CHAPTER FIVE

5 LAN AND WAN TECHNOLOGIES

5.1 OVERVIEW OF WAN AND LAN

LAN: - “local area network"

Is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or
wireless link and typically share the resources of a single processor or server within a small
geographic area (for example, within an office building).
Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by multiple
computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for example, in a
home network) or many as thousands of users.
Wireless LAN
A local area network that transmits over the air typically in an unlicensed frequency such as the
2.4GHz band. A wireless LAN does not require lining up devices for line of sight transmission.
Wireless access points (base stations) are connected to an Ethernet hub or server and transmit a
radio frequency over an area of several hundred to a thousand feet which can penetrate walls and
other non-metal barriers. Roaming users can be handed off from one access point to another like
a cellular phone system. Laptops use wireless network cards that plug into an existing PCMCIA
slot or that are self-contained on PC cards, while stand-alone desktops and servers use plug-in
cards (ISA, PCI, etc.).
Characteristics – LAN
Topology
The geometric arrangement of devices on the network or the shape of a local-area network (LAN)
or other communications system.
Protocols
The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocol defines the format and
meaning of the data that is exchanged. The protocols also determine whether the network uses a
peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.

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Media
Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic cables. Some
networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead via radio waves.
Characteristics of WANs
Similarities to LANs

 Interconnect computers.
 Use some form of media for the interconnection.
 Support network applications.

Differences to LANs

 Include both data networks, such as the Internet, and voice networks, like telephone
systems.
 Interconnect more workstations, so that any one workstation can transfer data to any other
workstation.
 Cover large geographic distances, including the earth.

5.2 LAN HARDWARE DEVICES

REPEATER
A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on. It can regenerate signals at the bit
level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. It operates at Physical Layer of OSI
Model. It does not simply amplify the signal, it regenerates the packets and retimes them. It cannot
connect two different network architecture.

The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be used as a standard when extending LAN
segments. This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used between hosts on a LAN.
This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each repeater. A repeater does not
actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments of the same LAN. The segments connected
are still part of one single LAN. A repeater is not a device that can connect two LANs of different
protocols. A repeater is used to lengthen Ethernet network distance limitation by creating network
segments. A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.

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HUB

An unintelligent network device that sends one signal to all of the stations connected to it.Hubs
are used to connect multiple nodes to a single physical device, which connects to the network.
Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. Using a hub changes the network topology from a linear
bus, to a star. With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub port is electrically repeated on all
the other ports connected to the same network segment.
Traditionally, hubs are used for star topology networks, but they are often used with other
configurations to make it easy to add and remove computers without bringing down the network.
Hubs work at the OSI physical layer to regenerate the network’s signal and resend them to other
segments.

TYPES OF HUBS

1. Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before broadcasting them
out to the network. It is just a connector. It connects the wires coming from different branches. In
a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where the signals coming from different

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stations collide; the hub is the collision point. This type of a hub is part of the media; its location
in the Internet model is below the physical layer.

2. Active hubs, a type of hub that can perform amplification, as does a repeater. Some people use
the terms concentrator when referring to a passive hub and multiport repeater when referring to an
active hub.

3. Intelligent hubs add extra features to an active hub that are of particular importance to
businesses. An intelligent hub typically is stackable (built in such a way that multiple units can be
placed one on top of the other to conserve space). It also typically includes remote management
capabilities via SNMP and virtual LAN (VLAN) support.

BRIDGE

Bridges are used to logically separate network segments within the same network. Connects two
LANs and forwards or filters data packets between them. It creates an extended network in which
any two workstations on the linked LANs can share data. It forward data depending on the
Hardware (MAC) address, not the Network address (IP).It resides on Layer 2 of the OSI model. It
has one input and one output. It is used to isolate network traffic and computers and also it has the
intelligent to examine incoming packet source and destination addresses.
They operate at the OSI physical and data link layer and are independent of higher-layer protocols.
As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC) addresses (source and
destination) contained in the frame. The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions
about whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network. When a bridge receives
a frame on the network, the destination MAC address is looked up in the bridge table to determine
whether to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another segment Broadcast directions packets are
forwarded to all.
A bridge has filtering capability. It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the
frame should be forwarded or dropped. If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify
the port. A bridge has a table that maps addresses to ports.

