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SENSOR AND ACTUATOR

SELECTION
Performance characteristics of sensors and transducers. Selection criteria for
sensors and actuators, interfacing of sensors and actuators

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

•Performance characteristics provided by

manufacturers and vendors are primarily
static parameters known as instrument
ratings, these are available as parameter
values, tables, charts, calibration curves,
and empirical equations.

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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

•Dynamic characteristics such as transfer

functions (e.g., transmissibility curves
expressed with respect to excitation
frequency) might also be provided for
more sophisticated instruments, but the
available dynamic information is never
complete

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Under normal operating conditions of a typical
device (e.g., sensor, amplifier, data acquisition
hardware) the device dynamics should have a
minimal effect on its output.

• Some information on the dynamics of the device

(e.g., time constants, bandwidth) would be useful in
selecting the operating conditions and components
for a practical application.

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RATING PARAMETERS
1. Sensitivity and sensitivity error

2. Signal-to-noise ratio

3. Dynamic range

4. Resolution

5. Offset or bias

RATING PARAMETERS
6. Linearity

7. Zero drift, full-scale drift, and calibration drift (Stability)

8. Useful frequency range

9. Bandwidth

10. Input and output impedances

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SENSITIVITY
• The sensitivity of a transducer is magnitude of the output signal
corresponding to a unit input signal

• Sensitivity is also the gain of the device.

• This may be expressed as the ratio of incremental output and

incremental input (e.g., slope of input–output curve of the
device)

• Analytically, it can be expressed as the corresponding partial

derivative of the input–output relationship.

SENSITIVITY
• In the case of vector signals (e.g., displacement, velocity,
acceleration, strain, force), the direction of sensitivity should
be specified.

• Cross-sensitivity: This is the sensitivity along directions that are

orthogonal to the primary direction of sensitivity. It is
normally expressed as a percentage of direct sensitivity.
High direct sensitivity and low cross-sensitivity are desirable
in any input–output device (e.g., measuring instrument).

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SENSITIVITY IN DIGITAL DEVICES

• Sensitivity = Digital output/Corresponding input

• 2^n/(Full-scale input) in counts per unit input

SENSITIVITY ERROR
• The rated sensitivity of a device, as given in its data sheet may not be
accurate. The difference between the rated sensitivity and the actual
sensitivity is called the sensitivity error.
• The sensitivity, which is the slope of the input–output curve of a
device, may not be accurate for reasons, such as
• Effect of cross-sensitivities of undesirable inputs.
• Drifting due to wear, environmental effects, etc.
• Dependence on the value of the input. This means the slope
changes with the input value, and it is a sign of nonlinearity in the
device.
• Local slope of the input–output curve (local sensitivity) may not be
defined or may be insignificant

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SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
• The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal
magnitude to noise magnitude, expressed in dB.

• As a rule of thumb, an SNR value of 10 dB or more would be

satisfactory. A value of 3 dB (half-power for the noise) or less
is not acceptable.

DYNAMIC RANGE
• The dynamic range (DR) or simply range of an instrument is
determined by the allowed lower and upper limits of its output
(response) while maintaining a required level of output accuracy.

• This range is usually expressed as a ratio (e.g., a log value in decibels

or dB). In many situations, the lower limit of the dynamic range is
equal to the resolution of the device. Hence, the dynamic range
(ratio) is usually expressed as (range of operation)/(resolution) in dB.

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RESOLUTION
• The resolution of an input–output instrument is the
smallest change in a signal (input) that can be
detected and accurately presented (output) by the
instrument.

• Digital instument Resolution = 1 last-significant bit =

δy

OFFSET/ BIAS
• In a device output, the steady-state error manifests itself as
an offset.
• Zero Offset, which is the output of the device when the
input is zero
• if there is an offset in an error signal, it can lead to incorrect
actions (because, corrective actions would be made even
when there is no error).

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OFFSET/ BIAS
• Offsets can be corrected by
• 1. Recalibration of the device
• 2. Programming a digital output (i.e., subtract the offset)
• 3. Using analog hardware for offsetting at the device
output

LINEARITY
• Linearity is determined by the calibration curve of an
instrument. The curve of the output value (e.g.,peak or rms
value) vs. input value under static (or steady-state)
conditions within the dynamic range of the instrument is
known as the static calibration curve. Its closeness to a
straight line measures the degree of linearity of the
instrument.

