General Science G8 Text Book

GENERAL SCIENCE
Grade 8
Student Textbook
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

Ministry of Education Education Bureau
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Student Textbook
Grade 8
Writers and Editors: Abraham Hailu (M.Sc.)
Argiso Nemesa (M.Sc.)
Demissie Shimelis (M.Sc.)
Hablewongel Desalegn (M.Sc.)
Reviewer Abraham Hailu (M.Sc.)
Team Leader Daniel Tona (M.Sc.)
Advisory and Quality Demissie Shimelis (M.Sc.)

Assurence Team Legesse Burako (M.Sc.)
Lewtayehu Legesse (M.Sc.)
Illustrator Anteneh Million (B.A.)
Designer Geda Hoka (M.A.)

Acknowledgement
This book is prepared by the Sidama National Regional State

Education Bureau based on the textbook preparation documents
prepared by the Ministry of Education in accordance with the
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sharing their experience and knowledge, and so on.
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Proclamation, 10 th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.
2014 E.C. Hawassa, Sidaama, Ethiopia

Table of Contents
UNIT ONE 1
1. BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 1
1.1. Scientific Measurements 2
1.2. Doing Scientific Investigation 12
UNIT SUMMARY 22
REVIEW EXERCISE 23
UNIT TWO 25
2. COMPOSITION OF MATTER 25
2.1. Early thinking about the composition of matter26
2.2. Inside of an atom 30
2.3. Molecules 36
UNIT SUMMARY 40
REVIEW QUESTIONS 41
UNIT THREE 43
3. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS 43
3.1. Introduction to Compounds 44
3.2. Organic Compounds 45
3.3. Inorganic Compounds 51
3.4. Neutralization Reaction and Salts
72
UNIT SUMMARY 77
REVIEW EXERCISE 78
UNIT FOUR 80
4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH 80

4.1. Integumentary System 82
4.2. Muscular System 88
4.3. Skeletal System 92
4.4. Digestive System 98
4.5. Respiratory System 106
4.6. Circulatory System 111
4.7. Reproductive System 118
UNIT SUMMARY 126
REVIEW EXERCISE 128
UNIT FIVE 131
5. ECOSYSTEM AND CONSERVATION OF

NATURAL RESOURCE 131
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions 133
5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources 146
UNIT SUMMARY 169
REVIEW EXERCISE 170
UNIT SIX 173
6. THE SOLAR SYSTEM 173

6.1. Family of the Solar System 174
6.2. Formation of the Solar System 185
6.3. Earth in comparison with Solar system 192
6.4. Our planet’s suitability for life (uniqueness) 194
SUMMARY196
REVIEW EXERCISE 197
UNIT SEVEN 201
7. PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN THE
SURROUNDING201
7.1. Phenomena of Light (source and properties) 202
7.2. Vision and Imaging 207
7.3. Sound 214
7.4. Heat 220
7.5. Simple circuit 225
7.6. Magnetism 226
SUMMARY232
REVIEW EXERCISE 233
Grade 8
UNIT ONE
1. BASICS OF
SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
♻ identify the basic and derived units of measurements;
♻ explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
♻ describe the components of a scientific investigation; and
♻ demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others.
Main Contents
1.1. Scientific Measurements
1.2. Doing Scientific Investigation
Introduction
Internationally, the most promoted skills in learning science are through investigation.
Scientific investigation is a universal approach to learning science through practical
work. Its aim is to provide students opportunities to use concepts and skills to solve
problems. In grade 7 you learned about basic concepts of science, indigenous knowledge
and people’s perspectives, and about procedures in science laboratories where science
investigation are conducted. In this, unit you will study about scientific measurements
and scientific investigation.
UNIT ONE: BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 1
General Science | Student Textbook
1.1. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS

At the end of this section, students will be able to:
♻ explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
♻ describe the various indigenous methods of measurement;
♻ distinguish between the basic and derived physical quantities;
♻ identify prefixes and perform conversions among units of measurements;
and
♻ distinguish between accuracy and precision in measurements.
In this section you will learn about indigenous and modern methods of
measurements, prefixes and conversion of physical quantities, accuracy and
precision in measurements.
Activity 1.1.
Discuss the following questions in group and present to

the class.
1. What is science?
2. What is measurement?
3. How quantity being measured and expressed in terms of value and unit?
Science is a systematized knowledge arising from observation, study and