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In the above figure two LANs are connected by a bridge. A frame destined for station
712B13456142 arrives at port 1, the bridge consults its table to find the departing port. According
to its table, frames for 712B13456142 leave through port 1; therefore, there is no need for
forwarding, and the frame is dropped. On the other hand, if a frame for 712B13456141 arrives at
port 2, the departing port is port 1 and the frame is forwarded. In the first case, LAN 2 remains
free of traffic; in the second case, both LANs have traffic. Note also that a bridge does not change
the physical addresses contained in the frame.

Transparent Bridges

A transparent bridge is a bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge's
existence. If a bridge is added or deleted from the system, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. According to the IEEE 802.1 d specification, a system equipped with transparent
bridges must meet three criteria:

1. Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.

2. The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame movements in the
network.
3. Loops in the system must be prevented.

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SWITCHES

Switches are Multiport Bridges. Switches provide a unique network segment on each
port, thereby separating collision domains. Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their
wiring closets with switches to increase their network performance and bandwidth while protecting
their existing wiring investments. Like bridges, switches learn certain information about
the data packets that are received from various computers on the network. Switches use this
information to build forwarding tables to determine the destination of data being sent
by one computer to another computer on the network.

Switches operate at the Data Link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. It can interpret address
information .Switches divide a network into several isolated channels .Each channel has its own
capacity and need not be shared with other channels

Advantages of Switches
• Switches divide a network into several isolated channels (or collision domains)
• Reduce the possibility of collision
• Collision only occurs when two devices try to get access to one channel
• Can be solved by buffering one of them for later access
• Each channel has its own network capacity
• Suitable for real-time applications, e.g. video conferencing
• Since isolated, hence secure
• Data will only go to the destination, but not others

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Limitations of Switches
• Although contains buffers to accommodate bursts of traffic, can become overwhelmed by
heavy traffic
• Device cannot detect collision when buffer is full
• CSMA/CD scheme will not work since the data channels are isolated, not
the case as in Ethernet
• Some higher level protocols do not detect error
• E.g. UDP
• Those data packets are continuously pumped to the switch and introduce more
problems.
When we use the term switch, we must be careful because a switch can mean two different things.
We must clarify the term by adding the level at which the device operates.

We can have a two-layer switch or a three-layer switch. A three-layer switch is used at the network
layer; it is a kind of router. The two-layer switch performs at the physical and data link layers.

A two-layer switch is a bridge, a bridge with many ports and a design that allows better (faster)
performance. A bridge with a few ports can connect a few LANs together.

A bridge with many ports may be able to allocate a unique port to each station, with each station
on its own independent entity. This means no competing traffic (no Collision)

TYPES OF SWITCHS

Cut-through switch

Cut-through switch is a packet switch wherein the switch starts forwarding that frame (or packet)
before the whole frame has been received, normally as soon as the destination address is
processed. A cut-through switch can achieve the lowest forwarding delays, but it propagates errors
from one LAN to another, because errors can only be detected at the end of each
frame. In other words, this technique reduces latency through the switch, but decreases reliability.

Store and Forward Switch

A switching device that stores a complete incoming data packet before it is sent out. Such switches
are used when incoming and outgoing speeds differ.

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5.3 LAN TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

Ethernet

 Developed by Xerox in 1976

 Eventually became an IEEE standard (IEEE 802.3)Has been modified for wireless
applications
(IEEE 802.11)
 And for higher speeds (IEEE 802.3ae for 10 Gigabit Ethernet)
 Ethernet is based on the Datagram and functions at the physical and data link layer

Ethernet Datagram Structure

Preamble: Repeating Flag that ID’s the sequence as an Ethernet datagram

Destination Address: Unique identifier found nowhere else but on the Network Interface Card to
whom the datagram is being sent

Source Address: Who originated the datagram

Type Field: Tells the recipient what kind of datagram is being received (IP, UDP, etc.)

