. Data Center Network Architect: Designs and manages networks that support data
center operations and applications.
4. Wireless Network Architect: Designs and manages wireless networks, including Wi-
Fi and cellular networks.
5. Security Network Architect: Designs and implements network security solutions to
protect against threats such as cyber-attacks and data breaches.
6. Network Infrastructure Architect: Designs and manages the physical network
infrastructure, including cabling, switches, and routers.
7. Network Operations Architect: Develops and implements network management
tools and processes to ensure optimal network performance and availability.
8. VoIP Network Architect: Specializes in designing and implementing Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) systems.
9. Network Solutions Architect: Designs and implements customized network solutions
to meet specific business requirements.
10. Network Systems Architect: Designs and manages network systems, including
hardware, software, and operating systems.
Network architects are responsible for designing and implementing network infrastructure
that supports an organization's technology needs. They ensure that the network is secure,
reliable, and performs optimally, while keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies to
identify new opportunities for improvement.
4.1.1.3 Web Architects

A web architect is a professional who designs and oversees the development and
implementation of web-based applications, systems, and websites. Web architects work
with other IT professionals, including web developers, designers, and system
administrators, to develop and maintain web-based applications that meet the needs of an
organization or business.

The primary responsibilities of a web architect include:

1. Designing web-based systems and applications: Web architects design and plan the
architecture of web-based systems and applications, including the hardware and
software components required for the system to function effectively.
2. Evaluating web application performance: Web architects monitor and analyze the
performance of web-based applications, looking for areas where improvements can
be made in terms of speed, usability, and user experience.
3. Recommending improvements: Based on their analysis of web application
performance, web architects recommend changes and improvements to optimize
the performance and user experience of the web application.
4. Implementing web applications: Once a web application design has been developed
and approved, web architects oversee the implementation of the application,
working with web developers and system administrators to ensure that the
hardware and software are properly installed and configured.
5. Managing web application security: Web architects are responsible for ensuring that
web-based applications are secure, implementing measures to protect against cyber
threats and unauthorized access.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Web architects keep abreast with
new developments and ideas in web architecture, evaluating new products and
services that may be beneficial to their organization.
Types of Web architecture with Examples

Web architecture refers to the design and structure of web applications, these includes the
technologies used to build them. Here are some types of web architecture:

1. Client-Server Architecture: This architecture involves a client (a web browser)

making requests to a server that responds with the necessary data.
2. Three-Tier Architecture: In this architecture, The user interface layer, and the
software layer, and the data layer are the three tiers or layers and the data layer.
3. Architecture using Model-View-Controller: An application is separated by this
architecture. into three components - the model (data), the view (presentation),
and the controller (application logic).
 4. Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): This architecture is based on the concept of
services, where individual services provide specific functionality and can be
combined to build larger applications.
5. Microservices Architecture: This is a type of SOA that emphasizes small,
independently deployable services that work together to provide a larger
application.
Examples of web architecture include:

1. The client-server approach serves as the foundation for the world wide web's
architecture.
2. The three-tier architecture used by many web applications, The application layer is
constructed using JavaScript, HTML, and CSS, whereas the presentation layer is
constructed using a programming language like PHP or Ruby, and the data layer is
typically a database like MySQL or MongoDB.
3. The MVC architecture used by web frameworks like Ruby on Rails and Django.
4. The SOA architecture used by many enterprise applications, where individual
services are built using SOAP or RESTful web services.
5. The microservices architecture used by companies like Netflix and Amazon, where
small, independently deployable services are used to build complex applications.
4.1.1.4 Graphic Artists

A graphic artist is a professional who creates visual designs and artwork for a variety of
media, including print, digital, and multimedia platforms. Graphic artists use a range of
tools and software to create visual concepts, designs, and layouts that communicate ideas
and messages in a visually appealing way.

The primary responsibilities of a graphic artist include:

1. Creating visual designs and artwork: Graphic artists create visual designs and
artwork for a variety of media, including logos, illustrations, packaging,
advertisements, and websites.
2. Understanding client needs: Graphic artists work closely with clients to understand
their needs and requirements, and to develop visual designs that communicate the
desired message effectively.
3. Using design tools and software: Graphic artists use a range of design tools and
software to create visual designs and artwork, including Adobe Creative Suite,
CorelDRAW, Sketch, and Inkscape.
4. Collaborating with other professionals: Graphic artists collaborate with other
professionals, including web developers, copywriters, and marketing teams, to
develop visual designs that meet the needs of the client.
 5. Keeping abreast of new design trends: Graphic designers keep abreast of new design
trends and techniques, experimenting with new tools and techniques to create
innovative and engaging visual designs.
Types of graphics artists include:

1. Traditional artists who use traditional media like pencil, pen, paint, and paper, as
well as
2. Digital artists who use software tools like Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, and 3D
modeling software.
Graphics artists are professionals who create visual designs using digital or traditional
media. Here are some:

Examples of graphics artists:

1. Illustrators: These artists specialize in creating drawings, paintings, and other visual
representations for books, magazines, advertisements, and other media.
2. Graphic Designers: These artists create visual designs for websites, apps, logos,
brochures, posters, and other print or digital media.
3. 3D Artists: These artists create three-dimensional models and animations for use in
video games, movies, and other media.
4. Motion Graphic Designers: These artists specialize in creating animations, videos,
and other moving visual designs for film, television, and other digital media.
5. Game Artists: These artists create the artwork, 3D models, and animations used in
video games.
6. Visual Effects Artists: These artists create digital special effects and visual
enhancements for movies, TV shows, and other media.
7. User Interface (UI) Designers: These artists create visual designs for the user interface
of software applications and websites.
8. Concept Artists: These artists create sketches, drawings, and other visual
representations to help visualize the concepts and ideas for movies, video games,
and other media.
9. Product Designers: These artists create visual designs for physical products, such as
consumer electronics, furniture, and home goods.
10. Advertising Artists: These artists create visual designs for advertisements, including
billboards, print ads, and online ads.
4.1.1.5 Security Experts

Security experts are professionals who specialize in preventing illegal access, theft,
destruction, and interruption to computer systems, networks, and digital information.
They work to identify and mitigate security threats to prevent cyber-attacks and protect
sensitive data.
The primary responsibilities of security experts include:

1. Conducting security assessments: Security experts assess computer systems,

networks, and software to identify vulnerabilities and potential security threats.
2. Developing security plans: Based on their assessment, security experts develop
security plans and protocols to protect computer systems, networks, and data from
potential security breaches.
3. Implementing security measures: Security experts work with IT professionals should
put security measures in place to safeguard, such as firewalls, antivirus software, and
encryption technologies computer systems, networks, and data from cyber-attacks.
4. Monitoring security systems: Security experts monitor security systems and software
to detect potential security breaches and take necessary measures to prevent or
mitigate damage.
5. Investigating security breaches: When security breaches occur, security experts
investigate the incident to determine the cause and extent of the damage, and take
necessary actions to stop similar situations from happening again.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging threats: Security experts stay up-to-date with
emerging cyber threats and trends, and adapt their security plans and protocols to
address new and evolving security risks.
Various models that can be used to show the roles and responsibilities of security experts
in an organization. Here are some example:

i.) Information Security Manager

The organization's entire security plan must be monitored by the information security
manager to make sure it complies with the organization's objectives. They are also
responsible for managing security policies, procedures, and practices.

ii.) Security Analyst

Identification and analysis of security risks, weaknesses, and dangers to the a company's
systems are the responsibility of the security analyst networks. They are also responsible
for developing and implementing security controls and measures to mitigate those risks.

iii.) Security Architect

For the organization's systems and networks, the security architect is in charge of creating
and implementing security systems and solutions. They collaborate closely with other IT
experts to make sure security is built into every component of the company's technological
architecture.
iv.) Network Security Engineer

The network security engineer is in charge of creating and putting into practice security
solutions for the organization's network infrastructure. They are responsible for ensuring
that network devices, such as routers and firewalls, are properly configured and maintained
to prevent unauthorized access.

v.) Cybersecurity Specialist:

The cybersecurity specialist is responsible for protecting the organization's systems and
networks from cyber threats, such as malware, phishing, and hacking attacks. They are in
charge of keeping an eye out for suspicious activity on the organization's networks while
reacting to security incidents when they happen.

vi.) Security Operations Center (SOC) Analyst

The SOC analyst is in charge of keeping track of security threats and incidents on the
company's systems and networks. They are responsible for analyzing security alerts,
investigating security incidents, and responding to security incidents in real-time.

vii.) Compliance Officer

The compliance officer is responsible for ensuring that the organization complies with
relevant security and privacy regulations, such as HIPAA, GDPR, and PCI DSS. They are
responsible for conducting security audits, ensuring that security policies and procedures
are followed, and maintaining documentation to demonstrate compliance.

Types of security experts

There are various types of security experts who specialize in different areas of cybersecurity.
Here are some of the most common types:

1. Information Security Manager: This professional is responsible for overseeing the

overall security strategy of an organization and ensuring that it is in line with the
aims and goals of the organization.
2. Network Security Engineer: This professional is in charge of developing and putting
in place security solutions for a company's network infrastructure.
3. Cybersecurity Analyst: This a specialist is in charge of assessing security risks and
threats to an organization's systems and networks and developing and
implementing security controls to mitigate those risks.
4. Penetration Tester: Also known as an ethical hacker, a penetration tester is in charge
of checking a system's and network's for vulnerabilities and weaknesses in order to
identify potential security threats.
 5. Security Architect: This professional is in charge of developing and putting into place
security solutions for a company's systems and networks. They collaborate closely
with other IT specialists to make sure security is incorporated into every part of the
organization's technology architecture.
6. Incident Responder: This professional is responsible for responding to security
incidents as they arise, identifying the source of the incident and mitigating its impact
on the organization's systems and networks.
7. Compliance Officer: This professional is responsible for ensuring that an
organization complies with relevant security and privacy regulations, such as
HIPAA, GDPR, and PCI DSS.
8. Cryptographer: This professional is responsible for developing and implementing
encryption algorithms and protocols to protect sensitive data and communications.
9. SOC Analyst: This individual is accountable for keeping an eye out for security
threats and incidents on an organization's systems and networks and responding to
security incidents in real-time.
10. Forensic Analyst: This professional is responsible for analyzing digital evidence to
investigate security incidents and identify potential attackers.
Overall, there are many different roles and responsibilities within the field of cybersecurity,
and organizations may require a variety of security experts to ensure that their systems and
networks are protected from potential threats.

Examples of some security experts

Here are some examples of security experts and their roles in cybersecurity:

1. Bruce Schneier: Cryptographer and security expert known for his work in
cryptography, privacy, and security engineering.
2. Kevin Mitnick: Former hacker turned cybersecurity consultant known for his
expertise in social engineering and penetration testing.
3. Mikko Hyppönen: Cybersecurity researcher and speaker known for his work in
malware analysis and tracking cybercrime groups.
4. Eugene Kaspersky: Founder of Kaspersky Lab, a cybersecurity company known for
its antivirus software and threat intelligence research.
5. Richard Clarke: Former national security advisor and cybersecurity expert known
for his work in cybersecurity policy and strategy.
6. Dan Kaminsky: Security researcher known for his discovery of a serious Domain
Name System (DNS) vulnerability.
7. Avivah Litan: Gartner analyst and cybersecurity expert known for her research in
fraud detection, identity and access management, and other areas of cybersecurity.
 8. Troy Hunt: Security researcher and creator users can check to see whether their
personal information has been compromised in data breaches by visiting the Have
I Been Pawned website.
9. Brian Krebs: Security journalist and investigative reporter known for his coverage
of cybercrime and cybersecurity issues.
10. Joanna Rutkowska: Cybersecurity researcher known for her work in rootkit
detection and defense, as well as her development of the Qubes OS, a security-
focused operating system.
Security experts are responsible for protecting computer systems, networks, and data from
potential security breaches. They assess security vulnerabilities, develop and implement
security plans and protocols, monitor security systems, investigate security breaches, and
stay current on new security risks and trends to make sure their security solutions are
efficient and current.

4.1.1.6 Technology Specialists

Technology specialists are professionals who specialize in a specific area of technology,

such as software development, networking, or cybersecurity. They work to develop,
implement, and maintain technology solutions to meet the needs of their organization or
clients.

The primary responsibilities of technology specialists include:

1. Designing and developing technology solutions: Technology specialists design and

develop technology solutions, such as software applications, network architectures,
or cybersecurity protocols, to meet the needs of their organization or clients.
2. Implementing technology solutions: Technology specialists work with other IT
professionals to implement technology solutions, ensuring that they are properly
configured and integrated with existing systems and infrastructure.
3. Maintaining technology solutions: Technology specialists are responsible for
maintaining technology solutions, ensuring that they continue to function effectively
and efficiently over time.
4. Troubleshooting and problem-solving: When technology issues arise, technology
specialists are responsible for troubleshooting and problem-solving locating the
problem's root cause and putting measures in place to fix it.
5. keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Technology specialists keep abreast
with new developments and trends in their area of expertise, evaluating new
products and services that may be beneficial to their organization or clients.
In summary, technology specialists are responsible for designing, developing,
implementing, and maintaining technology solutions to meet the needs of their
organization or clients. They work with other IT professionals to ensure that technology
solutions are properly configured and integrated with existing infrastructure, troubleshoot
and problem-solve when technology issues arise, and keep up with new technological
developments to identify new opportunities for improvement.

4.1.2 System Builders

System builders are professionals who specialize in building and customizing computer
systems for their clients or organization. They work to understand the needs of their clients
or organization and select the appropriate hardware and software components to build a
customized computer system that meets those needs.

The primary responsibilities of system builders include:

1. Understanding client needs: System builders work closely with clients to understand
their needs and requirements for a customized computer system.
2. Selecting hardware components: Based on the client's needs, system builders select
the appropriate hardware components, such as processors, memory, hard drives,
and graphics cards, to build a computer system that meets those needs.
3. Selecting software components: System builders also select software components,
such as operating systems and applications, to install on the computer system to
meet the client's needs.
4. Building the computer system: Once the hardware and software components have
been selected, system builders assemble the computer system and install the
software.
5. Testing and troubleshooting: System builders test the computer system to ensure
that it is functioning properly and troubleshoot any issues that arise.
6. Providing support and maintenance: System builders ensure that the computer
system receives continuing support and upkeep so that it can continue to run
efficiently over time.
In summary, system builders are responsible for building and customizing computer
systems for their clients or organization. They work closely with clients to understand
their needs and requirements, select the appropriate hardware and software
components, assemble and install the computer system, test and troubleshoot any issues
that arise, and provide ongoing support and maintenance to ensure that the system
continues to function effectively over time.

4.1.2.1 Application Programmers

Application programmers, also known as software developers or software engineers, are

professionals who specialize in designing, developing, and maintaining software
applications. They work with programming languages, software frameworks, and other
tools to create customized software applications that meet the specific needs of their clients
or organization.

The primary responsibilities of application programmers include:

Designing software applications: Application programmers work closely with clients or

stakeholders to understand their requirements and design software applications that meet
those needs.

1. Writing code: To construct software applications, application programmers write

code in programming languages like Java, Python, or C++. To write code more
quickly, they employ software frameworks and other tools. continues to perform
well over time.
2. Testing and debugging: once the code is written, application programmers test,
debug the software application to ensure its correct functionality, and meets the
requirements.
3. Maintaining software applications: Application programmers maintain software
applications, addressing bugs, including new features, and updating the program to
satisfy shifting demands.
4. Collaborating with other developers: Application programmers collaborate with
other developers to integrate software applications with other systems, such as
databases or APIs.
5. Application programmers keep up with new trends in software development and
emerging technologies to make sure they are using the most recent methods and
tools when developing software applications.
4.1.2.2 Systems Programmers

Systems programmers are professionals who specialize in developing and maintaining

system-level software, such as operating systems, compilers, and device drivers. They work
to ensure that the computer hardware and software systems are functioning effectively and
efficiently.

The primary responsibilities of systems programmers include:

1. Developing system-level software: Systems programmers develop and maintain

system-level software, such as operating systems, compilers, and device drivers, that
are used to manage computer hardware and software systems.
2. Debugging and testing: Systems programmers debug and test system-level software
to ensure that it is functioning correctly and efficiently.
3. Optimizing system performance: Systems programmers work to optimize system
performance by identifying and resolving issues with system-level software that may
be causing performance problems.
 4. Integrating software and hardware systems: Systems programmers work to integrate
software and hardware systems, such as operating systems and computer hardware,
to ensure that they are functioning effectively together.
5. Providing support and maintenance: Systems programmers give system-level
software continuous support and upkeep to make sure it keeps working properly
over time.
6. Keeping up with emerging technologies: To make sure that system-level software is
developed in accordance with current trends and emerging technology, systems
programmers that they are using the latest tools and techniques to develop and
maintain system-level software.
4.1.2.3 Database Programmers

Database programmers are professionals who specialize in designing, developing, as well

as updating database systems. They utilize DBMSs (database management systems). and
programming languages to create and manage complex databases that store and organize
large amounts of data.

The primary responsibilities of database programmers include:

1. Designing databases: Database programmers work with clients or stakeholders to

understand their data storage and management requirements and design databases
that meet those needs.
2. Developing database applications: Database programmers Write programs in
languages like Python, Java, or SQL to develop database applications that interact
with the database.
3. Testing and debugging: Once the code is written, database programmers test and
debug database applications to ensure that they are functioning correctly and
efficiently.
4. Optimizing database performance: Database programmers work to optimize
database performance by identifying and resolving issues that may be causing
performance problems.
5. Integrating databases with other systems: Database programmers work to
integrate databases with other systems, such as applications or APIs, to ensure that
they are functioning effectively together.
6. Providing support and maintenance: Database programmers provide ongoing
support and maintenance for databases, ensuring that they continue to function
effectively over time.
7. Staying up-to-date with emerging technologies: Database programmers Keep up
with new developments in technology and database development trends to make
sure they are using the latest tools and techniques to develop and maintain
databases.
4.1.2.4 Network Administrators

A network administrator, also known as a network engineer or network architect, is a

professional responsible for designing, implementing, managing, and maintaining
computer networks for organizations. Computer servers, switches, routers, and other
networking hardware are examples of interconnected devices that make up a computer
network. These devices are connected to one another to enable data sharing and
communication.

The role of a network administrator includes a wide range of tasks and responsibilities,
such as:

1. Network Design: Network administrators are responsible for designing and

planning the layout and architecture of computer networks. This includes
determining the appropriate network topology, selecting networking equipment,
and establishing network protocols and standards.
2. Network Implementation: Once the network design is finalized, network
administrators oversee the installation and configuration of networking hardware
and software components. This may involve setting up switches, routers, firewalls,
and other networking devices, as well as configuring network protocols, IP
addresses, and other network settings.
3. Network Monitoring and Maintenance: Network administrators are responsible for
monitoring the performance and security of the network. This may involve
regularly checking network logs, analyzing network traffic, and using network-
monitoring tools to identify and resolve network issues. Network administrators
also perform routine maintenance tasks, such as updating firmware, applying
security patches, and backing up network data.
4. Network Security: Ensuring the security of the network is a critical responsibility of
a network administrator. This involves implementing and maintaining numerous
security mechanisms, including firewalls, VPNs, and intrusion detection and
prevention systems (IDPS), and access control mechanisms, to protect the network
from unauthorized access, data breaches, and other security threats.
5. Troubleshooting and Issue Resolution: When network issues arise, network
administrators are responsible for troubleshooting and resolving them. This may
involve diagnosing and resolving network connectivity issues, identifying and fixing
hardware or software failures, and troubleshooting network protocols and
configurations.
6. User Support: Network administrators may provide technical support to users who
encounter network-related issues. This may involve assisting users with network
 connectivity problems, providing guidance on network usage and best practices,
and resolving user-reported network issues.
7. Network Documentation and Reporting: Network administrators are responsible
for maintaining accurate and current documentation of the network architecture,
including network configurations, inventories, and diagrams. They may also prepare
reports on network performance, security, and other metrics for management and
other stakeholders.
Therefore, a network administrator is responsible for designing, implementing, managing,
and maintaining computer networks to ensure smooth and secure network operations for
organizations. They play a critical role in ensuring the availability, reliability, and security
of network resources to support an organization's business operations.

4.1.2.5 Security Administrators

A security administrator is an individual responsible for ensuring the security of an

organization's information technology (IT) systems, networks, and data. They are
responsible for implementing and managing security measures to protect an organization's
IT assets from unauthorized access, data breaches, cyber threats, and other security risks.

The role of a security administrator may vary depending on the organization and its size,
but their general responsibilities typically include:

1. Implementing and managing security policies: Security administrators are

responsible for creating and enforcing security policies and procedures within an
organization. This includes developing security standards, guidelines, and best
practices, and ensuring that employees and other stakeholders follow them.
2. Managing access control: Security administrators are responsible for controlling
access to IT systems, networks, and data. This includes managing user accounts,
permissions, and privileges in order to guarantee that only authorized individuals
have access sensitive information and resources.
3. Monitoring and detecting security incidents: Security administrators monitor IT
systems and networks for any indicators of security issues, such as malware
infections, unauthorized access attempts, or other suspicious activities. They use
various security tools and technologies to detect and respond to security threats in
a timely manner.
4. Managing security infrastructure: Security administrators are responsible for
managing and maintaining security technologies, such as firewalls, systems for
security information and event management (SIEM), intrusion detection systems
 (IDS), and other security instruments. This includes configuring, updating, and
patching security systems to ensure their effectiveness.
5. Conducting security assessments and audits: Security administrators may perform
security assessments and audits to identify vulnerabilities, assess risks, and ensure
compliance with security policies, regulations, and industry standards. They may
also conduct security testing, such as penetration testing, to identify weaknesses in
IT systems and networks.
6. Incident response and recovery: When security incidents occur, security
administrators are responsible for responding to and resolving the incidents. This
includes investigating security breaches, containing the damage, recovering data and
systems, as well as taking corrective steps to stop similar occurrences in the future.
7. Security awareness and training: Security administrators may provide Employees
and other stakeholders are given security awareness training to inform them of
security best practices, rules, and procedures. This involves encouraging a security-
conscious culture inside the company and making sure that staff members are aware
of the value of security and their responsibilities in keeping it up.
Overall, the role of a security administrator is critical in safeguarding an organization's
IT systems, networks, and data from security threats and ensuring the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of information assets. They play a vital role in maintaining
the security posture of an organization and mitigating security risks to protect against
potential security breaches and data breaches.
4.1.2.6 Webmasters

A webmaster is an individual who manages and maintains websites, ensuring their

functionality, performance, and security. Webmasters are responsible for creating,
updating, and optimizing websites to meet the needs of the users and the goals of the
website owner. Their roles and responsibilities may vary based on the needs of the
company, the website's size and complexity, and other factors.

Typically, a webmaster's tasks include:

1. Website design and development: Webmasters may be responsible for designing

and developing websites using programming languages, content management
systems (CMS), and web development tools. They ensure that websites have user-
friendly interfaces, visually appealing designs, and responsive layouts that work well
on different devices and browsers.
2. Content management: Webmasters are responsible for creating, editing, and
managing website content, including text, images, videos, and other multimedia
 elements. They ensure that the content is accurate, up-to-date, and optimized for
search engines (SEO).
3. Website maintenance: Webmasters perform regular website maintenance tasks such
as updating software, plugins, and themes, fixing broken links, and monitoring
website performance. They also conduct regular backups and implement security
measures to protect the website from cyber threats.
4. Website analytics and reporting: Webmasters use web analytics tools to track
website performance, measure key metrics such as traffic, engagement, and
conversions, and generate reports for website owners or stakeholders. They Utilize
this information to pinpoint areas that need work and to inform judgments about
how to best optimize the website.
5. SEO and digital marketing: Webmasters may be responsible for implementing SEO
strategies to improve website visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs). They
may also manage strategies for digital marketing, such pay-per-click (PPC)
advertising and social media marketing, to drive traffic and promote the website.
6. User experience (UX) and usability: Webmasters concentrate on enhancing a
website's overall user experience, including navigation, accessibility, and usability.
They conduct usability testing, analyze user feedback, and make necessary changes
to enhance the website's usability and user satisfaction.
7. Troubleshooting and technical support: Webmasters troubleshoot and resolve
technical issues related to websites, such as server errors, broken links, and other
technical glitches. They may also provide technical support to website users or
collaborate with IT teams or third-party vendors to resolve complex technical issues.
In summary, a webmaster plays a crucial role in managing and maintaining websites,
ensuring their performance, security, and user experience. They possess technical skills in
web development, content management, SEO, and digital marketing, and work closely
with website owners or stakeholders to achieve the website's goals.

4.1.2.7 Softwares Integrators

Software integrators are professionals or tools that specialize in combining different

software systems or components to work together seamlessly as a unified whole. They play
a critical role in integrating disparate software applications or systems, often from different
vendors or with different functionalities, into a cohesive and interoperable solution.
Software integrators can work on a variety of software types, including enterprise
software, web applications, mobile apps, databases, APIs, and more.
Software integrators are responsible for analysing the requirements of the systems or
components to be integrated, and designing the integration architecture. They may also
develop custom code or scripts to facilitate data exchange, communication, or
synchronization between different systems. They may configure settings, mappings, or
interfaces to enable interoperability and smooth data flow between systems. Additionally,
software integrators may test the integrated solution thoroughly to identify and resolve
any issues, such as data inconsistencies, data loss, or performance problems.

In some cases, software integrators may work with application programming interfaces
(APIs), which are collections of rules, resources, and guidelines that let various software
programs converse and cooperate with one another. They may use middleware, which is
software that acts as a bridge between different software applications, to facilitate
communication and data exchange between systems that may not natively support each
other.

Software integrators require expertise in various programming languages, software

development frameworks, databases, networking, and system architecture. They also need
to have a good understanding of the business processes and requirements of the systems
being integrated. Strong problem solving, analytical, and communication skills are also
essential for software integrators to effectively identify and address integration challenges.

Overall, software integrators play a crucial role in enabling different software systems to
work together seamlessly and efficiently, helping organizations achieve improved
operational efficiency, data consistency, and overall system performance.