experimentation. The determination of the size or magnitude of something
“or” the comparison of unknown quantity with some standard quantity of the
same rates is known as measurement. Measurements are made every day in our
day to day activities in buying products, sports activities, cooking, and weather
forecasting. Scientific measurements are a process of observing and recording
objects or events with accuracy, clarity, without ambiguity and reported as a
value.
2 Scientific Measurements
Grade 8
Activity 1.2.
Perform the following activities in group and present to

the class.
1. Measure the time taken to cover 50m distance by one of your friends.
2. Measure the height of your friend, and let your friend measure your
height also. What instruments did you use?
1.1.1. Modern and Indigenous methods of

measurements
Activity 1.3.
Discuss in group with your class mates and present to the
class.
1. What is the difference and similarities between modern and indigenous
methods of measurements?
2. What are the common terms that are used interchangeably to refer to the
concept of indigenous methods of measurements?
Measurement is an integral part of human race, without it there will be no trade,

no statistics. Depending on the type of instruments we can classify methods of
measurements as:
1. indigenous methods of measurements, and

2. modern methods of measurements

1. Indigenous methods of measurements
Activity 1.4.
In group, list some of the indigenous methods of measurements (length, mass,
volume, time) the people use in your locality and present it to the class .
Indigenous (traditional or local) methods of measurement are the methods of

measurements that an indigenous community accumulates over generations of
living in a particular environment. Indigenous methods of measurements are
unique to a particular culture and society; and our country Ethiopia, has also
its own knowledge in this field. Some of the common units of measurements
are given below.
I. Mass (m): Some of indigenous methods of mass measuring instruments

are:
• dawulla: A measure of mass approximately equal to 50 kg.

• quintal: a measure of mass equals to 100 kg.
🔄 How many kilograms are 4 dawulla?

II. Length (l): Some of Indigenous methods of measurements of length are
described below with figures.
i. Azq (in Amharic) ii. “Sinzer” in Amharic (“Taakko in
Sidaamu Afoo)
A measure of distance about an inch
long. People in the countryside use the A measure of distance from the tip of
distance from the tip of their thumb finger the middle figure to the tip of the thumb
to the first fold (angua in Amharic). while the hand is fully extended.
Figure1.1 Azq Figure 1.2 Sinzer
Grade 8
iii. “Kend” in Amharic (“Cigile” in iv. “Aarb” in Amharic (“Hanqafo”

Sidaamu Afoo): It measures a distance in Sidaamu Afoo): A measure of
from the tip of one’s elbow to the tip of length approximately about a yard.
middle finger.
Figure 1.4 Aarb

Figure1.3 Kend
v. “Chamma” in Amharic vi. “Ermijja” in Amharic (“Qaafo”
(Ha’ruma” in Sidaamu Afoo): A in Sidaamu Afoo): A linear distance
measure of a distance from the back of measure of about a yard of a person’s
the heel to the tip of the big toe. extended walk.
Figure 1.5. Chamma

Figure 1.6. Ermijja
III. Time (t): Time describes the duration between the beginning and end
of an event. Traditionally people use the sunrise and sunset as a way to
measure time.
IV. Volume (v): Some of the indigenous methods of volume measuring
instruments are:
i. “tassa”, “ensira”, “gerewoina” and “gan” (in Amharic): these are

containers of liquids which are also used to measure volume.
ii. “enqib” (in Amharic): A measure of volume used to measure grains.
2. Modern methods of measurements
🔄 Can you list some of the modern measuring instruments of Length?

Physical quantity can be measured by different measuring instrument; some of
the common are measuring length, mass, time and volume.
I. Measuring Length
Activity 1.5.
Perform the following activity in group and present to the

class
Using any available measuring instruments in your school or locality, measure
the height and width of your table and classroom door.
🔄 What types of instruments do you use to measure the distance of a

place?
Length is the distance between two objects. Meter stick and different taps can
measure up to 0.1mm accurate.
Figure 1.7. Length measuring instruments: (A) meter rule, (B) measuring
taps used in sewing, (C) measuring tapes in construction
II. Measuring Mass

🔄 What types of instruments do you use to measure the mass of an object?
The followings are some of the instruments used for measuring mass:
✅ double beam balance, we can measure up to 1gm accurate.