Data: What it is that you are trying to send (text, JEPG, MP3, etc.)

Frame Check Sequence: Detects and corrects errors

Ethernet Tidbits

If a message has less than 46 bytes of data, “padding” is added. Ethernet is often referred to as 100
Base T.

 First digit is the speed of the system in Mbps

 Base refers to a cable or wire system

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  T refers to the system is UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair
 10 Base 5 stands for 10 Mbps on a cable that can go 500 m (multiply the last number by
100 meters)
 10 Base 2 stands for 10 Mbps for 2 hundred meters
 10 Base 5 and 10 Base 2 identifies Ethernet LANs using thick net and thin net coax cables,
respectively

Ethernet Address

End nodes are identified by their Ethernet Addresses (MAC Address or Hardware Address) which
is a unique 6 Byte address.

MAC Address is represented in Hexa-Decimal format

E.g. 00:05:5D: FE: 10:0A (48 bits)

The first 3 bytes identify a vendor (also called prefix) and the last 3 bytes are unique for every
host or device the least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address. If the bit is 0,
the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast. The broadcast destination address is a special case
of the multicast address in which all bits are 1s.

EXAMPLE

Define the type of the following destination addresses:

A.4A:30:10:21:10:1A

B. 47:20:1B:2E:08:E7

C. FF: FF: FF: FF: FF: FF

Solution
to find the type of the address, we need to look at the second hexadecimal digit from the left. If it
is even, the address is unicast. If it is odd, the address is multicast. If all digits are F’s, the address
is broadcast. Therefore, we have the following:

a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010.

b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111.

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c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are F’s

STANDARD ETHERNET

 10 Base 5 (Thicknet) (Bus Topology)

 10 Base 2 (Thinnet) (Bus Topology)
 10 Base T (UTP) (Star/Tree Topology)
 10 Base FL (Fiber) (Star/Tree Topology)

ETHERNET
Physical Media:-

 10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology

 10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
 10 Base T - UTP Cat 3/5 with Tree Topology
 10 Base FL - Multimode/Single mode Fiber with Tree Topology

Maximum Segment Length

 10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend the network)
 10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend the network)
 10 Base T - 100 m with at most 4 hubs (Use Switch to extend the network)

FAST ETHERNET

It has 100 Mbps bandwidth. It uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and packet format as
in Ethernet. 100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards.

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Physical media:-

 100 Base TX - UTP Cat 5e

 100 Base FX - Multimode / Single mode Fiber

Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.

Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed: 10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for
copper media only).

Maximum Segment Length

 100 Base TX - 100 m

 100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
 100 Base FX - 20 km (Single mode Fiber)

Gigabit Ethernet

1 Gb/s bandwidth. Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet and is backward
compatible (10/100/100 modules are available). 1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode
Fiber) and 1000BaseLX (Multimode/Single mode Fiber) standards.

Maximum Segment Length

 1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)

 1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
 1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
 1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Single mode Fiber)
 1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Single mode Fiber)

10 GIG ETHERNET

10 GB/s bandwidth. Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet.

Maximum Segment Length

 10GBase-T - Not available

 10GBase-LR – 10 Km (Single mode Fiber)
 10GBase-ER - 40 Km (Single mode Fiber)

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5.4 WIDE AREA NETWORK BASICS
A station is a device that interfaces a user to a network.

•A node is a device that allows one or more stations to access the physical network and is a transfer
point for passing information through a network. A node is often a computer, a router, or a
telephone switch.

•The subnet (old terminology) or physical network is the underlying connection of nodes and
telecommunication links.