4.1.3 System Analyst

A system analyst is a specialist in evaluating and creating information systems that are
tailored to an organization's requirements. They are essential to the development and
implementation of new systems or the improvement of existing systems.

A system analyst's main responsibilities include understanding and documenting the

requirements of the organization, analyzing business processes, identifying areas for
improvement, and designing effective solutions. They work closely with stakeholders, such
as end-users, managers, and IT teams, to gather and clarify requirements and translate them
into functional specifications for system development.

A system analyst conducts thorough research, data analysis, and feasibility studies to
determine the technical and economic viability of proposed solutions. They may also assess
risks and make recommendations for risk mitigation strategies. They create system models,
flowcharts, and diagrams to visually represent the proposed system's functionality and
design.

In addition to their technical skills, system analysts also possess strong communication and
interpersonal skills. They need to effectively communicate complex technical concepts to
non-technical stakeholders and work collaboratively with cross-functional teams. They
may also provide training and support to end-users during system implementation and
post-implementation phases.

Overall, a system analyst plays a critical role in making certain that Information systems
are designed, developed, and used in a manner that meets the organization's needs,
improves operational efficiency, and supports strategic objectives.

4.1.3.1 Program Analyst

A program analyst is a professional who plays a critical role in analyzing and evaluating
the effectiveness and efficiency of software programs and systems within an organization.
They typically work in the information technology (IT) department and collaborate with
various stakeholders, including software developers, business analysts, project managers,
and end-users.

The main responsibilities of a program analyst may include:

1. Program Evaluation: Assessing the performance of existing software programs and

systems, identifying areas for improvement, and making recommendations to
enhance their efficiency and effectiveness. This may involve analyzing program
data, conducting performance testing, and evaluating user feedback.
2. Requirements Analysis: Collaborating with business analysts and other stakeholders
to gather and analyze user requirements for new software programs or system
enhancements. This may involve conducting interviews, workshops, and surveys to
understand user needs and translating them into functional and technical
specifications.
3. Design and Development: Participating in the design and development of software
programs and systems, ensuring that they align with user requirements,
organizational standards, and best practices. This may involve creating flowcharts,
mockups, and prototypes to visualize program design and functionality.
4. Testing and Quality Assurance: Developing and implementing testing plans and
procedures to verify the functionality, performance, and security of software
programs and systems. This may involve conducting manual and automated testing,
identifying defects or issues, and coordinating with developers to resolve them.
 5. Documentation and Reporting: Creating and maintaining technical documentation,
including program specifications, user manuals, and standard operating procedures.
Additionally, preparing reports and presentations to communicate findings,
recommendations, and progress to stakeholders, including management and project
teams.
6. Project Management: Assisting in the planning, coordination, and execution of
software development projects, including monitoring progress, managing risks, and
ensuring timely delivery of milestones.
7. Technical Support: Providing technical support and assistance to end-users,
troubleshooting and resolving issues related to software programs and systems, and
providing training and guidance as needed.
Overall, a program analyst plays a vital role in ensuring the successful development,
implementation, and maintenance of software programs and systems within an
organization, and helps to optimize their performance and effectiveness. Strong analytical
skills, attention to detail, and knowledge of programming languages, software
development methodologies, and IT best practices are typically required for this role.

4.1.3.2 Business Analyst

A business analyst is a professional who works in various industries to analyze, assess, and
improve business processes, systems, and strategies. They typically work as a bridge
between business stakeholders, such as clients, managers, and end-users, and the technical
team, such as IT developers, to gather requirements, identify business needs, and
recommend solutions to drive business success.

The primary role of a business analyst involves conducting research, data analysis, and
process mapping to identify inefficiencies or areas for improvement in business operations.
They use their analytical skills to gather, document, prioritize requirements from
stakeholders, including business goals, user stories, and use cases. They also conduct
feasibility studies, cost-benefit analysis, and risk assessments to evaluate potential solutions
and make recommendations to optimize business performance.

In addition, a business analyst may also be responsible for creating and maintaining
documentation, such as business process models, flowcharts, and technical specifications.
They may collaborate with cross-functional teams, such as project managers, developers,
and quality assurance testers, to ensure smooth implementation of solutions and monitor
progress against business objectives.

A business analyst needs to have excellent communication skills, both verbal and written,
as they often facilitate meetings, presentations, and workshops with stakeholders to gather
and validate requirements. They should also have a solid understanding of business
concepts, processes, and technologies, as well as the ability to adapt to changing business
environments and evolving technologies.

Overall, the role of a business analyst is critical in helping organizations identify and address
business challenges, optimize processes, and achieve their strategic goals by leveraging their
analytical skills, domain knowledge, and effective communication.

4.1.3.3 Requirement Analyst

A requirement analyst, also known as a business analyst or systems analyst, is a professional

who is responsible for gathering, documenting, and analyzing the requirements of a project
or system. Requirement analysts play a crucial role in the software development and
project management process by identifying and defining the needs and expectations of
stakeholders, including clients, end-users, and other relevant parties.

The primary responsibilities of a requirement analyst include conducting thorough research

and analysis to understand the business or system requirements, documenting and
organizing requirements in a clear and concise manner, facilitating communication and
collaboration between stakeholders, validating and verifying requirements for accuracy
and feasibility, and providing recommendations for improving processes or systems.

Requirement analysts work closely with project managers, software developers, quality
assurance teams, and other stakeholders to ensure that the project or system meets the
desired objectives and aligns with the needs of the end-users. They may use various
techniques such as interviews, workshops, surveys, and documentation analysis to gather
and validate requirements, and may use modelling tools and techniques to create visual
representations of requirements, such as use cases, flowcharts, and data flow diagrams.

A successful requirement analyst possesses excellent analytical and problem-solving skills,

strong communication and interpersonal skills, attention to detail, and a good
understanding of business processes and technical concepts. They must be able to
effectively communicate with stakeholders at all levels, manage changing requirements and
priorities, and work collaboratively in a team environment to ensure successful project
outcomes.

4.1.3.4 Infrastructure Analyst

An infrastructure analyst is a professional who analyzes and assesses the technical,

operational, and financial aspects of infrastructure systems or projects. This can include
analyzing data centres, networks, telecommunications systems, cloud-computing
environments, and other critical infrastructure components.
The responsibilities of an infrastructure analyst typically include evaluating the performance
and efficiency of existing infrastructure systems, identifying areas for improvement,
developing strategies and plans for infrastructure upgrades or enhancements, conducting
risk assessments, analyzing costs and benefits of proposed changes, and providing
recommendations to optimize the performance, security, and scalability of infrastructure
systems.

Infrastructure analysts may work in various industries, such as information technology (IT),
telecommunications, transportation, energy, or public utilities. They often collaborate with
other IT or engineering professionals, stakeholders, and business units to gather
requirements, assess needs, and implement changes to ensure the smooth operation of
infrastructure systems and support the overall business objectives of an organization.

Skills commonly associated with an infrastructure analyst role include technical expertise in
infrastructure technologies, data analysis, problem-solving, project management, risk
assessment, communication, and strategic planning. They may also need to stay updated
with the latest trends, technologies, and best practices in infrastructure management to
ensure that systems are secure, efficient, and resilient.

4.1.3.5 Change Management Analyst

A change management analyst is a professional who specializes in managing and

implementing organizational changes within a company or other types of organizations.
They are responsible for helping organizations navigate changes in processes, procedures,
systems, or structures to improve performance, adapt to new technologies, meet strategic
objectives, or respond to external factors such as market conditions or regulatory
requirements.

Change management analysts typically work closely with senior leadership, project teams,
and other stakeholders to assess the impact of proposed changes, develop change
management plans, and execute strategies to ensure smooth transitions. They may conduct
change readiness assessments, develop communication plans, create training materials, and
provide guidance on managing resistance to change. They may also monitor and evaluate
the progress of change initiatives, gather feedback, and make adjustments as needed.

Change management analysts need to have strong analytical, communication, and

interpersonal skills. They should be able to understand and navigate complex
organizational dynamics, identify potential risks and challenges associated with change,
and develop strategies to mitigate them. They may also need to have expertise in various
change management methodologies and tools, and be able to work collaboratively with
cross-functional teams to drive successful change initiatives.
4.1.3.6 Project Manager

A project manager is a professional who is responsible for planning, executing, and

overseeing projects within an organization. They are typically accountable for ensuring
that projects are completed on time, within budget, and with the desired quality and scope.
Project managers work across various industries, such as information technology,
construction, engineering, marketing, and many others.

The main responsibilities of a project manager may include:

1. Project planning: Defining project objectives, creating project plans, determining

resource requirements, and developing schedules and budgets.
2. Project execution: Coordinating and leading project teams, assigning tasks,
monitoring progress, and managing risks and issues that may arise during project
implementation.
3. Stakeholder management: Identifying and engaging with project stakeholders,
including team members, clients, vendors, and other relevant parties, to ensure clear
communication and alignment of project goals.
4. Budget and resource management: Monitoring project expenses, allocating
resources effectively, and making adjustments to ensure that the project remains
within budget and on schedule.
5. Quality management: Ensuring that project deliverables meet the established quality
standards and conducting quality assurance and quality control activities.
6. Risk management: Identifying and mitigating risks that may impact the project's
success, and developing contingency plans to address potential issues.
7. Reporting and documentation: Creating and maintaining project documentation,
preparing progress reports, and presenting project status updates to stakeholders.
Project managers often use project management software and tools to assist in planning,
organizing, and tracking project progress. They also need to possess strong leadership,
communication, and negotiation skills, as well as the ability to work well under pressure
and adapt to changing circumstances. Project managers may hold professional certifications
such as Project Management Professional (PMP) or Prince2 to demonstrate their expertise
in the field.
4.2 Skills Set Needed by System Analyst

A system analyst is a professional who plays a key role in analyzing, designing, and
implementing information systems to meet the needs of an organization. The skill set
needed by a system analyst typically includes:

1. Technical knowledge: A system analyst should have a solid understanding of various

technologies and tools used in system development, such as programming
languages, databases, operating systems, and software development
methodologies. This enables them to assess technical feasibility and make informed
decisions during system analysis and design phases.
2. Systems thinking: System analysts need to have the ability to think critically and
holistically, considering the entire system and its components, as well as the
interactions and dependencies between them. They should be able to understand
how changes in one part of the system may influence other parts and the overall
system performance.
3. Business acumen: System analysts should possess a deep understanding of the
organization's business processes, goals, and strategies. They should be able to
analyze and align information systems with the organization's business
requirements, identifying opportunities for improvement and optimization.
4. Communication skills: Effective communication skills are crucial for system analysts
as they need to interact with various stakeholders, including end-users, business
users, IT teams, and management. They should be able to gather requirements,
articulate technical concepts, and communicate complex ideas in a clear and concise
manner.
5. Analytical and problem-solving skills: System analysts should be skilled in analyzing
complex situations, identifying problems, and proposing solutions. They should be
able to use techniques such as data modeling, process modeling, and decision
analysis to evaluate different options and make informed recommendations.
6. Project management: System analysts often work as part of a project team, and
therefore, should have basic project management skills, including project planning,
scheduling, monitoring, and reporting. They should be able to manage their tasks,
deadlines, and resources efficiently to ensure successful project delivery.
7. Adaptability and continuous learning: Technology and business environments are
constantly evolving, and system analysts need to stay up-to-date with the latest
trends and developments in their field. They should have a willingness to learn and
adapt to changing technologies, tools, and methodologies.
8. Interpersonal skills: System analysts often work closely with diverse teams and
stakeholders, and therefore should have good interpersonal skills. This includes
 being able to work well in a team, actively listen to others, provide constructive
feedback, and build positive relationships with stakeholders.
9. Documentation skills: System analysts should be able to document their findings,
analysis, and recommendations in a clear and organized manner. This includes
creating technical documents, requirements specifications, system design documents,
and other project-related documentation.
Overall, a system analyst needs a combination of technical, analytical, business,
communication, and interpersonal skills to be effective in their role and deliver successful
information systems that meet the needs of the organization.

Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive description of some categories of humna resource

in an IT firm which include: Network Administrator, Security Administrator, Webmaster,
Software Integrators, System Analyst, Program Analyst, Business Analyst, Requirement
Analyst, Infrastructure Analyst, Change Management Analyst, Project Manager. Skill sets
required by a system analyst was also identified.

Exercises

1. What are the key responsibilities of a network administrator in a large-scale enterprise

network?

2. What tools and technologies are commonly used by network administrators for network
monitoring and management?

3. What are the main duties of a security administrator in an organization?

4. What are the current trends and challenges in cybersecurity, and how can a security
administrator stay updated with the latest threats and technologies?

5. What are the key responsibilities of a webmaster in managing and maintaining a website?

6. How do you ensure the website's usability, accessibility, and performance across
different browsers and devices?

7. What tools and technologies are commonly used by webmasters for website
development, testing, and maintenance?

8. What are the common challenges and considerations in integrating third-party software
or external APIs into a software system?
9. How do you conduct program assessments, performance measurement, and risk
management to ensure program success and compliance?

10. What tools and technologies are commonly used by program analysts for data analysis,
reporting, and program management?

11. What is the role of a requirement analyst in the software development life cycle (SDLC)?

12. How do you gather, document, and prioritize software requirements from stakeholders
to define the scope of a project?

13. What are the techniques and methods used by requirement analysts for requirements
elicitation, validation, and verification?

14. What are the main responsibilities of a project manager in planning, executing, and
controlling projects?

15. What tools and technologies are commonly used by project managers for project
management and collaboration?

References

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industrialrelationishim. (n.d.).

Stolterman, E. (1991). HOW SYSTEM DESIGNERS THINK ABOUT DESIGN AND

METHODS Some Reflections Based on an Interview Study. In Scandinavian Journal of
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WILL KENTON, J. M. A. B.-C. (2023, April 5). Human Resources (HR) Meaning and
Responsibilities.

Schneier, B. (2015). Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and
Control Your World. W. W. Norton & Company.

Journal Article:

Hyppönen, M. (2016). In Code We Trust: How to Protect Your Data in a World Full of
Hackers. Scientific American, 314(4), 46-51.
Website:

Krebs, B. (2014, December 19). Target Hackers Broke in Via HVAC Company.
KrebsOnSecurity. https://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/02/target-hackers-broke-in-via-hvac-
company/

Magazine Article:

Litan, A. (2019, May). How to Prevent Fraudulent Account Takeovers. Credit Union
Journal, 88(5), 20-22.

Newspaper Article:

Clarke, R. (2017, May 17). We Need a New Manhattan Project to Combat Cyber Threats.
The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/17/opinion/cybersecurity-
manhattan-project.html

Note: The above examples are just for reference purposes. Make sure to consult the APA
manual or other relevant resources for more detailed information on formatting your
references.

Human Resources (HR) Meaning and Responsibilities

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/humanresources.asp

Systems Designer
The role, salary, software and skills of a video game systems designer
https://www.cgspectrum.com/career-pathways/systems-designer

WHAT DOES A SYSTEMS DESIGNER DO?

https://www.zippia.com/systems-designer-jobs/what-does-a-systems-designer-
do/?survey_step=step9

Barker, D. (2016). Web content management: Systems, features, and best practices. "
O'Reilly Media, Inc.".

Cassidy, A. (2016). A practical guide to information systems strategic planning. CRC press.

Dennis, A., Wixom, B., & Tegarden, D. (2015). Systems analysis and design: An object-
oriented approach with UML. John wiley & sons.
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managerial approach. John Wiley & Sons.

Rainer, R. K., & Prince, B. (2021). Introduction to information systems. John Wiley & Sons

Tilley, S. (2019). Systems analysis and design. Cengage Learning.

West, J. (2022). Data Communication and Computer Networks: A Business User's

Approach. Cengage Learning.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage

learning.
 Chapter 5
Roles of Computer in Business and Society

Overview

This chapter provides the basic understadning of the integral roles in which computer affect
our daily live in mordern society/world we live. Different ways that computers and other
digital technology have changed how businesses operate, including marketing, human
resources, and accounting will also be discussed, going over how technology can enhance
these aspects of productivity, accuracy, and communication.

Objectives

This chapter focus on providing students with the basic knowledge of computer software.
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
a) Gain familiarities of some of the most important uses of computers in business
organization.
b) Describe some various key roles of computers in modern society.
c) Understand how computers have changed the way we communicate, work, and live
in modern society.
d) Identify the effects computers had on economic development and growth
e) Identify how the deployment of computer affect economic growth in globalization
and international trade.
5.1 Role of Computer in Business Organizations

Business organizations use computers to cary out their operations in effective and efficient
manner. Modern businesses cannot function without computers, which are important to
almost every aspect of daily operations. A computer is an important device which
businesses use for product design, marketing, accounting and human resources. This makes
it imperative for business owners to acquire suitable computer hardware, software and
auxilliary devices for their organization.

Many software can be installed on computers to make business opeations easier, faster and
more efficient. Some of the main uses of computers in business organizations are in the
following as:
 1. Business Communication Tools
Businness oganizations use computers to communicate both internally and externally. This
is achieved by using various software, applications and services provided by personal
computers, network servers and the Internet. Businesses can interact quickly and effectively
with customers, suppliers, and employees thanks to computers and communication
technologies.

Business organizations use computers to establish and maintain contact with clients. The
clients include customers who patronize the products and services offered by business
organizations and service providers who render services that support the operations of
businesses. Contact between business organizations and clients take place in the form of
communication using via email, instant messaging, social networks (Facebook, Whatsapp,
Instagram and Skype), video conferencing (such as Zoom and Google Meet) and
collaboration software. Businesses who maintain reliable communication channel with
clients are more reachable when clients have one problem or the other to resolve. They
are also more responsive to the concerns of their clients. Clients can easily enquire about
the details of products and services offered the organization as well as the terms and
conditions of service. They are also able to highlight grey areas and seek for more
explanation and better clarification. An good communication channel also makes it easier
for clients to enjoy timely, effective and efficient customer support services. Clients have
access to regular updates about new products and services, changes in terms and conditions
of service and other new developments concerning the business.

In addition to aiding communication between a business and its clients, computers also
supports communication between a business and its employees. Managers can easily give
instructions or pass information to their staff by sending email or using any other approved
communication platform instead of wasting time, effort and logistics on in-person
meetings. This saves time, effort, resources and improves internal communication within
the organization.

2. Marketing and Advertisement

Businesses use computers to carry out a wide variety of marketing activities. A new business
can leverage on computers and the Internet to put itself on the global commercial map.
Computers enable information technology experts to create an attractive website with
appropriate features and information using text, images, and videos. Experts managing the
website of a commercial entity can use search engine optimization to attract traffic. Search
engine optimization makes the website appear frequently in many Google searches. This
results in larger customer base and higher sales for the organization.
Computers also enable businesses to launch and implement aggressive marketing
campaigns spanning multiple Internet-based social media platforms. Social media, email
marketing, and online advertising are just a few of the new marketing and advertising
channels made possible by computers and the internet. For example a business can market
its products on Facebook, Whatsapp, Instagram and Telegram simultaneously. The business
can use specialized software to create and launch advertisements on different websites and
social media platforms concurrently. It can also subscribe to online or Internet marketing
services provided by other businesses. Internet-based market enables a commercial entity
to reach a large audience and many potential customers who may subscribe to its products
and services.

3. Accounting
Business organizations deploy accounting software to quickly and accurately have a narrow
and broad view of their financial situations. Accounting software provide managers with
information on an organization's financial status. Managers request financial information
from the software by simply providing few inputs related to the desired information and
clicking relevant buttons. Computers are also used to create invoices; keep track of debtors
and creditors; managing employee payroll, as well as processing tax related matters. The
use of computers relieves accountants of rudimentary or low-level tasks and enables them
to focus on higher level picture of an organizations financial transactions.

4. Managing Records
Prior to the advent of computers, businesses organizations store their record in filing
cabinets, which occupy large space and can store a relatively small amount of information.
Computers occupy significantly less space compared to filing cabinets and can store large
amount of information several times the volume that filing cabinets can contain. Businesses
use computer workstations and servers to store, organize and process huge amounts of
information which they can easily access or share at any time.

Computers also provide business organizations with the liberty to decide the way in which
they want to store data. Data may be stored in a central location using a dedicated server
which other computers (known as clients or workstations) can access whenever there is a
need to do that. Access and manipulation of information on servers by clients computers
or workstations depends on the permissions set by system administrators. In other words,
users on workstations must be assigned access rights and privileges before they can obtain
information from or manipulate the contents of servers. On the other hand, business
organizations may implement record management using peer-to-peer approach whereby
enterprise data is stored locally on individual computers in the organization. A business
organization may also subscribe to cloud services whereby some of its data is store in the
cloud far away from its actual operating environment.

Digital record management provides high storage capacity, faster data access as well as
easy manipulation and efficient sorting. Storing data in a well-protected database provides
secure storage and prevents data loss.

5. Production of Business Documents

Computers are usually equipped with word processing and spreadsheet applications which
ae used to produce numerous documents to support the day-to-day operations of business
organizations. Notable among these applications are Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel.
Word processors are used to create written documents such as memos, letters, training
materials, reports and advertisements for services, products or events. The documents may
be for internal use or sent to external entities such as customers, contractors and
government agencies. Employees of business enterprises use spreadsheet applications to
manipulate alphanumeric data and create high-level summary of large and diverse business
data. The data may be summarized using tables, charts, graphs, and reports. This provides
top-level management with useful information for reliable decision making.

Computers provides businesses with presentation software such as Microsoft Power Point
which is used to create slides either for internal use or external uses. Presentation slides
may be used internally to enhance interaction during meeting, seminar or training. External
use of presentation slides include proposal presentation to clients and meetings with
contractors.

6. Research
Computers provides business organizations with access to the Internet through which they
can connect to search engines and proprietary databases. This enables businesses to explore
trends in the industry trends, search for patents and trademarks as well as identify potential
clients and competitors.

7. Media Production
Businesses can use computers to produce graphics, video and audio files. These media
support training, advertising and marketing efforts of an organization. Multimedia files
have immense interactive quality and are capable of gaining human attention quickly.

8. Product Design
Prroduct designers use computers to create new products and services quickly, efficiently,
and accurately. Computers have transformed product creation by allowing designers and
engineers to work more productively, lowering costs and the time to release products into
the market. It also enhances the quality of the final product.

5.2 Roles of Computer in Modern Society

In today's world, computers are practically everywhere, and their influence is felt in almost
every facet of our life. Electronic computers were originally designed and built to perform
difficult and complex mathematical operations. This has changed over time as computers
have assumed broader and integral roles in the modern society. The way we live, work,
and connect with one another is greatly influenced by computers, from communication
and education to entertainment and healthcare. Computers are now used in virtually every
aspect of human endeavours ranging from business, education, healthcare and governance
to mention but a few. Nowadays, computers perform a wide array of functions while
playing critical roles in our personal lives and businesses. This is because computers offer
fast, efficient and liable processing of large amounts of data thereby enhancing the ease
and speed of operations and supporting reliable decision making. Smartphones have
transformed how we gather, use, and distribute information, making it simpler than ever
to interact with others and have access to a variety of information and resources. The
following are some of the areas where computers are widely deployed.

1. Business

Computers are critical to the operation of every modern business. Business organizations
deploy computers for employee record management, account operations, payroll,
inventory control, advertising, creation of business documents, presentation and report
generation. Other business applications of computers include marketing, sales and product
development. Computers also support effective communication within and outside an
organization leveraging on technologies such as e-mail, instant messaging, social networks
(Facebook, Whatsapp, Instagram and Skype), video conferencing (such as Zoom and
Google Meet) and collaboration software. They help business operators to promote their
products and services and enable them to interact directly direct with customers.

Computers aid tourism by enabling travelers to study travel schedules, compare route
information, and purchase travel tickets. They are also used to search and book rooms in
hotels or via unconventional means such as Air BnB. Computers can be used to plan and
manage activities such as trips, excusions, tours and events.

2. Education

Computers enrich learners' experience by supporting audio-visual communication,

interactive exercises, online (remote) learning and online tutoring. This comes in the form
of e-learning and blended learning. E-leaning is a method of instruction in which interaction
between instructors and learners take place in the virtual world without any physical
contact. Instructors and learners do not necessarily have be in the same physical location
before teaching and learning can take place. Teachers and students interact using computers
and other electronic devices that connect via the Internet. Platforms such as Zoom and
Google Meet are now used for effective, efficient and reliable delivery of education and
training. Blended learning is a semi-electronic learning approach whereby some aspects of
teaching and learning take place virtual while other aspects involve face to face interaction
between teachers and students. Technologies such as virtual reality and augmented reality
will revolutionalize teaching and learning in such a way that both instructors and learners
will have a feel of one another's actual presence even when they are not actually in the
same physical location.

Computers also enable learners to access educational resources in text, audio and video
formats from online databases and repositories. Resources such as e-books, journals,
conference and instructional videos can be downloaded from intranet and internet sources.
This supports regimented learning as students can go through the same material several
times and at their convenience. It is also important to mention that a significant amount
of these resources are available free of charge.

Computers are useful tools for managing students and personnel records in educational
institutions. They are used for evaluating students performance through online
examinations, assignments and projects. Computers are also used to record, process and
disseminate information on the academic performance of students.

3. Healthcare

Computers are playing revolutionary roles in healthcare operations and management. The
evolution of electronic medical information systems makes storage, processing and
dissemination of medical records easier, faster and efficient. It also provides easy access,
manipulation and organization of large and complex medical data. Computer software
can be used to aggregate and analyzed diverse and complex patient data to generate
information that assist physicians in diagnosing illnesses and predict a patient's susceptibility
to diseases.

Computer-based medical systems are used extensively in the laboratory, theatre and
treatment rooms to control equipment, monitor heart rate and blood pressure. High-tech
medical equipment are critical components of intensive care units in hospitals. Doctors and
other medical personnel can easily monitor patients on admission 24/7 via computer-based
systems even if they are not physically present with the patients.
Modern medicine production also rely extensively on computers. Computers and software
are used to analyze data and other parameters during drug production. They are also used
to analyze information obtained during trials for detecting the safety and efficacy of new
drugs. Doctors leverage on computers and particularly the Internet to obtain information
on new medicines and novel treatment procedures. They are also able share information
on diseases, pattern of spread and treatment procedures with other medical professionals.