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LINEARITY
• Nonlinearity may be expressed as a percentage of either
• the actual reading at an operating point or
• the full-scale reading, or
• as the maximum variation of the sensitivity as a
percentage of a reference sensitivity.

ZERO DRIFT, FULL-SCALE DRIFT, AND

CALIBRATION DRIFT (STABILITY)
• Zero drift : Zero drift is defined as the drift from the null
reading of an instrument when the input is maintained
steady for a long period.
• Note that in this context, the input is kept at zero or any
other level (if there is a zero offset) that corresponds to the
null reading of the instrument.

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USEFUL FREQUENCY RANGE

• This corresponds to a flat gain curve and a zero phase curve
in the frequency response characteristics (frequency
transfer function or frequency response function) of an
instrument.
• The upper frequency in this band should be typically less
than half (say, one-fifth) of the dominant resonant
frequency of the instrument. This is a measure of the
instrument bandwidth.

BANDWIDTH

• The sensor bandwidth should be several times

larger than the frequency of the fastest signal
component that should be accurately
measured

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INSTRUMENT SELECTION

Matching instrument ratings with specifications

is very important in selecting instruments for an
engineering application.
Several additional considerations should be
looked into as well.

INSTRUMENT SELECTION

• These include

• geometric limitations (size, shape, etc.),

• environmental conditions (e.g., chemical reactions

including corrosion, extreme temperatures, light, dirt
accumulation, humidity, electromagnetic fields,
radioactive environments, shock, and vibration),

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INSTRUMENT SELECTION
• Power requirements,
• Operational simplicity,
• Availability,
• Past record and reputation of the manufacturer and of
the particular instrument,

INSTRUMENT SELECTION
• Cost-related economic aspects
• initial cost,
• maintenance cost,
• cost of supplementary components such as signal
conditioning and processing devices,
• design life and associated frequency of replacement,
and
• cost of disposal and replacement

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SENSOR SELECTION
• In selecting a sensor/s for a particular application,
we need to know the application and its purpose,
what quantities (variables and parameters) need to
be measured in the application.

SENSOR SELECTION
• Then, by doing a thorough search we should determine
what sensors are available for carrying out the needed
measurements and what quantities cannot be measured
(due to inaccessibility, lack of sensors, etc.).
• If a suitable sensor is not available
• 1. Estimate the quantity by using other quantities that can
be measured
• 2. Develop a new sensor for the purpose

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SENSOR SELECTION
• Paramount in the sensor selection is the nature of the
quantity (variable, parameter) that needs to be
measured.
• In a sensor classification based on this, given are the
fields (disciplines or application areas) into which the
sensors are classified, and some examples of
measurands in class.

SENSOR CLASSIFICATION BASED

ON APPLICATION
• Biomedical: Motion, force, blood composition,
blood pressure, temperature, flow rate, urine
composition, excretion composition, ECG, breathing
sound, pulse, x-ray image, ultrasonic image

• Chemical: Organic compounds, inorganic

compounds, concentration, heat transfer rate,
temperature, pressure, flow rate, humidity

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SENSOR CLASSIFICATION BASED

ON APPLICATION
• Electrical/electronic: Voltage, current, charge, passive
circuit parameters, electric field, magnetic field, magnetic
flux, electrical conductivity, permittivity, permeability,
reluctance

• Mechanical: Force (effort including torque), motion

(including position and deflection), optical image, other
images (x-ray, acoustic, etc.), stress, strain, material
properties (density, Young’s modulus, shear modulus,
hardness, Poisson’s ratio)

SENSOR CLASSIFICATION BASED

ON APPLICATION
• Thermofluid: Flow rate, heat transfer rate, infrared waves,
pressure, temperature, humidity, liquid level, density,
viscosity, Reynolds number, thermal conductivity, heat
transfer coefficient, Biot number, image

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SENSOR CLASSIFICATION BASED

ON TECHNOLOGY
• Some classes of sensors based on their physical principles
and technologies are listed as follows:
• active, • optical,
• analog, • passive,
• digital, • piezoelectric,
• electric, • piezoresistive,
• IC, • photoelastic.
• mechanical,

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION FOR

SENSOR SELECTION
1. Parameters or variables to be measured in your
application

2. Nature of the information (parameters and variables)

needed for the particular application (analog, digital,
modulated, demodulated, power level, bandwidth,
accuracy, etc.)

