Integumentary System

Function of Integumentary System

1. Protection
The skin protects deeper tissues from mechanical damage (bumps), chemical damage (acids and
bases), ultraviolet radiation (damaging effects of sunlight), bacterial damage, thermal damage
(heat or cold), and desiccation (drying out).

2. Temperature regulation

The skin aids in body heat loss or heat retention as controlled by the nervous system.

3. Elimination
The skin aids in the secretion of urea and uric acid through perspiration produced by the sweat
glands.
4. Synthesizer
Synthesizes vitamin D through modified cholesterol molecules in the skin by sunlight.

5. Sensation

The integumentary system has sensory receptors that can distinguish heat, cold, touch, pressure,
and pain.

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 Anatomy of the Integumentary System
The skin and its derivatives (sweat and oil glands, hair and nails) serve a number of functions,
mostly protective; together, these organs are called the integumentary system.

Hair shaft

Sweat pore
Dermal papilla
Meissner's corpuscle
(tactile corpuscle)
Stratum corneum
pigment layer EPIDERMIS

Stratum germinativum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale DERMIS
arrector pili muscle

Sebaceous gland
Hair follicle

SUBCUTIS
(hypodermis)
Papilla of hair

Nerve fiber
vein
Blood and lymph artery
vessels

sweat gland

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 Structure of the Skin
The skin is composed of two kinds of tissue: the outer epidermis and the underlying dermis.

Epidermis
The outer epidermis composed of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of keratinizing or
becoming hard and tough.
The epidermis is composed of up to five layers or strata; from the inside out these are the: stratum
basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum.

Epithelial tissue
Like all other epithelial tissues, the epidermis is avascular; that is, it has no blood supply of its own.

Keratinocytes
Most cells of the epidermis are keratinocytes (keratin cells), which produce keratin, the fibrous
protein that makes the epidermis a tough protective layer.
Stratum basale
The deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, lies closest to the dermis and is connected to it
along a wavy a borderline that resembles corrugated cardboard; this basal layer contains epidermal cells
that receive the most adequate nourishment via diffusion of nutrients from the dermis.
Stratum spinosum
As the epidermal layers move away from the dermis and become part of the more superficial
layers, the stratum spinosum.

Stratum granulosum
Upon reaching the stratum granulosum, the layers become flatter and increasingly full of
keratin.

Stratum lucidum
Finally, they die, forming the clear stratum lucidum; this latter epidermal layer is not present in all skin
regions, it occurs only where the skin is hairless and extra thick, that is, on the palms of the hands and
soles of the feet.

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Stratum corneum
The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is 20 to 30 cells layers thick but it accounts for about
three-quarters of epidermal thickness; it rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily as the dandruff
familiar to everyone; then, this layer is replaced by cells produced by the division of the deeper
stratum basale cells
Cornified cells
The shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely filled with keratin, are referred to as cornified or
horny cells.

Keratin
Keratin is an exceptionally tough protein; its abundance in the stratum corneum allows that layer to
provide a durable “overcoat” for the body, which protects deeper cells from the hostile external
environment.
Melanin
Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black, is produced by special spider-
shaped cells called melanocytes, found chiefly in the stratum basale.

Melanosomes
As the melanocytes produce melanin, it accumulates within them in membrane-bound granules called
melanosomes; these granules then move to the ends of the spidery arms of the melanocytes, where
they are taken up by nearby keratinocytes.

Dermis
The underlying dermis is mostly made up of dense connective tissue.

Layers of the skin

Epidermal ridges

Dermal papillae
Epidermis
Papillary
layer
Dermis

Reticular Blood vessels

layer
Subcutaneous layer

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 Major regions
The dense (fibrous) connective tissue making up the dermis consists of two major regions- the
papillary and reticular regions.