4. Retail and Trade

Computer is the major driver of electronic commerce, which is a system of trade whereby
exchange of goods and services take place without any physical contact between buyers
and sellers. Sellers display their products and services on websites hosted on the Internet.
Prospective buyers visit the websites to view the products and services displayed as well as
the prices, terms and conditions of service. A buyer makes his choice of product or service
and pays online. The purchased items will be delivered after the seller confirms payment.
Electronic commerce enables sellers to reach a wider audience without the need for
physical stores, payment of large number of staff or expensive advertisement via traditional
media. Buyers ae also able to compare products and prices, read reviews of previous
buyers, and choose their preferred mode of delivery. Popular electronic commerce
platforms include Jumia, Konga, eBay and Amazon. Internet-based websites such as
Craigslist, eBay, and social media platforms support trade and advertisment, enabling third-
party entities to advertise their products and services. This provides businesses with a cost
effective method to reach a global audience of prospective buyers.

5. Government

Government agencies use computers for collection, storage, processing and dissemination
of data and information. The use of computers enhances the quality, effectiveness and
efficiency of services rendered by these agencies. For example, computers are used in urban
planning to design and plan new townships and resident locations. Law enforcement
agencies use computers to store, process and disseminate information on criminals and
their activities. They also use computers to track and screen suspects based on previously
collected information. Computers can be used to collect traffic related data, analyze the
data and disseminate information on traffic flow at any time of the day. Government
revenue agencies use computers for effective, efficient and transparent revenue collection.
Individuals and corporate entities can pay taxies and levies directly to government coffers
using various online payment platforms. Other uses of computers in government
operations include internal and external communication, routine administrative purposes
and access control in sensitive government establishments.
6. Science and Technology

Scientists and mathematicians were the first set of professionals to use computers as a
working tool. Mathematicians use computers to solve difficult, complex and mentally
intensive calculations, while scientists deploy computers for research and disseminating
information with colleagues around the world. Computers are used in product design,
testing and simulation that would otherwise be expensive and dangerous if carried out in
real life directly by humans. Statistical and data analysis software installed on computers
aid collection, categorization, analysis, and storage of large amounts of data. This will be
highly time consuming, expensive or almost impossible if carried out manually.

Space technology is a field which depends largely on computers. Launching, controlling,

and maintaining a spacecraft is almost totally impossible without the aid of computers.
Overall, no advanced technology can be created and operated without the use of
computers.

Global and regional weather forecasting is complex activity which depending on a large
number of factors that change from time to time. Computers are used to collect and process
information received from satellite and other sources. They are also used to perform
complex calculations for predicting future weather conditions. The processing of large
amounts of meteorological information is beyond the capacity of the human brain.

Robotics is a technology which integrates computers with science and engineering to

produce machines that can function like humans or carry out tasks that are difficult o
impossible fo human beings. Robots are widely used in automobile production, law
enforcement, military and healthcare.

7. Publishing

Graphic design applications, publishing software and word processors are available on
computers to aid the production of leaflets for marketing campaigns, newsletters,
magazines, newspapers and books. These publications may be in hard-copy or electronic
versions. These result in faster and effective dissemination of information.

8. Media and Entertainment

Nowadays computers are widely deployed in media and entertainment industry. Software
such as Corel Draw, Poster Maker and Adobe Express are used for graphic designs, paintings
and drawings. Computers are also used to edit, copy, send, and print photographs.

Computers aid the production of music and videos. They are used by music and video
producers to create and edit content. Audience use computers to listen to music and watch
videos. Digital games consoles such as the PS series (PS3, PS4 or PS5) are used for playing
games by connecting them to computers.

9. Communication

Computers software and video conferencing services provide simplified, easy and cost
effective communication over the Internet Platforms such as WhatsApp, Skype and Zoom
enable families and friends to connect and communicate with audio and video. Computers
are equipped with in-built microphones and webcams that enhance the quality of
interaction among the communicating parties. Businesses, professionals and social groups
can hold meetings among participants who are dispersed in different locations. Radio and
television stations can interview guests without the physical presence of the anchor and
crew with the guests. Older technologies such as email and instant messaging are also
widely used for communication nowadays.

10. Banking and Finance

Online banking is a critical component of financial industries in advanced and developing

countries. Customers can use computers and mobile devices to check their account balance,
transfer money, request and pay loans. Individuals can also use Internet-enabled devices
including computers to access stock information, buy and sell stocks and manage their
portfolios. Banks and stock broking firms use computers to store customer information and
track customer behavior.

11. Transport

There is an increase in automation of road rail, air and water transportation. Computers
are widely used to control and manage safety and navigation systems. Driving, flying and
steering have become semi or fully automated thanks to the availability of computers.
Monitoring systems in cars, trains, aircraft and ships use computers to detect and report
problems related to fuel, oil or mechanical components.

12. Navigation

The integration of computers with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and
satellites makes it easy to identify an object's location and track its movement using a
digitized map. Digitized maps make it easy to identify amenities and interesting places
within a geographical location.

13. Remote Working

Professionals use computers to work remotely from any location without any need to
report at the actual business or work environment. Many organizations adopted remote
work culture during Covid-19 epidemic to fulfill the social distance requirement imposed
by governments around the world. This enables many businesses and organizations to stay
afloat as workers were able to perform their tasks as well as collaborate with colleagues
via computers and Internet. Remote working offers flexibility and convenience as workers
can do their jobs and interact with colleagues at any time of the day and without going
to a traditional office. Computers and specialized software also enable managers to
monitor productivity without having physical access to workers.

14. Military

The armed forces (army, navy and air force) engage in extensive use of computers for
training and analysis of intelligence data. Military training software and applications are
available to simulate battle field scenarios and enable officers to learn new tactics without
actually engagement in any physical activities. Strategies and tactics that have been learned
and perfected using computer software can now be demonstrated in actual practical or
real life scenarios. This reduces the finances and other logistics required for training.
Intelligence data are usually voluminous and come from diverse sources. Analysis software
enables intelligence officers to aggregate and analyze large amounts of vital and sensitive
data to generate useful information for reliable decision making.

Computers are integral components of smart defence technologies such as guided missiles
and drones as well as defence systems for tracking and destruction of projectiles from
enemy forces. Computer-based defence systems also integrate with other technologies,
such as satellites, to capture and analyze information on a geographocal area. They also
provide communications and support necessary for tanks and fighter jets to target enemy
forces with high accuracy and precision.

15. Social and Romance

Computers have revolutionized the way people meet and socialize with each other. The
evolution of social media platforms allows people to meet and interact irrespective of
geographical. People who are in different locations around the world and who have never
met physically can connect with one another online, exchange text, audio and video
communications in real time. They can share videos, memes and photographs with one
another. Dating sites and apps help interested persons to meet other people in order to
find love and romance.

The Internet enable people who share similar interests to connect via online groups. Group
members use Internet-enabled computers and mobile devices to interact and exchange
information. People use Blogs to share a wide array of of views, updates, and experiences.
Professionals and expert groups use online forums to discuss specific or general issues.
16. Security and Surveillance

Computers are critical components of surveillance technologies used for monitoring people
and goods. Biometric recognition software installed on computers are used in border
control posts to prevent entry of unauthorized persons into a country on a sensitive
physical environment. The use of biometric passports easily detect entry of illegitimate
people into a country or passenger airplane. Border patrol officials and other security
personnel use face recognition technology to easily identify criminals.

Speed cameras or police cars perform automated scanning of vehicle number plates to
detect traffic offenders and violators of other regulations. Computer and Internet
technologies have also increased the sophistication of private security systems. CCTV
systems and other home security appliances have become more effective than before.
Nowadays, people can keep track of events in their homes real time via computer and
mobile devices.

5.3 Role of Computer in Economic Growth and Development

Computers have significantly contributed to economic growth and development by giving

firms, entrepreneurs, and governments’ new options to boost productivity, boost
efficiency, and spur innovation. Computers have completely changed how we innovate,
giving firms access to tools and technologies that help them develop new goods and
services rapidly and effectively. By generating new markets and opportunities, this
stimulates economic growth.

An economic system is referred to be a computerized economy if the majority of economic

processes, transactions, and activities are carried out via digital technology and computer
networks. Businesses and individuals both use technology to interact, work together, and
do business in a computerized economy. Businesses may now automate operations, cut
expenses, and reach a larger audience thanks to technological advancements like the
internet, e-commerce, and mobile devices. New business models and industries, such cloud
computing, digital advertising, and online marketplaces, have emerged as a result of this.

Technology plays important roles in economic development of many regions, cities, and
countries. Advances in technology lead to higher productivity, efficiency and improved
quality of goods and services.

The use of computers has also transformed (some) manufacturing floors and the inventory-
management procedures used by many businesses. ATMs, voicemail, and websites are
notable examples of organizations that today provide customer service by automated
technology rather than human interaction. Of course, a lot of new items and some whole
new sectors have also been developed, such as Internet access. Businesses can analyze and
communicate much more quickly today than they could, say, ten or two decades ago. In
fact, the advances have been enormous. For instance, if computer economy had improved
as substantially over the past thirty years as it has in some other areas, you could currently
drive your car cross-country on approximately four milliliters of gas.

Computer have a long list of benefits to the economy so I’ll list just a few of the top ones:

 The growth of new industries that boost the nation's economy and provide millions
of people with high-paying jobs (such as digital media, software development,
hardware manufacturing, and IT support services).
 Businesses can increase efficiency by automating processes with computers, saving
time and money compared to doing manual procedures. Increased efficiency and
productivity result from this, which can spur economic growth.
 Increased worker productivity as a result of improved and more reliable
communications (the internet). The internet also opens up new sales channels that
let you sell your goods globally over the internet.
 Lower costs for commerce ( e-commerce removes the need for large warehouses
and physical stores)
 Reduced costs in manufacturing due to automation (industrial robots)
 Greater efficiency and lower costs for research and development (computer aided
design software). For instance, you may model the stresses that an airplane would
encounter during flight using a computer instead of an expensive wind tunnel.
Lowering the price of creating a plane.
Many tasks can be completed more effectively by algorithm than by guesswork; these
tasks call for the use of computers. There will be less trouble introducing these
technologies as they get cheaper, faster, easier, and more intuitive, and everyone will
benefit more as a result.

Computers have benefited the economy in many ways, but they have also presented
significant difficulties in their transformational role.

1. Job Displacement: Several industries have experienced job displacement as a result

of the automation of operations and processes by computers. Although computers
create new opportunities, some people may find it difficult to adjust to the shifting
labor market as these professions may need different skill sets.
2. Cybersecurity Risks: As our reliance on computers grows, so does the possibility of
cybersecurity risks like malware, phishing, and hacking. Threats to cybersecurity can
harm businesses and governments' reputations as well as cause large financial losses.
 3. Privacy Issues: The increasing use of computers has increased the amount of personal
data being gathered and processed. Concerns concerning the privacy and personal
information protection are raised by this.
4. Access to Technology: For some people and companies, the price of technology
and internet connection might be a barrier. This may result in a "digital divide,"
wherein some individuals and groups are left out of the digital economy.
5. Technology Dependence: As the economy depends more on computers and other
digital technologies, there is a danger of becoming overly reliant on them. In the
event of technological failures, cyberattacks, or other disturbances, this may lead to
vulnerabilities.
Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of the intergral role of computer

in our daily activities. The chapter then discuss on the effects of computers on several
sectors, such as healthcare, education, and business, are then examined. it also look at how
technology affects social norms and cultural practices, such as how we learn, communicate,
and connect with one another. We talk about the emergence of social media, its influence
on social and political debate, and how technology has affected privacy and security issues.
It conlcude by looking at how computers can facilitate global trade and business, especially
through the use of online marketplaces and e-commerce. We talk about how digital
technologies have impacted globalization and how new technology may further influence
trade and investment globally.

Exercises

1. What are some of the most important uses of computers in business organization?
2. How did computers changed the way we interact, work, and live?
3. What are some emerging computer technology trends and advances that might
have an impact on business organizations?
4. What are some key roles of computers in modern society?
5. What are some of the cultural and social effects of computers in modern society?
6. How have computers changed the way we communicate, work, and live in modern
society?
7. What are some emerging computer technology trends and advancements that might
have an effect on modern society?
8. What effects have computers had on economic development and growth?
9. What are some risks and difficulties brought on by the growing reliance on
technology and computers for economic growth?
10. How does the deployment of computers in globalization and international trade
affect economic growth?
References

Dimitrios Kavallieros, et al.,(2020) Cybersecurity and Economic Growth: A Study of

the Relationship between Cybersecurity and Economic Growth in Developed and
Developing Countries, Journal of Cybersecurity, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 1-22.

Eszter Hargittai (2005), The Digital Divide: Current and Future Research Directions,
New Media & Society, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 15-28.

Frank Buytendijk (2011), Dependence on Information Technology: An Analysis of the

Risks
and Opportunities," by , Communications of the ACM, Vol. 54, No. 9 (September
2011), pp. 33-35.

Idris Adjerid and Alessandro Acquisti (2016), Privacy Concerns in the Digital Economy,
Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 30, No. 2 Spring, pp. 171-194.

Robert W. Fairlie and Jonathan Robinson (2017) Computers and Productivity:

Evidence from Laptop Use in the College Classroom, American Economic Journal:
Economic Policy, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-30
 Chapter 6
Information Systems

Overview

This chapter provides adequate knowledge on information systems and as its relates to
business enterprise. It highlights the technology drivers of information systems and the
process of developing information systems. It presents business value of information
systems and how it affects organisation’ s operations and processes for productivity. Key
concepts and definitions of terms were discussed.

Objectives

This chapter focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of the state-of-the-art
in developing information systems to support organisation’s business operation and
processes. Specifically, students should be able to:
a) define information systems clearly.
b) list and explain the roles of information systems in relation to business enterprise.
c) list and explain the various types of information systems.
d) understand how the choice of information systems should align with managerial level
processes in decision making within an organisation.
e) list and discuss the technology drivers that give rise to business prospect within the
organisation
f) get familiarise with process of developing information systems.

6.1 What is an Information System?

A system is made up of a number of connected, clearly defined entities that are cooperating
to accomplish a common set of objectives. There are different ways system can be typified
but for the purpose of this chapter, the system’s classification is based on the following:

• Physical or abstract;
• Open and closed;
• Subsystem and supersystem; and
• Natural and man-made.
The physical system consists of actual objects that can be static or dynamic in character
while abstract system is the concept or model of physical system. While a closed system is
shielded from environmental influences, an open system interacts with the environment
continuously. While the supersystem is thought of as a large and complex system, the
subsystem is a component of the overall system. There are systems that exist in their natural
habitat or environment made by nature and is referred to as natural systems (ecosystems),
and there are systems made by people and are referred to as man-made systems. Examples
include transportation systems, network and communication systems, and other systems.
Information is the processing of raw facts or data into a form that is meaningful and useful
to take actions or decisions. For example, assume there is a set of data which is inventory
of product items in supermarkets for sales and the information that may relate to the data
is the sales of that product items on daily, week, monthly and yearly basis.

An organisation or business operates as a system, and each of its components can be divided
into smaller systems. The business can be broken down into the following systems:
operations, personnel, financial, commercial or marketing and information, in accordance
with organisational theory. Information has value only on the basis of using it for the
organisation’s objectives and purpose. The information flow must be well coordinated
within the organisational processes for good organisational performance.

An information system (IS) is a formalised collection of interconnected processes that

operate from a set of data that has been formatted to meet the needs of the organisation.
IS then distributes the information and processes the data as necessary for the business's
operations and the accompanying management and control activities. This acts as the
decision-making process required for the firm to carry out its operations in accordance with
its strategy.

Therefore, the components of information systems with business enterprise consist of

information technology (IT), organisation and its processes, people and environment. IT
consist sub-components such as computer software, computer hardware, network, and
database as depicted in Figure 6.1. The purpose of information system (IS) is to transform
business processes and activities in line with the organisation’s strategy for effective
decision-making support and for competitive advantage in global market.

Processes

IT
Information Comp
Systems uter
People Comp
uter
Netw

Datab

Figure 6.1: Components of Information Systems

6.2 Roles of Information Systems in Business Enterprise
Enterprise is created for business opportunities which mainly focuses on rendering goods
and services with value-added advantage by the deployment of technology tools. There
are various vital roles information systems play at the different levels of organisational
structure as depicted in Figure 6.2. These roles include the following:

Support of
Strategies

Support for
Decision Making

Support for Operation/

Support for the Business Process

Figure 6.2: Roles of Information Systems in Business Enterprise

a. Support for the Business Process: As a result, the information system is crucial to ensure
that interactions between different value chain activities, such as:
i. Input logistics concentrates on acquiring supplies and raw materials from vendors.
ii. Appropriate operations related to the conversion of raw materials into final goods
under the conditions of quality, time, and cost.
iii. Output logistics, which focuses on getting goods to customers.
iv. Use of marketing to identify client wants and obtain orders.
v. Service: actions taken to keep the terms of use for the sold product in place.
In the simplest terms, information systems manage company activities in the form of
requests made to customers and services provided to those customers in response to those
requests. Requests are made to customers as inputs, and services are provided to customers
as outputs.
b. A Support for Operation of a Business Enterprise: To provide quicker and more reliable
information, information systems are hosted in a computerised environment. By
providing timely and accurate information, maintaining and improving them, and
allowing for flexibility in how an organisation operates, information systems assist
business operations.
c. A Support for Decision Making: Information systems assist employees in making
decisions for their daily tasks. Additionally, it helps managers make decisions that will
 help the company achieve its goals and objectives. Different mathematical models and
information technology tools are employed in order to adapt strategies to meet the
demands of competition.
d. Strategies for a Business Enterprise: Every company in the modern world operates in
a market that is competitive. To compete favourably in the global economy, businesses
must be able to use information technology tools to their fullest potential. Information
systems aid in the development of effective business plans that will help it compete in
the market.

6.3 Trends in Information Systems

Since the creation of information systems, ISs have undergone a substantial evolution.
They were formally created to carry out a specified mission. Information systems were
mostly utilised by organisations to process data for tasks like processing bills or salaries.
The emphasis of information systems has since shifted from just processing data to
supporting management by giving data essential for making decisions. Currently, the
emphasis is on providing the appropriate information to the appropriate individuals at
the appropriate time, and information flow within the organisation is well coordinated.
Information systems have improved in speed, precision, and usability so that anyone
may utilize them. Through the use of business intelligence modelling, the innovation is
made possible.

The application of machine learning techniques for data collection, organisation,

processing, analysis, and access to support enterprise users in making better business
decisions is known as business intelligence (BI). Decision support systems, query sending
and reporting, online analytical processing (OLAP), statistical analysis, forecasting, and
data mining are all supported by BI applications. The purpose of BI is to improve business
decision-making by utilizing fact-based support systems.
In modern times, most information system workers are end users who are not particularly
informed about systems themselves. The systems have evolved to the point that using
them no longer requires users to be experts in information systems. New ideas are
emerging in the field of information systems to help businesses get a better financial return
on their goods and services. Information systems have undergone a major transformation
because of ideas such as client-server architecture, networking, distributed computing,
centralized databases, graphical user interfaces, and the Internet.
The development of information systems to meet business’ objectives and the information
requirements needed to build company strategy must be carefully planned and
coordinated. Information systems strategy is the result of the interaction between business
strategy and IS. The synergy is a constant process that helps any organisation's strategic
goals and objectives to remain relevant for the IS support structure.
For a corporation to succeed, information systems and information technology (IT) are
essential. IS and IT are seen as major functional areas in the same way as marketing, finance,
production, and human resources are seen as functional areas of a corporation. As with
any other functional area of the business, it is crucial to comprehend the field of
information systems. Since all businesses require information regarding the tasks that must
be completed, information is essential. Information technology is a tool used to address
organisational issues and offer chances to boost productivity and quality.

6.4 Types of Information Systems

There is a need for categories of information systems to handle all the information
demands of the organisation due to the complexity of information processing and the
many degrees through which data and processes are structured, which also connect to the
type of organisational challenges to confront. Another way to think about this is as
operational, medium, and top managerial levels inside a normal organisation. and
different users have different information needs. Additionally, the classification of
information systems is based on the decisions made and the processing requirements, both
of which vary at different organisational levels of hierarchy as depicted in Figure 6.3. Based
on the aforementioned, a variety of information systems exist to support each level in an
organisation, including the ones listed below:

Figure 6.3: Types of Information System

a. Executive Information System

A top-level executive of an organisation can plan and manage workflow and make business
decisions with the aid of an executive information system (EIS), often referred to as an
executive support system (ESS). It gives bosses better computational power and useful
display options. They can access information through static reports, graphs, and on-
demand textual content. Among other things, it aids in performance monitoring, rival
strategy tracking, and trend forecasting

b. Decision Support System

The organisation's management uses a decision support system (DSS) to analyse the data
before making a decision. The sources of the data can be internal or external. For instance,
management may use information from external sources, such as market prices, when
determining the prices of a product. It aids decision-makers in their decision-making
process. Complex databases and spreadsheets may also be used to create models in
challenging and crucial circumstances. Decision support systems are very interactive and
use complex mathematical models and statistical techniques to deliver solutions.
c. Management Information System

The management uses the management information system (MIS) to offer routine summary
information so they can make choices. Different types of data are processed, including
those related to sales, purchases, and production that are consolidated in MIS. Typically,
internal sources are used to obtain this information. Managers and decision-makers create
summaries based on this data. Additionally, this system assists the organisation's marketing
and revenue departments in increasing operational effectiveness and monitoring the
organisation's progress.
d. Transaction Processing System

The transaction collection, update, and retrieval procedure are automated by the
Transaction Processing System (TPS). It successfully handles ordinary transactions. It makes
it easier for enterprises to carry out their everyday tasks without difficulties. Its data is
utilised to create reports. Depending on the demands of the organisation, the report may
be based on monthly, quarterly, yearly, or any other on-demand reports. This type of
information system's particular characteristic is that it improves the efficiency,
dependability, and consistency of commercial transactions. It manages an organisation's
record keeping. Payroll systems, billing systems, purchasing systems, and shipment of
records are some examples.

6.5 Perspectives of Information Systems

Information systems (IS) are complex and multifaceted systems that integrate hardware,
software, people, and data to manage, store, process, and disseminate information. The
perspectives of information systems vary based on the discipline, the level of analysis, and
the focus of the inquiry. However, some of the major perspectives of information systems
include technical, behavioural, managerial, and strategic perspectives.
a. Technical perspective
The technical perspective of information systems focuses on the hardware, software, and
network components of the system. It emphasises the design, development,
implementation, and maintenance of the system to ensure its optimal performance and
reliability. This perspective is primarily concerned with the technical aspects of the system,
such as programming languages, databases, data structures, algorithms, and security
protocols.
b. Behavioural perspective
The behavioural perspective of information systems focuses on the human aspects of the
system, including how people interact with the system and how the system affects people.
It emphasises the social, psychological, and organisational factors that influence the use and
adoption of the system. This perspective is primarily concerned with the behavioural
aspects of the system, such as user acceptance, user satisfaction, user behaviour, and
organisational culture.
c. Managerial perspective
The managerial perspective of information systems focuses on the managerial and
administrative aspects of the system. It emphasises the role of the system in supporting
managerial decision-making, planning, and control. This perspective is primarily concerned
with the managerial aspects of the system, such as strategic planning, resource allocation,
risk management, and performance measurement.
d. Strategic perspective
The strategic perspective of information systems focuses on the strategic use of information
systems to achieve organisational goals and objectives. It emphasises the alignment
between the information system and the organisation's strategic direction. This perspective
is primarily concerned with the strategic aspects of the system, such as competitive
advantage, value creation, innovation, and digital transformation.
d. Societal perspective
The societal perspective of information systems focuses on the broader societal implications
of the system. It emphasises the ethical, legal, and social issues that arise from the use of
the system. This perspective is primarily concerned with the societal aspects of the system,
such as privacy, security, digital divide, and digital citizenship. The societal perspective is
often used by policy-makers, ethicists, and legal scholars to study the impact of information
systems on society and to develop policies and regulations that promote the responsible
use of information systems.
The perspectives of information systems are diverse and multidisciplinary. They reflect the
different ways of understanding and analysing the complex phenomenon of information
systems from different angles and levels of analysis. A comprehensive understanding of
information systems requires an integration of these perspectives to account for the
technical, behavioural, managerial, strategic, and societal aspects of the system.

6.5.1 The Business Drivers Influencing the Information System

Business drivers are the internal and external factors that motivate organisations to
implement or upgrade their information systems (IS). The business drivers for IS may vary
from one organisation to another, depending on their goals, priorities, and industry.
Business drivers influencing information systems include the following:
a. Operational efficiency
Organisations need to optimize their operations to reduce costs, improve quality, and
increase productivity. IS can help organisations achieve operational efficiency by
automating routine tasks, streamlining workflows, and providing real-time data for
decision-making.
b. Competitive advantage
Organisations need to differentiate themselves from their competitors by offering unique
products or services, superior customer service, or lower prices. IS can provide a
competitive advantage by enabling organisations to innovate, collaborate, and respond
quickly to changing market demands.
c. Business growth
organisations must grow their businesses by breaking into new markets, releasing new
products, or gaining new clients. IS can support business growth by providing insights into
customer behaviour, market trends, and opportunities for expansion.
d. Regulatory compliance
Organisations need to comply with laws and regulations governing their industry, such as
data privacy, security, and financial reporting. IS can help organisations ensure compliance
by automating compliance processes, tracking regulatory changes, and generating audit
reports.
e. Customer satisfaction
Organisations need to satisfy their customers by providing high-quality products or services,
personalized experiences, and responsive support. IS can improve customer satisfaction by
enabling organisations to capture and analyse customer feedback, anticipate customer
needs, and deliver tailored solutions.
f. Risk management
Organisations need to manage risks associated with their business operations, such as data
breaches, cyber-attacks, and natural disasters. IS can help organisations mitigate risks by
implementing security measures, backup and recovery plans, and disaster response
protocols.
The business drivers influencing information systems are multifaceted and dynamic,
reflecting the complex interplay between organisational goals, industry trends, and
technological advancements. Organisations need to align their information systems with
their business drivers to achieve their strategic objectives and stay competitive in a rapidly
changing business environment.