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PRELIMINARY INFORMATION FOR

SENSOR SELECTION
3. Specifications for the needed measurements
(measurement signal type, measurement level, range,
bandwidth, accuracy, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), etc.)

4. List of available sensors that are needed for the

application and their data sheets

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION FOR

SENSOR SELECTION
5. Signal provided by each sensor (type—analog, digital,
modulated, etc.; power level; frequency range, etc.)

6. Type of signal conditioning or conversion needed for the

sensors (filtering, amplification, modulation, demodulation,
ADC, DAC, voltage–frequency conversion, frequency–
voltage conversion, etc.)

7. Any other comments

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MOTION TRANSDUCER SELECTION

• In selecting a motion transducer, we need to consider
several factors. Several preliminary considerations are as
follows:
• 1. Kinetic nature of the measurand (position, proximity,
displacement, speed, acceleration, etc.)
• 2. Rectilinear (commonly termed linear) or rotatory
(commonly termed rotary) motion
• 3. Contact or noncontact type
• 4. Measurement range
• 5. Required accuracy

MOTION TRANSDUCER SELECTION

• 6. Required frequency range of operation (time constant,
bandwidth)
• 7. Size
• 8. Cost
• 9. Operating environment (e.g., magnetic fields,
temperature, pressure, humidity, vibration, shock)
• 10. Life expectancy

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SENSOR : SIGNAL CONDITIONING

FOR INTERFACING
• Amplification
• Conversion
• Filtering
• Impedance Buffering
• Modulation /Demodulation
• Linearization
• Grounding and isolation

ACTUATOR SELECTION
• When selecting an actuator (e.g., motor, hydraulic
actuator) to drive a load, for efficient and optimal
operation, it is important that the two components are
properly matched.
• In other words, the actuator must have the capability to
drive the load precisely at the necessary speeds and
accelerations and it should possess the necessary
torque/force capability to move the load under the
required transient and steady motion conditions.

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ACTUATOR SELECTION
• From the point of view of energy efficiency,
actuator selection plays an important role.
• In industrial drives about two-thirds of the total
energy consumption of a typical industrial motion
operation goes to the actuators.
• A general guideline in actuator selection is that the
actuator capacity should not exceed 20% of what is
ideally required to properly drive the load.
• The best performance of an actuator is achieved
through optimal matching with the load.

ACTUATOR SELECTION
• Actuator selection involves the matching of its motion and
torque capabilities with the motion and torque requirements
of the load.
• When direct matching of the available actuators to the
specified load is not possible, we may have to employ a
transmission device such as a gear to achieve proper
matching.

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ACTUATOR SELECTION
• Furthermore, the nature of the actuator motion may
have to be modified to obtain the required load
motion.
• For example, the rotatory (i.e., angular) motion of an
actuator may have to be converted into a
translatory (i.e., rectilinear) motion for moving the
load. A transmission device can accomplish this
function as well.

ACTUATOR REQUIREMENTS
• For an actuator, requirements of size, torque or
force, speed, power, stroke, motion resolution,
repeatability, duty cycle, and operating bandwidth
can differ significantly, depending on the particular
application and the specific function of the actuator
within the control system.

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ACTUATOR REQUIREMENTS
• Furthermore, the capabilities of an actuator will be affected
by its drive system.

• Although the cost of sensors and transducers is a deciding

factor in low-power applications and in situations where
precision, accuracy, and resolution are of primary
importance, the cost of actuators can become crucial in
moderate-to-high power control applications

ACTUATOR APPLICATIONS
• It follows that the proper design and selection of
actuators can have a significant economic impact
in many applications of industrial control.

• The applications of actuators are immense,

spanning over industrial, manufacturing,
transportation, medical, instrumentation, and
household appliance fields.

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ACTUATOR APPLICATIONS
• Millimeter-size micromotors with submicron accuracy are
useful in modern information storage systems. Distributed or
multilayer actuators constructed using piezoelectric,
electrostrictive, magnetostrictive,or photostrictive materials
are used in advanced and complex applications such as
adaptive structures.