✅ triple beam balance, we can measure up to 0.1gm accurate.
✅ electron beam balance, we can measure up to 0.001gm accurate.
Grade 8
Figure 1.8. Different types of Balances: A) Double beam balance B) Triple

beam balance C) Electronic balance
III. Measuring Time

🔄 What types of instruments do you use to measure the duration of an
event?
The followings are some of measuring instruments of time:
Figure 1.9 Watches: A) digital stop watch B) analog stop watch C)

digital watch D) analog watch
IV. Measuring Volume

🔄 What types of instruments do you use to measure the volume of a liquid?
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. It is expressed in cubic
units. Some of the common measuring instruments of volume are measuring
cup used in the kitchen, measuring cylinders burette and pipette.

Figure 1.10. Volume measuring instruments
1.1.2. Physical quantities
Activity 1.6.
Discuss the following questions in groups and present to

the class
What are physical quantities? How are they classified as basic and derived?
A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified

by measurement. A physical quantity can be expressed by a numerical value
and a unit. Physical quantities are categorized into basic and derived physical
quantities.
Basic and Derived physical quantities

In science, we have seven basic physical quantities. All other physical
quantities (other than the seven basic quantities) can be expressed in terms of
these basic quantities. These are called derived physical quantities. In 1960 an
international agreement was reached specifying a particular choice of metric
unit in scientific measurement. These preferred units are called SI unit (the
International System of Unit).
Grade 8
Table 1 Physical quantities

Fundamental ( basic ) Derived
SI unit (Basic
Quantity Quantity Units
units)
Length Meter (m) Area m2
Mass Kilogram (kg) Volume m3
Time Second (s) Density kg/m3
Temperature Kelvin (K) Force kgm/s2 (N)
Electric current Ampere (A) Speed m/s
Amount of substance Mole (mol) Acceleration m/s2
Luminous intensity Candela (cd) Energy J
The units of derived physical quantities are called derived units. They are
combinations of the basic units.
1.1.3. Prefixes and Conversion of basic units

Table 2: Selected prefixes used in the basic system
Basic
Standard form Prefix Symbol Example
numeral
1.0 x 106 1,000,000 Mega M 1Ms = 1 x 106s
1.0 x 103 1,000 Kilo k 1kg = 1 x 103g
1.0 x 102 100 Hector h 1hm = 1 x 102m
1.0 x 10 10 Deca da 1daL = 10L
1.0 x 0.1 0.1 Deci d 1dL = 0.1L
1.0 x 0.01 0.01 Centi c 1cm = 0.01m
1.0 x 0.001 0.001 Milli m 1ms = 0.001s
1.0 x 0.000001 0.000,001 Micro µ 1μs = 1 x 10-6s
Relationship between Units of length

✅ 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters (10 mm) 3
✅ 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (10 cm) 2
✅ 1 kilometer = 1000 meters (10 m) 3
✅ 1 centimeter (1cm) = 10 millimeter (10mm)

Relationship between units of mass

✅ 1000 kilogram (1000kg) = 10 quintal = 1 ton
✅ 100 kilogram = 1 quintal
✅ 1 kilogram = 1000 grams
Relationship between units of time
✅ 1 hour = 60 minutes; 1minute = 60 seconds
✅ 1 day = 24 hours
✅ 1 month = 30 days; 1 year = 365.25 days (365 and 1/4 days)
Relationship between units of volume
✅ 1 liter(l) = 1,000 milliliters(1000ml) = 1000cm
3
Example
How many centimeters are there in 0.5m?
Given Required Solution

L=0.5m L in cm 1m = 100cm
0.5m = x
x = 0.5m1cm
x 100cm = 50cm
Check Point 1.1
Answer the following questions.

1. What is the name given to the unit that equals
(a) 103gram? (b) 10-6second? (c) 10-3meter?
2. a. What decimal fraction of a second is a millisecond, ms ?
b. Express the measurement 6.0 x 103m using a prefix to replace the
power 10.
3. Use power of ten to express 3.76 mg in grams.
Grade 8
1.1.4. Accuracy and Precision in measurements
🔄 What is the difference between Accuracy and Precision?

Precision is a measure of how closely individual measurements agree with one
another. Accuracy refers to how closely individual measurements agree with
the correct, or, “True” value.
Figure 1.11 The distribution of darts on a target illustrates the difference

between accuracy and precision
From the figure 1.11 (A) shows high accuracy and high precision since it is
bunched in the centre of the target and figure 1.11 (B) indicates low accuracy
and high precision form a tight off-centre cluster. But figure 1.11 (C) illustrates,
the measurements of low accuracy and low precision are scattered and off-
centre.

Exercises 1.1
Give answers to the following Questions.