6.5.2 The Technology Drivers used by Information System

Technology drivers are the external factors that influence the development and adoption
of information systems (IS). These drivers are primarily technological in nature and include
advances in hardware, software, networking, and telecommunications. The following
section discusses some of the major technology drivers used by information systems:
a. Moore's Law
The statement stated by Gordon Moore, a co-founder of Intel, that the number of
transistors on a microchip doubles every two years is known as Moore's Law. This law has
held true since the 1960s and has enabled the development of smaller, faster, and more
powerful computing devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Information
systems have leveraged this technology driver to create more sophisticated software
applications, databases, and analytics tools.
b. Cloud Computing
The supply of computing services, such as software, storage, and processing power,
through the internet is known as cloud computing. Cloud computing has become a popular
technology driver for information systems due to its scalability, cost-effectiveness, and
flexibility. Cloud computing enables organisations to store and process large amounts of
data, access software applications from anywhere, and collaborate in real-time.
c. Internet of Things (IoT)
The network of physical items that are connected to the internet and are equipped with
sensors, software, and connectivity is known as the Internet of Things (IoT). Due to its
ability to enable organisations to gather and analyze data from a variety of sources,
including as sensors, wearables, and smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT) has grown
to be a well-liked technology driver for information systems.
d. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in computers that are capable
of carrying out operations like speech recognition, visual perception, and decision-making
that traditionally need human intelligence. AI has become a popular technology driver for
information systems because it allows organisations to automate routine tasks, improve
decision-making, and analyse large amounts of data.
e. Big Data
Large and complicated datasets that are too challenging to analyse using conventional data
processing techniques are referred to as "big data." Because it enables organisations to
analyse vast amounts of data from a variety of sources, such as social media, customer
interactions, and operational systems, big data has grown in popularity as a technology
driver for information systems. Big data technologies, such as Hadoop, Spark, and NoSQL
databases, have enabled organisations to store, process, and analyse large datasets.
Technology drivers are an important external factor that influences the development and
adoption of information systems. By leveraging technology drivers, organisations can
create more sophisticated and innovative information systems that support their business
objectives and stay competitive in a rapidly changing technological landscape.

6.5.3 The Process for developing the information System

It takes numerous steps to design an information system, and each one is essential to ensure
that the system satisfies the requirements of the organisation and its users. An overview of
the procedure for creating information systems is provided below:
a. Planning and Analysis
The first stage of the process involves identifying the requirements for the system and
determining whether a new system is necessary or an existing system can be modified to
meet the requirements. This stage includes gathering and analysing information from
stakeholders, defining the scope of the project, and identifying the risks and constraints
associated with the project.
b. Design
The second stage of the process involves designing the system architecture, defining the
data model, and creating the user interface. This stage includes selecting the hardware and
software components, creating the data flow diagrams, and defining the system
requirements.
c. Implementation
The third stage of the process involves developing the system software, installing the
hardware, and configuring the network. This stage includes coding the system components,
testing the system, and documenting the system functions and features.
d. Testing
The system is tested at the fourth stage of the process to make sure it satisfies the functional
and non-functional requirements. Unit testing, system testing, integration testing, and
acceptance testing are all part of this stage.
e. Deployment
The fifth stage of the process involves deploying the system to the production environment
and transitioning from the old system to the new system. This stage includes installing the
system, configuring the system settings, and training the users.
f. Maintenance
The final stage of the process involves maintaining the system, including updating the
software, fixing bugs, and providing user support. This stage includes monitoring the
system performance, troubleshooting issues, and ensuring that the system meets the
changing needs of the organisation.
The process of developing information systems is a complex and iterative process that
involves several stages. Each stage of the process is critical for ensuring that the system
meets the needs of the organisation and its users, and that it is reliable, secure, and scalable.
Effective communication, collaboration, and project management are key to the success of
the process.

6.6 Business Value of Information System

The business value of an Information system (IS) is significant and can impact an
organisation's operations, decision-making, and overall performance. An information
system can provide significant business value to an organisation by improving operational
efficiency, enhancing decision-making capabilities, and enabling the organisation to gain a
competitive advantage. The following are some of the key business values of an
information system:
a. Improved operational efficiency
Information system can automate and streamline business processes, reducing the time and
effort required to perform routine tasks. By automating manual processes, organisations
can free up employees to focus on more strategic tasks, reduce errors and mistakes, and
increase productivity.

b. Enhanced decision-making
Information system provides real-time access to critical data and analytics, enabling
managers to make informed decisions quickly. By providing accurate and timely
information, IS can help managers identify trends, anticipate problems, and make more
effective decisions.
c. Increased competitiveness
Information system helps organisations gain a competitive advantage by providing insights
into customer preferences and behaviour, identifying market trends and opportunities, and
enabling faster and more effective responses to changes in the market.
d. Improved customer service
IS can help organisations improve customer service by providing real-time access to
customer information, enabling faster response times, and improving the quality and
consistency of customer interactions.
e. Better collaboration
By offering a platform for information exchange, communication, and teamwork on
projects, information systems improve collaboration among staff members, departments,
and business partners.
d. Reduced costs
Information system can help organisations reduce costs by automating routine tasks,
reducing errors and waste, and optimizing processes. By improving operational efficiency,
IS can also reduce labour costs and increase profitability.
The business value of an IS is significant, and organisations that leverage IS effectively can
achieve better operational efficiency, decision-making, and customer service. By optimizing
processes, automating tasks, and providing real-time access to critical data, IS can help
organisations compete effectively, grow, and achieve their strategic goals.

Summary

This chapter presented explicit understanding of the relevance of information systems to

organisation processes and operations that aid the management in decision making
processes. The definition of Information system, types of information system and the
technology drivers of IS that added value to business processes are well discussed. The
process of developing the IS which also aligns with organisation’s objectives and goals are
explictly discussed.

Exercises

1. Define the terms: System and Information.

2. Differentiate between a system and information system.
3. How do you relate oganisation to a system?
4. Give your understanding on the impact of information systems to business
activities.
5. What are the types of information systems?
6. Mention the managerial levels in decision making process in a typical
organisation’s hierarchy.
7. How can Information systems be used strategically to align with organisation’s
goals and objectives?
8. What does the synergy between information system and technology produce?
9. What are the advantages of the technology perspective in understanding
information systems?
10. How can the sociotechnical perspective help organisations design effective
information systems?
11. What is the management perspective of information systems? How does it relate
to organisational decision-making?
 12. How does the behavioural perspective of information systems focus on human
interaction with technology?
13. How can the ethical perspective help organisations address ethical issues in
information systems design and use?
14. What is the user perspective of information systems? How can it help
organisations create systems that meet user needs?
15. What are the key concepts of the work system theory, and how do they relate
to information system perspectives?
16. How can information system perspectives help organisations make strategic
decisions about technology use and deployment?
17. How do the different information system perspectives relate to each other? Give
an example of how multiple perspectives can be used to design an effective
system.

References

Alcami, R. L. and Caranana, C. D. (2012). Introduction to Management Information

Systems. Primera edició, 1-39.

Alter, S. (2017). Work system theory: Overview of core concepts, extensions, and
challenges for the future. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 18(10), 698-
722.

Brocke, J. V. and Mendling, J, (2018). Business Process Management Cases: Digital

Innovation and Business Transformation in Practice, ISBN 978-3-319-58307-5, DOI
10.1007/978-3-319-58307-5, Springer International Publishing AG.

Chopra, A. & Chaudhary, M. (2020) Information an Information Security Management

System, ISBN-13 978-1-4842-5413-4, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5413-4, India.

Davis, G. B., & Olson, M. H. (2021). Management Information Systems: Conceptual

Foundations, Structure and Development. 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.

Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (2020). Management Information Systems: Managing the
Digital Firm. 16th Edition. Pearson.

Maier, R., H¨adrich, T. and Peinl, R. (2009) Enterprise Knowledge Infrastructures,

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

McNurlin, B. C., Sprague Jr, R. H., & Bui, T. (2009). Information systems management in
practice. Prentice Hall.

O'Brien, J. A., & Marakas, G. M. (2018). Management Information Systems. 13th Edition.
McGraw-Hill Education.
Pernici, B. (2004). Mobile Information Systems: Infrastructure and Design for Adaptivity
and Flexibility, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Printed in Germany.

Soriyan, H.A. (2020). Development of an Information System for Healthcare

organisations: A Guide for Managers and Researchers. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Stair, R. M., Reynolds, G. W., & Reynolds, G. (2019). Principles of Information Systems.
13th Edition. Cengage Learning. USA.
 Chapter 7
Information Processing

Overview

This chapter provides a clear explanation of technology concept of data processing and
the various methods and types of data processing. It also shed light on relevance and
functions of an information systems department. Key concepts and definitions of terms
were discussed.

Objectives

This chapter focus on providing students with the basic understanding of the concepts of
processing data with an understanding of what an information systems department looks
like. Specifically, students should be able to:
i. define data processing clearly.
ii. list and explain the various methods of data processing.
iii. understand the different types of data processing.
iv. define clearly an information systems department.
v. list and explain the various functions of an information systems department.

7.1 What is Data processing?

Data refers to any raw facts like numbers, characters, letters, etc, that we enter into
any processing system. Such a processing system accepts the data as input (entering
of data) and then manipulates or processes it to give the needed results called
information. When data is manipulated, it is called processing and data that has been
processed is called information.

The term data processing refers to the collection, the manipulation, and the
processing of data that has been collected so it can be used. It is a technique better
performed by a computer; the process includes retrieving, transforming, or
classification of information. Data processing can also be called information
processing in some organizations. This is because, the data that has been processed
becomes information and this information can also be processed further. Figure 7.1
shows the data processing and its stages.
Figure 7.1 Data Processing and its stages

Data in its raw form would not be useful to any organization until it is processed.
Take for instance students data like their names, scores in different courses or subjects.
Such data might not be useful until the scores are collected from the various teachers
or lecturers, sorted and arranged for each student and the necessary calculations like
cummulative grade point average (CGPA) are done. Only then would the result of
such data processing become useful and valuable to the student.

In the same vein, data about customers like their card details, expiration date and
amount of individual purchases made would not be useful until the total purchases is
calculated for the customer and the total sales for that day is calculated for the shop
owner.

For data to be processed, it must be sourced for or collected from its different sources,
after which the collected data is now prepared in the proper format and then sent
into the processing system (input). The next stage is the manipulation of the data
which we call processing and data that has been processed is called information and
getting this information out is referred to as output. Finally, the data or processed
information can be kept somewhere until when they are needed and this is called
storage.

7.2 Methods of Data Processing

There are three main methods of processing data which are manual, mechanical
and electronic mmethod (Figure 7.2) and we would dicusss them briefly in the
following section.
Figure 7.2: Methods of data processing

7.2.1 Manual Method

This data processing method is handled manually. The entire process of data
collection, filtering, sorting, calculation, and other logical operations are all done
with human intervention and without the use of any other electronic device or
automation software. It is a low-cost method and requires little to no tools, but
produces high errors, high labour costs, and lots of time and tedium. A calculator
can be used to process data manually as shown in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: A calculator can be used to process data manually

The woman that sells bean cake or akara at the junction would always use her brain
to collect individual amount of sales she makes, sort out the balance for each
customer and returns it to them.

7.2.2 Mechanical Method

Data is processed mechanically through the use of devices and machines. These
devices could be simple devices like desk or pocket calculators, manual or electric
typewriters, adding machines, printing press, etc. Simple data processing operations
can be achieved with this method.
 An example could be a small supermarket or eatery that makes sales to customers
and employ the use of calculators or adding machines as shown in Figure 7.4..

Figure 7.4: Supermarket Cash Register used for mechanical data processing

It contains fewer errors than the manual data processing method, but the increase
of data to be processed has made this method more complex and difficult.

7.2.3 Computer Method

Data is processed with modern technologies using data processing software and
programs and this method is sometimes referred to as the electronic method of
processing data. A set of instructions is given to the software to process the data
(programs) and yield output which could be stored for future use (storage). This
method is very expensive but very fast in terms of processing and is so reliable and
accurate.

Figure 7.5: A Computer and an ATM are used to process data electronically

A good example would be our commercial banks that handle large numbers of
customers and due to the nature of customers requests, it would not be posible
 using manual or mechanical means to process their data since it has to be stored
for future reference and more customers have to be attended to.

7.3 Types of Data Processing

We have different types of data processing and this might be based on the source
of data and the steps taken by the processing units to generate an output. There is
no single method that can be used for processing raw data as most of the methods
used could be combined.

7.3.1 Batch Processing

In batch processing method, the jobs or data are collected and processed in groups
or batches. Batch processing is required when business owners and data scientists
require a large volume of data to analyze for detailed insights. For example, sales
figures will naturally experience batch processing, thereby allowing businesses to
use data visualization features like pie charts, bar charts, line graphs, and reports to
derive value from the data. Since a large collection of data is involved, the system
will take some time to handle it. Processing the data in batches saves
computational resources.

Figure7.6: An example of Batch Processing in an Operating system

The method used by a network printer to schedule jobs and then print them is batch
processing. Such jobs are batched or grouped as they arrive and are handled in the
order in which they arrived. Figure 7.6 shows batch processing in an operating
system environment. Batch Processing can be defined as the concurrent,
simultaneous, or sequential execution of an activity.

a. Simultaneous Batch processing occurs when all the jobs or data are
executed by the same resource like printer, processor, etc. for all the cases
at the same time.
 b. Sequential Batch processing takes place when they are processed by the
same resource for different cases either at once or immediately after one
another.
c. Concurrent Batch processing means when they are processed by the same
resources but partially overlapping in time. It is used mostly in financial
applications like sales transaction processing or point-of-sales terminals or
at places where additional levels of security are required. In this
processing, the computational time is relatively less because applying a
function to the whole data altogether extracts the output. It is able to
execute the task with less amount of human intervention.

You can measure the efficiency of batch processing in terms of its throughput
which is the amount of data processed per unit of time.

7.3.2 Online Processing

In the parlance of today’s database systems, “online” signifies “interactive”, within
the bounds of patience.” Online processing is the opposite of “batch” processing.
Online processing can be built out of a number of relatively more simple operators,
much as traditional query processing engines are built. Online Processing Analytical
operations typically involve major fractions of large databases. It should therefore
be surprising that today’s Online analytical systems provide interactive performance.
The secret to their success is precomputation.

Figure 7.7: Examples of Online Processing

In most Online Analytical Processing systems, the answer to each point and click is
computed long before the user even starts the application. In fact, many Online
processing systems do that computation relatively inefficiently, but since the
processing is done in advance, the end-user does not see the performance problem.
 This type of processing is used when data is to be processed continuously, and it is
fed into the system automatically.

7.3.3 Centralised System

Centralized data processing occurs when data is processed by a computer system
that is located in a central location (Figure 7.8). For centralized processing to
achieve high speed and quick access, a. powerful computer is required. All of the
data is saved in a centralized data storage system.

Figure 7.8: Centralized data processing

A centralized data process is when a single or group of computers located in a

central location serves all users or units of an organization. An organization’s central
site or information technology room is its cost center.

7.3.4 Decentralised System

A decentralised data processing system occurs when data is processed by computer
systems that are located in different locations (Figure 7.9). In decentralized
processing, there are different CPU connected on the network and each processor
can do its job independent of each other. In this type of system, all computers can
perform their own tasks.

Figure 7.9: Decentralized System

Benefits of decentralization
a. Provides a trustless environment. In a decentralized blockchain
network, no one has to know or trust anyone else.
 b. Improves data reconciliation. Companies often exchange data with their
partners.
c. Reduces points of weakness.
d. Optimizes resource distribution.
Disadvantages of decentralization are listed below:

a. Increases Costs: Decentralization increases the administration expenses

because it requires the employment of trained personnel to accept
authority.
b. Loss of Control.
c. Misuse of Authority.
d. Difficult Coordination at Control:

7.3.5 Distributed System

Distributed data processing (DDP) is a technique for breaking down large datasets
and storing them across multiple computers or servers. In this type of
processing the task is shared by several resources/machines and is executed in
parallel rather than being run synchronously and arranged in a queue. Because the
data is processed in a shorter period, it is more cost-effective for businesses and
allows them to move more quickly. Also, the fault tolerance of a distributed data
processing system is extremely high.

Distributed processing is a computing process where operations are partitioned

across several computers connected via a network. The goal of distributed
processing is to provide faster and more reliable service than can be achieved by a
single machine.

Figure7.10: Distributed Processing

 Very often, datasets are too big to fit on one machine. Distributed data processing
breaks down these large datasets and stores them across multiple machines or
servers, improving data management. A distributed data processing system has a
high fault tolerance. If one server in the network fails, you can reallocate data
processing tasks to other available servers, which is not a very time-consuming job.
Distributed processing can also save costs. Businesses like yours don’t need to build
expensive mainframe computers with CPUs anymore and invest in their upkeep and
maintenance.

7.4 Functions of Information Systems Department

The information systems department is responsible for maintaining the hardware,
software, data storage, and networks that comprise the firm's IT infrastructure. The
information systems department suggests new business strategies and new
information-based products and services, and coordinates both the development of
the technology and the planned changes in the organization. The information
systems department consists of specialists, such as:

i. Programmers: technical specialists who write the software instructions for

computers

ii. Systems analysts: the principal liaisons between the information systems
groups and the rest of the organization

iii. Information systems managers: leaders of teams of programmers and

analysts, project managers, physical facility managers, telecommunications
managers, or database specialists

7.4.1 System Development

Systems development is the process of defining, designing, testing, and
implementing a new software application or program. The system development
process, also known as the system development life cycle, is a term used in the
development of software where a set of methodical processes, activities, or phases
are used to develop and implement a system. The system development cycle
consists of five major stages namely, planning, analysis, design, implementation and
maintenance as shown in Figure 7.11.
 Figure 7.11: System Development Life Cycle

7.4.2 Database Administration

Database administration is the function of managing and maintaining database
management systems (DBMS) software. Mainstream DBMS software such as
Oracle, IBM Db2 and Microsoft SQL Server need ongoing management.

Database administration refers to the whole set of activities performed by a

database administrator to ensure that a database is always available as needed.The
role of a Database Administrator are, to
a. develop, administer and maintain databases;
b. determine the purpose and type of the database needed by a company;
c. understand the requirements for data storage and accessibility;
d. design the database architecture;
e. design the format and structure of objects present in the database and
f. assign user rights.

Other closely related tasks and roles are database security, database monitoring
and troubleshooting, and planning for future growth.

7.4.3 Telecomminication
Telecommunications, also known as telecom, is the exchange of information over
significant distances by electronic means and refers to all types of voice, data and
video transmission.
Examples of telecommunications systems are the telephone network, the radio
broadcasting system, computer networks and the Internet. Figure 7.12 shows a
sample Telecommunication Mast..
 Figure7.12: Example of a Telecommunication mast

In its most fundamental form, a telecommunication system includes a transmitter

to take information and convert it to a signal, a transmission medium to carry the
signal and a receiver to take the signal and convert it back into usable information.
This applies to any communication system, whether it uses computers or not.
Most modern day telecommunications systems are best described in terms of a
network. This includes the basic elements listed above but also the infrastructure
and controls needed to support the system

7.4.4 End-User Computing

End-user computing (EUC) is a combination of technologies, policies, and
processes that gives your workforce secure, remote access to applications,
desktops, and data they need to get their work done. Modern enterprises use EUC
so that their employees can work from wherever they are, across multiple devices,
in a safe and scalable way. A well-designed EUC program gives users immediate
access to the digital technologies they need for productivity, both on-premises and
remotely in the cloud. Figure 7.13 shows a sample End-User Computing platform.

Figure7.13: End User Computing

The term end-user computing (EUC) covers technologies such as:

 a. Remote workforce management
b. Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI)
c. Application virtualization and application streaming platforms
Users can access internal services and applications from devices owned, managed,
or even hosted in secure facilities by enterprises or individuals. You can use cloud-
based EUC solutions to scale resources up or down depending on demand and
avoid heavy upfront investment. These solutions stream only pixels to endpoint
devices, ensuring that critical data is kept secure in the corporate data center and is
never stored on an end-user system.

7.4.5 Computer Operations

Computer operations are a major part of the business education programs.
Students learn to operate computers in a modern computer lab using a variety of
software that includes word processing, spreadsheet, database, accounting, and
desktop publishing.

Figure 7.14: Basic Computer Operations

The basic operations performed by a computer are, arithmetic operation, logical

operation, storage and relative functions. Basically, computer does five basic
operations namely, input, process, output, storage and control. Input is taking data
from the user, processing is transferring that data into useful information, then that
information needs to be stored and controlled and finally, output is to give results
to the user.

Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of the concept of data processing

and why it is needed in every organization. The different methods of processing data with
examples were given as well as the various types of data processing. An attempt was also
made to introduce the Information Systems Department and its numerous functions which
were also given.
Exercises

1. what is data and information?

2. Why do we need to process data?

3. Mention four types of data processing

4. Is batch processing still being used in today’s computer operations?

References

1. Blokdyk, G. (2018). Electronic Data Processing (company): The Ultimate Step-By-Step

Guide. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, ISBN-10 : 1719068321, PP1-144
2. Giordano, A. D. (2022). Introduction to Data Platforms. Fulton Books Inc., ISBN:
9798885053860, 226PP.
3. Mertz, D. (2021). Cleaning Data for Effective Data Science. Packt Publishing, ISBN-13
: 978-1801071291, 498 pages
 Chapter 8
Computer Network

Overview
Computers are electromechanical devices used to take inputs, process the input and out
information using some stored computer programs. However, computers are not as useful
standing alone as when they are connected together to share resources or share tasks to
come up with better results and have greater efficiency. Connecting several computers and
other technological devices together is called a computer network. Computer Network is
an important aspect of the computer field. It deals specifically with the connection of two
or more computing devices or equipment for communication or interaction. There are a
number of ways computers can communicate when connected together. It can be server-
based, peer-to-peer, and other communication strategies. Computers can be connected to
form a network or connected to be a system of interconnected networks. The network
connections may be Local Area Networks, Metropolitan Area Networks, or Wide Area
Networks. Data and information can travel through connection mediums in different forms
and different methods. The movement of data and information is carried out using a
stipulated model call the OSI model: which is a layered transmission method, arranged in
layers.

Objectives

This chapter focuses on providing students of computing with the requisite knowledge in
Networking and related communication-related concepts of interconnected computers. At
the end of this chapter, students are expected to

i. understand the basic principles of Computer Networking

ii. Familiarize with different types of Data Transmission schemes
iii. Develop knowledge of the principles of multiplexing of frequency and signal
iv. Appraise the practical application of Open System Interconnection
v. Understand the function of the layered model and what each layer does in
communication

Content of the Chapter

8.1 What is Computer Network?

When two or more nodes in the system are capable of exchanging data with one
another, we say that we have a computer network. It can be difficult to set up
connections between computers when each one needs to talk to two or more others.
As shown in equation 8.1, if you want to connect four computers together, you will need
three connections for each machine. The formula for calculating the minimum amount of
links (L) between N PCs (nodes) is as follows:
 𝑁(𝑁−1)
𝐿= (8.1)
2

8.2 Types of Computer Networks

8.2.1 Server-based Network

A network architecture that relies on a central server to manage and facilitate
communication between clients is commonly referred to as a Server-Based network, which
is also known as a Client-Server network. A server is a network element that functions as
a provider of services to clients. They respond to client requests after waiting for them.
Typically, the server is situated in a different location within the network, often on a more
robust computing system. The server functions as a centralized hub for users to share and
retrieve network resources. The access control mechanism regulates the extent of user
privileges to share resources. To clarify, a server offers services and caters to additional
software applications known as clients.
Several types of servers are classified based on their specific usage. These include web
servers, which are responsible for serving HTTP requests, database servers that run database
management systems, file servers that provide files to clients, mail servers, print servers,
game servers, and application servers, among others. A server has the capability to house
various web resources, host web applications, and store both user and program data.
In the context of computing, a client refers to a software application or hardware device
that initiates a request for services or resources from a server. The individuals who receive
services or products are frequently located at designated workstations or personal
computing devices. Applications, whether simple or complex, have the capability to access
services offered by a server. The client program functions as an intermediary between the
user and the server, facilitating user requests for server services and presenting the server's
responses to the user. In order to access the data and resources, every client is required to
authenticate themselves by logging onto the system or server.

The network that is based on a server is characterised by its centralised nature.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the storage within this particular network is
centralised. To clarify, a network that is server-based is organised around a centralised
structure and facilitates communication through the Internet. The Internet is a ubiquitous
client-server network that is extensively utilised. This concept is depicted in Figure 8.1
below
Figure 8.1: Server-based Network

8.2.2 Peer-to-Peer Network

The Peer-to-Peer network, commonly referred to as P2P or computer-to-computer
network, is a type of network architecture. Peers refer to interconnected nodes or
computer systems. In this topology, every node is interconnected with all other nodes
within the network.
The nodes have the capability to facilitate the sharing of printers or CDROM drives, as
well as enable other devices to read from or write to its hard disc. This feature allows for
the sharing of files, access to its internet connection, and other related resources. It is
possible to share files or resources among network systems without the requirement of a
central server. A network architecture in which nodes are permitted to act as servers and
share resources in a decentralised manner is commonly known as a peer-to-peer network.
In a peer-to-peer network, each individual node has the capability to function as both a
server and a client. The network in question does not differentiate between the roles of
client and server. Each node has the capability to function as a client or server, depending
on whether it is seeking or supplying the service. Each node possesses equal functionality
and has the capacity to both transmit and receive data directly with any other node as
shown in Figure 8.2.
The deployment of Peer-to-Peer networks is a straightforward process with contemporary
Operating Systems, including but not limited to Windows and Mac OS. The computers
within a peer-to-peer network operate using identical network protocols and software.
Upon establishing a network connection, peer-to-peer (P2P) software enables users to
conduct searches for various files and resources located on a different node. The
communication dynamics among peers are contingent upon the specific demands of the
given application. Multiple replicas of each object are created across various computers to
effectively distribute the computational burden and ensure adaptability in case of any
disconnection of a particular computer.
A peer-to-peer network has the capability to be configured as either a wired or wireless
network. The prevalent usage of this technology is observed in the context of Local Area
Networks, particularly in small-scale office settings or in a singular department of a larger
corporate entity. The network nodes are in close proximity to one another. Every
individual node possesses the capability to access devices and files located on other
computer systems, while also having the ability to independently store its own software
and information.