• Other applications of microactuators are found in such

domains as biomedical engineering, optics, semiconductor
technology, and microfluidics

ACTUATOR SELECTION
• When selecting an actuator (e.g., motor, hydraulic
actuator) to drive a load, for efficient and optimal
operation, it is important that the actuator and load
are properly matched.

• In other words, the actuator must have the

capability to drive the load precisely at the
necessary speeds and accelerations and it should
possess the necessary torque/force capability to
move the load under the required transient and
steady motion conditions.

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CONTINUOUS DRIVE ACTUATORS

• DC motors, dc servomotors in particular, are suitable for
applications requiring continuous operation (continuous
duty) at high levels of torque and speed.
• Brushless permanent magnet motors with advanced
magnetic material provide high torque/mass ratio, and are
preferred for
• continuous operation at high throughput (e.g., component
insertion machines in the manufacture of printed-circuit
boards, portioning and packaging machines, printing
machines, electric vehicles, winding operations) and high
speeds (e.g., conveyors, robotic arms),

CONTINUOUS DRIVE ACTUATORS

• in hazardous environments (where spark generation from
brushes would be dangerous), and in applications that
need minimal maintenance and regular wash down (e.g.,
in food processing applications).

• For applications that call for high torques and low speeds
at high precision (e.g., inspection, sensing, product
assembly, winding), torque motors or regular motors with
suitable speed reducers (e.g., harmonic drives, gear units
using worm gears, etc may be employed.

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• A typical application involves a rotation stage, which

produces rotary motion for the load.

• If an application requires linear (rectilinear) motions, a linear

stage has to be used. One option is to use a rotary motor
with a rotatory-to-linear motion transmission device such as
lead screw or ball screw and nut, rack and pinion, or
conveyor belt. This approach introduces some degree of
nonlinearity and other errors (e.g., friction, backlash).

• For high-precision applications, linear motor provides

a better alternative. The operating principle of a
linear motor is similar to that of a rotary motor,
except linearly moving armatures on linear bearings
or guideways are used instead of rotors mounted on
rotary bearings.

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TORQUE AND SPEED

• Torque and speed are
the two primary
considerations in
choosing a motor for a
particular application.

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TORQUE AND SPEED

• Speed–torque curves are
available, in particular, from the
manufacturer or vendor. The
torques given in these curves
are typically the maximum
torques (known as peak
torques), which the motor can
generate at the indicated
speeds.

TORQUE AND SPEED

• A motor should not be operated continuously at these
torques (and current levels) because of the dangers of
overloading, wear, and malfunction. The peak values
have to be reduced (say, by 50%) in selecting a motor to
match the torque requirement for continuous operation.

• Alternatively, the continuous torque values as given by

the manufacturer should be used in the motor selection.

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TORQUE AND SPEED

• A simple way to establish the
operating conditions of a
motor is by using its torque–
speed curve,
• What is normally provided
by the manufacturer is the
peak torque curve, which
gives the maximum torque
the motor (with a matching
drive system) can provide at
a given speed, for short
periods (say, 30% duty
cycle).

TORQUE AND SPEED

• The actual selection of a motor
should be based on its
continuous torque, which is the
torque that the motor is able to
provide continuously at a given
speed, for long periods without
overheating or damaging the
unit.

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MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS
• The selection process typically involves matching the
engineering specifications for a given application
with the data of commercially available motor
systems.

1. DC MOTOR : MECHANICAL
DATA
(a) Peak torque (e.g., 65 N ・ m)
(b) Continuous torque at zero speed or continuous stall torque (e.g., 25 N ・ m)
(c) Frictional torque (e.g., 0.4 N ・ m)
(d) Maximum acceleration at peak torque (e.g., 33 × 103 rad/s2)
(e) Maximum speed or no-load speed (e.g., 3000 rpm)
(f) Rated speed or speed at rated load (e.g., 2400 rpm)
(g) Rated output power (e.g., 5100 W)

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1. DC MOTOR : MECHANICAL
DATA
(h) Rotor moment of inertia (e.g., 0.002 kg ・ m2)
(i) Dimensions and weight (e.g., 14 cm diameter, 30 cm length, 20 kg)
(j) Allowable axial load or thrust (e.g., 230 N)
(k) Allowable radial load (e.g., 700 N)
(l) Mechanical (viscous) damping constant (e.g., 0.12 N ・ m/krpm)
(m) Mechanical time constant (e.g., 10 ms)

DC MOTOR : ELECTRICAL DATA

(a) Electrical time constant (e.g., 2 ms)
(b) Torque constant (e.g., 0.9 N ・ m/A for peak current or 1.2 N ・ m/A rms
current)
(c) Back e.m.f. constant (e.g., 0.95 V/rad/s for peak voltage)
(d) Armature/field resistance and inductance (e.g., 1.0 Ω, 2 mH)
(e) Compatible drive unit data (voltage, current, frequency, etc.)