Papillary layer

The papillary layer is the upper dermal region; it is uneven and has peglike projections from its
superior surface called dermal papillae, which indent the epidermis above and contain capillary loops
which furnish nutrients to the epidermis; it also has papillary patterns that form looped and
whorled ridges on the epidermal surface that increase friction and enhance the gripping ability of
the fingers and feet.

Reticular layer
The reticular layer is the deepest skin layer; it contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and
deep pressure receptors called Pacinian corpuscles.

Collagen

Collagen fibers are responsible for the toughness of the dermis; they also attract and bind water
and thus help to keep the skin hydrated.
Elastic fibers
Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity when we are young, and as we age, the number of collagen
and elastic fibers decreases and the subcutaneous tissue loses fat.

Blood vessels

The dermis is abundantly supplied with blood vessels that play a role in maintaining body temperature
homeostasis; when body temperature is high, the capillaries of the dermis becomes engorged, or
swollen, with heated blood, and the skin becomes reddened and warm; if the environment is cool, blood
bypasses the dermis capillaries temporarily, allowing internal body temperature to stay high.

Nerve supply
The dermis also has a rich nerve supply; many of the nerve endings have specialized
receptor end-organs that send messages to the central nervous system for interpretation
when they are stimulated by environmental factors.

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Appendages of the Skin
The skin appendages include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicle, and nails.

Cutaneous Glands
As these glands are formed by the cells of the stratum basale, they push into deeper skin regions and
ultimately reside almost entirely in the dermis.

Exocrine glands
The cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands that release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts
and they fall into two groups: sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
Sebaceous (oil) glands
The sebaceous, or oil, glands are found all over the skin, except on the palms of the hands and the
soles of the feet; their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle; the product of the sebaceous glands,
sebum, is a mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells, and it is a lubricant that keeps the skin
soft and moist and prevents the hair from becoming brittle.
Sweat glands
Sweat glands, also called sudoriferous glands, are widely distributed in the skin, and there are two
types: eccrine and apocrine.

Eccrine glands
The eccrine glands are far more numerous and are found all over the body; they produce sweat, a clear
secretion that is primarily water plus some salts, vitamin C, trace of metabolic wastes, and lactic acid;
the eccrine glands are also a part of the body’s heat regulating equipment.

Apocrine glands
Apocrine glands are largely confined to the axillary and genital areas of the body; they are usually
larger than eccrine glands and their ducts empty into hair follicles; their secretion contain fatty acids
and proteins, as well as all substances present in eccrine secretion; they begin to function during
puberty under the influence of androgens, and they also play a minimal role in thermoregulation.

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 Hair and Hair Follicles
There are millions of hair scattered all over the body, but other than serving a few minor protective
functions, our body hair has lost much of its usefulness.

Hair shaft
Arrector pili muscle
Nerve Medulla
Cortex
Sebaceous gland Sweat gland

Hair root Cuticle

Hair bulb in follicle

Dermal papilla Blood vessels

Hairs
A hair, produced by a hair follicle, is a flexible epithelial structure.
Root
The part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is the root.
Shaft
The part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called shaft.

Formation
The hair is formed by division of a well-nourished stratum basale epithelial cells in the matrix
(growth zone) of the hair bulb at the inferior end of the follicle.

Composition
Each hair is made up of a central core called the medulla surrounded by a bulky cortex layer.

Cuticle

The cortex is enclosed by an outermost cuticle formed by a single layer of cells that overlap one
another like shingles on the roof; this arrangement helps to keep the hairs apart and keeps them from
matting; the cuticle is the most heavily keratinized region; it provides strength and helps keep the inner
hair layers tightly compacted

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 Hair pigment
Hair pigment is made by melanocytes in the hair bulb, and varying amounts of different types of
melanin combine to produce all varieties of hair color from pale blond to pitch black.
Hair follicles

Hair follicles are actually compound structures.

Epidermal sheath

The inner epidermal sheath is composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair.