Figure 8.2: Peer-to-Peer Network

8.3 Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the
computers, cables, and other components within a data communications network are
interconnected, both physically and logically. The physical topology describes how the
network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes how the data actually flow
through the network. Two most basic topologies are point-to-point and multipoint. A
point-to-point topology usually connects two mainframe computers for high-speed digital
information. A multipoint topology connects three or more stations through a single
transmission medium and some examples are star, bus, ring, mesh and hybrid.

8.3.1 Star topology

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on
a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. Figure 8.3 depicts the connection for
a star topology.
Figure 8.3: STAR Topology

8.3.2 Bus Topology.

Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, (the
backbone) functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into
with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on
the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only
the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. The bus topology is the
simplest and most common method of interconnecting computers. The two ends of the
transmission line never touch to form a complete loop. A bus topology is also known as
multi-drop or linear bus or a horizontal bus. Figure 8.4 shows a simple bus Topology

Figure 8.4: Bus topology

8.3.3 Ring Topology

In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockwise" or "counter clockwise"). All the stations are interconnected in tandem (series)
to form a closed loop or circle. Transmissions are unidirectional and must propagate
through all the stations in the loop. Each computer acts like a repeater and the ring
topology is similar to bus or star topologies. Figure 8.5 show a ring topology layout.
Figure 8.5: Ring Topology

8.3.4 Mesh Topology

The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on the
network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every
device on the network. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. A mesh network
in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. A disadvantage is that,
a mesh network with n nodes must have n(n-1)/2 links and each node must have n-1 I/O
ports (links).

Figure 8.5: Mesh topology

8.3.5 Hybrid topology

This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining two or more of the
traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Main aim is being able to
share the advantages of different topologies.

Figure 8.6: Hybrid topology

8.4 Data Transmission

8.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

The most common and basic form of network is the local area network. Mainly, it is a
network of personal computers in a single building or business. LANs can have as few as
three or five users but typically connect tens of thousands of people.

The Local Area Network (LAN) is considered to be the most basic and compact form of
network that is commonly utilised. The network is predominantly comprised of individual
computing devices that are linked together within a specific physical location such as an
office or a building. Local area networks (LANs) are capable of accommodating a minimum
of three to five users, although the majority of networks are designed to connect between
10 and several thousand users.

A company may utilise small Local Area Networks (LANs) to establish interconnectivity
between multiple offices situated within the same building. This may involve the
installation of wiring between different floors of the building to facilitate the connection.
It is possible for larger Local Area Networks (LANs) to establish interconnections among
multiple buildings within a complex. This can be observed in various settings such as large
corporations with multiple buildings, military installations, and college campuses as
illustrated in Figure 8.7.

Certain Local Area Networks (LANs) are comprised of numerous Personal Computers (PCs)
that are interconnected with one another as well as with a minicomputer or mainframe.
The present system enables every user within the Local Area Network (LAN) to gain entry
to the mainframe computer while retaining their autonomy.

Home networks consisting of two or more personal computers (PCs) can be classified as
local area networks (LANs). Presently, the majority of home LANs are either completely
wireless or contain wireless components.

Figure 8.7: Local Area Network (LAN)

8.4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) are relatively smaller networks that typically provide
coverage within a specific urban or suburban area, such as a city, town, or village. Cable
television systems are classified as metropolitan area networks (MANs). The cable
television provider receives a variety of signals from diverse sources, such as local television
stations and satellite transmissions, which are then consolidated into a unified composite
signal that is transmitted through fiber-optic and coaxial cables as seen in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8: Metropolitan Area Network

8.4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) encompasses a substantial geographical region. The
telephone systems that operate within a specific geographical area are categorised as Wide
Area Networks (WANs). Similarly, the extensive telephone systems that interconnect across
the nation and with other WANs in foreign nations are also classified as WANs. Every
individual telephone unit functions as a node within a network that connects local offices
and central offices.

Each node within the system has the capability to establish communication with any other
node. Telephone systems utilise various transmission media, including fiber-optic cabling,
microwave relay networks, twisted-pair wire, satellites, and coaxial cable.

In addition to public telephone networks, there exist wide area networks (WANs) that are
privately owned by corporations. These LANs are established to facilitate inter-company
communication, irrespective of the geographical location of the subsidiaries, company
divisions, sales offices, and manufacturing plants. The military has established wide area
networks (WANs) that serve as specialised communication, command, and control
networks.

The fiber-optic networks established on a national and global scale since the mid-1990s for
the purpose of facilitating Internet connectivity can be classified as Wide Area Networks
(WANs). These high-speed interconnections, commonly referred to as the Internet core or
backbone, are structured as direct point-to-point links or extensive rings with multiple
access points. Wide Area Networks (WANs) facilitate the accessibility of the World Wide
Web and any other Internet-connected entity to personal computers and other Internet-
enabled devices, including cell phones. An illustration is seen in Figure 8.9

Figure 8.9: Wide Area Network

8.5 Multiplex
The establishment of a communication channel, or a connection between two points,
occurs through the connection of a cable or the setup of a radio transmitter and receiver.
In cases where a singular link is present, it is only possible to execute a single function,
regardless of whether it pertains to signal transmission or control operations. A half-duplex
process is established for bidirectional communication, wherein both endpoints of the
communication link possess the capability to transmit and receive data, albeit not
simultaneously.

The concurrent transmission of multiple signals can be achieved through the utilisation of
multiple cables or the establishment of a transmitter/receiver pair for each channel,
however at a considerable cost. Multiplexing is a technique that enables the transmission
of numerous signals over a single medium using a single cable or radio link. This technique
allows for the combination of hundreds or even thousands of signals, resulting in increased
efficiency and capacity. The utilisation of multiplexing has facilitated the practicality and
economic feasibility of concurrent communication, conserved spectrum space, and enabled
the implementation of advanced applications.

8.5.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique in which a shared communication
channel's bandwidth is utilised by multiple signals. It is important to bear in mind that each
channel possesses distinct bandwidths, with certain channels having relatively broad
bandwidths. The coaxial cable possesses a bandwidth of approximately 1 gigahertz. The
variability of radio channel bandwidths is typically contingent upon the type of radio
service and the regulatory guidelines established by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). Irrespective of the communication channel employed, a broad
frequency range can be utilised to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals.

Figure 8.10: An FDM system's transmitting end

An FDM system's general block diagram is shown in Figure 8.10. A modulator circuit
receives input from each signal being delivered. Each modulator's (fc) carrier frequency is
distinct. Over a certain frequency range, the carrier frequencies are typically similarly
spaced apart. These companies are known as subcarriers. The bandwidth is divided among
the input signals.

8.5.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In frequency division multiplexing (FDM), many signals are sent across a single channel,
with each signal being given a specific amount of the channel's total bandwidth.
WhileTime-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method in which individual signals use the
whole bandwidth of a single channel. The problem is that each signal is only broadcast for
a very short period of time. This means that, as shown in Figure 8.11, many signals alternate
sending across a single channel.

Figure 8.11: The fundamental principle of TDM.

In this scenario, a single channel is utilised for the transmission of four signals, each of which
is allocated a predetermined time slot for channel access in a sequential manner. Upon
successful transmission of all four, the cycle initiates again. A frame is created by selecting
a single binary word from each source. Subsequently, the frames are iterated repetitively.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique that can be applied to both digital and
analogue signals. If the information is comprised of sequential bytes, it is feasible to transmit
one byte of data from each source within the designated time interval for a given channel.
It is possible that each of the time slots depicted in Figure 8.11 may comprise a byte
originating from each of the four distinct sources.

One communication channel would transmit a sequence of 8 bits and subsequently cease,
followed by the next channel transmitting another sequence of 8 bits. Subsequently, the
third channel would proceed to transmit its respective data word, and this process would
continue in a similar manner. The process would iterate rapidly. Through the utilisation of
this methodology, it becomes possible to interleave the data bytes of discrete channels.
The digital bit stream generated as a result of this process is subsequently decoded and
reconstructed at the receiving terminal.

The process of transmitting digital data through Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is
uncomplicated as the digital data is already fragmented into discrete units, which can be
conveniently allocated to distinct temporal intervals. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
can transmit uninterrupted analog signals, encompassing voice, video, or telemetry-derived
signals. The process involves the acquisition of the analog signal at a high frequency,
followed by the conversion of the acquired samples into binary numbers that are
proportional to the original signal. These binary numbers are then transmitted in a serial
manner.

8.5.3 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Dynamic bandwidth allocation is very similar to statistical multiplexing, a method of

sharing communication links (DBA). A communication channel is multiplexed statistically
when it is divided into a variable number of slots, digital channels, or data streams as
shown in figure 8.12. Only when an input line has data to send that would fill that slot is
a slot in the output frame assigned to that input line. In statistical multiplexing, there are
fewer slots per frame than there are input lines. The multiplexer performs a round-robin
check of each input line; if a line has data to send, it is given a slot; otherwise, it is skipped
and the next line is checked.
Figure 8.12: Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

8.5.4 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is the most convenient method for multiplexing data
on fiber-optic cable. Advancements in optical components have facilitated the utilisation
of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) on fiber-optic cable, also known as wavelength-
division multiplexing (WDM). This technology enables the operation of multiple data
channels over the bandwidth of the cable's light wave.

Frequency-division multiplexing, also known as wavelength-division multiplexing, has

been extensively utilised in various communication systems such as radio, television, and
telephony. An exemplary instance in contemporary times is the technique of multiplexing
numerous television signals over a shared coaxial cable that is routed into a residential
dwelling.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) utilises distinct frequencies or "colours" of

infrared radiation to convey discrete data streams. The aforementioned entities are
aggregated and transmitted via only one optical fibre. While the parameter of frequency
is commonly employed to differentiate the positioning of wireless signals that are below
300 GHz, the parameter of wavelength is the favoured measure for light frequencies.

It is important to note that the correlation between wavelength, measured in meters, and
frequency, denoted as f, can be expressed as f = c/ λ, where c represents the speed of light
in a vacuum, which is equivalent to 2.998 3 108 m/s. The velocity of light propagation
within a fiber optic cable is slightly lower, approximately 2.99 x 10^8 meters per second.
The measurement of optical wavelength is commonly denoted in units of nanometers or
micrometers. The measurement of optical frequencies is denoted in terahertz (THz), which
is equivalent to 10 to the power of 12 hertz (Hz).

The information that is intended to be conveyed through a fiber-optic network is utilised

to modulate a laser-generated infrared light, employing either OOK or ASK. The light-
carrying properties of fiber-optic cable are most closely aligned with those of infrared
signals. This is due to the attenuation response of the cable to infrared light, which exhibits
the lowest attenuation (approximately 0.2 dB/km) in two specific frequency bands. These
bands are centered at 1310 nm and 1550 nm, respectively.
Figure 8.13: Wavelength Division Multiplexing

8.6 Open System Interconnection (OSI)- 7 Layers Model

The majority of networks are set up as a hierarchy of layers or levels, each of which builds
on the one below it in order to reduce the design complexity. A layered architecture's
fundamental concept is to separate the design into manageable chunks. The model divides
the flow of data in a communication system into seven abstraction levels, starting with the
physical implementation of transferring bits through a communications media and ending
with the highest-level representation of data in a distributed application. Each intermediate
layer assists the layer above it and is assisted by the layer below it in providing a class of
functionality. The functions of each layer in the OSI model are clearly defined, and each
layer communicates and interacts with the layers immediately above and below it unless
there are no layers above or below the layer in question. The model's creators reduced the
data transmission process to its most basic components when creating it. The networking
functions that had related uses were gathered into distinct groups, which eventually
became the layers. A family of functions unique from those of the other layers is defined
by each layer. In this way, the designers defined and localized functionality to produce a
comprehensive and adaptable architecture.

In order to reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series
of layers or levels, each one builds upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered
architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each of the layers adds to the services
provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided a full set
of services to manage communications and run the applications. The benefits of the layered
models are modularity and clear interfaces, i.e. open architecture and comparability
between the different providers' components. A basic principle is to ensure the
independence of layers by defining services provided by each layer to the next higher layer
without defining how the services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer
without affecting other layers.

The basic elements of a layered model are:

Services
Protocols and
Interfaces.
A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.
A protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity.
These rules concern both the contents and the order of the messages used.
Between the layers, service interfaces are defined. The messages from one layer to another
are sent through those interfaces.

The layers are listed below

1. Physical (layer 1),

2. Data link (layer 2),
3. Network (layer 3),
4. Transport (layer 4),
5. session (layer 5),
6. Presentation (layer 6), and
7. application (layer 7)

The seven layers are represented in Figure 8.14.

Application Layer

Presentation layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

Data link Layer

Physical layer

Figure 8.14: The OSI reference model

8.6.1 Physical Layer

The physical layer is in charge of sending and receiving unstructured raw data between a
device and a physical transmission media, such as an Ethernet hub, network switch, or
network interface controller. It deals with the transmission medium's interface's mechanical
and electrical specifications. It also specifies the processes and tasks that physical
components and interfaces must carry out for transmission to take place. From one hop
(node) to the next, individual bits are moved by the physical layer.
The following issues are also of concern to the physical layer:

(1) The physical layer defines the properties of the interface between the devices and
the transmission medium. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
Additionally, it specifies the kind of transmission medium.
(2) The physical layer data is represented as a stream of bits (a sequence of O's or 1's)
with no meaning. Bits must be encoded into electrical or optical signals before they
can be transmitted. The type of encoding (how O’s and 1’s are converted to signals)
is determined by the physical layer.
(3) The physical layer also determines the transmission rate or the number of bits sent
each second.
(4) Connecting devices to the media is the responsibility of the physical layer. A
dedicated link connects two devices in a point-to-point configuration. Several
devices share a link in a multipoint configuration.
(5) The physical topology describes how components of a network are linked together.
Devices can be linked together using a bus topology, a star topology, a ring
topology, a mesh topology, or a hybrid topology.
(6) The physical layer also specifies the transmission mode, such as simplex, half-duplex,
or full-duplex, between two devices
(7) Bit synchronization is another responsibility of the physical layer. Both the sender
and the receiver must operate at the same bit rate and be in sync with one another.
In other words, the clocks of the sender and the receiver must be in sync.

8.6.2 Data-link Layer

Node-to-node data transfer—a link between two nodes that are physically connected—is
provided by the data link layer. It recognizes potential faults in the physical layer and may
even fix them. It specifies the protocol used to connect and disconnect two devices that
are physically close to one another. It also specifies the flow control protocol that will be
used between them.

The following are some of the additional duties of the data link layer:

(1) The data link layer frames the stream of bits it receives from the network layer to
make them more manageable.
(2) It manages the physical addressing. The data link layer adds a header to the frame
to specify the sender and/or receiver of the frame if frames need to be distributed
among various systems on the network. The receiver address is the address of the
device that connects the sender's network to the system for which the frame is
intended.
(3) Flow management is coordinated by the data link layer. The data link layer imposes
a flow control mechanism to prevent overloading the receiver if the rate at which
data are produced by the sender is slower than the rate at which data are consumed
by the receiver.
 (4) It also carries out Error management. By introducing systems to detect and
retransmit broken or lost frames, the data link layer increases the reliability of the
physical layer. Additionally, it employs a system to detect duplicate frames.
Typically, a trailer is added to the end of the frame to achieve error control.
(5) It can also restrict Access. Data link layer protocols are required when two or more
devices are connected to the same link in order to determine which device is in
charge of the link at any given moment.

8.6.3 Network Layer

The functional and procedural mechanisms of sending packets from one node to another
connected in "different networks" are provided by the network layer. A network is a
medium that allows several nodes to be connected, where each node has an address, and
where nodes can communicate with each other and can be connected to transmit messages
to other nodes linked to it by only supplying the content of a message and the target node's
address and letting the network figure out the best path to take the message, including
routing it through intermediary nodes, to the destination node. A network layer is typically
not required if two systems are connected to the same link.

The following are some of the additional duties of the network layer:
(1) Logical addressing is carried out by the Network layer. The data link layer's physical
addressing solution addresses the addressing issue locally. Another addressing system
is required to help distinguish the source and destination systems if a packet crosses
the network boundary. The network layer adds a header, which among other things
contains the logical addresses of the sender and receiver, to the packet that comes
from the upper layer.
(2) The routing devices, known as routers or switches, route or switch the packets to
their destination when independent networks or links are connected to form inter-
networks (a network of networks) or a large network. This mechanism is one of the
tasks performed by the network layer.

8.6.4 Transport Layer

The entire message must be delivered from one process to another via the transport layer.
An application program running on a host is known as a process. While the network layer
manages source-to-destination packet delivery, it is blind to the relationships between the
packets. The transport layer, on the other hand, is in charge of error control and flow
control from the source to the destination level, making sure the entire message arrives
intact and in the proper order. Through flow control, error control, and acknowledgments
of errors, the transport layer also manages the dependability of a specific link between a
source and destination host. Some protocols focus on connections and states. By using the
acknowledgment hand-shake method, the transport layer can monitor the segments and
retransmit those that fail delivery. Additionally, the transport layer will offer confirmation
of the successful data delivery and sends the subsequent data if there were no problems.
The transport layer also has the following obligations:

(1) Service-point addressing: Multiple programs are frequently running at once on

computers. Because of this, source-to-destination delivery refers to the transfer of
data from one computer to another, as well as from one specific process (a running
program) to another specific process (a running program) on a different computer.
Therefore, a type of address known as a service-point address must be included in
the transport layer header (or port address). The transport layer delivers the entire
message to the right process on that computer after the network layer routes each
packet to the appropriate computer.
(2) Segmentation and reassembly: A message is broken up into segments that can be
transmitted, and each segment has a unique sequence number. These numbers allow
the transport layer to identify and replace packets that were lost during transmission
and to correctly reassemble the message once it reaches its destination.
(3) Connection management: Either connectionless or connection-oriented transport
layers are possible. Each segment is delivered to the destination machine's transport
layer by a connectionless transport layer, which treats each one as a separate packet.
Before sending the packets, a connection-oriented transport layer establishes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine. The connection is
cut off once all the data have been transferred.
(4) Flow management: Flow control is handled by the transport layer, just like the data
link layer. At this layer, flow control is handled end to end as opposed to across a
single link.
(5) Error control: Error control is the responsibility of the transport layer, just like the
data link layer. However, instead of across a single link, error control at this layer
is carried out process-to-process. The sending transport layer ensures flawless
delivery of the entire message to the receiving transport layer (without damage,
loss, or duplication). Retransmission is typically used to correct errors.

8.6.5 Session Layer

A "session" is defined as the setup, management of connections, and termination of
disconnection between a number of computers via the session layer. The session layer's
common functions include user login (establishment), user logoff (termination), and name
lookup (management), as DNS and other Name Resolution Protocols operate in this area
of the layer.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

(1) Dialog control: The session layer enables the communication between two systems.
It enables a half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time)
mode of communication between two processes.
(2) Synchronization: A process can add checkpoints or synchronization points to a
stream of data using the session layer. To ensure that each 100-page unit is received
and acknowledged separately, it is recommended to insert checkpoints every 100
pages, for instance, if a system is sending a file with 5000 pages. In this scenario,
 only pages 501–523 need to be sent again after system recovery if a crash occurs
during transmission of page 523. Pages sent previously do not need to be sent again.

8.6.6 Presentation Layer

During the encapsulation of outgoing messages, as they are passed down the protocol
stack, and, potentially, during the de-encapsulation of incoming messages as they are
passed up the protocol stack, the presentation layer establishes data formatting and data
the transformation into a format specified by the application layer. For this reason,
incoming messages are translated for encapsulation into a format determined by the
application layer, while outgoing messages are not. Reverse de-encapsulation occurs. The
syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems are handled by
the presentation layer. Encryption, compression, and translation are handled by the
presentation layer.

The following are specific duties held by the presentation layer:

(1) Translation: Two systems' processes (running programs) frequently exchange
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and other data types. Before
transmission, the data must be converted to bit streams. The presentation layer is in
charge of ensuring compatibility between the various encoding techniques because
different computers employ different encoding systems. The information is
converted from its sender-specific format to a common format at the sender by the
presentation layer. The common format is converted into its receiver-specific format
by the receiving machine's presentation layer.
(2) Encryption: A system needs to be able to guarantee privacy in order to transport
sensitive data. By using encryption, the sender changes the original data into a new
format before transmitting the new message over the network. Decryption turns
the original procedure around to restore the message's original format.
(3) Compression: The amount of bits needed to store the information is decreased
through data compression. Data compression becomes especially crucial when
sending multimedia files like text, audio, and video.

8.6.7 Application layer

The application layer is the OSI model layer that is closest to the end user, which means
that both the OSI application layer and the user directly interact with a piece of software
that carries out client-server communication, like File Explorer or Microsoft Word.

It offers user interfaces and support for distributed information services like electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and others. The user's
services are provided by the application layer.

The following are specific services offered by the application layer:

(1) Network virtual terminal: A user can sign on to a distant host using a network virtual
terminal, which is a software version of a physical terminal. To accomplish this, the
application builds a terminal emulator in software on the remote host. The software
 terminal, which the user's computer communicates with, communicates with the
host, and vice versa. The remote host permits the user to log on because it thinks it
is speaking with one of its own terminals.
(2) File management, access, and transfer: With the help of this program, a user can
access files on a remote host (to make changes or read data), download files to their
local machine, and manage or control those files locally.
(3) Mail services: The foundation for email forwarding and storage is provided by this
application.
(4) Directory services: This application offers global access to information about various
objects and services from distributed database sources.

Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of computer networks noting the

definition of networks, functions, and types of computer networks. The types of data
transmission, multiplexing, and the types of multiplexing there are were well discussed.
The criteria for selection and recommendation of the appropriate transmission method to
use, the OSI model and the function of each layer are clearly spelt out.

Exercises

1. What is a computer network?

2. Mention the classification of computer network
3. Explain the concept of Data Transmission
4 Explain the principles of Multiplexing
5. Define and explain Open System Interconnection (OSI)- 7 Layers Model.

References

Adebiyi A.A. (2023). Computer System and Application. Journal of computer science, 4(3),
40-45.

Bennett, Richard (2009). "Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet

Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" (PDF). Information Technology and
Innovation Foundation.

C. Hempstead; W. Worthington (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology.

Routledge.
Isaacson, Walter (2022). The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks
Created the Digital Revolution. Simon and Schuster. pp. 237–246. ISBN 9781476708690.

Meyers, Mike (2021). CompTIA Network+ exam guide : (Exam N10-005) (5th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Wood, Jessica (2020). "The Darknet: A Digital Copyright Revolution" (PDF). Richmond
Journal of Law and Technology. 16 (4).
 Chapter 9
Intranet, Extranet, Internet

Overview
This chapter provides a good knowledge of Intranet, Extranet and the Internet. It gives an
overview of the uses, advantages, disadvantages, similarities and differences of Intranet
and Extranet. It gives an insight into the Internet. It discusses a brief histroy of the internet
and how it has evolved over the years, and in Africa in particular. Some protocols that
operate on the internet and examples of some areas where the Internet has impacted on
the lives of its users, were also discussed.. Key concepts and definitions of terms were
discussed in the chapter.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with a good knowledge of Intranet, Extranet
and the Internet. Specifically, students should be able to:
a) define intranet and explain how it operates;
b) list the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the Intranet;
c) define extranet and state its uses, advantages and disadvantages;
d) differenciate between intranet and extranet;
e) define the Internet and explain how it works;
f) give a brief histrory of the Internet and some protocols and standards that
operate on it;
g) list the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the Internet;
h) distinguish between the Extranet and Internet; and
i) compare and contract between the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.

9.1 Intranet
An Intranet is a network that is built mainly for internal use by an organization, and it
works based on internet technologies and concepts. An intranet, is used by organization,
to keep their internal information like contacts, calendars, and some other documents that
are private to them.
Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own
server and firewall. Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected
to each other. PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.

Intranet networks, creates a platform for employees in an organization, to manage their

documents, create data, manage their to-do lists, organize their calendars and enables the
employees to share work related data and information within the organization. It runs on
local area network (LAN) and it makes use of the client-server architecture, The Intranet
does not allow anyone outside the network to gain access into its network.

An Intranet uses Internet protocols as well as network connectivity to share part of an

organization's resources and information securely, with its employees. The intranet
operates on the same concepts and technologies as the Internet, which are, clients and
servers running on the Internet protocol suite. It also uses the protocols provided by the
TCP/IP protocol suite. Also, HTTP and other Internet protocols such as FTP also operate
on the intranet.

It is important to note that the major aim of an intranet is company information sharing
and also for sharing of computing resources among the employees. Also, it can be used to
enable employees to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Figure 9.1 is the illustration of an intranet.

Figure 9.1: Intranet Illustration

9.1.2 Advantages of Intranet

Intranets are very beneficial to organizations in that, they create an avenue for efficiency
and reliability within an organization. They create good opportunities for collaboration,
security, cost-effectiveness and productivity. Figure 9.2 shows the advantages of the
intranet.

