Biofuel Production: Exploring Renewable Energy Solutions For A Greener Future

El‑Araby Biotechnology for Biofuels
Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts (2024) 17:129

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-024-02571-9 and Bioproducts
REVIEW Open Access
Biofuel production: exploring renewable

energy solutions for a greener future
R. El‑Araby1*
Abstract
Biofuel production has emerged as a leading contender in the quest for renewable energy solutions, offering a prom‑
ising path toward a greener future. This comprehensive state-of-the-art review delves into the current landscape
of biofuel production, exploring its potential as a viable alternative to conventional fossil fuels. This study extensively
examines various feedstock options, encompassing diverse sources such as plants, algae, and agricultural waste,
and investigates the technological advancements driving biofuel production processes. This review highlights
the environmental benefits of biofuels, emphasizing their capacity to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions
compared to those of fossil fuels. Additionally, this study elucidates the role of biofuels in enhancing energy security
by decreasing reliance on finite fossil fuel reserves, thereby mitigating vulnerabilities to geopolitical tensions and price
fluctuations. The economic prospects associated with biofuel production are also elucidated, encompassing job
creation, rural development, and the potential for additional revenue streams for farmers and landowners engaged
in biofuel feedstock cultivation. While highlighting the promise of biofuels, the review also addresses the challenges
and considerations surrounding their production. Potential issues such as land use competition, resource availabil‑
ity, and sustainability implications are critically evaluated. Responsible implementation, including proper land-use
planning, resource management, and adherence to sustainability criteria, is emphasized as critical for the long-term
viability of biofuel production. Moreover, the review underscores the importance of ongoing research and develop‑
ment efforts aimed at enhancing biofuel production efficiency, feedstock productivity, and conversion processes.
Technological advancements hold the key to increasing biofuel yields, reducing production costs, and improving
overall sustainability. This review uniquely synthesizes the latest advancements across the entire spectrum of bio‑
fuel production, from feedstock selection to end-use applications. It addresses critical research gaps by providing
a comprehensive analysis of emerging technologies, sustainability metrics, and economic viability of various biofuel
pathways. Unlike previous reviews, this work offers an integrated perspective on the interplay between technological
innovation, environmental impact, and socio-economic factors in biofuel development, thereby providing a holistic
framework for future research and policy directions in renewable energy.
Keywords Biofuels, Renewable fuels, Biomass, Algae biofuels, Biofuel feedstocks, Sustainable energy, Biofuel
technologies
Introduction
Growing concerns about climate change and fossil fuel
depletion
*Correspondence: Conventional fossil fuel energy resources such as coal,
R. El‑Araby
rehamelaraby@hotmail.com
natural gas and oil are limited in quantity and will
1
Chemical Engineering and Pilot Plant Department, Institute eventually be depleted at current global production
of Engineering Research and New and Renewable Energy, National rates, with estimated reserve-to-production lifetimes
Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
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other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
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iotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts (2024) 17:129 Page 2 of 32
of approximately 139, 48.8 and 53.5 additional years, and being rapidly depleted, with oil potentially peaking
respectively [77, 165]. As depicted in Fig. 1, fossil fuel soon after [154]. These interlocking climate and energy
production over time follows Hubbert’s curve, gradually crises require an urgent transition to renewable energy
increasing to a peak and then diminishing as reserves for sustainability and emission reduction [14, 154]. Pro-
decline, marking their end. Hubbert’s curve, also known jections show that renewable electricity demand will
as the Hubbert peak theory, is a influential concept in increase substantially by 2030. According to the Inter-
resource depletion modeling, originally developed by national Energy Agency (IEA), global renewable elec-
geologist M. King Hubbert in 1956. The theory posits tricity capacity is expected to rise by over 60% from
that the production rate of a finite resource, such as fossil 2020 to 2026, reaching more than 4800 GW. This is
fuels, follows a bell-shaped curve over time. According to equivalent to the current total global power capacity of
this model, production initially increases exponentially, fossil fuels and nuclear combined. Specifically, renew-
reaches a peak when approximately half of the resource able electricity generation is projected to grow by 8%
has been extracted, and then gradually declines as the annually on average, reaching 12,350 TWh by 2026
resource becomes more difficult and expensive to extract. [67]. Furthermore, the International Renewable Energy
While originally applied to oil production, Hubbert’s Agency (IRENA) forecasts that the share of renewable
curve has since been adapted to model the production energy in global electricity generation could increase
and depletion of various finite resources, including some from 26% in 2018 to 57% by 2030 in their Transform-
renewable resources that are exploited faster than they ing Energy Scenario [68]. However, energy poverty
can regenerate. still hinders access to clean energy globally. The envi-
However, estimates could change based on produc- ronmental crisis has prompted the striving for carbon
tion, consumption and discoveries. Nonetheless, afford- neutrality per the UN Sustainable Development Goals
able fossil fuels will eventually run out, compelling a shift [14], including Goal 7 of transitioning from fossil fuels
to renewables [62, 63]. This is why advancing renewable by 2030 [92–94]. Human activities such as fossil fuel
technologies is now important. Unlike fossil fuels, which burning and CFC chlorofluorocarbons refrigerant use
take millions of years to form, at present usage rates, the have scientifically undisputed impacts CO2, methane
fossil fuel era will last only approximately 400 years [84]. and CFCs, respectively cause global warming, ozone
Investing in renewables is thus crucial, as future genera- depletion and both, respectively [153]. With increasing
tions will witness the end of finite fossil fuels. awareness, fossil fuel use will hopefully be reduced, and
Fossil fuel combustion releases greenhouse gases reserves preserved for transitional purposes, as renew-
such as CO2 and methane into the atmosphere, caus- able energy will ultimately remain when fossil fuels run
ing climate change [132]. Fossil fuel reserves are finite out [62, 63].
Fig. 1 Hubbert’s curve for the amount of fossil fuel reserves [72]
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Importance of renewable energy solutions provide through continued advancement, contributing to

Renewable energy is obtained from naturally replenished a greener future [126].
sources, including sunshine, wind, water, geothermal This comprehensive review addresses several key
heat, and biomass, which are available in endless num- research gaps in the field of biofuel production. Firstly,
bers, as opposed to from finite fossil and nuclear fuels [6]. it provides an up-to-date synthesis of advancements
While many renewable energy sources, such as solar and across various biofuel generations, offering insights into
wind power, produce minimal direct emissions during the most promising pathways for future development.
operation, the environmental impact of renewables can Secondly, it critically evaluates the sustainability and
vary depending on the specific technology and lifecycle economic viability of different biofuel technologies, an
considerations [6, 142]. For instance, some biomass con- area often overlooked in technical reviews. Thirdly, it
version processes do produce greenhouse gas emissions, explores the potential of emerging feedstocks and con-
albeit generally at lower levels compared to fossil fuel version technologies that have not been extensively cov-
processes [76]. However, the overall environmental ben- ered in previous literature. By integrating technological,
efits of renewables are significant when compared to con- environmental, and socio-economic perspectives, this
ventional fossil fuel energy sources. Renewables generally review aims to provide a holistic understanding of the
have a much lower carbon footprint over their lifecycle, challenges and opportunities in biofuel production, serv-
contribute to improved air quality, and offer sustainable ing as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers,
long-term energy solutions [69]. and industry stakeholders working towards a sustainable
. They provide a reliable long-term energy supply, energy future.
reduce dependence on volatile fossil fuel imports, spur
job growth and innovation, yield cost savings, and enable The imperative for renewable energy
decentralized resilient power [6]. Prominent renewable Fossil fuels meet ~ 80% of energy needs but increas-
technologies include solar photovoltaics, wind turbines, ingly demonstrate negative environmental impacts from
hydropower plants, biomass plants combusting organic air pollution due to climate change, alongside dwin-
material, geothermal plants, tidal/wave systems, and dling finite supplies and volatile prices [49, 62, 63]. The
hydrogen fuel cells electrochemically converting hydro- pressing need for clean, renewable energy alternatives
gen to electricity [142]. Renewables thus ensure clean, to power society has thus never been met. Renewables
sustainable energy security. such as solar, wind, geothermal and biofuel can pro-
vide substantial emission-free energy for electricity and
transportation, supporting energy independence and sta-
Promising alternative biofuel bility through zero fuel costs. An accelerated transition
Biofuels from renewable biomass, such as plants and is attainable through supportive policies, infrastructure
organic waste, provide a sustainable alternative to miti- investment, and efficiency improvements to increase
gate fossil fuel depletion and climate change [32], Pan- adoption. With bold action and innovation, renewables
dey et al.,2018). Biofuels can be classified into different can transform economies, environments and quality of
generations based on their feedstock and production life for current and future generations [62, 63].
technology. Conventional or first-generation biofuels are
derived from food crops such as corn, sugarcane, and Environmental impact of fossil fuel consumption
vegetable oils. Second-generation biofuels use nonfood The use of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas have major
biomass like agricultural residues, wood, and municipal environmental and health externalities not reflected
waste. Third-generation biofuels, which include dedi- in market prices, including air/water pollution, crop/
cated energy crops and algae, represent more advanced forest/wildlife damage, and greenhouse gas emissions
and sustainable options [32]. Advanced conversion driving climate change and ocean acidification. Ocean
methods continuing to overcome economic and techno- acidification refers to the ongoing decrease in the pH of
logical obstacles to enable wider utilization. Biofuels can the Earth’s oceans, primarily caused by the absorption of
blend with conventional fuels or directly substitute them atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). As CO2 levels in the
with existing infrastructure, allowing a smooth adop- atmosphere increase due to human activities, more C O2
tion transition without substantial system changes [38]. dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid. This process
Questions remain about the optimal feedstocks and pro- leads to a reduction in seawater pH, decreased carbonate
cesses for maximizing greenhouse gas reductions versus ion concentration, and lower calcium carbonate mineral
conventional fuels. Exploring progress and challenges saturation states. Extreme weather events costing billions
across biofuel types and technologies provides insights of dollars are linked to climate change from fossil fuel
into the sustainable solutions that different biofuels can burning. Sea level rise, increasing flooding, storm surges,
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and saltwater intrusion are other concerns (Fact-sheet rivers, lakes, aquifers and oceans, with pollutants linked
2021). Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline to cancer, birth defects and neurological damage [56, 73].
water into freshwater aquifers or surface water systems, Vast volumes of drilling and mining toxic wastewater are
typically occurring in coastal areas. This phenomenon is stored in leakage pits and wells. Additionally, fossil fuel-
often caused by over-extraction of groundwater, sea-level powered transport releases smog-forming pollutants,
rise, and changes in weather patterns affecting freshwater causing respiratory illness from sustained exposure [56].
recharge.
As freshwater is removed from an aquifer faster than Increasing energy demand
it is replenished, saltwater from the ocean moves inland Projecting future renewable energy demand involves
to fill the void. This process can contaminate freshwater uncertainties around population, economic growth, sec-
supplies, making them unsuitable for drinking or irriga- toral/behavioral shifts, technological development, and
tion, reduce crop yields and damage soil quality in coastal climate change impacts, all of which can alter energy
farming areas, and pose long-term challenges for water needs over time [128, 164]. Characterizing these complex
resource management, as reversing saltwater intrusion interaction demand uncertainties for different energy
can be difficult and costly. Climate change, particularly sources can inform policymakers’ long-term plans. Lev-
rising sea levels, is expected to exacerbate saltwater eraging the latest socio-economic and climate scenarios
intrusion in many coastal regions worldwide. allows us to empirically assess demands by fuel type
Additional issues, such as oil spills and acid mine drain- across projections [164]. This integrated uncertainty
age from coal, further highlight the environmental toll of analysis approach aims to accelerate renewable adop-
fossil fuels. Reducing dependence on these products is tion despite future demand uncertainties. Overall, global
thus crucial for mitigating climate change and protecting energy demand is projected to increase nearly 50% by
the environment overall [73]. Figure 2 shows the different 2050 compared to 2020, with developing nations driving
environmental impacts of fossil fuel. almost half of this growth (Fig. 3) as rising populations
The fossil fuel industry leases vast lands for infra- and GDP improve living standards and energy access [26,
structure, devastating landscapes, habitats and ecosys- 164].
tems—strip mining razes forests and mountaintops that Historical data show that the industrial sector leads in
can never regenerate. Fragmentation destroys critical electricity usage, followed by residential use. Recently,
wildlife breeding and migration habitats, displacing ani- transportation electricity demand has been rising due
mals into inferior areas to compete with existing wildlife to increasing electrification, with forecasts showing this
[73]. The extraction and transport of coal, oil and gas trend intensifying. Overall electricity usage is predicted
also threatens water systems through toxic runoff, spills, to rise by almost 1.5 times by 2040 versus the current
fracking fluids or wastewater overflows contaminating level (Fig. 4). Specifically, the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA) predicts over double the electricity
demand in 2050 relative to that in 2018 [26]. While indus-
try currently consumes the most electricity, transporta-
tion electrification is driving rapid demand increases,
with total electricity usage expected to increase 50–100%
in the coming decades across all sectors.
Ocean Extreme Sea Level Plasc Polluon