Dermal sheath
The outer dermal sheath is actually dermal connective tissue; this dermal region supplies blood
vessels to the epidermal portion and reinforces it.

Papilla
Its nipplelike papilla provides the blood supply to the matrix in the hair bulb.

Arrector pili

Small bands of smooth muscle cells -arrector pili- connect each side of the hair follicle to the
dermal tissue; when these muscles contract, the hair is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface
with “goosebumps”.

Nails
A nail is a scalelike modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other
animals.

Parts
Free edge
Each nail has a free edge, a body (visible attached portion),
and a root (embedded in the skin).
Nail bed (underneath)
Nail folds Cuticle
Nail root Lunula
The borders of the nail are overlapped (site of growth) (eponychium) Nail body
by skin folds, called nail folds.

Cuticle
The thick proximal nail fold is commonly called the
cuticle.

Epidermis Dermis Bone of fingertip

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 Nail bed
The stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the nail bed.

Nail matrix
Its thickened proximal area, the nail matrix, is responsible for nail growth.
Color
Nails are transparent and nearly colorless, but they look pink because of the rich blood supply in
the underlying dermis.
Lunula
The exception to the pinkish color of the nails is the region over the thickened nail matrix that
appears as a white crescent and is called the lunula.”

Physiology of the Integumentary System

The normal processes that occur in the integumentary system are:

Development of Skin Color

Three pigments and even emotions contribute to skin color:
Melanin
The amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown, or black) of melanin in the epidermis.
Carotene
The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue; carotene is
an orange-yellow pigment abundant in carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or leafy green
vegetables; the skin tends to take on a yellow-orange cast when the person eats large amounts
of carotene-rich foods.

Hemoglobin
The amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels.
Emotions
Emotions also influence skin color, and many alterations in skin color signal certain disease
states.

Redness or erythema
Reddened skin may indicate
embarrassment, fever, hypertension,
inflammation, or allergy.

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Pallor or blanching

Under certain types of emotional stress, some people become pale; pale skin may also signify
anemia, low blood pressure, or impaired blood flow into the area.

Jaundice or a yellow cast

An abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are
absorbed into the blood, circulated throughout the body, and deposited in body tissues.

Bruises or black-and-blue marks

Black-and-blue marks reveal sites where blood has escaped from circulation and has clotted in tissue
spaces; such clotted blood masses are called hematomas.

Hair Growth Cycle

At any given time, a random number of hairs will be in one of three stages of growth and shedding:
anagen, catagen, and telogen.

Anagen

Anagen is the active phase of hair; the cells in the root of the hair are dividing rapidly; a new hair is
formed and pushes the club hair (a hair that has stopped growing or is no longer in the anagen phase)
up the follicle and eventually out.

Catagen

The catagen phase is a transitional stage; growth stops and the outer root sheath shrinks and
attaches to the root of the hair.

Telogen

Telogen is the resting phase; during this phase, the hair follicle is completely at rest and the club
hair is completely formed.

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 Nail Growth
Nail growth is separated into 3 areas: (1) germinal matrix, (2) sterile matrix, and (3) dorsal roof of
the nail fold.

Germinal matrix
It is found on the ventral floor of the nail fold; the nail is produced by gradient parakeratosis, then
cells near the periosteum of the phalanx duplicate and enlarge (macrocytosis); newly formed cells
migrate distally and dorsally in a column toward the nail; cells meet resistance at established nail,
causing them to flatten and elongate as they are incorporated into the nail; it initially retains nuclei
(lunula); more distal cells become nonviable and lose nuclei.

Sterile matrix
The area of the sterile matrix is distal to the lunula and it has a variable amount of nail growth; it
contributes squamous cells, aiding in nail strength and thickness and it has a role in nail plate adherence
by linear ridges in the sterile matrix epithelium.
Dorsal roof of the nail fold

The nail is produced in a similar manner as the germinal matrix, but the cells lose nuclei more rapidly
and it imparts shine to the nail plate.

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