Figure 9.2: Intranet advantages

 i. Communication: Intranet helps in enhancing communication within an organization
by creating avenues for employees to use chats, blogs and email to interact easily
ii. Time Saving: Information on Intranet is shared in real time.
iii. Enhanced Collaboration: Information is distributed among the employees as
according to requirement and it can be accessed by the authorized users, resulting
in enhanced teamwork. With intranet, there is enhanced collaboration between
members of the organization. This means that information can be easily accessible
by all authorized users
iv. Platform Independency: Intranet can connect computers and other devices with
different architecture.
v. Cost Effective: Employees can see the data and other documents using browser
rather than printing them and distributing duplicate copies among the employees,
which certainly decreases the cost.
vi. Workforce Productivity: Data is available at every time and can be accessed using
company workstation. Intranets create better productivity of workforce and can
help users in an organization, to locate and view information faster through the
help of a web browser. There is increased employees' ability to perform their jobs
faster, more accurately, and with more confidence that they have the right
information.
vii. Business Management: With intranet, staff of an organization has the opportunity
to keep up with the strategic focus of the organization thereby enhancing better
business operations and management. It is also possible to deploy applications that
support business operations.
viii. Security: Since information shared on intranet can only be accessed within an
organization, therefore there is almost no chance of being theft.
ix. Specific Users: Intranet targets only specific users within an organization therefore,
once can exactly know whom he is interacting.
x. Immediate Updates: Any changes made to information are reflected immediately
to all the users.
xi. Data Accessibility: Users can easily access data that are owned and made available
by the organization at any time and from anywhere within the organization, subject
to security provisions.
xii. Availability of Information: With the use of intranets, an organization can make
more information available to their employees.

9.1.3 Disadvantages of Intranet

There are some disadvantages of Intranet even with the several advantages. They are:

Management concerns: These borders on the issues of loss of control, hidden complexity,
and potential for chaos.

Security concerns: Some of these concerns are on unauthorized access, denial of service
and packet sniffing.
Productivity concerns: The issues that create concern on intranet productivity are
information overload which lowers productivity, users setting up their own web pages,
and overabundance of information.

These disadvantages are shown in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Intranet disadvantages

9.1.4 Applications of Intranet

Intranet applications are same as Internet applications. Intranet applications are also
accessed through a web browser. The only difference is that, Intranet applications reside
on local server while Internet applications reside on remote server.

Some of these applications are:

i. Document publication applications: It allow publishing documents such as manuals,
software guide, employee profits etc without use of paper.
ii. Electronic resources applications: It offers electronic resources such as software
applications, templates and tools, to be shared across the network.
iii. Interactive Communication applications: Like on internet, we have e-mail and chat
like applications for Intranet, hence offering an interactive communication among
employees.
iv. Support for Internet Applications: Intranet offers an environment to deploy and test
applications before placing them on Internet.
Figure 9.4: Intranet applications
9.2.1 Extranet
This is a private network service that is controlled by an organization. Extranets are created
managed by the organizations that own them. They give access to only their partners,
customers and clients. It can be described as a network that is within an organization but
making use of the internet to connect to the outsiders in a regulated manner.

Extranet can be described, as a private network that uses Internet protocols, network
connectivity and public telecommunication system to share part of an organization's
information and resources, securely, with vendors, suppliers, partners, customers and/or
other businesses. It can be viewed as part of an organization’s Intranet that is extended to
users outside the organization. This is usually done over the internet.

Extranet differs from Intranets in the sense that, while intranet is generally restricted to
employees of the organization, Extranets on the other hand can be accessed by customers,
suppliers, or other parties that are approved by the organization. Figure 9.5 shows the
Extranet.
Figure 9.5: Extranet

Following are some of the major fields that are using Extranet service on a large scale are
corporate houses, government offices, and education centers. This is because Extranet
covers a wider area, as outsiders (such as partner, vendor, or even customer) have the
authorized accessibility.

An extranet provides a variety of requirements. Huge volumes of data can be transferred

between parties via extranet software, for instance, thus promoting simple collaboration.
These collaboration tools are specifically beneficial for companies that require
brainstorming or communicate frequently with clients and customers. It stores hours in
comparison to email and telephone. Extranet software also manage and fixes hidden
errors or problems that can occur with a company’s products or services nearly like
inherent quality control.
9.2.2 Implementation of Extranet
Extranet is implemented as a Virtual Private Networks (VPN) because it uses internet to
connect to corporate organization and there is always a threat to information security.
VPN offers a secure in public infrastructure (Internet). VPN is a method that allows a secure
and encrypted connection to be created across a less secure system, such as the Internet.
It extends a private network by using a public network, such as the Internet. This is shown
in Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.6: VPN implementation

The packet is encapsulated at boundary of networks in IPSEC complaint routers. It uses an

encryption key to encapsulate packets and IP addresses as well. The packet is decoded only
by the IPSEC complaint routers or servers. The message is sent over VPN via VPN Tunnel
and this process is known as tunneling.

VPN uses Internet Protocol Security Architecture (IPSEC) Protocol to provide secure
transactions by adding an additional security layer to TCP/IP protocol. This layer is created
by encapsulating the IP packet to a new IP packet as shown in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7: Encapsulation of packets

9.2.3 Features of Extranet Services

The significant features of extranet services are:
i. Extranet is an extended Internet service to the private business network.
ii. The services extend outside the corporate firewall.
iii. Sometimes, it can be referred to an Intranet, as it can be (partially) accessible to
some outsiders (with permission).
iv. The technique of extranet links two (or more) business organizations who share
common business goals.

9.2.4 Advantages of Extranet

Extranet proves to be a successful model for all kind of businesses whether small or big.
Extranet can be very useful in the following areas;
i. Exchange of large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
ii. Collaboration with other companies on joint development efforts
iii. Joint development and use of training programs with other companies
iv. Easy access to services provided by a company to a group of other companies, like
a university portal management application managed by a company on behalf of
the university.
v. Sharing ideas and issues of common interest among several organizations in an
exclusive manner.

The advantages of Extranet services are:

i. Brings about faster services to an organization and their partners.
ii. Leads to improvement in business communication.
iii. It helps in reducing the cost (especially in terms of stationery stuff).
iv. With the implementation of extranets, the barrier of distance is broken between
the organization and its partners.

Some of the advantages of extranet for employees, suppliers, business partners, and
customers are shown in Figure 9.8.

Figure 9.8: Advantages of Extranet

9.2.5 Disadvantages of Extranet

Some of the disadvantages of Extranet are:
i. Extranet technologies can be very expensive to implement and maintain within an
organization. This can include purchase of items like hardware, software, employee
training costs, etc.
ii. It can be a very big concern to maintain security of extranets dealing with valuable
information. Access to system needs to be carefully controlled to avoid sensitive
information falling into wrong hands.
iii. Face-to-face contact and meetings with partners and customers can be reduced
through Extranet and this can lead to lack of connection between partners and
customers,

9.2.6 Extranet Issues

Apart for advantages there are also some issues associated with extranet. These issues are:
i. Hosting: Deciding whether to host your extranet with an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) or on your own server, both cases require high bandwidth and high cost of
implementation.
ii. Security: Extranets require a strong firewall to secure the network. Additional
firewall security is required if you host extranet pages on your own server which
result in a complex security mechanism and increase work load.
iii. Accessing Issues: Information on an extranet cannot be access without an internet
connection.
iv. Decreased Interaction: Extranets reduces face to face interaction in business which
results in lack of communication among business partners and suppliers.

9.2.7 Extranet vs. Intranet

Some of the differences between Extranet and Intranet are shown in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Difference between Extranet and Internet

S/N Parameter Extranet Intranet
1. Definition An internal network that can be An Internal network that
accessed externally. cannot be accessed
externally.
2. AccessibilityIt can be accessed by an Only limited to users
organization’s partners, customers within a company.
and suppliers (extension of
organization’s Intranet)..
3. Connectivity For external connection and For communication within
communication between customers, an organization only.
business partners and suppliers.

9.3 Internet
The Internet which is sometimes referred to as “The NET”, can be referred to as a network
of networks that operate around the world as if it were one network, thereby granting
users unrestricted access to global computer networks. Technically, the coordination of the
Internet is open, independent and run by non-profit membership organizations that work
together to meet the internet needs of the people. The Internet makes it possible for
anyone to create content, offer services, and sell products without requiring any permission
from a central authority. It can even be said that no one, but everyone, is in charge of the
internet. This means that anyone can create his own content and upload to the internet.
Also, the global Internet consists of tens of thousands of interconnected networks run by
service providers, individual companies, universities, governments, and others. This has
been a major key to the successful growth of the Internet.

Furthermore, it is important to note that the Internet has availed users the opportunity to
access the World Wide Web in quest for access to news, weather and sports reports, to
plan and book vacations and to pursue other personal interests. People use chat, messaging
and email to make contacts and stay in touch with friends. The internet was what gave
birth to Social networking, which has become a very vital tool in communication and
information exchange. Websites such as Facebook, Instagram, Tumblr, Twitter, Myspace
etc have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a
wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with
others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances and to allow communication among
existing groups of people. Sites like Linkedln foster commercial and business connections.
YouTube and Flicker specialize in users' videos and photographs.

9.3.1 What is Internet?

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.

The internet is a globally connected network system facilitating worldwide communication

and access to data resources through a vast collection of private, public, business, academic
and government networks. It is governed by agencies like the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (or IANA) that establish universal protocols.

9.3.2 Brief Origin of Internet

The idea of the Internet was said to have been first conceived by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1967 and was first known as the
ARPANET. Before its conception it was recorded, that computers from different
manufacturers could not communicate with one another. There was therefore a need to
find a way to connect these computers to enable the researchers that they fundedd, carry
out their research, communicate and share their findngs thereby reducing duplicated
efforts. The idea was that each host computer would be attached to a specialized computer
which was known as an Interface Message Processor (IMP), these IMPs would be connected
to one another and each of the IMPs would communicate with other IMPs as well as the
hosts that are connected to it.

In 1969, the ARPANET became a reality. It had four nodes which were located at four
different Universities, and they were connected via IMPs to form a network. Software was
used to provide communication between the hosts and this software was known as the
Network control Protocol (NCP).
To improve the ARPANET, an Internetting Project was proposed to introduce a protocol.
that could be used to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This protocol is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). it included some concepts like encapsulation, the
datagram and also gateway and its functions. Later on, TCP was split into two protocols
which are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP was to handle
datagram routing while TCP was to be responsible for other higher level functions like
error detection, segmentation and reassembly. Therefore, the internetworking protocol
became known as TCP/IP

The Internet today has greatly evolved and is made up of several WANs and LANs which
are interconnected by different networking devices and switching stations. Since then, the
Internet has grown and evolved over time to facilitate services like:
i. Email.
ii. Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services.
iii. Online movies and gaming.
iv. Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
v. Instant messaging.
vi. Internet forums.
vii. Social networking.
viii. Online shopping.
ix. Financial services.

The Internet makes use of the TCP/IP suite. Every device on Internet is identified by a
unique address called the Internet Protocol (IP) Address. An IP Address is a unique number
(like 10.21.20.144), which identifies a devices on the internet. Domain Name Server (DNS),
is used to give a name to the IP Address to enable a user to locate a device by a name. For
example, a DNS server will assign a name https://www.nuc.org to a particular IP address
to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted. Figure 9.9 is the
illustration of the Internet.

Figure 9.9: Internet

The Internet has greatly expanded over the years. A good example of the spread and
expansion of the internet can be seen in the exhaustion of the addresses provided by the
protocol called IPv4. These addresses has been exhausted over the years and an new
version of IP has taken over, which is known as IPv6 and this has further increased the
number of addresses available for each continent around the globe. Also, the emmergance
of the IoT (Internet of Things) Technology, is also anonther very good aspect of the
expansion of the Internet.

In Africa, the Internet has taken a centre stage, and it has successfully penetrated the daily
lives of the people due to the ease with which it is usually accessed. The use of the internet
has so risen in Africa that it is recorded that as at 2022, the continent has over 570 million
internet users. According to reports, Nigeria currently has the largest number of users of
the Internet, with over 100 million in 2022, followed by Egypt with 76 million users, and
then South Africa with 41 million users. This continous rise Internet usage can be easily
traced to the improved telecommunication infrastructure and the very rising adoption of
mobile technologies and devices. This has greatly increased internet access in Africa.

Furthermore, the continous growth in internet accessibility has enhanced digital activities
and online services, like social media, online shopping, E-learning and mobile payments.
Today, any individual that needs an internet connection, can easily use the services of
Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Some of the major Internet and telecommunications
Service providers in Africa are:
i. MTN - a South-African company. Its operation covers over 21 countries in Africa
and as at 2021, it had over 221 million subscribers across Africa.
ii. Orange Africa & Middle-East with over 130 million subscribers across Africa,
iii. Vodacom group Ltd with over 123 milliion subscribers across Africa
iv. Airtel Africa - provides Telecomms and mobile money services to over 14 countries
across Africa. it has over 78 million subscribers other providers include; Safaricom,
Ethio Telecom, Maroc Telecom, Etisalat, GLobacomm, etc. a mobile company
based in Lagos, 9mobile also based in Nigeria.

9.3.3 How the Internet operates

The Internet operates with two major components, these include: network protocols and
hardware. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. Network protocols
is what defines what is communicated across the networks. The protocols that guide the
operations on the internet is known as the TCP/IP suite. This protocol suite, presents some
set of rules that govern how devices carry out their tasks across the Internet. Without this
common collection of rules, there would be difficulty in communication between devices
on the Internet. These protocols are also responsible for translating the texts and messages
that are sent alphabetically, into electronic signals that can be transmitted over the Internet.

The process of transferring information from one device to another, uses a technnology
known as packet switching. Each device that is connected to the Internet is assigned a
unique IP address, which allows it to be recognized across the network. Whenever a device
tries to send a message to another device, the data is sent over the Internet in form of
packets. Each packet is assigned a port number that connects it to its endpoint. Figure 9.10
shows the Internet operation.

Figure 9.10: Internet operation

9.3.4 Uses of the Internet

Some of the areas where the Internet has become very useful, are listed below:
i. One of the major area where the Internet has greatly impacted the lives of its users,
is in the use of the social media. The social media market has greatly benefitted from
the wide penetration of smartphone usage. Some of the very common social media
applications that are much used across Africa include; WhatsApp, Facebook.
Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok and a whole lot more. These applications are used to
connect and keep in touch with loved ones and also do business.
ii. Online shopping, or e-commerce has become very popular in Africa, with the help
of the Internet. People now find it easier to order for goods and services online and
connect with customers. some examples of ecommerce and online shopping sites
the are widely used include; Jumia, Takealot, Konga, PayPorte, Slot.ng, Kara,
Printivo Store, Jiji Nigeria, Obiwezy, etc.
iii. E-Learning - the Internet has greatly helped in the area of Electronic Learning (E-
learning). Particularly during the coronavirus period, lecturers in African
Universities, were able to teach their students, using some video conferencing
applications, like Zoom, Google Meet, Skype, and more. Also, access to educational
materials and self-improvement tools which include online degree programs,
courses and workshops has been greatly enhanced by the Internet.
iv. Job Searching – this includes both the employers and the applicants. The employers
use the Internet to post open positions and recruit individuals found on social
networking sites like LinkedIn. while the applicants use it to apply for jobs.
v. Online discussion groups and forums
vi. Access to online gaming
vii. Reading of electronic newspapers and magazines
viii. Research work activties
ix. Online shopping, or e-commerce
x. Online dating, etc.
There are some new and trending internet technologies that are really impacting on the
internet users and will still make alot of impact in the coming years. These include; Artificial
intelligence (AI), Blockchain technology, Renewable Energy, Internet of Things (IoT) and
5G Technnology.

9.3.5 Advantages of Internet

Some advantages of the Internet are:
i. Internet gives users the ability to communicate with people in any location of choice
ii. The Internet has provided users with a great opportunity to socialize and connect
with clients, students, customers, friends and family. With the aid of social media
platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Linkedln, etc, users can now keep in
touch with a lot contacts.
iii. With the Internet, users can get any kind of information they desire. Information
about different topics like Education, Agriculture, Health, Technology and Science,
can be gotten with the help of the many search engines available on the Internet.
iv. The Internet enables users to use services like accessing of Agricultural products,
Online Shopping, Internet Banking, Flight Ticket Booking, Payment of Bills online,
Data and file sharing, and E-mail services.
v. Internet provides the platform for users to buy and sell goods and services online.
A process known as Electronic commerce (E-Commerce).

9.3.6 Disadvantages of Internet

The disadvantages are:
i. Users of the Internet always expose their personal detail and therefore, they have
high chances of losing their personal information like credit card number name,
address among other personal details. Therefore, Internet users should be very
mindful of how they share their personal information. Credit cards should be used
only through authenticated web sites.
ii. Internet users are usually exposed to E-mail spamming which are unwanted e-mails
send in bulk.
iii. Internet users are also usually exposed to some dangerous computer virus which
can easily spread to systems that are connected on the Internet. Such attacks can
lead to system crash, or some important data may get deleted.
iv. Some websites on the internet provide incorrect and unverifiable information to
users, and this can mislead a user.

9.4 Comparison between the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.

Computer networks are different from each other depending on their topology. Every
network has its own characteristics. There are three comprehensive types of networks,
Internet, Intranet and extranet. Each network shares same communication technologies.
They differ in terms of size, access levels and the nature of users.

9.4.1 Internet vs. Intranet

The difference between the Internet and Intranet using ten parameters are shown in
Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Difference between Internet and Intranet.

SN Parameters Internet Intranet
1 Reach The Internet is a global An Intranet is a private network
network
2 Make up It comprises of several It can consist of a number of local
network of networks, area networks (LANs) connected
interconnected together, at together.
various locations
3 Number of It has a very large amount of It has limited number of users
Users users.
4 Protocol It uses the internet protocol It mostly makes use of leased
suite to operate lines
5 Traffic There is very high traffic on It has fewer amount of traffic
the Internet due to large inflow
number of users.
6 Security It is highly susceptible to Intranets are much more secure
cyber-attacks and some other due to their private nature.
security threats due to its
wide network coverage and
users. It is less secure, as
compared to the Intranet.
7 Type of Internet is a public network. Intranet is private network.
Network (worldwide network) (localized network)
8 Accessibility Any user of the Internet can Only authorized members of an
access information on the organization, can access
internet. information on an intranet
9 Scope There is very vast scope of Intranet contains only
information available on the information about the
internet. organization that owns it. Or any
other information they make
available to their users.
10 Affordability Less expensive More expensive
11 Reliability Less reliability More reliability
9.4.2 Similarities between Internet and Intranet
Some of the similarities between the Internet and Intranet are:
i. Both Intranet and Internet uses the TCP/IP protocol suite
ii. Both are accessible through a web browser
iii. They both make use of instant messaging

Summary
The Internet, Intranet and Extranet all make use of the internet protocols to carry out their
operations.
An intranet is a private connection (private network) that is used by an organization, to
keep their internal information like contacts, calendars, and some other documents private.
Intranets can be a collection of an organization’s internal websites or a portion of its IT
infrastructure that can house several private websites. Intranets are an essential tool for
companies to facilitate internal communication among its employees.

Extranet is a private network service that is controlled by an organization and they give
access to only their clients, customers and partners. Extranet refers to network within an
organization, using internet to connect to the outsiders in controlled manner. It helps to
connect businesses with their customers and suppliers and therefore allows working in a
collaborative manner.

The Internet is a worldwide network system (public network) that connects a broad
collection of private, public, business, academic, and government networks to enable
global communication and access to data resources. It is the global system of
interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link
devices worldwide. The Internet operations are governed by some protocols and have
greatly evolved. The Internet differs from the intranet based on the area of security, scope,
coverage, affordability, reach, usage, and number of users.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A network that is part of your intranet but is extended to users outside of your
organization and is accessible from the Internet is a private network.
A. Intranet B. Extranet C. Internet D. Public network
2. The network has 12 desktop computers and two servers that host a web-based
inventory application that the entire employee connected to the same network
switch A firewall protects all computers and servers from external networks. Which
type of network are you configuring?
A. Intranet B. Extranet C. Internet D. Public network
3. VPN is a method that allows a secure and encrypted connection to be created across
a less secure system, such as the Internet. It extends a private network by using a
public network, such as the Internet.
A. True B. False
4. Internet is a globally connected network, so it can have multiple more users as
compare to the number of users on Intranet.
A. True B. False
5. Intranet has limited network range, so users on Intranet are also limited and less as
compared to that on Internet.
A. True B. False
6. The extranet is an element of an intranet, categorized as private network type,
controlled and handled by an organization, to offer secure access to the intranet of
the external world.
A. True B. False
7. Internal network which is only available inside an organisation or company is called
A. Network B. Web Browser C. HTTPS D. Intranet
8. Which of the following can you do on the Internet?
A. Online shopping B. Video calling C. Streaming music D. All of
them
9. A network of computer networks which operates world-wide using a common set
of communications protocols.
A. Network B. Intranet C. Application D. Intranet
10. The protocols that guide the operations on the internet and presents the set of rules
that govern how devices carry out their tasks is known as
A. TCP/IP suite B. Application protocol C. FTP D. HTTPS

Exercises

1. What is Intranet?
2. Mention three advantages and disadvantages of Intranet.
3. State two applications of Intranet
4. What is Extranet?
5. List two advantages and disadvantages of Extranet
6. How is Extranet implemented?
7. Mention four issues associated with Extranet.
8. State four features of Extranet Services
9. List the advantages of Extranet services
10. Mention two disadvantages of Extranet services
11. List three applications of Extranet
12. List three major fields that are using Extranet service on a large scale
13. What is Internet?
14. The Internet has grown and evolved over time to facilitate services. Mention four.
15. Give a brief histrory of the Internet stating how it has evolved over the years.
16. Briefly describe how the Internet operates.
17. State four advantages and disadvantages of Internet
18. Compare and contrast between the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.
19. Define the following terms
a. Protocols
 b. Internet Standards
c. VPN
d. ISPs
e. Interface Message Processor (IMP),
f. Network Control Protocol (NCP)
20. State four applications of the Internet

References

Sasu, D. D. (2022). Internet Usage in Nigeria. https://www.statista.com/. Retrieved April

13, 2023, from Statistica: https://www.statista.com/topics/7199/internet-usage-in-
nigeria/
Iduh B and Okonkwo R (2022). Development of a Botnet Management Model for Cyber
Security Networks. International Journal of Information Security, Privacy and
Digital Forencics. An International Journal of the Nigeria Computer Society (NCS)
Vol. 6, No. 2. 31-37
Douglas E. Comer (2019) The Internet Book. Everything you Need to Know about
Computer Networking and How the Internet Works.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com
https://www.techopedia.com
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org
 Chapter 10
Wordprocessing, Spreadsheet and Graphic (Presentation)

Overview
This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about Word-processing, Spreadsheet and
Graphic Presentation application software with specific reference to Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Power Point. Detailed hands-on practicals of these
application spftwares were also given in this chapter.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of Word-processing,
Spreadsheet and Graphical Presentation application using Microsoft Word, Excel and
Power Point. Specifically, students should be able to:
a) define Word-processing, Spreadsheet and Graphical Presentation application software,
clearly;
b) list and explain basic features of each; of Word-processing, Spreadsheet and Graphical
Presentation application software;
c) understand the use of each application software;
d) list and explain generations of programming languages;
e) practice each application software well; and
f) apply each application software in day-to-day activities.

10.1 Word Processing

A Word Processor is an application program that allows users to create letters, reports,
newsletters, tables, forms, mail merges, spell-checking, improved formatting options, and
other unlimited features. This application program allows the insertion of pictures, tables,
and charts to documents. Spelling and grammar can also be checked. As technology
advances new features are being added to the application software, as newer versions
continue to emerge.
Examples of word processing applications include: Microsoft Word, Word Perfect which
dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early-1990s on computers running
Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. Others include open source applications
OpenOffice.org Writer, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord,KWord, and LyX. Web-based word
processors, such as Office Web Apps or Google Docs, are a relatively new category to
mention but a few. Microsoft Word is the most commonly used word processing software.
It is among the suites of application software developed by Microsoft.

10.1.1 Features of word processing applications:

Common features of word processing applications are as follows:
1. Fast creation and saving of professional documents, using built-in and custom
templates;
2. Managing large documents using various features like the ability to create Table of
Contents, indexing, and cross-referencing;
3. Multitasking ability (as it works on multiple documents simultaneously);
 4. Bulk Mail dispatch (with the help of mail merge, you can quickly create, merge
documents like mass mailings or mailing labels);
5. AutoCorrect and AutoFormat features for handling typographical errors
automatically and allowing you to use predefined shortcuts and typing patterns to
quickly format your documents;
6. Spelling and grammar checker and a "thesaurus" function (finds words with similar
or opposite meanings);
7. The print zoom facility scales a document on different paper sizes, and allows you
to print out multiple pages on a single sheet of paper;
8. The nested tables feature supports putting one table inside another table;
9. Export and save your word documents in PDF, Web Page, Rich Text Formats, XPS
file format and a wide variety of other formats.
10. Batch mailings using form letter template and an address database (also called mail
merging);
11. Indices of Keywords and their page numbers;
12. Tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers;
13. Tables of Figures with caption titles and their page numbers;
14. Cross-referencing with section or page numbers;
15. Footnote numbering;
16. Collaborative editing, comments and annotations, support for images/diagrams and
internal cross-referencing.

10.2 Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is a large sheet having data and information arranged in rows and columns.
Rows are horizontal vectors while columns are vertical vectors. Spreadsheet is quite useful
in entering, editing, analysing and storing data. Arithmetic operations with numerical data
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be done using Spreadsheet.
Sorting numbers/characters according to some given criteria (like ascending, descending
etc.) and use of simple financial, mathematical and statistical formulas. A spreadsheet is
also. known as a worksheet. It is used to record, calculate and compare numerical or
financial data.
Each value on a worksheet can either be an independent (i.e. basic) value or it may
be derived on the basis of values of other variables. The derived value is the outcome of
an arithmetic expression and/or a function (i.e. a formula).
Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheet) is a
computer program that allows us to add and process data. Some examples of spreadsheet
are Lotus 123, Microsoft Excel or simply, Excel, which is one of the Microsoft Office Suite
of software.