1000
Acidificaon Weather 900
800
700
Quadrilion BTU
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Oil Spills Water Polluon Air Polluon Heath Issues 1990 2000 2010 2015 2018 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Years
Fig. 2 Impacts of fossil fuel usage Fig. 3 Worldwide energy consumption from 1990 to 2050 [26]
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Fig. 6 Total renewable energy production (2010–2020) [26]

Fig. 4 Electricity consumption by sector over time (from 1990
to 2040) [26]
techniques. The procedures for generating power from

Currently, most of the electricity is from fossil fuels, biomass are shown in Fig. 7 [26].
but renewables such as solar, wind, hydro and biomass
are being generated. The data show that the share of Role of renewable energy in reducing carbon emissions
total generation of renewable energy has grown signifi- Fossil fuels were the primary energy source for several
cantly since 2010, while that of fossil fuels has declined years before renewable options emerged. Coal and oil
(Fig. 5). Projections estimate that renewables will were more widely used than natural gas initially. With
expand from a 23% share in 2015 to 63% by 2050. From growing environmental concerns, research has focused
2010 to 2020, the gap between fossil fuels and renew- on shifting utilization from fossils to renewables [147].
ables narrowed, with fossil fuel generation growing While fossil fuel-dominated energy production has his-
slightly and then dropping in 2020 due to COVID-19, torically prevailed, renewable usage, especially geother-
while renewables rose steadily throughout, surpassing mal, biomass and hydro fuel, began rising approximately
fossils in 2020. Overall, between 2010 and 2020, the 1965, with wind and solar energy growing substantially
consumption of renewables for electricity generation since the 1990s as awareness of fossil fuel environmen-
substantially increased from 4098 to 7627 TWh (Fig. 6), tal harm increased [156]. Renewables such as solar, wind,
illustrating the growing utilization of renewable energy hydroelectric and geothermal materials are crucial for
over the decade [26]. Trends point to renewables stead- combating climate change and providing a cleaner alter-
ily displacing fossil fuel electricity generation to poten- native to fossil fuels. Analysis shows that renewables
tially account for more than 60% by mid-century. and efficiency can account for more than 90% of needed
Another type of alternative energy is biomass energy, energy-related emissions reductions [70]. Governments
which may be used in chemical processes such as com- and companies have critical roles in enabling a renewable
bustion, pyrolysis, or gasification to create heat (bio- transition to create a sustainable, low-carbon future.
char), tar (biofuel), and syngas (biogas). The product
can then be utilized to generate power using specialized
Bioenergy: promising solution
Bioenergy is a renewable energy source derived from
biomass, which includes organic materials like crops,
trees, and algae. These materials can be obtained through
various pathways, including photosynthesis, non-pho-
tosynthetic processes like animal waste and food waste,
secondary utilization of products like used cooking oils,
and microbial processes such as biogas generation [25].
Biopower is the energy generated by biomass burning,
either alone or in conjunction with coal, natural gas, or
other fuels. Direct-fired systems generate high-pressure
steam, which powers turbines attached to electric gen-
erators. The technical hurdles include feedstock quality,
Fig. 5 Comparison of fossil fuel and renewable generation increases boiler chemistry, ash deposition, and disposal. Cofir-
[26]
ing biomass with coal in power stations can assist in
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Fig. 7 Converting industrial and household waste into three key products: biofuels, thermal energy, and electrical power
renewable energy regulation and minimize pollution [25, as an effective alternative source of energy due to its valu-
29]. able qualities, which include minimal greenhouse gas
Biofuel includes solid, liquid, and petrol fuels. Solid emissions, biodegradability, and nontoxicity [25, 115].
fuels are commonly employed for space heating through Figure 8 illustrates the energy products and their end
burning. Liquid and petrol fuels are utilized in transpor- uses.
tation and industrial activities. Bioethanol and biodiesel Burning bioenergy produces a considerable amount of
are two important types of biofuels. Biofuel is regarded CO2 and other greenhouse gases. However, this process
Fig. 8 Applications of bioenergy