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices
capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a
switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones,
for example). Others are used only for routing. A network categorized by the way it transfers
information from one node to another as

1. Circuit switched network - a network in which a dedicated circuit is established between

sender and receiver and all data passes over this circuit. The connection is dedicated until
one party or another terminates the connection. The telephone system is a common
example.
2. Packet switched network - a network in which all data messages are transmitted using
fixed-sized packages, called packets (data gram and virtual-switched network).
Packet-switched networks can further be divided into two sub categories virtual-circuit
networks and datagram networks

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection

between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each connection
uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into n channels by
using FDM or TDM.

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As shown above, when end system A needs to communicate with end system M, system A
needs to request a connection to M that must be accepted by all switches as well as by M itself.
This is called the setup phase; a circuit (channel) is reserved on each link, and the combination of
circuits or channels defines the dedicated path. After the dedicated path made of connected circuits
(channels) is established, data transfer can take place. After all data have been transferred, the
circuits are torn down.

Circuit switched network

1. Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.

2. Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the resources to
be used during the communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM
and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch input/output
ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown
phase.
3. Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical layer transfer of the
signal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the
destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
4. There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the data based on
their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). Of course, there is end-to-end addressing
used during the setup phase.

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PACKET SWITCHED NETWORKS

DATAGRAM NETWORKS

In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to another. If the message
is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or
variable size. The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.

In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no
reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet.
Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served basis.

When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait
if there are other packets being processed. As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of
reservation may create delay.

In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if a packet
is part of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in
this approach are referred to as datagrams.

Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer..

In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel
different paths to reach their destination. This is so because the links may be involved in carrying
packets from other sources and do not have the necessary bandwidth available to carry all the
packets from A to X.

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This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their destination out of order
with different delays between the packets. Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack
of resources. In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an upper-layer protocol to reorder
the datagrams or ask for lost datagrams before passing them on to the application.

The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks. The term
connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the
connection state. There are no setup or teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a
switch regardless of its source or destination.

Routing Table

If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets routed to their destinations in a
datagram network? In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table
which is based on the destination address. The routing tables are dynamic and are updated
periodically.

The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables.

This is different from the table of a circuit-switched network in which each entry is created when
the setup phase is completed and deleted when the teardown phase is over.

Destination Address

Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other information, the
destination address of the packet. When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is
examined; the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet
should be forwarded.

This address, unlike the address in a virtual-circuit switched network, remains the same during the
entire journey of the packet.

Efficiency
• the efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network; resources
are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source sends a packet and there is
a delay of a few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated during
these minutes for other packets from other sources.

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VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network.

It has some characteristics of both.

1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the
data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be
the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end
jurisdiction. How the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no
final destination address carried by a packet? Using virtual-circuit identifiers.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the
network layer.

The above figure is an example of a virtual circuit network. The network has switches that allow
traffic from sources to destinations. A source or destination can be a computer, packet switch,
bridge, or any other device that connects other networks.

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In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit
identifier).

Global Addressing

A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be unique in the scope
of the network or internationally if the network is part of an international network. However, a
global address in virtual-circuit networks is used only to create a virtual circuit identifier.

Virtual-Circuit Identifier

The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A
VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is
used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it
leaves, it has a different VCI.

Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own unique set
of VCI.

5.5 WAN HARDWARE DEVICES

Router - An electronic device that connects a local area network (LAN) to a wide area network
(WAN) and handles the task of routing messages between the two networks. Operates at layer 3,
and makes decisions using IP addresses.

Switch (layer 3 switch) - A switch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a
unit of data to its next destination. Operates at layer 2 (and 3), and uses MAC addresses/IP
Addresses to send data to correct destination. (LAN switches are not this type)

Modem - Short for modulator/demodulator, a modem enables a computer to communicate with

other computers over telephone lines. Operates at layer 1, where signals are converted from digital
to analogue and vice versa for transmission and receiving.