10.2.1 Features of spreadsheets

There are a number of features that are available in Excel to make your task easier. Some
of the main features are:
1. AutoSum - helps you to add the contents of a cluster of adjacent cells.
 2. List AutoFill - automatically extends cell formatting when a new item is added to
the end of a list.
3. AutoFill - allows you to quickly fill cells with repetitive or sequential data such as
chronological dates or numbers, and repeated text. AutoFill can also be used to
copy functions.
4. You can also alter text and numbers with this feature.
5. AutoShapes toolbar will allow you to draw a number of geometrical shapes, arrows,
flowchart elements, stars and more shapes with which you can draw your own
pictorials.
6. Wizard - guides you to work effectively while you work by displaying various
helpful tips and techniques based on what you are doing.
7. Drag and Drop - it will help you to reposition the data and text by simply dragging
the data with the help of mouse.
8. Charts - it will help you in presenting a graphical representation of your data in the
form of Pie, Bar, Line charts and more.
9. PivotTable - it flips and sums data in seconds and allows you to perform data
analysis and generating reports like periodic financial statements, statistical reports,
etc. You can also analyse complex data relationships graphically.
10. Shortcut Menus - the commands that are appropriate to the task that you are doing
will appear by clicking the right mouse button.

10.3 Graphics (Presentation)

Graphics presentation application enables an individual from any technical level to create
a dynamic and professional-looking presentation. A presentation is a visual tool designed
to help a person tell a story. This story can be for various purposes, including educational,
entertainment and even business.
Some examples of graphical presentation application are CorelDraw, Microsoft Publisher
and Microsoft Power point.

10.3.1 Features of Graphic Presentation

1. Ruler for adjusting;
2. Set of tools for graphical drawings;
3. Powerful ray of Themes, and apply colour schemes for utilization during
beatification of presentation;
4. Format text, colors, and bullets;
5. Create maximum impact slides by inserting and editing pictures in your slides;
6. Learn how to include transition and animation effects;
7. Organize and manage your slides using PowerPoint’s View options.

10.4 Hands-on Practical

The following sub-sections will give us a hands on pragmatic approaches on how each
sample of the application software works.
10.4.1 Microsoft Word

To start Word, click on the Windows Start button, and then select Microsoft Word from
the options panel. Or The Microsoft Word Icon can be pinned to the start bar
for quick access.

10.4.1.1 Window and Ribbon Features

The screen shot below displays the primary components of a typical Word Version
interface.

Quick Access Toolbar Title bar

File tab

Ribbon

Ribbon Collapse

Horizontal ruler

Insertion point Scroll bar

Document window

Vertical ruler

Status bar View Options Zoom slider

Figure 10.1: primary components of a typical Word Version interface

Use the Ribbon options to select and process your commands.

Microsoft Word uses Tabs instead of menus to organize various functions. In addition,
command buttons have been placed in a Group within the Ribbon. The Dialog Box
Launcher in a group shows additional options.
 Tabs

Dialog box launcher Group

Figure 10.2: Group within the Ribbon

III. File Tab

The File tab provides you with the Backstage that provides information pertaining to your
document and options to help setup your window defaults. The Backstage also contains
standard commands such as, Home, Save, Save As, New, Print, etc.

VII. Quick Access Toolbar

Microsoft Word 2019 has a Quick Access Toolbar, so you can have quick access to your
most used commands.
A. Add Commands

Figure 10.3: Quick Access Toolbar

1. To add your most used commands to the Quick Access Toolbar, click on the
drop-down arrow next to the Quick Access Toolbar.
2. The Customize Quick Access Toolbar option panel will appear.
3. Click on your desired command option to be placed on the Quick Access
Toolbar.

X. Save a Document
A. Save
1. Click on the File tab, then select the Save As option to save a document
permanently to your hard drive or other storage device.
(The instructor will demonstrate where to save the document).
2. The Save As window will appear.
 3. In the Directory sections on the left side of the window, click on the icon where
you wish to save your document. In this exercise click on the Desktop.
4. In the File Name box, type your desired document name, and then click on the
Save button.

The table below consists of definitions for the Microsoft Office features.

Term Description

1 Quick Access Toolbar Displays quick access to commonly used commands.

4 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office button in 2007. This area is called
the Backstage which helps you to manage the Microsoft application and
provides access to its options such as Open, New, Save As, Print, etc.

2 Ribbon Tab Title or name of the specific Ribbon.

3 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs. Each tab provides
buttons for commands.

5 Group Contain category of command buttons.

6 Show Dialog Box Show additional options.

XI. Select Text

You must select text before you can change the format. You can use the mouse to select
text in a variety of ways which is explained in the table below.

Select Action

any text Click at the beginning of the area and press the Shift key as
you click at the end of the area. You can also drag across
the text you want to select.

a word Double click on the word.

a line Place the mouse pointer in the left margin. Position the
mouse pointer next to the desired line and click once.
 multiple lines Place the mouse pointer in the left margin next to the first
desired line and click once. Then press the Ctrl key and click
additional lines to select them.

a sentence Press the Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence.

a paragraph Place the mouse pointer in the left margin and double click
next to any line in the paragraph.

multiple Click at the beginning of the first paragraph then hold the
paragraphs mouse button down while dragging through your desired
paragraphs.

a document Press the Ctrl key then place the mouse pointer anywhere
in the left margin and click once.

XII. Margins

Microsoft Word margins are defaulted to 1 inch for the top and bottom, and 1 inch for the
left and right. To change your margins, use the Margin button found on the Layout ribbon.

A. Create Margins
1. Select the entire document text, by pressing the Ctrl key, then place the mouse
pointer anywhere on the left margin, and then click once on the right mouse
button.
2. Select the Layout tab.
3. In the Page Setup group, click on the Margins button.
4. The predesigned margins panel will appear.
5. Change the margin by selecting the top margin button (top and bottom 0.5” –
Left and Right 0.5”).

Note: If you prefer a margin not listed, then click on Custom Margins at the bottom of
the panel to customize your margin. The Page Setup window will appear, and then make
your desired margin choices from the window options.
XIII. Line Spacing
Microsoft Word 2019 defaults the line spacing to double space (2.0). Line spacing affects
an entire paragraph or document. Use the Line Spacing button on the Home Ribbon to
change line spacing.

A. Add Spacing
1. Make sure the entire document is still selected.
2. Click on the Home tab. On the Paragraph group, click on the Line Spacing
button, and then select 1.5.

XIV. Format a Document

Formats can be applied to any text within your document. The formatting styles are the
most common way to change the appearance of text in a document.

A. Apply Format

1. Select text, and then click on your desired format from the Home ribbon.

Format Option Examples:

• Click on the Bold button to make text bold.
• Click on the Italic button to italicize text.
• Click on the Underline button to add an underline to text.
• Click on the Bullets button to add a bulleted list to text.
• Click on the Numbering button to add a numbered list to text.

Note: Microsoft Word Mini Toolbar feature gives you quick access to common
formatting commands. The mini toolbar appears faintly when you select text in
your document. If you want to use this mini toolbar, you can activate it by hovering
the mouse pointer on the toolbar and making your selections. If you prefer not to
use the toolbar, you can continue working within the
document and the toolbar will disappear.

A. On the Garden.docx practice document, do the following formatting explain above:

1. Select the Energy Savings sub-heading text above the second paragraph, and
then press the Control key on the keyboard.
 2. Select the Feasibility of Converting Flat Roofed Building to Gardens sub-
heading text above the third paragraph.
3. While the Control key is still pressed, select sub-heading text from the fourth
and fifth paragraphs (Structural Requirements, Possible Problems).
4. Click on the Bold button.
5. Click on the Italic button.
6. Click on the Underline button.
7. Select all three lines after the Structural Requirements paragraph (Garages
and sheds, Balconies and terraces, and Patios or decks).
8. Click on the Bullets button.
9. Create a Numbered list at the end of the first paragraph of Possible Problem,
by placing the insertion point after the text include, press once on the Enter
key, and then click on the Numbering button.
10. Type the following text, “Rainwater build-up can sacrifice the structural
soundness of the roof. Make sure the structure is slightly angled or has proper
drainage to allow for water runoff.”, and then press once on the Enter key.
11. Type the following text, “Selecting plants that require too much water can
add considerable weight to the garden. The best option is to research and
understand which flowers and plants thrive in a given area and do not
require a lot of water.”, and then press once the Enter key.
12. Type the following text, “The structure may be unable to sustain the weight.
Consider container gardens which consist of lower weight but offer the same
benefits of in-ground plants.”, and then press twice on the Enter key.

XVI. Text Alignment

Microsoft Word aligns paragraphs four different ways relative to the left and right margins:
left, center, right and justified. The Word default paragraph alignment is left. You can
change paragraph alignment by clicking on an Alignment button, located on the Home
ribbon on the Paragraph group.

Alignment Option Examples:

• First button - Align Text Left
• Second button - Center Text
• Third button - Align Text Right
• Fourth button - Justify Text

A. Add Center Alignment

1. Select the title text, ROOF TOP GARDENS, and then click on the Center button.
XVII. View Modes

Microsoft Word has five view modes.

1. To select a view mode, click on the View tab.

2. In the Document Views group, select your desired view mode.

View Name Description

Read Mode The best way to read a document, including some tools
designed for reading instead of writing.

Print Layout Check out how your document will look when it’s printed.

Web Layout See how your document will look as a webpage. This layout
is also great if you have wide tables in your document.

Outline See your document in outline form where content is shown as

bulleted points.

This view is useful for creating headings and moving whole

paragraphs within the document.

Draft Switch your view to see just the text in your document. This is
useful for quick editing because headers/footers and certain
objects won’t show up, allowing you to focus on your text.

XVIII. Spelling and Grammar Checks

Microsoft Word 2019 automatically checks for incorrect spelling and grammar. As you
type the document, Word uses wavy red underlines to indicate possible spelling errors and
wavy green underlines to indicate possible grammatical errors. To correct an error, right-
click on a word with a wavy underline, and then click on the correction from the option
panel that you desire. You can also edit the error directly in the document if no suggestions
are applicable.
A. Make Error Corrections
1. In the first paragraph on the Garden practice document, place the mouse
pointer over the misspelled text (gardning), click on the right mouse button,
and then select the correction from the option panel.
2. In the second paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the misspelled text
(envirnment), click on the right mouse button, and then select the correction
from the option panel.
 3. In the third paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the grammatical error
text (is), click on the right mouse button, and then select the correction from
the option panel.
4. In the third paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the repeated text (on),
click on the right mouse button, and then select Delete Repeated Word from
the option panel.

XIX. Page Breaks and Section Breaks

Page Breaks and Section Breaks can be inserted anywhere within a document.

A. Insert Page Break

Working with Tables

Tables offer a convenient way to display information that might otherwise be confusing
and cluttered. Text is neatly formatted in a table without setting tab stops.

A. Create a Table
The Table Tools tab only appears when a table is selected.

To create a table in Microsoft Word, click on the Insert ribbon. The Table button is the
only one option on the Tables group.

1. Click on the Insert ribbon, and then click on the Table button.
2. The Table panel will appear.

3. Select two rows and two columns as seen above. To insert a table onto your
document, move the mouse pointer over the number of rows and columns
 you desire. The cell selection will be highlighted as you move the mouse.
When the desired rows and columns are highlighted, click on the last cell.

Seminar Time

Word Processing 9:00 AM to 10:30 AM

4. Type the information in the table shown above. The insertion point will
appear in the first cell of the table. Type text in the first cell, and then use
the Tab key on the keyboard to move from one cell to the next.
5. After you type the information in the last cell, press the Tab key. Word
automatically inserts a new blank row.

6. Type the text seen above as you insert new rows.

Move within a Table

Moving the insertion point and selecting text in a table is very similar to the ways you do
so for regular text in a document. However, there are some procedures that are unique to
tables as illustrated below.

Procedure Description

Tab and (Shift + Tab) Use the Tab key to move from left to right; use Shift+Tab to
move from right to left.

Keyboard Arrow Keys The up and down arrows will move up and down rows.

Move the insertion point Use the Mouse to position the cursor as needed.

To select a single cell Click three times inside the cell or drag over the cell's contents.

To select an entire row Place the mouse pointer on the left margin, pointing to the row
than click once or drag over row cell’s contents.

To select an entire Click the column’s top gridline/border or drag over column cell’s
contents.
column
To select the entire table Single click on the table move handle on the top left corner
of table or press the Alt key and double click in any cell of the
table.

One can adjust columns and rows accordingly, add columns and rows also merge cells of
table are desired and delete cells, rows and tables and format tables to one desire

XX. Print a Document

Click on the File tab and select the Print option to print your current document. This will
display the Print window options, along with a preview of the document to the right, such
as the range of pages to print and the number of copies to print.
The default printer is the printer that your applications will use unless you specify
otherwise. To change printers, click on the drop-down arrow next to Printer Name. This
will display a list of installed printers and allow you to select another printer.
1. Select your desired options in the Print window.

2. Click on the Print button to print your document.

10.4.2 Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a powerful electronic spreadsheet program you can use to automate
accounting work, organize data, and perform a wide variety of tasks. Excel is designed to
perform calculations, analyze information, and visualize data in a spreadsheet. Also this
application includes database and charting features.
Launch Excel
To launch Excel for the first time:
1. Click on the Start button.
2. Click on All Programs.
3. Select Microsoft Office from the menu options, and then click on Microsoft Excel.

Window Features
The purpose of the window features is to enable the user to perform routine tasks related
to the Microsoft applications. All the Office applications share a common appearance and
similar features. The window features provide a quick means to execute commands. Here
are some pertinent Excel features:
Figure 10.4: Excel features

C. Spreadsheet Terms

Term Description

1 Quick Access Toolbar Displays quick access to commonly used commands.

2 Search Bar Advance search will help you find and perform tasks.

3 Title Bar Displays the name of the application file.

4 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office button. It helps you to
manage the Microsoft application and provide access to its
options such as Open, New, Save, As Print, etc.

5 Name Box Displays the active cell location.

6 Cell The intersection of a row and column; cells are always named
with the column letter followed by the row number (e.g. A1 and
AB209); cells may contain text, numbers and formulas.
7 Range One or more adjacent cells. A range is identified by its first and
last cell address, separated by a colon. Example ranges are
B5:B8, A1:B1 and A1:G240.

8 Status Bar Displays information about the current worksheet.

9 New Sheet Add a new sheet button.

10 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs. Each tab

provides buttons for commands.

11 Formula Bar Input formulas and perform calculations.

12 Worksheet A grid of cells that are more than 16,000 columns wide (A-Z,
AA-AZ, BA-BZ…IV) and more than 1,000,000 rows long.

13 View Option Display worksheet view mode.

D. Mouse Pointer Styles

The Excel mouse pointer takes on many different appearances as you move around the
spreadsheet. The following table summarizes the most common mouse pointer
appearances:

Pointer Example Description

The white plus sign will select a single cell to enter

data, retype data or delete text from the selected
cell. This pointer is also useful for selecting a range
of cells.

The white arrow will drag the contents of the

selected cell to a new location (drag and drop).

The black plus sign activates the fill handle of the

selected cell and will fill the adjoining cells with
some type of series, depending on the type of data
(e.g., a formula or date) is in the beginning cell.
 E. Spreadsheet Navigation

The following table provides various methods to navigation around a spreadsheet.

Method Description

mouse pointer Use the mouse pointer to select a cell.

scroll bars Use the horizontal and vertical scroll bars to move around the spreadsheet to
view columns and rows not currently visible. Click the mouse pointer once the
desired cell is visible.

arrow keys Use the left , right →, up , and down arrows to move accordingly among
cells.

Enter Press the Enter key to move down one cell at a time.

Tab Press the Tab key to move one cell to the right.

Ctrl+Home Moves the cursor to cell A1.

Ctrl+End Moves the cursor to the last cell of used space on the worksheet, which is the
cell at the intersection of the right-most used column and the bottom-most used
row (in the lower-right corner).

End + arrow key Moves the cursor to the next or last cell in the current column or row which
contains information.

1. Practice moving around the spreadsheet.

2. Practice selecting cells and cell ranges.
Basic Steps for Creating a Spreadsheet
When creating a spreadsheet, it is recommended to do the following steps:
Made a draft of your spreadsheet idea on paper.
1. Enter the data from your draft onto the actual spreadsheet.
2. Format your data after entering onto the spreadsheet.
3. Calculate data by using mathematical formulas.
4. Save the document.
5. Preview and Print the spreadsheet.

Enter and Format Data

A. Create Spreadsheet
Illustration of spreadsheet to be completed in exercise below:

Budget for Guest Speakers

Item Fall Spring Summer Annual

Research 20 20 10 50

Correspondence/Communication 30 30 15 75

Publicity 50 50 25 125

Honorariums 500 500 250 1250

Travel 750 750 325 1825

Lodging 300 300 150 750

Total $1,650.00 $1,650.00 $ $4,075.00

775.00

1. Open Excel Practice File.xlsx , and then click on the Budget sheet tab.

(The instructor will indicate the location for this file.)

a. Select cell A1, and then type Budget for Guest Speakers.
b. Select cell A3, type Item, and then press the Tab key.
c. Select cell B3, type Fall, and then press the Tab key.
d. Select cell C3, type Spring, and then press the Tab key.
e. Select cell D3, type Summer, and then press the Tab key.
f. Select cell E3, type Annual, and then press the Tab key.

B. Manipulating Excel cells

Initially all columns/rows have the same width in a spreadsheet. Often you will need to
make columns/row wider/heigh or narrower. By see the table below
method Description

dragging method Move the cursor up to the column heading area and point to
the vertical line to the right of the column that you want to
change. When the cursor becomes a "plus sign" with horizontal
arrows, press the mouse button and drag in either direction to
resize the column. Release the mouse button to accept the
new size.

double click to auto fit Move the cursor up to the column heading area and point to
the vertical line to the right of the column that you want to
change. When the cursor becomes a "plus sign" with horizontal
arrows, double click to AutoFit this one column.

AutoFit a range Use the mouse to select the range of cells that needs to be
adjusted and on the Home ribbon in the Cells group, choose
Format, and the select the AutoFit Column Width option.

1. Increase the width of column A via the dragging method so that all text
entries are visible.
2. Decrease the width of column C via the dragging method until pound
symbols ### appear.
3. Increase the width of column C to return to its original size.

Insert and Delete Rows and Columns

Rows/columns can be Inserted and also deleted

Procedure Description

Add Row Select any cell of the row where you desire to add a new row
above. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Insert
button, and then select Insert Sheet Rows. A new roll will appear
above your selected cell row.
Add Column Select any cell of the column letter where you desire to add a
new column to the left. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group,
click on the Insert button, and then select Insert Sheet Columns.
A new column will appear to the left of your selected column.

Delete Row or Column Select any cell where you desire to delete a row or column. On
the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Delete button,
and then selected Delete Sheet Rows or Delete Sheet Columns.
The row or column where the cell was selected will be deleted.

1. Select any cell in column C.

2. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Insert drop-down arrow,
and then select Insert Sheet Columns. A new column will appear to the left
of your selected column.
3. Click the Undo button.
4. Select any cell in row 6.
5. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Insert drop-down arrow,
and then select Insert Sheet Rows. A new roll will appear above your selected
cell row.
6. Select cell A6, and then type Photocopy Services.
7. Press Tab and complete the additional columns as follows:

Basic steps for creating a formula:

1. Click in the empty cell which will contain the formula.
2. Type an equal sign (=).
3. Type the cell address or click the cell that contains the first number.
4. Type the math operator (+ - / * ^).
5. Type the cell address or click the cell that contains the second number.
6. Continue in this manner until the formula is complete.
7. Use parenthesis for clarification.
8. Press the Enter key.

The following image depicts various formulas in an Excel spreadsheet which will be created
in a following exercise:
C. AutoSum
Adding is the most common math operation performed in Excel. The Home ribbon
includes an AutoSum button for adding. This button provides a shortcut to typing
formulas.

Basic Steps for using AutoSum:

1. Move to the empty cell that will contain the formula.
2. Click on the AutoSum button.
3. Proofread the formula that Excel provides, make any necessary changes.
4. Press the Enter key or click the check mark on the formula bar.
Click back on the Budget sheet tab.

1. Select cell B12, click on the AutoSum button, and then press the Enter key.
2. Repeat the AutoSum process for cells C12, D12, E12.

Note: You can copy formulas that refer to empty cells. After you type numbers in the
empty cells, the formulas will be updated.

3. Click in cell B4 and change the amount $20 to $50, and then press Enter key.

Note: Formula results are updated automatically in Excel. As you change any values that
are referred to in a formula, the formula will reflect these changes.

4. Complete the AutoSum process for column E. Click in cell E4.

5. Click on the AutoSum button to add the Research expenses for the three
semesters.
6. Press the Enter key.
7. Select the cell range B5:E5, click the AutoSum button, and then press Enter key.
8. Auto Fill this formula to the cell range E6:E11.
9. Copy this formula to the cell range E6:E11 by using the Auto Fill method illustrated
above. Place the mouse pointer on the small solid square on lower right corner of
cell E5, when the mouse pointer changes to a plus sign (Fill handle), then hold down
on the right mouse button and drag the mouse down the designed cells (E6:E11) to
copy the formula. The Auto Fill feature is explained in more detail in the Additional
Features section on page 44.

D. Charts

Microsoft Excel can display data graphically in a chart. Excel displays values from worksheet
cells as bars, lines, columns, pie slices, or other shapes in a chart. When you create a chart,
the values from the worksheet are automatically represented in the chart. Presenting data
in a chart can make it easier to read and more interesting to interpret. Charts can also help
you evaluate your data and make comparisons between different values.

Figure 10.5: a chart

A. Sort Data

The sorting feature in Excel allows you to place records in order alphabetically or
numerically. You may specify up to three sort levels (e.g. sort first by state, then by city,
then by last name). Sorts may be ascending (A-Z or 0-9) or descending (Z-A or 9-0). You
should always save the workbook before you sort.

Use the Sort A to Z (ascending) or Sort Z to A (descending) buttons to sort the records, so
that the highest or lowest values are at the top of the column.
Click on the Invoice sheet tab.
1. Click on any cell within the Department column, and then click on the Sort
& Filter button located on the Home ribbon in the Editing group.

2. Click on the Sort A to Z button, to view data in ascending order.

3. Click on the Sort Z to A button, to view data in ascending order.

B. AutoFilter

The spreadsheet AutoFilter allows you to view and quickly locate data that meet specific
criteria. This feature is faster and more productive than scroll through your entire
spreadsheet to find specific data criteria. Once the information is filtered, you can printout
the displayed data. Once filtering is turned on, click arrows in the column header to choose
a filter for the column.

1. Click on any cell in the database.

2. Click on the Sort & Filter button, located on the Home ribbon in the Editing
group, and then select the Filter from the options window.

3. Drop-down arrows are placed next to each column field name.

4. Click on the Department drop-down arrow. In the Search display window,
deselect the Select All option, and then select Biology.

5. Click on the OK button. Now, only records from the Biology department
are listed. Two records should display.

6. Click on the Filter button next to Department, then deselect Biology and
select Law. Four records should display.

7. Turn off Filter, click on the Filter button next to Department again,
and select the Select All option. All records in the database display.

8. Click on the Subcode drop-down arrow. In the Search display window,

deselect the Select All option, and then select 521.

9. Click on the OK button. Now, only records from the 521 Subcode are listed.
Three records should display.

10. Turn off Filter, click on the Filter button next to Subcode, then
deselect 521 and select the Select All option. All records in the spreadsheet database
display.
You can choose one item from many different fields to narrow down a search. For
example, to display all of the Smiths who work in the Law department, filter both of these
fields set to the desired criteria.

Print a Spreadsheet
Click on the File tab and select the Print option. Preview your spreadsheet on the righthand
side of the File screen. If you are satisfied with the preview, click the Print button, otherwise
click on the Home tab to return to the document and edited document. (Page Setup
options are covered in the Additional Features section on page 47.)

L. Exit Excel
When you are finished using Excel, use click on the File tab, and select the Exit option or
click on the Close button in the upper right-hand corner of the Excel window. If your
file has recently been saved, Excel will exit promptly. However, if the file needs to be saved
before quitting, Excel will prompt you to do so.

Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet that automates manual calculations involved

in accounting and bookkeeping. After you have typed the basic text and number entries in
a spreadsheet cell, Excel can perform the math calculations for you. You will learn how to
create formulas and functions to perform calculations in a spreadsheet.

Example formulas are: =D15+D18+D21: =B4-B12: =A10/B15: =(B16+C16) *1.07 Do

not use any spaces in formulas. Also, when creating formulas, you may choose to either
type the cell address or use the mouse to select the cell address.

10.4.5 Microsoft Power point

Introduction
PowerPoint is a graphical presentation program used to organize and present information.
PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or "slides.” Slides may
contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects that can be freely arranged.
Presentations can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or navigated through at the
command of the presenter. For larger audiences, the presentation is often projected onto
a large screen. Handouts, speaker notes, or outlines can also be produced from the slides.

Launch Microsoft PowerPoint

1. Click on the Office Start button.
2. Click on the PowerPoint icon from the options panel.
3. The PowerPoint Template window will appear.
 4. Click on the Blank Presentation icon.

Windows Features
The purpose of Windows Features is to enable the user to perform routine tasks related to
the Microsoft applications. All Office applications share a common appearance and similar
features. Windows Features provide a quick means to execute commands. Below are some
pertinent PowerPoint features:

1. Quick Access Toolbar 2. Title Bar

3. File Tab
8. Ribbon

4. Thumbnail Slide
9. Collapse

5. Title Placeholder

6. Subtitle Placeholder
10. Work Area

7. Status Bar 11. View Options

Figure 10.6: Pertinent PowerPoint features

Feature Terms and Descriptions

Term Description
1 Quick Access Toolbar Displays quick access to commonly used commands.
2 Title Bar Displays the name of the open file.
3 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office 2007 button. It helps you to
manage the Microsoft application and provides access to options
such as Open, New, Save As, Print, etc.
4 Thumbnail Slide Displays a snapshot of each slide.
5 Title Placeholder Section where text is entered.