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produces the same amount of C O2 as the plant acquired be made more efficient from corn stoves, but substan-
during photosynthesis when living. As a result, bioen- tial feedstocks such as sugarcane bagasse and rice straw
ergy is a carbon neutral or net zero energy source, which may still be used [19, 32]. Biofuels are also categorized by
means that it produces and absorbs the same amount of generation based on their feedstock sources, as depicted
CO2. Furthermore, bioenergy is readily available across in Fig. 10: first, generation from food crops, second,
the world. Therefore, this is an excellent alternative to from nonfood plants, third, from algae; and fourth, from
fossil fuels [62, 63]. genetically engineered crops and grasses.
Global biofuel production: focus on GBA and biodiesel Classification of biofuels according to feedstock
in leading countries First‑generation biofuels
On September 10, 2023, India-led Global Biofuel Alliance First-generation biofuels are produced from edible feed-
(GBA) members decided to promote biofuel production stocks, such as bioethanol from corn and sugarcane and
and use of fossil fuels in transportation and industry to biodiesel from oil seed crops (soybean, oil palm, rapeseed,
collectively reduce emissions. The multi-stakeholder and sunflower), using well-understood, economically
GBA of governments, organizations and industry aims viable technologies and processes such as fermentation,
to accelerate global biofuel uptake. Biofuels from renew- distillation, and transesterification [32, 106, 136, 148].
able biomass and agricultural waste are considered more First-generation biofuels have a marginal advantage over
sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels with lower carbon fossil fuels in terms of greenhouse gas emissions since
emissions. The goal of the GBA is to mainstream these they take a large amount of energy to create, harvest, and
climate-friendly alternatives, greatly contributing to process. However, they present significant challenges
emission reductions [157]. The GBA now has 22-mem- including competition with food production, land use
ber countries and 12 organizations. As shown in Fig. 9, concerns, limited greenhouse gas reduction when con-
which shows the top 7 biodiesel producing countries, sidering their lifecycle, high water usage, and potential
GBA membership spans major biofuel producers seeking soil degradation from intensive monoculture farming.
to further grow production and use of these lower-car- These disadvantages have prompted increased research
bon fuels (Microalgae: Global Strategic Business Report into second- and third-generation biofuels to address
2023). these concerns while maintaining the benefits of renew-
able fuel production [143].
Classification of biofuels
Biofuels can be produced in liquid, gaseous or solid forms Second‑generation biofuels
and are primarily produced from edible crops, cultivated The debate over first-generation raw materials for food
nonfood feedstocks, and agricultural waste. Primary security has led to a shift toward second-generation lig-
biofuels such as firewood, plants and animal waste are nocellulosic raw materials, derived from nonfood bio-
directly used [148]. Secondary biofuels are biomass con- mass of plants or animals. These materials, such as
verted into biodiesel, bioethanol, biohydrogen or biogas. vegetable grasses and forest residues, are abundant in
Biobutanol has a longer outlook than bioethanol and can natural ecosystems and can be used as feedstocks for bio-
fuel production [134]. Lignocellulose-based biofuels have
the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, benefit
the economy, and enhance energy security. The US and
the EU are implementing biotechnology approaches to
produce 1.3 billion tons annually without compromising
food security [106].
Third‑generation biofuels
Bioenergy from algae represents the third generation
of biofuels. Algae and microorganisms are the primary
feedstocks, produced through biochemical and ther-
mochemical conversion processes [16]. They originate
from microorganisms that can be cultivated through
various methods: autotrophically, using carbon diox-
ide, light, and nutrients to synthesize biomass, hetero-
trophically, using organic carbon sources in the absence
Fig. 9 Biodiesel production in leading countries [152]
of light; or mixotrophically, combining both autotrophic
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Fig. 10 Biofuel types and their generations
and heterotrophic nutrition [118]. These algae are subse- Table 1 Oil contents of various microalgae contents utilized for
quently processed into biofuels [83]. biodiesel manufacturing
Algal biofuels may be superior replacements for earlier Species Oil content (% wt.)
generations due to their faster growth without the need
for extensive land or resources [106]. Algae have quicker Chlamydomonas sp. 22.7
photosynthesis than land plants used in first/second-gen- Chaetoceros muelleri 13–24
eration biofuels. The relevance of algae resides in their Parietochloris incise 062
noncompetitive nature for food chains while providing Tetraselmis tetrathele 25–30
diverse end products such as bioethanol, biogas and bio- Nostoc commune 22
diesel [162]. Various transesterification techniques have Emiliania huxleyi 43. 8
been introduced for different microalgae [88]. Transes- Chroomonas salina 12–14.5
terification is a crucial process in biodiesel production, Mesotaenium sp. 19–35
involving the reaction of triglycerides with alcohol to pro- Spirulina platensis 4–11
duce biodiesel and glycerol. Various techniques such as Synechocystis sp. 11
homogeneous catalysis (base and acid-catalyzed), hetero- Nannochloris sp. 25–56
geneous catalysis, enzymatic transesterification, super- Neochloris oleoabundans 35–65
critical alcohol transesterification, ultrasound-assisted Chlorella sp. 28–53
transesterification, and microwave-assisted transesterifi- Schizochytrium sp. 50–77
cation are used in this process, each with its own advan-
tages and challenges. The choice of technique depends
on factors like feedstock quality, production scale, and Fourth‑generation biofuels
available resources, with ongoing research focused on Fourth-generation biofuels are uncommon and have
optimizing these processes and developing more efficient been under development for several years. It is seen as an
methods [162]. Due to the utility of biofuel, photosyn- extension of the third generation and involves the use of
thetic microorganisms such as algae have recently gained modern biological technology.
increased academic interest recently [35]. As shown in Genetically modified photosynthetic microorganisms
Table 1, with many algal species, microalgae grow well in (such as cyanobacteria, algae, and fungi) are employed
diverse water sources with increased lipid and biodiesel as feedstocks. Photosynthetic bacteria can turn ambi-
energy contents. ent CO2 into ethanol [36]. According to certain related
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research, some crops capture carbon from the environ- Liquid biofuels
ment and store it in their leaves and stems, after which Liquid biofuels encompass all fuels derived from natu-
the carbon is turned into fuel through second-generation ral biomass or biodegradable components. Compared to
procedures [74]. Genetically engineered microbes are solid/gaseous biofuels, liquid biofuels such as bioethanol,
utilized in fourth-generation biofuels to increase hydro- biodiesel and bio-oil have higher energy density, ben-
carbon output while lowering carbon emissions [33]. efiting transportation, storage and retrofitting [58]. These
Common strategies for the genetic manipulation of algae materials can be categorized as: triglyceride-based biofu-
include enhancing light penetration, increasing photo- els, including vegetable oils, pyrolytic oils, biodiesels and
synthetic efficiency, and decreasing photoinhibition [86]. biogasoline, and or as lignocellulosic-based biofuels, such
Notably, metabolic engineering considerably improved as bio-oils and biomass-to-liquid diesel (BTL) [73, 108].
the carbohydrate or lipid content in algae (Fig. 11). A In use for more than two decades globally, liquid biofu-
comparison of the positive and negative aspects of differ- els are typically blended with petrol and diesel for retail.
ent generations of biofuel is summarized in Table 2. Major consumers include Australia, the US, Canada,
Europe, Asia and South America, utilizing substantial
volumes of the country [102]. In summary, easy-to-han-
Classification of biofuels according to their physical state dle liquid biofuels produced sustainably from biomass
Biofuels are roughly categorized into three major and waste can be used to directly replace or blend with
groups depending on their physical condition at room fossil fuel equivalents.
temperature:
Gaseous biofuels
Biomass pyrolysis and redox reactions produce gaseous
Solid biofuels biofuels, including biogas, biohydrogen, and bio syngas,
Solid biofuels, derived from non-fossil organic materi- which are low-density, renewable biomass energy sources
als, such as plant biomass, animal waste, and municipal [125, 141]. Biowastes are converted into gaseous biofu-
waste, are used for heating, cooking, and electricity gen- els through pyrolysis or gasification, which are used in
eration. These plants have evolved from wood since fire Otto engines for electricity generation. Biomass energy
discovery to biochar, forest products, and other renew- is being developed to reduce fossil fuel use. Two meth-
able sources [112]. ods are used: combustible gas production by incomplete
Fig. 11 A description of the photosynthesis process in algal chloroplasts for biofuel production [105]
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Table 2 Comparison of the pros and cons of different generations of biofuels [1]
Topic First-generation biofuels Second-generation biofuels Third-generation biofuels Fourth-generation biofuels
Feedstock Easily accessible vegetables, edible Nonfoods crops Nonfood crops Nonfood crops
iotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts
oils, and starch