5.6 ROUTING TECHNOLOGY

Routing is one of the fundamental aspects of networking. The ability of routers to learn possible
routes (rather than make you manually configure and constantly update the routes) is one of the
primary reasons that ARPANET which originally connected seven sites, scaled into the modern
Internet in only a few short years.

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Routed networks are often large and complex, and it would be prohibitively difficult to manage
and update network information on all routers all the time. Several algorithms have been developed
to help address these difficulties. These algorithms allow the routers to learn about the network
and then make decisions based on that information.

To learn paths (or routes) through a network, and make decisions on where to send packets, a
router use

Destination address - Typically the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the data’s (packet)
destination.

Source address - Where the information came from (typically an IP address).

Possible routes - Routes that can get information from its present location or source to some other
location (the destination or closest known point).

Best route - The best path to the intended destination. (“Best” can mean many things.)

Status of routes - The current state of routes, which routers track to ensure timely delivery of
information.

What Exactly Does “Best” Mean?

Routers often make decisions about the best possible path to get information from a source to a
destination. “Best,” however, is loosely defined, and it depends on what is valued by the network.
These measurements of value are referred to as metrics. Which metrics are valued by the network
is determined by the network administrator. Several metrics are listed here:

Hop count - Number of times a packet goes through a router.

Delay time - Time required to reach the destination.

Reliability - Bit-error rate of each network link.

Maximum transmission unit (MTU) - Maximum message length (or packet size) allowed on the
path.

Cost - Arbitrary value based on a network- administrator‘s determined value. Usually some
combination of other metrics.

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Static versus Dynamic

Routers must learn about the network around them to make determinations on where to send
packets. This information can either be manually entered (static routes) or learned from other
routers in the network (dynamic routes):

Static routes - When a network administrator manually enters information about a route, it is
considered a static route. Only a network administrator can change this information. (That is, the
router does not learn from, or update, its routing tables based on network events.) Static routes
allow for tight control of packets but are difficult to maintain and prone to human error.

Dynamic routes - Routers on a network can learn about possible routes and current route status
from other routers in the network. Routes learned in this way are called dynamic routes. Routers
in dynamic routes learn about changes in the network without administrative intervention
and automatically propagate them throughout the network.

Flat Versus Hierarchical Routing

With flat networks, all routers must keep track of all other routers on the network. As
networks grow, the amount of information contained in the routing tables increases.

Although this method is simple, it can result in poor network performance because the number of
routing updates traffic grows with each new router.

Hierarchical networks segment routers into logical groupings. This arrangement simplifies routing
tables and greatly reduces overhead traffic.

Distance-Vector versus Link-State Routing

The two main classes of routing are distant vector routing and link-state routing. With distance-
vector routing, routers share their routing table information with each other. Also referred to as
routing by rumor,” each router provides and receives updates from its direct neighbor.

The only information a router knows about a remote network is the distance or metric to reach that
network and which path or interface to use to get there

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A distance vector describes the direction (port) and the distance (number of hops or other metric)
to some other router. When a router receives information from another router, it increments
whatever metric it is using. This process is called distance accumulation.

Routers using this method know the distance between any two points in the network, but they do
not know the exact topology of an internetwork.

Network discovery is the process of learning about indirectly connected routers. During network
discovery, routers accumulate metrics and learn the best paths to various destinations in the
network.

With link-state routing, also known as shortest path first (SPF), each router maintains a database
of topology information for the entire network. Link-state routing provides better scaling than
distance-vector routing because it only sends updates when there is a change in the network, and
then it only sends information specific to the change that occurred.

A router configured with a link-state routing protocol can create a "complete view" or topology of
the network by gathering information from all of the other routers.

Distance vector uses regular updates and sends the whole routing table every time. Link-state
routing also uses a hierarchical model, limiting the scope of route changes that occur.

5.7 WAN TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

Dial-up

Uses POTS (Plain Old Telephone System). It provides a low cost need based access. Bandwidth
33.6 /56 Kbps.