1. Write examples of indigenous measurements of length and mass.
2. Give example of modern instruments of measurement of length.
3. Write two modern instruments of measurements of mass.
4. What power of ten do the following prefix symbol represents?
i. d ii. c iii. μ iv. M v. k vi. M
5. What name of prefixes do you use to write the following measurements

without use of exponents?
a. 4.56 x 10-2 L b. 9.5 x 10-6s c. 1.0 x 10-3m
6. Convert the following unit from:

a. 4.0 cm to m. b. 4.0 m to cm. c. 40 mm to m.
d. 4.0 cm to mm. e. 10 ms to second. f. 1 μs to s.
7. What is meant by accuracy and precision?
1.2. DOING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

At the end of this section, students will be able to:
♻ state the importance of scientific investigation;
♻ describe the basic procedures of a scientific investigation;
♻ explain the ethical issues that to be respected in scientific
investigations;
♻ conduct, with guidance, simple investigations using inquiry approach;
♻ demonstrate the ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others;and
♻ conduct simple investigations using local materials and procedure.
12 Doing Scientific Investigation
Grade 8
1.2.1. Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Activity 1.7.
Form a group and perform the following activity; and
present to the class.
How can the scientific investigation be used to answer questions about
daily life? Think of a question in your life that you could answer using the
scientific method. Then describe each step of the scientific method as you
move toward answering your question.
Investigations are at the heart of science. Scientific investigation is a systematic

way of gaining scientific knowledge. Scientific investigations produce evidence
that helps to answer questions. Scientific investigation is a quest to find the
answer to a question using the scientific method.
Everything you do and encounter during your daily activities involves scientific
investigation. Humans can acquire knowledge and understanding of the natural
world through observation, experimentation, and reflection. Making coffee,
cooking eggs, and baking bread involve the different methods. The products
you use like soap and shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that keep
you connected to your world, the gasoline that propels a car, etc; all of these
and more are a result of scientific investigation.
🔄 In which activities do you use scientific investigation? Can you give

examples?
Scientific investigation generally involves some or all of the following basic
components: ask a question, form a hypothesis, testing hypothesis, gather and
analyze evidence, support the hypothesis with evidence, draw conclusions, and
communicate results.

Exercise 1.2

1. What is scientific investigation?
2. Describe the components of a scientific investigation.
1.2.2. Scientific Method and Ethical Discipline
Scientific Method
Science is a study of the natural environment. It is a body of organized knowledge
obtained about nature through observation, explanation, interpretation and
rationalization of certain types of information.
Scientific method is a systematic approach to problems. It is a process that is

used to find answers about the world around us. The steps in scientific method
includes making careful observations, asking questions, identifying the
problem, forming a hypothesis, test the hypothesis with experiment, analyze
data, make conclusion, and communicate results.
Step 1: Making careful observations:

The first step of the scientific method involves making an observation about
something that interests you. It is a critical look through of natural world by
using our sense organs.
Step 2. Ask question (Identifying the problem):

First the problem has to be identified before proceeding to the next steps.
Beginning the question with ‘what,’ ‘how’ or ‘why’ is a good start. State the
problem as a question. An example of a good question is, “How does fertilizer
affect plant growth?” This is simple, measurable and can be done in the lab.
Step 3. Form a hypothesis:

Grade 8
Hypothesis is an explanation for an observation. It is basically an educated

guess that can be tested based upon a thorough review of the existing knowledge
of the subject. It is important to note that a hypothesis is tentative and must be
testable.
Step 4. Experimentation (Testing Hypothesis):
Helps us to test our hypothesis by carrying out experiments using the collected
data.
Step 5. Analyze and interpret the data:

Analysis of data means studying the organized material in order to discover
the essential facts. After the experiment, results are recorded carefully and
systematically organized in the form of data, charts or graphs in addition to
verbal explanations and the interpreted data accordingly.
Step 6. Drawing conclusion:

Conclusions or generalizations require careful and objective analysis of the
data gathered. The conclusion may or may not support the hypothesis.
Step7. Communicate results (Theory, principles, facts and laws):

When a given hypothesis has been tested many times and found to be acceptable
it is no longer a hypothesis, but it becomes a theory. A theory is a tested
explanation of hypothesis and facts. For example, Dalton’s atomic theory,
modern atomic theory etc. A concise verbal statement or a mathematical
equation that summarizes a broad variety of observations and experience is
known as scientific law. A familiar example is the law of gravity.
🔄 Can you give other examples that are scientific theory and scientific
law?
Make observations Ask questions Form
hypothesis
Analyze
Communicate Draw and Test the
results conclusion interpret hypothesis with
data Experiment
Figure 1.12 Basic steps in scientific method