Land footprint Arable land Arable land/forest Nonarable land Nonarable land
Major benefits Simple conversion process Does not disrupt the food chain supply Raw materials can be sourced Higher lipid content, carbon dioxide
with lower manufacturing costs from inexpensive sources such absorption, high energy, and faster
as waste food oil, garbage, and sea‑ growth rate
water
(2024) 17:129
Manufacturing cost Economically feasible Economically less productive due Oil extraction techniques are costly The initial expenditure and pilot setup
to sophisticated conversion technol‑ are pricey
ogy
Water footprint Potable water is required for the pro‑ Potable water is required for the pro‑ Can use sewage, salty, and nonpotable Can use sewage, salty, and nonpotable
duction of biofuel duction of biofuel water to generate biofuel water to generate biofuel
Nutrient requirements Dependent on fertilizers and insecti‑ Not depending on any fertilizer’s Dependent mostly on carbon Dependent mostly on carbon and nitro‑
cides treatment and nitrogen supplies. Nutrients may gen supplies. Nutrients may be recycled,
be recycled, and solar energyscan be and solar energy can be utilized
utilized
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides Primarily utilized Not consumed Not consumed Not consumed
Environmental risks Pesticides and fertilizers pose a hazard The major concern is deforestation The major concern is marine eutrophi‑ GMO release in environment can be
to the environment cation threat
Harvesting Picking can be accomplished using Done by hand or machine picking Microalgae harvesting is complicated Microalgae harvesting is complex
either mechanized or manual ways and financially expensive and financially costly
Page 10 of 32
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combustion and pyrolysis of biomass, and biogas produc- point, better economic value, and more diverse uses.
tion by anaerobic bacteria [125]. Microalgal oil cultivation and culture technologies are
now being explored in Europe, the United States, South
Triglyceride conversion technology Korea, Japan, China, and other regions. China also plans
Triglycerides (TG) are often found in animal fats and to employ woody oils such as those from Tung and Jat-
plant oils and can be utilized to produce biofuels. Tri- ropha as raw sources for biofuels. Overall, the cultiva-
glycerides may be converted into biofuels via transesteri- tion of triglyceride raw materials should comply with the
fication, thermal cracking, or hydrogenation methods. premise of “not competing with present food crops and
Table 3 summarizes the areas of potential for enhanced acreage for food production” [51, 170, 173].
methods used to produce biofuels from TG-based bio- To improve green diesel production efficiency,
mass [51].
While biodiesel produced by transesterification is com- (i)The development of stable and active solid base
monly mixed with petroleum diesel, its poor density catalysts for biodiesel requires chemical conversion
and stability do not match the needs of modern trans- and lipase immobilization to enhance enzyme activ-
portation engines. Green diesel, manufactured from ity, thermal stability, and methanol tolerance. This
hydrocarbons, is created utilizing thermal cracking and can be accomplished by genetic engineering, protein
hydrogenation processes [170]. modification, or guided approaches [51].
Thermal cracking can change raw materials with high (ii)Advancements in production technologies have
acid contents and undesirable impurities, including trash led to fuels that outperform green diesel in terms of
and acidic oils. The resulting hydrocarbon-based biofuel combustion efficiency [48].
can then be combined with petroleum diesel at any ratio (iii)Future research should aim to enhance the cata-
[48, 51]. lytic fundamentals and create low-cost, active, and
Green diesel generated by upgrading procedures (e.g., stable catalysts for directed deoxygenation conver-
aromatization and isomerization) has a lower cold-filter sion [51, 170].
Table 3 Overview of the possibilities of advanced technology in the manufacture of triglyceride-based biofuels [99]
Technology Biofuel Areas of opportunity
Static mixers Biodiesel There is a need for reliable design and scaling methodologies. It is critical to guarantee
that the technology’s advantages are maximized when scaling
Sono-reactor Biodiesel There is a need to establish design techniques for industrial-scale deployment
In industrial-scale systems, energy distribution must be uniform
Microwave reactor Biodiesel There is a need to establish design techniques for industrial-scale deployment. It is required
to create appropriate technologies to produce microwaves on an industrial scale
Oscillatory flow reactor Biodiesel There is a need to provide trustworthy design and scalability techniques. It is critical to guarantee
that the technology’s benefits prevail while scaling
Microreactor Biodiesel There is a need to provide trustworthy design and scalability techniques. It is vital to assess
the viability of deploying parallel arrangements on an industrial scale. It may be enough for ana‑
lyzing the viability of creating comparable systems on a larger scale
Supercritical technologies Biodiesel More exact thermodynamic, transport and kinetic models are needed to examine the per‑
formance of supercritical systems. It is critical to develop ways for reducing the energy usage
of these sorts of procedures. Strategies for minimizing the required reaction conditions
and excess alcohol must be devised
Membrane reactor Biodiesel Low-cost membranes with superior mechanical and thermal resistance must be developed.
Technologies for preventing membrane fouling must be developed
Bifunctional catalysts Biojet fuel It is critical to develop catalysts that enable the performance of processes with lower hydrogen
requirements
Thermally coupled distillation Biojet fuel Alternative intensification technologies must be developed to further reduce the energy require‑
ments for the various components and compositions utilized in biojet fuel production
Reactive distillation Biodiesel/biojet fuel There is a need to develop low-cost catalysts appropriate for industrial use. Waste-based catalysts
should be tested for biofuel production in reactive distillation systems
Strategies for decreasing energy requirements must be implemented to guarantee that the pro‑
posed systems have adequate control capabilities
Reactive extraction Biodiesel Adequate solvents must be developed to ensure high extraction efficiency and yields at a low
Reactive absorption Biodiesel cost
Strategies to avoid catalyst deactivation must be developed
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(iv) Photocatalytic hydrogenation conversion, a new to generate heat and energy. Combustion is the process
triglyceride conversion method that operates under of burning biomass in the air and converting chemical
mild reaction conditions, consumes little energy and energy into heat, mechanical power, or electricity. The
hydrogen, and achieves high conversion and selectiv- combustion process is carried out using a range of process
ity, is a hot topic of research. Research and develop- equipment, such as stoves, furnaces, boilers, steam tur-
ment efforts are needed to find new catalysts [48, 87]. bines, and turbo-generators [42]. The primary combus-
tion products are heat, electricity, or combined heat and
Biomass conversion technologies power (CHP) from biomass combustion, which is an effec-
Biomass conversion techniques encompass physicochem- tive strategy that utilizes both heat and power through
ical, thermochemical, and biochemical processes, and successive heterogeneous and homogeneous processes
utilize physical, chemical, and biological methods to pro- [23, 42]. The particle size of the feedstock, temperature,
duce biofuels [18]. The choice of biomass–energy conver- and combustion environment all have major impacts on
sion method depends on factors such as energy density, biomass combustion. The fundamental constraint of the
size, moisture content, and intermittent supply. Biomass combustion process is the substantial emission of carbon
is recognized as a crucial renewable energy source that dioxide and nitric oxide, as well as the discharge of par-
offers advantages such as long-term sustainability, lower ticulates and ashes.
environmental impact in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2)
and sulfur emissions, and greater economic viability than Pyrolysis Is a thermal breakdown process that converts
fossil fuels [167]. Consequently, companies are increas- biomass into charcoal, bio-oil, and syngas, which is a key
ingly adopting biomass conversion technology to pro- component in biofuel production. It transforms long-
duce biofuels for diverse energy applications. The global chain molecules into short-chain molecules, resulting in
biomass supply has been steadily expanding, with solid concentrated fuel oils [98]. Typically, biomass or waste
biomass accounting for 85% and liquid biofuels experi- is employed as the primary feedstock for producing syn-
encing a 2% annual growth rate from 2000 to 2018 [41, gas and other liquid fuels by varying the process param-
106]. These technologies present opportunities for sus- eters [4, 140]. The primary advantages are the conversion
tainable energy generation, reducing reliance on fossil of solid materials into gases and vapors that are easy to
fuels, and mitigating environmental impacts. Ongoing handle, transport, and store. However, the disadvantages
research and development efforts aim to enhance conver- of these methods include the high heat input needed to
sion efficiency, optimize product yields, and improve the carry out the chemical reactions for the formation of syn-
economic and environmental sustainability of biomass gas. [27, 138].
conversion processes.
Gasification Gasification is a thermochemical process
Different methods of biomass conversion that heats biomass under oxygen-limited circumstances,
Biomass conversion to energy is accomplished through producing syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
two key processes: thermochemical conversion and biohydrogen that may be used to create power, heat, or bio-
chemical transformation. These technologies convert fuels [17]. Combined cycle plant systems are similar to
biomass into three important products: biofuels, heat, gasification conversion systems. It is widely used due to
and power for electricity generation. As a specific exam- the availability of clean gas before combustion in turbines.
ple of biomass conversion, Fig. 12 illustrates various Cleaning and compacting gas greatly reduces its volume
conversion methods and products for microalgal bio- [23, 151].
mass, which represents an important subset of biomass
feedstocks. Liquefaction This method converts biomass into liquid
fuels using heat and a catalyst, producing bio-oils and
Thermo‑chemical processes biofuels from various feedstocks. It involves low tempera-
The thermos-chemical conversion of biomass can be tures and high hydrogen pressure, producing a complex
further characterized by high-pressure liquefaction and mixture of volatile organic acids and hydrocarbons [17].
rapid pyrolysis. Biomass, primarily bio-oils derived by Catalytic liquefaction, assisted by a catalyst or high hydro-
thermochemical conversion, plays a significant role in the gen partial pressure, effectively generates products with
fuel industry as an alternative source of fuel and chemi- greater energy density in the liquid phase [106, 111].
cals [98].
Hydrothermal processing Is a thermochemical conver-
Combustion Is one of the earliest and most basic ways of sion method that utilizes high-temperature and high-
biomass conversion, in which organic materials are burnt pressure water to convert wet biomass into biofuels or
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Fig. 12 Different types of algal biofuels and conversion methods [8]
biochemicals. This technique is applicable to a wide range called hydrochar [95]. Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL)
of feedstocks, including algae and waste materials. The operates at temperatures ranging from 280 to 370 °C and
process occurs in an aqueous environment at subcritical pressures of 10–25 MPa, primarily yielding a liquid bio-
and supercritical temperatures (180 to 375 °C) and pres- crude oil product [50]. Hydrothermal gasification (HTG)
sures (2 to 22 MPa). Under these conditions, biomass takes place at higher temperatures, typically 400–700 °C,
components undergo degradation in water, resulting in and pressures above 25 MPa, converting biomass primar-
the production of biofuels such as hydro char, biocrude, ily into gases such as hydrogen and methane [169]. These
and syngas through hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), varying conditions allow for the targeted production of
hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasi- different biofuel products from biomass feedstocks.
fication (HTG), respectively. The specific process parameters and conversion path-
Hydrothermal processing techniques operate under ways are determined based on the desired product.
different temperature and pressure conditions. Hydro- Hydrothermal processing offers a promising approach for
thermal carbonization (HTC) typically occurs at tem- effectively converting lignocellulosic biomass into energy
peratures between 180 and 260 °C and pressures of 2–6 and fuels, addressing the challenge of accessing biomass
MPa, resulting in the production of a coal-like solid resources that are abundant in nature but often contain
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high moisture contents. To advance the understanding of to approximately 0.65 L of gasoline. Ethanol has a larger
hydrothermal conversion, it is crucial to investigate bioenergy content than petrol, with 11.3 MJ/liter. Ethanol
mass degradation under hydrothermal conditions and also has a lower vapor pressure, making it easier to store
the chemistry of product formation [17, 107]. in pure fuel form than petrol [27]. The EU quality stand-
ard specifies a 5% blend of bioethanol and petrol. This
Biochemical processes blend does not require any engine adjustments and may
Biochemical (or biological) conversion technologies uti- be used at higher levels. The United States (US) generates
lize microorganisms to convert biomass into economi- the most ethanol (10% ethanol, 90% petrol), followed by
cally viable gaseous products with a wide range of uses Brazil (27% ethanol) [1, 85].
[91]. Fermentation and anaerobic digestion are the two Due to energy scarcity and environmental concerns,
primary methods employed. bioethanol, a possible biofuel source, has been investi-
gated utilizing a variety of biomass resources, such as
Fermentation Fermentation is a commercial method sugar products, starch, and lignocellulosic biomass [104].
that produces bioethanol from sugar- and starch-rich bio- Bioethanol is produced from sugar-containing materi-
mass such as maize and sugarcane. This process entails als such as sugarcane, corn, and algae through a three-
breaking down saccharides, turning sugars to ethanol, and step process: preparation, fermentation, and recovery
purifying the byproducts. Sugarcane is an ideal feedstock and concentration (Fig. 13) [149]. Recent advancements
because of its high productivity and energy potential [52, in second-generation bioethanol production from ligno-
91, 111, 155]. cellulosic biomass emphasize meticulous monitoring of
each stage, including pretreatment, enzymatic hydroly-
Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion is a process in sis, fermentation, and distillation. Despite its safety, envi-
which bacteria break down organic matter without oxy- ronmental friendliness, and low energy consumption,
gen, producing methane-rich biogas. This energy-efficient biological pretreatment remains a promising biomass
and eco-friendly technology is used for electricity genera- resource [104]. Table 4 summarizes the biofuel yield of
tion and fuel production. The digestate is used as fertilizer the second-generation biomass.
and biogas as fuel, while biosolids are used for soil condi-
tioning [2, 7, 31]. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is produced from triglyceride oil, derived from
Biofuel examples vegetable oil, animal fat, or microalgae-derived triglyc-
Biofuels are widely seen as a cost-effective and ecologi- erides, with algae-producing oils in high demand, while
cally friendly alternative to petroleum and other fossil macroalgae have a low oil content [20]. A triglyceride
fuels, especially in light of rising petroleum prices and molecule has three fatty acid moieties linked to a glyc-
growing concern about the impacts of fossil fuels on erol residue [48]. Transesterification is the process of
global warming. Below are some examples of biofuels: converting triglycerides into fatty esters and glycerol,
including biodiesel, using commercial catalysts such as
Bioethanol sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, with alkox-
Yeast cells are the principal source of ethanol production, ides becoming more effective [20, 41].
digesting carbohydrates in the absence of CO2. The fer- The alkali-catalyzed transesterification process occurs
mentation of sugar and starch yields bioethanol, which is at approximately 60 °C and atmospheric pressure. The
a sustainable energy source. reaction normally takes approximately 90 min and yields
Bioethanol is a first-generation biofuel derived from more than 98% of the potential yield. The reaction con-
agricultural products such as maize, sugarcane, potatoes, sisted of two phases: methanol and oil. Following this
and rice [106]. In addition to these traditional feedstocks, method, the oil phase was biodiesel, while the oil-unmix-
bioethanol can also be produced through the fermenta- able phase was composed of glycerol and residual meth-
tion of carbon monoxide using specialized bacteria. This anol. The biodiesel phase is collected and thoroughly
process, known as gas fermentation, utilizes anaerobic washed with water to eliminate any leftover methanol,
bacteria such as Clostridium autoethanogenum to con- glycerol, or catalyst. Figure 14 illustrates the processes
vert carbon monoxide into ethanol [96]. This approach involved in producing biodiesel from vegetable oil [144].
offers the potential to produce bioethanol from indus-
trial waste gases, thereby reducing carbon emissions Biomethanol
and providing an additional pathway for sustainable Biomethanol is another possible biofuel that might
fuel production [109]. Ethanol costs approximately one- replace traditional motor fuels. Methane is the sim-
third less than petrol. One liter of ethanol is comparable plest hydrocarbon, with the general formula CH4, and
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Fig. 13 Production of bioethanol from three commonly used sources: corn, sugarcane, and cellulosic biomass [149]
Table 4 Bioethanol production from second-generation methane (> 80% concentration) and CO2 [97]. Biometha-
biomass nol production using high-temperature conversion of
Biomass feedstock Bioethanol RDF (refuse-derived fuel) is a highly promising approach.
production (L/kg Improvements in high-temperature conversion and other
dried biomass) production lines synchronize this section’s on-stream
Corn stover 5.87 time with the rest of the plant, resulting in approximately
Rice straw 116.75 8400 h of operation per year [64]. BiomBio-methanol
Barley straw 0.053 production using high-temperature conversion of RDF
corn meal 9.77 ± 0. 12
(refuse-derived fuel) is a highly promising approach.
Palm oil residue 110 600–172 100
Improvements in high-temperature conversion and other
Paddy straw 0. 00086
manufacturing lines synchronize this section’s on-stream
Eucalyptus 0.614S
time with the rest of the plant, yielding approximately
Olive tree pruning 0. 023
8400 h of operation per year [92–94]. A biomethanol-
Palm wood 0. 0228
generating facility has properties that are almost identical
to those of coal gasification-based methanol production.
Fossil-based methanol facilities commonly employ the
following procedures: (a) gasification, (b) gas cleaning,
it occurs in gaseous form at normal temperatures and (c) hydrocarbon reforming, (d) water–gas shift reaction,
pressures [13]. Previously, it was utilized for power autos, and (e) hydrogen addition and/or CO2 removal, and (f )
and a synthetic version was widely used in Germany methanol synthesis and filtering [30, 92–94]. Figure 15
during WWII. Methanol, often known as ’wood al-cool’, depicts a gasification-based methanol generation process
is now manufactured from natural gas via partial oxida- that involves producing raw syngas from various biomass
tion, whereas bioethanol requires the distillation of liquid feedstocks; passing it through cyclone, cooler, and scrub-
resulting from wood pyrolysis. Biomethane consists of ber units; and synthesizing it in a reactor for use in trans-
several purification techniques, the bulk of which include portation, energy generation, and industrial applications.
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Fig. 14 Steps involved in biodiesel production [144]
Fig. 15 Production of biomethanol by gasification [3]