On the Customer End: Modem is connected to a Telephone Line on the Service Provider End.
Remote Access Server (RAS) is connected to Telephone Lines (33.6 Kbps connectivity) or E1/R2
Line (56 Kbps connectivity) RAS provide dial in connectivity, authentication and metering.
Achievable bandwidth depends on the line quality.

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Leased Line

Used to provide point-to-point dedicated network connectivity. Each side of the line permanently
connected to the other, unlike dial-up connections, a leased line is always active. Connecting two
locations in exchange for a monthly rent, the fee for the connection is a fixed monthly
rate.
Typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect geographically distant offices Analog
leased line can provide maximum bandwidth of 9.6 Kbps. Digital leased lines can provide
bandwidths : 64 Kbps, 2 Mbps (E1), 8 Mbps (E2), 34 Mbps (E3)

ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)

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Another alternative to using analog telephones lines to establish a connection is ISDN. It is s a set
of communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other
network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. Speed is
one advantage ISDN has over telephone line connections. ISDN network is a switched digital
network consisting of ISDN Switches. ISDN user accesses network through a set of standard
interfaces provided by ISDN User Interfaces.

Two types of user access are defined

Basic Access - Consists of two 64Kbps user channels (B channel) and one 16Kbps signal channel
(timing and alarm channel) (D channel) providing service at 144 Kbps.

Primary access - Consists of thirty 64Kbps user channels (B channels) and a 64 Kbps signal
channel (timing and alarm channel) (D channel) providing service at 2.048Mbps (One 64 Kbps
channel is used for Framing and Synchronization).

Digital Subscriber Line

(DSL) uses the Ordinary Telephone line and is an always-on technology. This means there is no
need to dial up each time to connect to the Internet. Because DSL is highly dependent upon noise
levels, a subscriber cannot be any more than 5.5 kilometers (2-3 miles) from the DSL Exchange
Service can be symmetric, in which downstream and upstream speeds are identical, or asymmetric
in which downstream speed is faster than upstream speed. DSL comes in several varieties:
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  Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
 High Data Rate DSL (HDSL)
 Symmetric DSL (SDSL)
 Very High Data Rate DSL (VDSL)

Cable Modems

The cable modem connects a computer to the cable company network through the same coaxial
cabling that feeds cable TV (CATV) signals to a television set. Uses Cable Modem at Home End
and CMTS (Cable Modem Termination System) at Head End.

Characteristics:

 Shared bandwidth technology

 10 Mbps to 30 Mbps downstream
 128Kbps-3 Mbps upstream
 Maximum Distance from provider to customer site: 30 miles

Cable modems are primarily used to deliver broadband Internet access in the form of cable Internet,
taking advantage of the high bandwidth of a cable television network.

Point-to-Point Microwave Link

Typically 80-100 MHz Band or 5 GHz Radio Link band

2.4 GHz Wi-Fi links are becoming popular

Requires Line of Sight

VSAT

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) provide communication between two nodes through a
powerful Earth station called a Hub. If two terminals want to communicate, they send their
messages to the satellite, which sends it to the Hub and the Hub then broadcasts the message
through the satellite. Typical Bandwidth offered is 9.6/19.2/32/64/128/256/512 Kbps Each satellite
sends and receives over two bands

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Uplink: From the earth to the satellite

Downlink: From the satellite to the earth Satellite frequency bands

Band Downlink Uplink

C 3.7-4.2 GHz 5.925-6.425 GHz
Ku 11.7-12.2 GHz 14-14.5 GHz

Ku-band based networks, are used primarily in Europe and North America and utilize the smaller
sizes of VSAT antennas. C-band, used extensively in Asia, Africa and Latin America, require
larger antenna.

VSATs are most commonly used to transmit narrowband data (point of sale transactions such as
credit card, polling or RFID data), or broadband data (for the provision of Satellite Internet access
to remote locations, VoIP or video).

VSATs are also used for transportable, on-the-move (utilizing phased array antennas) or mobile
maritime communications.

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