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DC MOTOR : GENERAL DATA

(a) Brush life and motor life (e.g., 5 × 108 revolutions at maximum speed)
(b) Operating temperature and other environmental conditions (e.g., 0°C–
40°C)
(c) Thermal resistance (e.g., 1.5°C/W)
(d) Thermal time constant (e.g., 70 min)
(e) Mounting configuration

SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
• When a specific application calls for large speed
variations (e.g., speed tracking over a range of 10
dB or more), armature control is preferred.
• Note, however, that at low speeds (typically, half
the rated speed), poor ventilation and associated
temperature buildup can cause problems.
• At very high speeds, mechanical limitations and
heating due to frictional dissipation become
determining factors.

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SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
• For constant speed applications, shunt-wound motors are
preferred. Finer speed regulation may be achieved using
a servo system with encoder or tachometer feedback or
with phase-locked operation.

• For constant power applications, the series-wound or

compound-wound motors are preferable over shunt-
wound units.

• If the shortcomings of mechanical commutation and

limited brush life are critical, brushless dc motors should be
used.

MECHANICAL BANDWIDTH
• For high-speed and transient
operations of a dc motor, its
mechanical time constant (or
mechanical bandwidth) is an
important consideration.
• This is limited by the moment
of inertia of the rotor
(armature) and the load, shaft
flexibility, and the dynamics of
the mounted instrumentation,
such as tachometers and
encoders.

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MECHANICAL BANDWIDTH
• The mechanical bandwidth of a dc
motor can be determined by simply
measuring the velocity transducer
signal vo for a transient drive signal vi
and computing the ratio of their
Fourier spectra.
• The flat region of the resulting
frequency transfer function
(magnitude) plot determines the
mechanical bandwidth of the motor.

MOTOR SIZING
• The motor rotor inertia (Jm) should
not be very small compared with
the load inertia (JL).
• Typically, for highspeed
applications, the value of JL/Jm
may be in the range of 5–20.
• For low-speed applications, JL/Jm
can be as high as 100. This assumes
direct-drive applications.

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INERTIA MATCHING
• A gear transmission may be needed between the
motor and the load in order to amplify the torque
available from the motor, which also reduces the
speed at which the load is driven.
• Then, further considerations have to be made in
inertia matching. In particular, neglecting the inertial
and frictional loads due to gear transmission, it can
be shown that best acceleration conditions for the
load are possible if
where r is the step down gear ratio
(motor speed/load speed)

INERTIA MATCHING

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DRIVE AMPLIFIER SELECTION

• Usually, the commercial motors come with matching drive
systems. If this is not the case, some useful sizing
computations can be done to assist the process of selecting
drive hardware that contains a drive amplifier.

• As noted before, even though the control procedure

becomes linear and convenient when linear amplifiers are
used, it is desirable to use PWM amplifiers in view of their
high efficiency (and associated low-thermal dissipation).

• The required current and voltage ratings of the amplifier, for

a given motor and a load, should be computed

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• The leakage inductance, which is small, is neglected. For a PWM amplifier, the
supply voltage (from a dc power supply) is computed by dividing the voltage in
above equation by the lowest duty cycle of operation

• A load of moment of inertia JL = 0.5 kg ・ m2 is ramped up from rest to a

steady speed of 200 rpm in 0.5 s using a dc motor and a gear unit of step-
down speed ratio r = 5.
• A schematic representation of the system is shown in Figure and the speed
profile of the load is shown in Figure. The load exerts a constant resistance of
TR = 55 N ・ m throughout the operation. The efficiency of the gear unit is e =
0.7. Check whether the commercial brushless dc motor and its drive unit,

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Presented By Prof. Vikram Vyawahare 37