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Pretreatment of raw materials is required for biometha- the oxygen concentration, making it a desirable feedstock
nol synthesis, which is predominantly derived from bio- for the manufacture of fuels, chemicals, and other high-
mass sources. The treated biomass is then gasified into value goods [54]. These upgrading procedures can be
syngas. To optimize hydrogen and carbon monoxide syn- broadly categorized into physical, chemical, and catalytic
thesis while reducing undesired water and carbon dioxide methods:
amounts, oxygen delivery is controlled during feedstock
heating above 700 °C. Contaminants and impurities are Physical methods
removed before the product gas undergoes multiple con- - Filtration: removes solid particles and char [168].
ditioning procedures to optimize its composition. Syn- - Solvent addition: reduces viscosity and improves sta-
gas conditioning is primarily used to generate syngas bility [10].
that contains at least twice as many hydrogen molecules
as carbon monoxide molecules. The nature of the initial Chemical methods
syngas and the availability of hydrogen determine the - Emulsification: forms a stable micro-emulsion with die-
optimal hydrogen-to-carbon monoxide (H2/CO) ratio. sel fuel [28].
There are numerous methods for adjusting the levels of - Esterification: reduces acidity and improves stability
hydrogen and carbon monoxide [65, 129]. The main agri- [122].
cultural remnants or wastes and their CH4 production
are shown in Table 5 [114, 159]. Catalytic methods
- Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO): removes oxygen through
Bio‑oil catalytic reaction with hydrogen, producing water and
Bio-oil is a liquid product produced by the pyrolysis of saturated carbon–carbon bonds.
biomass, and is a thermochemical conversion process - Catalytic cracking: breaks down larger molecules and
that includes heating biomass in the absence of oxygen. removes oxygen in the form of CO2, CO, and H 2O [90].
Bio-oils are complex combinations of organic chemicals, - Hydrocracking: combines cracking and hydrogena-
such as phenols, ketones, esters, alcohols, and hydro- tion to remove oxygen and reduce molecular weight [79].
carbons, as well as water and contaminants. It is dark These upgrading processes aim to address the main
brown in color and contains a high oxygen concentra- challenges of raw bio-oil, including high oxygen content
tion, making it chemically unstable and unsuitable for (typically 35–40 wt.%), high water content (15–30 wt.%),
direct use as fuel. However, bio-oil may be improved by high acidity (pH 2–3), and chemical instability. By reduc-
different procedures to remove contaminants and lower ing oxygen content and removing contaminants, these
methods improve the heating value, stability, and com-
patibility of bio-oil with conventional refinery processes
Table 5 quantifying methane production from the anaerobic and end-use applications.
digestion of agricultural residues [114] The composition of biomass plays a crucial role in
determining the yield and quality of bio-oil during pyrol-
Agricultural residues CH4 yields (mL/g volatile
solids) by anaerobic ysis, with different components of biomass influencing
digestions pyrolysis reactions and the resulting product distribution
[54, 61].
Fruits and vegetable wastes 180–732
Bio-oil is produced through the pyrolysis of biomass, a
Wheat straw 290
thermochemical conversion process that involves heating
Rice straw 302
biomass in the absence of oxygen; Fig. 16. The resulting
Oil palm fruit bunch 276–340
bio-oil has a high oxygen content, making it unstable and
Spent coffee grain 296
initially unsuitable for direct fuel use. However, various
Riso stillage 324
upgrading processes can be applied to improve its quality
Swedish stillage 485
and suitability as a fuel or feedstock for other high-value
Corn stover 338
products [57, 171].
Wheat stillage 380–529
Cattle manure 398
Biohydrogen
Pig manure 495
Biohydrogen is a clean fuel created biologically from
Orange peel 217
many types of biomass, including biological waste.
Maize silage 236
Hydrogen is recognized as one of the most competent
Grass silage 361
alternative fuels for generating future net-zero emissions.
Raw pig slurry 330
The advent of the envisioned biomass-to-sustainable H2
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Fig. 16 A schematic diagram of the production of bio-oil using the pyrolysis process
approach is considered an attractive way to produce a biomass [40, 110]. Currently, the most prevalent methods
sustainable strategic H2 [174]. It is created by live micro- for creating hydrogen from biomass are thermochemical,
organisms that transform hydrogen into chemical energy biological, and electrolytic processes (Fig. 17).
through photolysis or fermentation [123]. Biohydrogen Biohydrogen yield is enhanced by the addition of cata-
production is interesting because it involves the use of lysts in production processes such as bio-photolysis and
clean fuel that can be easily created from certain types of fermentation. Biocatalysts, such as hydrogenases and
Fig. 17 Main pathways for H2 production based on biomass [40]

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nitrogenases, accelerate reaction rates without altering 1. Biomass: including agricultural residues, forestry
fermentation. Organic matter, enzymes, and metals also residues, and energy crops [5].
catalyze biohydrogen production, as microbes are sen- 2. Municipal solid waste (MSW): particularly the
sitive to these substances [40, 124]. The agro-industrial food and yard waste portions [25].
waste feedstocks employed for biohydrogen production 3. Fats, oils, and greases: including used cooking oils,
are given in Table 6. animal fats, and tall oil (byproduct of wood pulp
manufacture) [48].
Biojet 4. Industrial off-gases: such as waste carbon monox-
Biojet fuel, commonly known as aviation biofuel, is a ide from steel mills [24].
form of renewable fuel developed particularly for use in 5. Algae: both micro and macroalgae are being
jet engines. It is made from sustainable and renewable explored for their potential in SAF production [6].
biomass sources such plant oils, animal fats, algae, and 6. Atmospheric CO2: direct air capture (DAC) tech-
waste products. Biojet fuel attempts to lessen the aviation nology combined with renewable hydrogen can pro-
industry’s dependency on traditional fossil fuels while duce synthetic SAF [146].
also mitigating its environmental effect by providing a
more sustainable alternative. The manufacture and use Each feedstock presents unique advantages and chal-
of biojet fuel have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas lenges in terms of availability, conversion efficiency, and
emissions and the industry’s total carbon footprint [34, overall sustainability. For instance, waste-derived feed-
166]. The aviation industry aims to produce biojet fuel stocks like MSW and used cooking oils offer the benefit
from renewable biomass to help meet its emission-reduc- of recycling waste streams, while purpose-grown crops
tion goals. Currently, aviation accounts for 2% (705 mil- raise concerns about land use change and competition
lion tons) of global CO2 emissions, but this value could with food production [64].
increase to more than 340% to 3.1 billion tons by 2050 if The choice of feedstock significantly influences the pro-
conventional jet fuel remains dominant [34]. duction pathway and the final fuel characteristics. Cur-
Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) represent a crucial rently, the most common pathways for SAF production
pathway for reducing the carbon footprint of the avia- include hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA),
tion industry. SAF can be produced from a wide range of Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis, alcohol-to-jet (ATJ), and
non-petroleum-based renewable feedstocks, offering sig- synthesized iso-paraffins (SIP) [161].
nificant potential for greenhouse gas emissions reduction Ongoing research is focused on improving conversion
compared to conventional jet fuel. The feedstocks for efficiencies, reducing production costs, and developing
SAF production include, but are not limited to: new pathways to utilize a broader range of feedstocks,
Table 6 Assessing biohydrogen yield from anaerobic digestion of different agricultural waste feedstocks and processing methods [40]
Methods employed for biohydrogen production Agricultural waste feeds stock Maximum biohydrogen yield
Integrated biohydrogen process of dark fermentation and microbial Sugar beet juice 6 mol H2/mol h exose added
electrolysis
Sequential dark and photo fermentation Barley 0.58 mmol/L/h
Anaerobic fermentation Date seeds 1.330 mmol/L/h
Rice straw 19.73 mL/g
Sugarcane bagasse 6980 mL H2/L
Apple pomace 134.04 mL H2/L
Wheat waste 1.22 mol H2/mol glucose
Potato waste 298.11 mL H2/g
Cashew apple bagasse 12.57 mL H2/L/h
Wheat straw 1–68 mL H2/g
Dark fermentation Corn stoker 49–68 mL H2/g
Cattle manure 65 mL H
2/g VS 545 mL H2/L
Rice bran
Rice bran deoiled cake 295 mL H2/L
Pig manure 2/g
14–18 mL H
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with the ultimate goal of increasing SAF production to Sugar‑to‑jet (STJ)

meet the growing demand for low-carbon aviation fuels. Sugars are transformed into hydrocarbon fuels via dehy-
There are major public and private research initiatives dration, oligomerization, distillation, and hydrogenation
investigating economical and eco-friendly methods for processes. Direct fermentation of carbohydrates into
manufacturing biojet fuel at scale to replace petroleum- hydrocarbons is also employed as a manufacturing route
based jet fuel. Multiple renewable biomass sources and [55].
conversion processes are being explored to produce via-
ble biojet fuel alternatives [55]. Biojet fuel may be created
Gas‑to‑jet (GTJ)
from a number of renewable biomass sources utilizing
It is a process that converts biomass to liquids by gasifica-
various conversion processes. Some of the most preva-
tion/Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis. Syngas generation,
lent manufacturing paths for biojet fuel are include the
gas purification, FT synthesis, and product upgrading are
following.
the four fundamental processes of FT product produc-
tion [161].
Oil‑to‑jet (OTJ)
Conversion is a process in which plant or animal oils and
lipids are transformed into straight-chain alkanes. There Alcohol‑to‑jet (ATJ)
are four major methods for producing jet fuel from oils: This technique converts an alcohol (ethanol or butanol)
hydroprocessing, catalytic hydro thermolysis, hydropro- intermediate derived from biomass into jet fuel. In addi-
cessed hydrocarbons, esters, and fatty acids synthetic tion to these methods, coprocessing of lipids and unpro-
paraffinic kerosene, and hydroprocessed depolymerized cessed hydrocarbons in an FT reactor with a medium
cellulosic jet (pyrolysis) [45, 166]. A representative pro- distillate of crude oil in petroleum refineries has been
cess flow diagram is shown in Fig. 18. permitted for the generation of biojet fuel [21, 55].
Fig. 18 Hydroprocessed renewable Jet (HRJ) process