6 Subtitle Placeholder Section where text and/or graphics are entered.

7 Status Bar Displays information about the slide presentation, such as page
numbers.
8 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs. Each tab provides
buttons for commands.
9 Collapse Collapses the ribbon so only the tab names show.
10 Work Area Each slide has an area where text and graphics are entered for a
presentation. There are various slide layouts to work from.
11 View Option Displays several View modes for slides.

The Ribbon
The Ribbon replaces the menu bar seen in previous versions of PowerPoint. The Ribbon
groups items that are most likely to be used together. There are several frequently used
tabs, such as File, Home, Insert, Design and View. Clicking on each tab activates a group
of relative commands, menus, and buttons. There are also contextual tabs that only show
up only when needed, such as Text Box Tools, Picture Tools, Drawing Tools and Chart
Tools. To activate those tools, click on the associated object.

Presentation Slides
Slides in a presentation are similar to pages in a word processing document. All slides and
graphics are saved in one file (example: keys.xppt). Use the PowerPoint file to present the
information in the following ways:

Opening PowerPoint

To open a PowerPoint 2016 presentation, click on the File tab in the upper left corner.

The most common choices for opening a presentation are:

• New ‐ allows you to open a Blank presentation or you may choose from a selection
of Templates and Themes.
 • Open ‐ lets you navigate to an existing file to view and/or modify a presentation
that has already been created.
• Recent – displays a list of your most recently created presentations and their file
locations.
Creating New Presentations
The New selection gives you several options:
 Blank presentation creates a new presentation using default settings for text and color.
Theses slides will not include content or design elements.
 Templates and Themes are used to create a new presentation based on predesigned
slide styles. These options also do not include content.
 New from existing will use the formatting of a previously created presentation.
For this exercise, we’ll start with a Blank presentation. Select New, choose Blank
presentation and click on the Create icon.

PowerPoint Slides
When you choose to create a blank presentation, PowerPoint will open a presentation
with a Title Slide. Once the Title Slide is open, you’ll see a slide with two placeholder text
boxes for a title and a subtitle. Click inside the placeholder box and type to add the title.
If you want a subtitle, click and type inside the smaller placeholder. If you don’t want a
subtitle, you can just ignore its placeholder box.

To add a New Slide, make sure you’re on the Home tab. The New Slide button will add
slides to your presentation.

The New Slide button has two parts:

 Clicking on the top part will automatically insert a new slide. If you have just
reated a Title slide, the new default layout will be a Title and Content slide (for
details, see the section on slide layouts).

Clicking on the bottom will give you a choice of layouts. You can choose which
layout you want for your next slide. Select a slide layout by clicking on its image
in the Office Theme gallery.
Slide Layouts
There are several standard slide layouts to
choose from when adding new slides.

A unique layout can be chosen by clicking on the bottom half of the New Slide button in
the Home tab. When the layout gallery opens, click on the style you want and a new slide
with that layout will appear in your presentation.

Each layout caption describes the layout type. Content can be text, tables, charts,
graphics, pictures, clip art, or video.

If you decide later that the layout you chose doesn’t work well for a particular slide, select
the slide by clicking on it in the Thumbnail pane. Next, click on the Layout button in the
Slides group of the Home tab. Click on a new layout and it will change the
layout of the slide.

Saving a Presentation
You can save a file by clicking the File tab, choosing Save, typing a descriptive name into
the File Name window, and then clicking the Save button.
 PowerPoint, use the Save As option and select PowerPoint 97 – 2003 Presentation from
the Save as type menu.

Save and Send to Others

If you need to send your presentation to
someone else, the best way to is to use the
Save & Send option. You can send an
attachment of your file using Send Using
Email, but if you have large media files,
such as videos, you’ll need to compress
those first to make a smaller file. On the
Home Select the Info tab and click the
Compress Media button and choose
Presentation Quality. Note: Only
available if you have inserted media.

You also have the option to Package Presentation for CD. This allows you to add other
files or to add a PowerPoint Viewer so that the presentation can be run on a computer
that does not have the PowerPoint program. You can also add any linked files such as
video or audio.
Applying a Theme (Styles)
Once a new presentation has been created, a design or color scheme can be added.
Remember to use color carefully to enhance your presentation, not detract from it. You
will want to maintain good contrast between the background color and the text color.
Consider using a light colored background and dark text (or vice versa), but avoid busy
backgrounds and primary colors. Use sans serif fonts like Arial, Calibri, and Helvetica for
titles and size them between 44 – 60 points. Sub‐headings should be between 32 – 40
points, and body text between 18 – 32 points. Try not to use more than two fonts.

PowerPoint has many pre‐set designs and themes that include complimentary colors and
fonts. To add a theme to a presentation, go to the Design tab in the ribbon. There are
several themes immediately available. To use one of the built‐in themes, just click on its
thumbnail.

On the right side of the Theme thumbnails, there’s a scroll bar and an Arrow Down button,
which will offer more designs, as seen below. If you’re online, you can get more themes
from Microsoft Office Online. (Your office program must be a genuine Office product to
get online templates).
If you don’t want to use a theme, you can add Background Styles. From this selection,
you can add some preset background styles that change according to the colors you’ve
chosen.

Using the Format

Background feature,
you can choose fill
colors, gradients,
transparencies,
textures, or pictures for your background.

When you have the desired background fill effect, select Close to apply
it to the selected slide or choose Apply to All to add the background
to all of the slides in the presentation.

Designs can be added to all of the slides or to selected slides. To select

multiple slides, click on a slide in the Thumbnail pane of the navigation
bar and then hold down the control key and click on any other slides
Text
you want to apply the design to.

Adding Content
Text is the default content of the slide below. The format for the default text is a bulleted
list. To add text, click and begin typing. To add other content, click on the icon within the
content group on the new slide. Each icon will open the appropriate dialog box or task
pane in the Drawing Tool
s contextual tab.
Drawing Tools

The icons represent the six standard graphical elements that you might want to insert.

Clicking on an icon will open the associated dialog box. Note that these icons, as well as
several other insertion options, are also displayed in the Insert tab on the Ribbon.
Tables
Set the number of columns and rows as needed in the Insert Table dialog box and click
OK. Methods for editing and the design and layout of your table are located on the Table
Tools contextual tab.

Table Tools

Charts
Select the type of chart you want and click OK. Once inserted into the slide, you can click
on the chart to activate the Chart Tools contextual tab, where you’ll find tools for editing
chart data and changing layouts and styles.
Header and Footer
When printing slides or handouts, it is often nice to be able to add a title or an author
into the Header and Footer section of the printout.
1. In the Slides printing options, let’s choose the printing option 3 slides per page in the
Handout section, and change the Orientation back to Portrait.
2. Note in the preview pane that the date and page number can be seen. These items
are not part of the header or footer, but rather they are options that can be defined
in the Handout Master View.
3. Click on the Edit Header & Footer link at the bottom of the Settings. A dialogue box
opens.
4. Click the Notes and Handouts tab.
5. Note the small preview area where sections of the print areas are called out. Note
that the page number is checked on by default and it is called out in the Preview in
the lower right corner.
6. Click in the Header checkbox and note where that section of the print area is called
out in the Preview.
7. In the Header field type our presentation title, which is Band Boosters Meeting.

8. Click in the Footer check box and type your name in the field below it.
9. Click the Apply to All button.

Viewing Presentations
There are four different ways to view your presentation in PowerPoint. The views can be
accessed using the buttons in the status bar, or by using the View Tab on the Ribbon.

Normal View displays a single slide as it appears in the presentation, as well as thumbnails
and an outline tab, where you can organize the structure. Speaker notes can be added in
the bottom section of this window. This view is used to create and edit slides.
Slide Sorter View shows thumbnails of your slides. From this view you can reorder slides
by dragging and dropping them, or you can set the timing for the slide show. You can
also hide slides in this view. Hiding a slide will keep it in the file, but it will not show
when you view the presentation.
Notes Page View allows the speaker to create notes to use during a presentation. Each
page corresponds to one slide. These can be printed to assist the presenter during the
presentation. Use this view when you’re composing speaking topics.
Reading View/Slide Show View displays the slides as an audience will see them. Use the
arrows and icons on the lower right side of the Status Bar to advance slides or switch Slide
Show Tab

The Slide Show Tab allows you to review the slide show from beginning to end or from
the current (active) slide. You can also control how the show will be presented and
rehearse timings in the Set Up Slide Show drop down box.

Transitions
If you've ever seen a PowerPoint presentation that had "special effects" between each
slide, then you've seen slide transitions. A transition can be as simple as fading to the next
slide, or it can be a flashy, eye-catching effect. That means you can choose transitions to
fit the style of any presentation. Applying a Transition
1. Open FlashCards.pptx from your flash drive.
2. Select Slide 1 .
3. Click the Transitions tab and locate the Transition to This Slide group.
4. Notice how the None option has a gray background. This means that the currently
selected slide does not have a transition. This is the default setting for all slides.

5. Click the More button to display all of the transitions.

a. Note that transitions are grouped into three categories; Subtle, Exciting, and
Dynamic Content.
b. The categories are self-explanatory except for Dynamic Content. In that
category, the transitions affect the content of a slide such as text boxes or
images instead of the entire slide.

6. Click on the Dissolve transition in the Exciting category to apply it to Slide 1 . This
will automatically preview the transition as well.

Transition could be modified and viewed

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of wordprocessing, spreadsheet
and graphic presentation application software, with regard to Microfsoft Office, Word,
Excel and Power Point. It features wordprocessing, spreadsheet and graphic presentation
with hands on practice on how to use them.A handfull of exercses were given for the
students to work on.

Exercises
1. What is wordprocessing?
2. Mention the features of a wordprocessing application?
3. Give some examples of wordprocessing application software?
4. What is a spreadsheet?
5. Mention the basic features of a named spreadsheet?
6. Give some examples of spreadsheet application software.
7. What is Graphic presentation?
8. Mention the features of Graphic presentations?
9. Give some examples Graphic presentation application software.
10. Create a word document and save.
11. Create a Spreadsheet book and save.
12. Create Presentation slide and save.
13. Define the following terms:
i. Ribbon
ii. Quick Access
iii. Tabs
iv. Transition
v. Function
vi. Mail Merge

References

Microsoft Power Point Basics Creating a Power point Slide Presentation:

http://media.news.health.ufl.edu/misc/training/Handouts/PowerPoint/2016/2016_Power
Point-Basics.pdf

MICROSOFT POWERPOINT 2016: STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE: (2018)

content/uploads/ComputerLab/ClassResources/Microsoft%20PowerPoint%202016/Pow
erPoint%202016%20Step-by-Step%20Guide.pdf

https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Word%202019%20Fu
ndametals%20Manual.pdf

https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Excel%202019%20Fun
dametals%20Manual.pdf

https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Powerpoint%202019
%20Fundametals%20Manual.pdf
 Chapter 11
Browsers, Search Engines and Online Resources

Overview

This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about browsers, search engines, and online
resources. It sheds light on the definitions, types, and importance of the applications in
modern-day information retrieval systems, such as major concepts on search engines,
browsers and the importance of online resources are discussed. The chapter is summarized
and selected exercises are provided for the readers.

Objectives

This chapter provides students with basic knowledge of browsers, search engines, and
online resources. Specifically, students should be able to:
a) Define browsers, search engines, and online resources.
b) Describe types of browsers and search engines
c) List the examples of search engines
d) Explain formulation of typical queries for retrieving text documents using
BOOLEAN logic
e) List the steps required to send and receive requests from the Internet through the
browser.
f) Illustrate the components of the search engine with a diagram
g) Explain the available online resources and their usefulness in society.

11.1 Importance of Online Resources

Online resources are digital tools or platforms (e.g. Websites, mobile apps, databases,
online communities, search engines, and so on) that are available on the Internet. These
applications are developed to proffer solutions to problems through a wide range of
information and services in different areas of human lives, such as education, government,
healthcare, transportation, commerce, communication, and so on. The resources are
affordable and offer flexibility in learning, collaboration, information sharing, and time
management. Examples of online resources are social media, online libraries, e-learning
platforms, e-commerce, and so on.

The importance of online resources is summarized under different areas of application as

follows:

1. Research and learning: There are available online resources used for research. Examples
of online resources used for research, teaching, and learning are online libraries, eLearning
platforms, and online tools.

Online libraries: These are resources that offer access to a vast digital collection of books,
articles, journals, and other documents for reading and downloading by users. The libraries
are accessed through browsers or specific apps developed for the libraries. These resources
are accessed conveniently, making them an alternative to traditional libraries in terms the
ability to read and listen to materials on various mobile gadgets. Specific contents offered
by the libraries include ebooks, audiobooks, images, videos, multimedia, and scholarly
articles. Services offered by online libraries are summarized as follows:
a) Subscription: Some online libraries may require a subscription or membership fee,
while others are entirely free to use.
b) Search: Resources of various categories and collections in the libraries can be
accessed through queries submitted to the search engines via devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, and e-readers.
c) Recommendation: There are provisions for recommendation services based on the
profile and reading history or preferences of users.
Other services include the ability to highlight salient points on pages, take notes, bookmark
pages, and download materials for offline use.
eLearning platforms: These are application software that provides educational resources in
the form of video lectures, interactive modules, quizzes, and assignments, online courses,
training programs, and educational resources for learners of all ages and backgrounds, and
so on. It offers a flexible and accessible approach to learning and development of skills.
Examples of eLearning platforms are Moodle, Blackboards, Coursera, Udemy, Khan
Academy, and more. Services offered by online libraries are summarized as follows:
a) Online learning: Support for live virtual classrooms enhances online delivery
of educational content, where learners can interact with instructors and other
students in real-time.
b) Remote access to online courses and educational contents: eLearning
platforms utilize technology to deliver educational content, enabling learners
to access courses and materials remotely.
c) Development of new skills: It offers opportunity to students at all levels of
education, from nursery to higher education, as well as professionals seeking
to develop new skills or enhance existing ones. Also, it provides training to
employees or offer professional development opportunities to governments,
organizations, institutions and agencies.
Online tools: These are applications or web-based programs that provide various
functionalities and features to help users perform tasks, create content, manage projects
through collaboration. These tools offer opportunities to create and collaborate on
documents, store and share files, and manage projects in real-time at desired location.
Online tools are typically accessed through browser without any need for download or
installation. They are highly customizable, allowing users to tailor the application to specific
needs and preferences. There are numerous types of online tools available, including
productivity tools, design tools, collaboration tools, communication tools, and educational
tools. Online tools offer several benefits, such as accessibility, ease of use, and cost-
effectiveness. Users can access online tools from any device with internet connectivity via
browser. These are convenient and flexible resources are available to a wide range of users
at free or low-cost. However, online tools can also have limitations, such as limited
functionality, security concerns, and potential reliability issues. It's important for users to
choose online tools that meet their specific needs and requirements and to take appropriate
precautions to protect their data and privacy. Some examples of online tools include,
Google Drive for document creation and sharing, Canva for graphic design, Trello for
project management, Slack for team communication, and Khan Academy for online
learning.

2. Communication and social networking: The online resource used to create, share, and
interact with the Web contents and connect with other users is social media.

Social media: This is an application that is designed to facilitate social networking and
communication. It allows users to share information, opinions, and experiences with others
to meet specific needs. Users can also interact with content by liking, commenting, and
sharing it with the network of friends and followers on issues bothering on marketing,
advertising, learning, banking, healthcare and more. These interactions and other activities
can extend the reach and engagements to the target audience on a large scale, thereby
expanding the business. However, social media can also have negative effects on mental
health, privacy, and personal relationships. Examples of social media applications are:
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, YouTube and more.
3. Commerce: Online marketplaces are facilitated applications the support transactions
between buyers and sellers on a commission or fee basis. Example of online resource for
facilitating commerce is eCommerce platform.

eCommerce platform: This is an application used to access large customer base and a
variety of marketing and advertising tools to promote products sales and services. It is
capable of processing fast and accurate transactions, including payments as well as performs
price comparisons among different sellers. Also, product reviews and ratings from other
buyers are readily available for buyers to make informed purchasing decisions. Examples
of eCommerce platforms are: Jumia, Konga, JiJi, Amazon, eBay, Etsy, Alibaba and more.

11.2 Types of Browsers

A browser (otherwise called a Web browser) is an application for accessing the Web. It
provides an interface for the Web user (i.e. client) to communicate with the database (i.e.
Server). The browser initiates HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request to the server
through the information provided by the client via Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
Examples of URLs are: http://www.nuc.edu.ng; http://www.uniuyo.edu.ng,
http://cbn.org, and more. HTTP is the protocol for transmitting data and nuc.edu.ng is the
domain name.

The following steps are defined for a Web page to be displayed on a browser:

a) A browser initiates an HTTP request.

b) The destination server responds to the browser’s request with required information
defining the content of the Web page such as text, audio, video.
c) The response to the request ends a session.
d) Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) parser interprets the structure of the page
specified using tags.
e) HTML parse creates a Document Object Model (DOM) representation.
 f) DOM is used to identify the components of the Web page
The functions of browser include:

ii) Provides the interface for users to send requests to the Web
iii) Rendering of markup codes for Web pages
iv) Delivers interactiveness in terms of full-motion videos, and animations.
v) Displays Web pages of unstructured data of documents.
There are different types of web browsers available for use on the Web; such as:

Google Chrome: It is a cross-platform browser characterized by high speed, simplicity, and

wide usage and developed by Google.

Mozilla Firefox: It is characterized by privacy features and add-ons and developed by

Mozilla.

Microsoft Edge: It is a high-speed and secure browser, developed by Microsoft and pre-
installed on Windows 10 devices.

Apple Safari: The browser is fast and compatible with Apple devices. It is developed by
Apple.

Opera: This browser has built-in Virtual Private Network (VPN) and ad blocker features.
It is developed by Opera Software.

Brave: The browser has privacy features and a reward program for users. It is developed
by Brave Software,

Vivaldi: The browser is known for its customization options and power user features. It is
developed by Vivaldi Technologies.

Konqueror: This browser is HTML 4.01 compliant and provides support for Java Applets,
JavaScript, CSS 1, CSS 2.1, as well as Netscape plugins.

Lynx: This browser is specifically developed for users on Unix, VMS, and other platforms
running cursor-addressable, character-cell terminals, or emulators.

11.3 Types of Search Engines

Search engine is an application program that facilitates search and retrieval of stored
information from database. To retrieve the content of Web pages stored in large database,
request (i.e. query) is submitted to the search engine, through the user’s interface. Query is
a combination of terms using keywords and/or phrases (or terms) that represent the
attributes of the stored document. Query term(s) is used by search engine to match against
the indexed document in the database and display a list of ranked results based on the
order of relevance. Search engine comprises different components that work together to
achieve the purpose of retrieving relevant information (or feedback to users’ queries) to
meet the information needs of its users. These components are: indexer, database, web
crawler and user interface. These components are illustrated in Figure 8.1. Examples of
Search engines are: Google, Yahoo and more.

Crawler

INDEXER

Database
Indexes

Figure 11.1: Diagram showing different components of search engine

11.3.1 Components of search engine

1. User interface: The interface provides a platform for interaction between the user
and database of indexed Web pages. It is implemented on Web browser, e.g.
Chrome, Edge, Firefox and more.
2. Web crawler: This is an application that continuously searches, identifies and collects
information regarding new or Web pages with updated information to be indexed.
The Web pages are downloaded automatically from the seed set and links on the
pages are extracted. This process continues recursively using a set of predefined
rules. A seed set is the starting set of URLs that forms the input to the crawler.
3. Indexer is an application program that generates indexes for stored resources on the
Web.
4. Database provides storage for information on the Web pages, such as textual, audio,
video and multimedia.
11.3.2 Functions of search engine

1. Identification of Web information resources by crawling and submission of pages.

2. Document indexing: Modified or new Webpages are indexed using information
such as: words on the Web page, the Web address (URL), parts of the URL, links,
metadata found in the “head” of the document, the URLs of links on the page,
image filenames, words in linked text and more. Also, search system may also use
attributes derived as language, by analysis of the document.
3. Retrieval and ranking of retrieved records in order of relevance: Records retrieved
as feedback to users’ queries are often displayed in order of relevance to the user
information needs. The failure or success of ranking algorithm determines the
 following: users’ perception, users’ continuous usage and the commercial value of
the search engine. Some of the factors to be considered in the development of
algorithm for ranking search results in order of relevance include:
a. Use of keywords in document titles, contents, headings, subheadings and so
on.
b. The number of external and internal links to the Web site indicating its
popularity.
c. Number of clickable text (hyperlinked or clickable text)
d. Quality of links leading out to other pages from the Web site.
4. Users' queries Interface: It provides the user of the search engine opportunity to
interact with the Web using queries. The simplicity of a single search box and menu-
based interfaces appeal to the less experienced users, while potentials for using
Boolean logic and “prefixes” (e.g., “title :”) appeals to developers of search engine
program.
5. Information filtering: inappropriate or low-quality contents (such as: spams or
malware-infected pages) can be removed from the Internet by search engines.
6. Personalization: Selected search engines can retrieve results based on the users’
profile, search history, location among other factors.
11.3.3 Formulation of Search query

Queries are formulated with a view to improving the relevance of the retrieved
documents. There are various options to formulate or modify queries to meet the users’
information needs of users of the search engine. These options include: Boolean operators,
phrase searching, title searching, language specification, and exact match of URL, links or
titles.

Boolean operators: The operators include: AND, OR, NOT. “AND” operator sugests a
particular group of terms mentioned in the query are present in result. Example, a query
“student AND lecturer” indicates that all the retrieved documents is acceptable if it contains
“student” and “lecturer”. “OR” operator signifies that any of the group of terms mentioned
in the query is present in the search result. Example, a query “student OR lecturer” signifies
that all the retrieved documents is acceptable if it contains any of “student” or “lecturer”.
“NOT” indicates that if a particular term is present, the item is rejected. Example: “NOT
student” indicates that any document with “student” in the content is rejected.

Phrase searching: It is one of the most useful ways of improving precision in document
retrieval from the Web by using quotation marks around the phrase. Example: “School
Teacher” (with the quotation marks) retrieves only the Web pages that contain the word
“school” immediately in front of the word “teacher.”

Title searching limits retrieval of Web pages to particular keywords or combinations of

words in the title of documents.
URL and domain searching retrieve Web pages with similar address. Examples of URL are:
www.nuc.edu.ng, www.ccbn.org,and more. Examples of domain names are: .com, .edu,
.gov, .org and so on.
11.3.4 Categories of Search Engines

Search engines are considered to fall into one of following four categories based on their
functions, such as:

General Search Engines: These engines search for large portions of all pages that exist on
the Web on wide range of topics. It matches the user’s query with the indexed content on
the Web to provide relevant feedback to the users. Examples are: Google, Bing, Yahoo,
GigaBlast, Ask, MSN Live, AOL, Exalead and more.
Specialty search Engine: It focuses on searching kind of information specific to user’s niche,
file type, or sources from a particular subject or geographic region. This valuable to tool
for users whose information needs focus on specific domains or industry. These are search
engines specifically developed for; News, commercial, medical travels, legal information
and so on. Some examples are: Lexis/Nexis, Factiva, and DIALOG, Technorati, IceRocket,
Bloglines, Google Blog Search, Podcastdirectory.com, Podcast.com, pipl Search, Infobel,
Yahoo People Search, Intelius, PeopleFinders and more.
Visualization search Engine: It performs the function of showing relationship in sets of the
retrieved items, such as: diagrams, images, or other “visuals”. The search engine is a
valuable tool for users who need information in fields that involves complex visual data,
such as science, engineering and design. There are different types of visualization search
engines, namely: concept maps, image, video and 3D (three-dimensional) search engines.
Examples are: Kartoo, TouchGraph, and Grokker, and Quintura and more.

Meta search Engine: It gathers together the search results on a specific topic from multiple
search engines, simultaneously. It is useful for users who are interested in multiple searches
from multiple search engines so that results could be compared for different search engines.
Some examples of Meta search engines are: Dogpile, MetaCrawler, DuckDuckGo, Clusty,
Ixquick, Mamma. Search.com and more.
11.3.5 Criteria for measurement of effectiveness of search engine

The following criteria can be used as measures to determine the effectiveness of the
performance of search engine.

Relevance: It measures the degree of similarity between results returned to the user’s query
and the actual query submitted by the user.

Speed: it measures the time lagged between the submission of query and the expected
results (or feedback) to the user.

Coverage: it measures the total number of websites and the Web pages indexed by the
search engine.
User interface: It measures the user-friendliness bothering intuitiveness, easy to navigate
and ability to refine search queries and filter results effectively.

Personalization: This is the measure of ability to adapt search results to specific users’
information needs and preferences.

Security: It measures the level of privacy of users’ data and protection from malicious Web
contents.

Accessibility: this measures the level of accessibility to users with varied information needs.

Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive overview of online resources, browsers, and

search engine. The definitions, functions. types and importance of these software
applications in modern day information retrieval systems are explained in the chapter.
Also, overview of concepts on search engines, browsers and the importance of online
resources are discussed. The chapter is summarized and selected exercises are provided for
the readers.

Exercises

1. Define a browser and list atleast five examples.

2. List the functions each of the following (i) browser (ii) search engine (iii) online
resources.

3. Explain the types of each of the following (i) browser (ii) search engine

4. Illustrate the components of a search engine with diagram only.

5. Formulate sample query using Boolean Logic.

6. Outline the criteria for evaluating search engines.

7. Explain suitable online resources in (i) Education (ii) Research (iii) Commerce

References

Chang, Y., & Deng, H. (2021). Query Understanding for Search Engines (1st ed.). Springer.

Croft, W., Metzler, D., & Strohman, T. (2009). Search engines: Information retrieval in
practice (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley.

Goker, A., & Davies, J. (2009). Information retrieval: Searching in the 21st century (1st
ed.). Wiley.

Levene, M. (2010). An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation (2nd ed.).
Pearson Education Canada.
Patel, J. M. (2020). Getting Structured Data from the Internet: Running Web
Crawlers/Scrapers on a Big Data Production Scale (1st ed., pp. 3-12). Apress.