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Advances in biofuel production and geographic regions, and is subject to ongoing

Biofuels are an essential component of the renewable debates about sustainability and competition with food
energy mix, and have the potential to reduce green- production.
house gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels [70]. IRENA’s low-carbon road to 2050 proposes a five-
Concerns about global oil price volatility, energy sup- fold increase in biofuel usage, from 130 billion liter in
ply security, global warming, and the creation of new 2016 to approximately 650 billion liters by 2050. This
agricultural prospects are among the primary motivat- underscores the significance of ongoing research and
ing causes for biofuel research. Furthermore, ambitious development in the field of biofuels to fulfill the rising
government regulations, energy security, concerns demand for sustainable energy [70].
about sustainable agriculture, and a decrease in CO2 Recent improvements in biofuel technology have
emissions in the transportation sector have all become focused on improving the efficiency of production pro-
key drivers of biofuel production growth. Biofuel processes, lowering production costs, and expanding the
duction growth’ refers to: spectrum of feedstocks that may be utilized to make
biofuels [75]. Cocultivation systems have been cre-
1. Increased volume: a rise in the total amount of bio- ated to increase the efficiency of biofuel production, by
fuels produced annually on a global scale. employing different microorganisms to generate biofu-
2. Expanded capacity: the development of new pro- els, chemicals, and other products [5]. However, there
duction facilities and the expansion of existing ones. are still issues connected with coco-cultivation systems
3. Technological improvements: advancements in that must be solved to fulfill future industrial demands
production processes that increase efficiency and [119].
yield. In 2022, global biofuel production reached 1914
4. Diversification: the production of a wider range of thousand barrels of oil equivalent per day, a substantial
biofuels from various feedstocks. increase from the 180 thousand barrels of oil equiva-
5. Geographic expansion: the spread of biofuel pro- lent per day produced in 2000 (Fig. 19). Regulations
duction to new regions and countries. promoting the use and production of biofuels have
largely fueled growth, with the assumption that they
This multifaceted growth in biofuel production con- will enhance energy security and reduce greenhouse
tributes to the increasing use of biofuels as alterna- gas emissions in vital industries. Blending restrictions,
tives to fossil fuels [12]. It is important to note that environmental goals, fuel quality requirements, and
this growth varies across different types of biofuels import levies all have an impact on the biofuel industry.
Fig. 19 Biofuel production worldwide from 2000 to 2022 [5]

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The global biofuel sector is expected to be worth more Furthermore, algae-based biofuels have gained popular-
than $200 billion by 2030 [5]. ity because of the high lipid content of microalgae, which
Here are further details on the recent advances and may lead to biodiesel production. Research is continuing
developments in biofuel production: to optimize microalgal culture and harvesting for large-
scale biofuel production [83, 136].
Advanced first‑generation biofuels
Advances in sugar and starch-based ethanol produc- Advanced third‑generation biofuels
tion have improved efficiency and yield through genome - Research on microalgae-based biodiesel offers high
shuffling and global transcription machinery engineer- lipid productivity, environmental versatility, and nonara-
ing, leading to increased production rates and improved ble land use. However, challenges in terms of cultivation,
stress tolerance [135]. harvesting, and lipid extraction remain in the laboratory
Research has aimed to expand the use of biodiesel feed- stage [8, 133].
stocks, including vegetable oils, animal fats, and cooking - Sugar conversion to diesel-type biofuels: another area
oils, to promote diverse feedstocks, reduce competition of research involves the conversion of sugars into die-
with food production, and enhance sustainability [135, sel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts.
136]. This approach aims to produce biofuels with properties
similar to petroleum-based diesel. Both biological path-
Advanced second‑generation biofuels ways, such as microbial fermentation, and chemical pro-
Research on cellulosic ethanol, produced from ligno- cesses, such as catalytic conversion, are being explored to
cellulosic biomass has led to advancements in efficient achieve this conversion [106, 134].
pretreatment methods, such as steam explosion, acid
hydrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis, and the develop- Conversion technologies for biofuel production
ment of robust enzymes [134, 148]. Advanced biochemical processes
- Other second-generation biofuels: This study revealed - Enzymatic hydrolysis. Progress has been made in the
that hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) is an advanced identification and engineering of enzymes that effec-
biofuel made from animal fat and plant oil. The treatment tively degrade complex carbohydrates in lignocellulosic
of vegetable oil involves the introduction of hydrogen biomass into fermentable sugars. This involves identify-
molecules into the raw fat or oil molecules. This process ing robust enzymes, optimizing enzyme mixtures, and
is associated with the reduction of the carbon compound. improving enzyme performance and stability [22].
When hydrogen reacts with triglycerides, different types - Fermentation. Research has concentrated on enhanc-
of reactions can occur, and the different products can be ing microbial fermentation methods to produce biofuels.
combined (Fig. 20) [127]. The authors also emphasized This comprises strain selection and genetic engineering
biomass-to-liquids (BtL), diesel, and bio-synthetic gas of microbes to improve their capacity to convert carbo-
(bio-SG) conversion methods for lignocellulosic biomass. hydrates into the necessary fuel molecules. Advances in
Fig. 20 Diagram of the hydrothermal treatment process

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metabolic engineering have permitted the synthesis of - Photobiological processes. Photobiological processes
biofuels with specific features, such as increased energy involve the use of photosynthetic microorganisms, such
density and compatibility with current infrastructure [25, as algae or cyanobacteria, to convert solar energy and
46]. CO2 into biofuel. Advances in this topic include the
genetic engineering of microorganisms to increase their
photosynthetic efficiency and lipid synthesis, and the
Thermochemical processes development of photobioreactor technology for large-
- Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis includes heating biomass in the scale cultivation [9, 145].
absence of oxygen to produce bio-oil, syngas, and bio- Advancements in biofuel conversion technologies aim
char. Advances have concentrated on optimizing pyroly- to improve efficiency, yields, energy efficiency, and sus-
sis variables, such as temperature, residence time, and tainability; however, continued research and innovation
feedstock properties to maximize the output of desired are needed for widespread biofuel adoption.
bio-oil while reducing undesirable byproducts. Catalytic
pyrolysis, which uses catalysts to improve the process, Challenges and opportunities in biofuel
has also shown promise for enhancing product selectivity production
and quality [136]. Challenges
- Gasification. Gasification is a thermochemical pro- Feedstock availability and sustainability
cess that transforms solid biomass into synthesis gas The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks
(syngas), which contains carbon monoxide and hydrogen. poses a substantial obstacle to biofuel manufacturing.
Advances in gasification technology have boosted pro- Competing demands for land, water, and resources from
cess efficiency and syngas quality, and reduced tar and food production, conservation, and biofuel crops can
particulate matter emissions. Syngas may be further pro- raise concerns about land use change, deforestation, and
cessed into different biofuels, including Fischer–Tropsch biodiversity loss. It is critical that biofuel feedstocks are
liquids and hydrogen [161]. grown in a sustainable and ecologically responsible way
- Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). HTL is a process [106, 134, 142].
in which biomass is converted into bio-oil at high tem-
peratures and pressures in the presence of water. Recent
Feedstock diversity
advances in HTL include the use of catalysts and cosol-
The reliance on a restricted variety of feedstocks for
vents to increase the production and quality of bio-oil, as
biofuel production, such as maize, sugarcane, and soy-
well as the utilization of diverse feedstocks, such as algae
beans, may result in rivalry with food production and
and wet biomass [46].
consequent price increases. The development of alterna-
- Supercritical fluid conversion. Supercritical fluid
tive feedstocks, including as nonfood crops, agricultural
technologies, such as supercritical water or supercritical
leftovers, and waste materials, is critical for minimizing
ethanol, have been studied for the conversion of biomass
dependency on food-based feedstocks and boosting the
to biofuels. These reactions work at high temperatures
sustainability of biofuel production [121, 136].
and pressures, modifying the solvent’s characteristics
and facilitating the breakdown of biomass components.
Conversion efficiency
Advancements in supercritical fluid conversion include
process optimization, catalyst development, and integra- Efficiency issues frequently arise while converting feed-
tion with other conversion methods [8, 117]. stocks into biofuels. Enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation,
and thermochemical conversion are complicated pro-
cesses that need to be optimized. Increasing conversion
Emerging technologies efficiency, lowering energy inputs, and limiting byprod-
- Synthetic biology. Synthetic biology is the process of uct generation are continuing research targets increas-
creating and engineering biological systems to perform ing the economic feasibility of biofuel production [71,
certain purposes, such as biofuel generation, to increase 92–94].
efficiency and yield via pathways, enzyme optimization,
and metabolic engineering [136]. Technological advancements
- Microbial electrochemical systems (MES). MESs use Continued research and development are required to
microbial metabolism and electrochemistry to transform improve conversion technologies and make them more
organic molecules into biofuels or power. MES research economically feasible. This involves enhancing enzyme
has focused on optimizing electrode materials, microbial performance and stability, optimizing catalysts, inventing
consortia, and operating conditions to optimize conver- innovative reactor designs, and scaling up processes from
sion efficiency and maximize ethanol output [116]. laboratory to commercial-scale production [148].
El‑Araby B
Infrastructure and distribution [89]. Certifications can assist in the differentiation of

The current infrastructure and distribution networks biofuels in the market and offer customers confidence
were developed largely for fossil fuels and may not be in their sustainability [105].
totally compatible with biofuels. Expanding biofuel Addressing the obstacles and capitalizing on the poten-
production involves investments in infrastructure, such tial of biofuel production involves a multidisciplinary
as storage, transportation, and fueling stations, to han- strategy that includes scientific research, legislative assis-
dle biofuel production, distribution, and consumption tance, corporate sector investment, and public aware-
[108, 157]. ness [142]. Collaboration among stakeholders, including
researchers, industry, politicians, and environmental
Opportunities organizations, is critical for furthering the sustainable
Renewable energy transition development and implementation of biofuels [148].
Biofuels provide a means to move from fossil fuels to
renewable energy sources. Moreover, renewable energy Environmental implications and benefits
sources can play an important role in lowering green- of biofuels
house gas emissions, especially in the transportation Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
sector, when alternative renewable energy sources are One of the most significant environmental benefits
limited [92–94, 121]. of biofuels is their ability to minimize greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions compared to fossil fuels.
Energy security Biofuels are derived from a variety of renewable
Biofuels can help improve energy security by reliance sources, not limited to biomass alone. While many biofu-
on imported fossil fuels. Domestic production of bio- els are indeed produced from plant-based biomass, which
fuels from locally accessible feedstocks can help to absorbs atmospheric C O2 during growth, the category of
increase the stability and robustness of energy systems biofuels encompasses a broader range of feedstocks and
[92–94]. production methods.
Biofuels are produced from a diverse array of renew-
able feedstocks, including but not limited to:
Rural development and job creation
Biofuel production may boost rural economies by gen-
1. Plant-based biomass: this includes crops, agri-
erating jobs in agriculture, feedstock production, pro-
cultural residues, and forestry waste, which absorb
cessing, and distribution. It can create new revenue
atmospheric CO2 during their growth cycle [117].
options for farmers and boost rural communities [100,
2. Algae: both microalgae and macroalgae can be
139].
used for biofuel production, offering high growth
rates and CO2 absorption capabilities [107].
Waste utilization 3. Waste materials: this includes municipal solid
Biofuel production may use agricultural and forestry waste, food waste, and industrial byproducts, which
wastes, as well as waste materials, diverting them from may not directly absorb CO2 but contribute to sus-
landfills and mitigating environmental effects. This tainability by repurposing waste streams [7].
approach creates an opportunity for waste control and 4. Animal fats and used cooking oils: these feed-
resource optimization [105]. stocks, while not directly absorbing CO2, contribute
to sustainability by utilizing waste products [48].
Technological innovation 5. Industrial off-gases: carbon monoxide and hydro-
Biofuel production drives technological advance- gen from industrial processes can be converted to
ments in feedstock cultivation, conversion technology, biofuels, indirectly reducing greenhouse gas emis-
and process optimization. Advances in biotechnology, sions [37].
genetic engineering, and synthetic biology can be used 6. Atmospheric CO2: direct air capture (DAC) tech-
to improve biofuel production efficiency and sustain- nology, combined with renewable energy, can pro-
ability [92–94, 100]. duce synthetic biofuels, actively removing CO2 from
the atmosphere [82].
Sustainability criteria and standards
The creation of sustainability certification schemes and The carbon balance and environmental impact of bio-
standards for biofuels is an opportunity to assure eco- fuels vary significantly depending on the feedstock and
logically and socially acceptable production processes production method. While plant-based and algal bio-
fuels can potentially offer a closed carbon cycle, other
El‑Araby B
feedstocks may provide environmental benefits through Sustainable biofuel production should prioritize the use
waste reduction or by avoiding new greenhouse gas of nonfood crops, agricultural leftovers, and waste mate-
emissions. The sustainability of each biofuel should be rials to avoid rivalry with food production and put less
assessed on a case-by-case basis, considering factors such strain on natural ecosystems. Maintaining biodiversity
as land use change, energy input for production, and while boosting biofuel production requires appropri-
overall life cycle emissions [136]. ate sourcing procedures, land-use certifications, and the
Biofuels are made from renewable biomass, which preservation of high-conservation-value places.
absorbs atmospheric CO2 throughout the growing
period. When combusted, biofuels emit CO2, but this Economic viability and market potential of biofuels
emission is countered by the carbon absorbed during Factors, including production costs, feedstock availabil-
feedstock cultivation, resulting in net emission reduc- ity, legislative frameworks, and market dynamics, all have
tions [138, 136]. Advanced biofuels, such as cellulosic an impact on the economic feasibility and potential of
ethanol and algae-based fuels, have even greater promise biofuels. There are several important aspects of the eco-
for reducing emissions. Cellulosic ethanol has the poten- nomic feasibility and market potential of biofuels.
tial to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 90%
[138]). According to the US Department of Energy, biofu- Cost competitiveness
els are totally biodegradable, unlike other gasoline addi- The cost of manufacturing biofuels is important for their
tives [142]. economic sustainability. It considers feedstock costs,
conversion methods, operating expenditures, and distri-
Air quality improvements bution infrastructure. Biofuels must be cost competitive
Biofuels have the potential to enhance air quality by with fossil fuels to attract market demand and investment
lowering pollution emissions. Biofuels produce lower [108, 148]. Advances in technology, scale, and feedstock
amounts of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and nitro- availability can all assist in reducing production costs and
gen oxides than fossil fuels, all of which have been linked increasing competitiveness [120].
to respiratory and cardiovascular problems. Using bio- To better understand the cost competitiveness of bio-
fuels in transportation can help alleviate these health fuels compared to conventional fossil fuels, we have com-
effects and improve local air quality, especially in heavily piled recent data from various sources. Table 7 presents a
populated regions [39, 47]. comparison of production costs for different types of bio-
fuels and their fossil fuel counterparts. The cost competi-
Land and water resource implications tiveness of biofuels remains a dynamic field, with ongoing
Biofuel feedstock cultivation has the potential to have a research and development efforts to reduce production
substantial impact on land and water resources. Unsus- costs and improve efficiency. Future breakthroughs in
tainable land use practices, such as deforestation or the feedstock development, processing technologies, and
modification of natural ecosystems, can cause biodiver- scale-up strategies could significantly alter the competi-
sity loss and carbon emissions [106]. Sustainable bio- tive landscape of biofuels versus fossil fuels.
fuel production requires responsible land-use planning, To provide a comprehensive overview of the competi-
prioritizing degraded land, avoiding ecologically sensi- tiveness of various biofuels, including biojet and bio-oil,
tive areas, and implementing water-efficient practices we have compiled data from recent studies and industry
to address water scarcity issues [80]. Biofuel production reports. Table 8 presents a comparison of key parameters
can have a severe influence on the environment, includ- for these biofuels and their conventional counterparts.
ing deforestation and increased fertilizer and pesticide It is important to note that the competitiveness of
use. Growing biofuel feedstocks on high-carbon soils, biofuels is not static and can be significantly influenced
such as peat land, greatly increases GHG emissions. Land by factors, such as government policies, technological
use changes can have important environmental impacts, advancements, and changes in feedstock availability and
such as soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water consump- prices. Ongoing research and development efforts are
tion, and biodiversity loss, as well as increasing GHG focused on improving production efficiencies and reduc-
emissions [106]. ing costs, which could further enhance the competitive-
ness of biofuels in the future [11].
Biodiversity considerations
Biofuel feedstock development may have ramifications Government policies and incentives
for biodiversity protection. Clearing land for biofuel Government regulations and incentives are critical in
crops can result in wildlife habitat loss, ecological disrup- advancing the biofuel business. Mandates, tax cred-
tion, and detrimental implications for biodiversity [137]. its, subsidies, loan guarantees, and renewable fuel
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Table 7 Comparison of production costs for biofuels and fossil fuels (International Energy Agency (IEA).2021)
Fuel type Production cost (USD/liter) Energy density (MJ/ liter) Cost per energy
unit (USD/GJ)
Conventional gasoline 0.5–0.65 34.2 14.6–19.0

Corn ethanol 0.55–0.75 21.2 25.9–35.4
Sugarcane ethanol 0.45–0.65 21.2 21.2–30.7
Cellulosic ethanol 0.8–1.20 21.2 37.7–56.6
Conventional diesel 0.55–0.70 38.6 14.2–18.1
Biodiesel (soybean) 0.70–0.90 33.3 21.0–27.0
Biodiesel (waste cooking oil) 0.60–0.80 33.3 18.0–24.0
Renewable diesel 0.75–1.00 34.4 21.8–29.1
Advanced biofuels (e.g., algal) 1.2–2.00 35.0 34.3–57.1
Table 8 Comparative analysis of biofuels and conventional fuels

Fuel type Production cost (USD/ Energy density (MJ/liter) GHG emissions (g CO2e/ Compatibility
liter) MJ) with existing
infrastructure
Conventional jet fuel 0.4–0.60 35.3 87.5 High

Biojet (HEFA) 0.80–1.20 34.3 25.0 High
Biojet (FT-SPK) 1.00–1.50 34.3 12.5 High
Conventional Diesel 0.55–0.70 38.6 95.1 High
Biodiesel (FAME) 0.70–0.90 33.3 31.3 Medium
Renewable diesel (HVO) 0.75–1.00 34.4 29.2 High
Conventional gasoline 0.50–0.65 34.2 93.3 High
Bio-oil (fast pyrolysis) 0.60–1.00 16–19 37.2 Low
Ethanol (corn) 0.55–0.75 21.20 57.5 Medium
Ethanol (sugarcane) 0.45–0.65 21.20 24.3 Medium
HEFA hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids, FT-SPK Fischer–Tropsch synthetic paraffinic kerosene, FAME fatty acid methyl esters, HVO hydrotreated vegetable oil
requirements are all possible options. Supportive poli- understanding and acceptance of biofuels might also
cies provide a favorable market environment, encourage boost market demand [42, 136].
investment, and provide stability to biofuel producers.
The degree and length of governmental assistance can
Feedstock availability and sustainability
have a substantial influence on the market potential of
The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks
biofuels [11, 44, 81].
at acceptable prices is critical to the economic sustain-
ability of biofuels. Diversifying feedstocks, using waste
Fossil fuel prices
resources, and improving feedstock yield can all con-
Price fluctuations in fossil fuels can have an impact on
tribute to increasing the market potential of biofuels.
the market potential of biofuels. When fossil fuel costs
Sustainable feedstock production techniques and certifi-
rise, biofuels become more competitive and appealing to
cation programs can also help with the market adoption
customers. However, if fossil fuel costs fall dramatically,
of biofuels [106, 142].
biofuels may struggle to retain competitiveness [60, 134].
Market demand and infrastructure Technological advancements

The market potential of biofuels is determined by con- Advances in conversion technology, such as enhanced
sumer demand as well as the availability of infrastructure enzyme efficiency, process optimization, and produc-
for biofuel production, distribution, and consumption. tion scale, can help biofuels become more economically
The transportation industry is an important market viable. Technological innovation can assist in lowering
for biofuels, and the use of biofuel-compatible cars and production costs, improving output, boosting energy effi-
fueling infrastructure is critical. A growing public ciency, and improving the quality of biofuels [43, 134].
El‑Araby B
International trade and market dynamics Financial incentives

International trade and market dynamics might influ- Governments frequently offer financial incentives to
ence the market potential of biofuels. Biofuel imports encourage biofuel production and usage. Tax credits,
and exports can be affected by different nations’ trade grants, loan guarantees, and subsidies may be used to off-
policies, taxes, subsidies, and restrictions. Furthermore, set the greater costs of producing biofuels in comparison
market variables such as customer preferences, energy to fossil fuels. Financial incentives serve to attract invest-
security concerns, and environmental restrictions impact ment, decrease market obstacles, and boost the use of
biofuel consumption across locations [20, 103]. biofuels [122, 172].
It is crucial to remember that the economic feasibility
and market potential of biofuels differ by location and are Research and development support
dependent on individual market conditions, legislation, Governments may sponsor biofuel-related research and
and feedstock availability. As technology advances, costs development efforts. This assistance encourages techni-
fall, and regulatory support remains constant, the market cal innovation, efficiency gains, and the development of
for biofuels is projected to expand. However, continued new feedstocks. Research funding, cooperation with aca-
research, innovation, and stakeholder engagement are demic institutions, and public‒private partnerships are
critical for realizing the full economic potential of bio- prominent means of encouraging innovation in biofuel
fuels and enabling a long-term transition to renewable technology [15].
energy sources [60].
Import and export policies

Policy and regulatory frameworks for biofuel International trade rules and regulations can influence
development the biofuel industry. Tariffs, quotas, and trade agree-
Policy and regulatory frameworks are critical for encour- ments influence the import and export of biofuels and
aging the development and implementation of biofuels. feedstocks. Governments may set trade restrictions to
They establish rules, incentives, and standards to help the safeguard domestic businesses or develop preferential
sector and guarantee that biofuels are produced and used trade agreements to encourage biofuel exports [66, 131].
sustainably. The following are some important compo-
nents of the policy and regulatory frameworks for biofuel Environmental regulations
development. Environmental laws, such as emissions and air quality
requirements, have the potential to affect biofuel con-
sumption. Biofuels are generally preferred over fossil
Renewable fuel standards (RFS) and blending targets fuels because they emit fewer greenhouse gases. Govern-
Many nations have enacted renewable fuel standards or ments may set emission-reduction objectives or carbon
blending goals, which require a particular number of bio- pricing schemes to encourage the use of biofuels [59,
fuels as transportation fuels. These measures increase the 113].
market demand for biofuels while also providing long-
term stability for producers. Blending objectives can be Infrastructure support
based on volume (e.g., a certain amount of biofuel to be Governments may help fund the construction of biofuel
blended) or percentage (e.g., a specified proportion of infrastructure, including filling stations, storage facili-
biofuels in the total fuel mix) [53, 60]. ties, and distribution networks. Funding for infrastruc-
ture expansion and upgrading existing infrastructure to
handle biofuels helps overcome market obstacles and
Feedstock regulations increase biofuel use [53, 130, 150, 163].
Policies and regulations handle feedstock-related con-
cerns such as land usage, sustainability standards, and
certification. These systems guarantee that biofuel feed- Public awareness and education
stocks are supplied sustainably, avoiding deforestation, Specific policy and regulatory frameworks for biofuel
biodiversity loss, and negative social consequences. development differ by country and area, reflecting local
Certification programs, such as the Roundtable on Sus- goals, resources, and market conditions. Governments
tainable Biomaterials (RSB) and the International Sus- frequently work with industry players, research insti-
tainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC), provide tutes, and environmental groups to develop success-
requirements for sustainable feedstock production [101, ful policies that balance economic development, energy
172]. security, and sustainability objectives. Policy frameworks
El‑Araby B
must be continuously evaluated and updated to respond Conclusions

to changing technology, market dynamics, and environ- Biofuels have the potential to significantly reduce
mental concerns [60, 63]. dependency on fossil fuels and their associated green-
house gas emissions, playing an important role in the
global energy transition. First-generation biofuels made
Future prospects and research directions from food crops have been criticized for their sustain-
Technological advancements and innovation ability, while advanced biofuels promise to harness
The development of new technologies and innovative the advantages of bioenergy while minimizing unfore-
solutions can assist in increasing the efficiency and sus- seen effects. Cellulosic ethanol from waste biomass
tainability of biofuel production. For example, research- and promising technologies such as algae biofuels are
ers are investigating the use of nanotechnology to becoming increasingly commercially viable and might
increase biofuel production [158], improve biofuel pro- be generated on a large scale in a sustainable manner.
duction efficiencies through the use of new catalysts, and Additional research and development are still neces-
biorefinery designs, utilize biotechnology such as genetic sary to boost production and efficiency while lowering
engineering to increase energy crop yields, and con- expenses. However, with supporting policies, advanced
tinue to reduce the costs of cellulosic ethanol and other biofuels have the potential to spread as an emission-
advanced biofuel technologies [49, 130]. reduction option that is compatible with existing cars
and infrastructure.
The adaptability of biofuels enables them to blend with
Integration of biofuels with other renewable energy emerging energy systems that rely more on solar, wind,
sources and other renewables. Waste carbon emissions can even
Combining biofuels with other renewable energy sources be repurposed using tailored biofuel processes. Further-
(hybrid systems), such as wind and solar power and more, integrated biorefinery systems have the potential
hydropower, can contribute to a more sustainable and for synergistic effects on the production of biofuels as
dependable energy system [78, 150]. Using renewable well as bio-based chemicals and materials. With further
electricity in industry processes. Potential synergies with innovation and appropriate deployment, biofuels can
integrated biorefineries that produce renewable chemi- play an important role in establishing long-term low-
cals and minerals [130, 158]. carbon economies while avoiding the difficulties previ-
ously encountered. The distinct features of liquid biofuels
position them as pioneering agents for greener transpor-
Exploration of new feedstock options tation systems in the future. While decreasing fossil fuel
Researchers are investigating novel biofuel feedstock consumption is still critical in the battle against climate
options, such as algae, camelina, municipal solid waste, change, biofuels provide one way to fuel the Earth’s con-
and other specialized feedstocks, to help reduce the envi- stant energy flows in a brighter future.
ronmental impact of biofuel production (Mat et al., 2020; While progress has been made in terms of biofuels in
[71]. Marginal or degraded areas should be utilized to recent years, realizing their full potential will require
minimize competition with food production. Bioengi- continued efforts across industries. More research is
neering crops such as sorghum, switchgrass, and oilseed needed to increase production, improve sustainability,
crops are used for biofuel production [136, 150, 158]. and enable large-scale commercialization. Public and
commercial players should continue to develop biofuel
technologies such as cellulosic ethanol production and
Addressing sustainability challenges and optimizing algal biofuel systems. It is equally crucial to continue
production processes developing sustainable strategies for feedstock culti-
It is critical to address the sustainability issues connected vation and supply networks. Land use concerns must
with biofuel production, such as land use changes and remain a top emphasis. Policymakers must encour-
water consumption, as well as optimize production tech- age best practices while fostering greater innovation.
niques to reduce environmental effects [71, 106], imple- International collaboration can help to reconcile global
menting environmentally friendly agricultural methods competitiveness with responsible manufacturing.
for energy crop cultivation, and concentrating on waste/ Acknowledgements
residue supply networks. A continuing lifetime evalua- Not applicable
tion study is needed to compare technologies/feedstocks
Author contributions
and priority improvements, regional optimization of bio- I am a single-author.
fuel crop choices and biorefinery sites [106, 148].
El‑Araby B
Funding first-and second-generation sugar-based feedstocks. J Clean Prod.

Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation 2020;245:118857.
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Biofuel Production: Exploring Renewable Energy Solutions For A Greener Future

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El‑Araby ﻿ Biotechnology for Biofuels

Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts (2024) 17:129

REVIEW Open Access

Biofuel production: exploring renewable

Importance of renewable energy solutions provide through continued advancement, contributing to

Ocean Extreme Sea Level Plasc Polluon

Fig. 6 Total renewable energy production (2010–2020) [26]

techniques. The procedures for generating power from

Fig. 8 Applications of bioenergy

Fig. 10 Biofuel types and their generations

oils, and starch

Fig. 12 Different types of algal biofuels and conversion methods [8]

Fig. 14 Steps involved in biodiesel production [144]

Fig. 15 Production of biomethanol by gasification [3]

Fig. 17 Main pathways for ­H2 production based on biomass [40]

with the ultimate goal of increasing SAF production to Sugar‑to‑jet (STJ)

Fig. 18 Hydroprocessed renewable Jet (HRJ) process

Advances in biofuel production and geographic regions, and is subject to ongoing

Fig. 19 Biofuel production worldwide from 2000 to 2022 [5]

Fig. 20 Diagram of the hydrothermal treatment process

Infrastructure and distribution [89]. Certifications can assist in the differentiation of

Conventional gasoline 0.5–0.65 34.2 14.6–19.0

Table 8 Comparative analysis of biofuels and conventional fuels

Conventional jet fuel 0.4–0.60 35.3 87.5 High

Market demand and infrastructure Technological advancements

International trade and market dynamics Financial incentives

Import and export policies

must be continuously evaluated and updated to respond Conclusions

Funding first-and second-generation sugar-based feedstocks. J Clean Prod.

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El‑Araby Biotechnology for Biofuels

Ocean Extreme Sea Level Plasc Polluon

Fig. 17 Main pathways for H2 production based on biomass [40]