Check Point 1.2
Each sentence below describes a step of the

Scientific Method. Match each sentence under
column “A” to the correct step of the Scientific
Method under column “B”.
Column “A” Column “B”

1. A student said, “If I fertilize my A. Recognize a problem
plants, they will blossom”. B. Form a hypothesis.
2. Student’s experiment proved that C. Test the hypothesis
earth worms move away from light. with an experiment
3. A student read about growing plants D. Draw conclusions
in water; and he wanted to know E. Making observation
how plants could grow without soil.
4. A student grew bacteria from the
mouth on plates. She placed drops
of different mouth washes on the
bacteria of each plate.
Ethical Discipline
🔄 Why it is necessary to follow ethical discipline in scientific investigations?
Ethics is a set of moral obligations that define right and wrong in our practices
and decisions. Doing science with principles of ethics is the bedrock of
scientific activity. Scientific investigations must be guided by ethical rules.
The following are some of the common ethical disciplines across scientific
investigations.
✅ Duty to society: contribute to the well-being of society.

✅ Beneficence: help others and yourself; and maximize benefits.
Grade 8
✅ Conflict of interest: what is the right thing to do?

✅ Informed consent: follow procedures and know the risks.
✅ Integrity: demonstrate honesty and truthfulness; moral soundness.
✅ Non discrimination: be fair and treat equally.
✅ Non exploitation: do not harm others or yourself.
✅ Privacy and confidentiality: be faithful, keep promises and
agreements.
✅ Professional competence: being adequate or well qualified.
✅ Professional discipline: respect truth, do not lie, cheat or deceive.
1.2.3. Semi-guided investigations
In this section, students are asked to perform Semi-guided investigations to

answer the following questions:
(a) does a coiled nail act like a magnet?

(b) is air necessary for burning?
(c) do plants store their food in their leaf?
Experiment 1.1
Objective: To investigate a coiled nail act like a magnet.
Apparatus: A big nail , an insulated copper wire about 0.25m long, one or
two cell, pin or paper clips
Procedure:
1. Wind some turns of an insulated copper wire round an iron nail core.
2. Connect it to a battery (dry cell) as in the fig.1.13 (A).
3. Place some pins on a paper and bring them to the nail.

Figure 1.13 (A) Pins are attracted when switch is closed (B) Pins fall when
switch is open
Observations and Analysis:

1. What do you observe when the switch is closed and bring pins to the
nail?
2. What do you observe when the current is switched off? See Fig.1.13(B)
3. What do you conclude from this demonstration?
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your to the rest of the class.

Grade 8
Experiment 1.2
Objective: To investigate if air is necessary for burning.
Materials: three gas jars (glasses or beakers) of different size, three equal
sized candle pieces, match and a table of smooth surface
Procedure:
1. Attach three candles on smooth surface of a table.
2. Strike a match and lit fire to each candle.
3. Simultaneously invert the gas jars on each candle.
4. Observe what happens and record all your observations/data in writing.
Caution: This experiment requires supervision and safety considerations!!
Figure 1.14 An inverted jar and a burning candle
Observations and Analysis:

1. What happens to the fire after some time?
2. Which gas jar candle fire is extinguished first? Why?
3. How does the amount of oxygen affect the burning time of a candle?
4. Discuss the conditions essential for combustion to take place.
5. What do you conclude from this experiment?
Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class.

Experiment 1.3
Objectives : To demonstrate if plants store their food in their leaf.
Materials : Green leaf of plant, Beaker, Test tube, Test tube holder, Boiling
water, Ethanol, Bunsen burner/Hot plate or stove, Tripod stand, Petri-dish,
Dropper, Matches and 0.05N iodine solution.
Procedures
1. Take a green leaf from a plant which has been exposed to sunlight.
2. Heat a beaker half filled with water on the stove or hot-plate/Bunsen
burner.
3. Place the leaf in boiling water and keep it there for about 15-20 minutes.
This step kills the cells and renders them highly permeable.Take out
the boiled leaf from the beaker and immerse it in a test tube containing
ethanol.
4. Place the test tube in the hot water and keep it there until the leaf is
decolorized. The alcohol is kept warm in a water bath.
5. Remove the test tube from the hot water.
6. Remove the decolorized leaf from test tube and place it back to the hot
water in the beaker.
7. Pull out the leaf from the beaker and put it in a petri dish.
8. Add a drop of 0.05N iodine solution and allow the leaf to remain in the
iodine solution for 5 minutes, and then wash it with water.
Observation and Analysis:

1. What do you observe in the leaf?
2. Why does it happen?
3. Do plants store their food in their leaf?

Grade 8
1.2.4. Indigenous action: Using local materials

and methods (procedures) to conduct
investigation
Project work
The objectives of this project is to relate indigenous units of measurements

to metric unit, either an SI unit with appropriate prefix or a non-SI unit that
is accepted to use with SI unit. You should bring and present the local names
of indigenous measurement units in your locality by asking parents, elders
and the community. To convert from indigenous methods of measuring
instruments (unit) into metric unit, or SI unit you can use modern methods of
measurements. Your teacher may guide you how to convert indigenous units
of measurements to metric unit.
Exercise 1.3
Write the answer for the following questions

(a)
1. Why scientific investigations must be guided by ethical rules?

2. What are the common ethical disciplines in scientific investigations?
3. The process of obtaining information by using the senses is known
as _____
4. Describe the last step of the scientific method.

🔒 🔑🔑 Accuracy
KEY TERMS
🔑 Modern methods of
🔑🔑
Basic physical
quantities 🔑🔑 measurement
Physical quantities
Basic units (SI unit)
Derived physical 🔑🔑 Precision
Prefixes
🔑🔑 quantities
Derived units
🔑
Scientific
Investigation
🔑 Ethics in scientific
Indigenous methods
🔑
Scientific
Measurements
🔑 of measurements
Investigation
Scientific methods
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Measurement is the process of observing and recording objects or events.
ʯ SI system means the international system of units, containing seven basic
units.
ʯ Mass is a measure of the quantity or amount of matter present in an object.
ʯ Accuracy indicates how close a measurement is to the true value.
ʯ Precision indicates how close the measurements are to each other.
ʯ Investigations produce evidence that helps answer questions.
ʯ The scientific method is a systematic approach to solve problems.
ʯ A hypothesis is a possible explanation for the phenomenon you observed.
ʯ Scientific investigations must be guided by ethical rules.
ʯ The steps of scientific method include observation, question, hypothesis,
experiment, results and conclusion.

Grade 8
REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Write true or false for the following questions.
1. Every measurement expressed interms of a number and a unit.
2. The mass of an object is measured with the help of a beam balance.
3. Forming a hypothesis is the first step of the scientific method.
4. A hypothesis always leads to the formulation of a law.
5. Scientific law is well-tested explanation for experimental results.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

for each of the following questions.
1. The symbols for units of length in order from largest to smallest are
A. m, cm, mm, km C. km, mm, cm, m.
B. mm, m, cm, km. D. km, m, cm, mm.
2. Scientific measurements are communicated using____.

A. a unit
B. both a numeric value and unit
C. either a numeric value or unit
D. a numerical value
3. The SI base unit for time is the:

A. day. C. minute.
B. hour. D. second.
4. Which of the following is not a fundamental quantity?

A. Length C. Density
B. Mass D. Time
5. Which of the following is a derived unit?

A. Meter C. Kilogram
B. Newton D. second

6. A student asks a question: How fast does the average person’s hair grow?
Which step of the scientific method did he just complete?
A. Step 1 - ask a question
B. Step 2 - gather background information
C. Step 3 - make a hypothesis
D. Step 4 - do an experiment
7. One micrometer is equal to:

A. 10-6 m C. 10-9 m
B. 10-8 m D. 10-12 m
8. Which of the following measurements are NOT equivalent?

A. 25 mg = 0.025 g C. 150 ms = 0.150 s
B. 24 dL = 2.4 L D. 84 cm = 8.4 mm
9. The amount of space taken up by an object is known as its ___________.

A. mass C. length
B. area D. volume
10. How many grams are in a milligram?

A. 1,000,000 C. 1,000
B. 0.001 D. 0.01
III. Answer the following questions.

1. An explanation for a broad range of observations, facts, and tested
hypotheses is called _____________________________.
2. Change the following length, mass or volume measurements to the units
shown in brackets.
a) 3.6m (cm) d) 0.325km (mm) g) 2 905 mg (kg)
b) 4500m (km) e) 8550 kg (g) h) 1.25 g (kg)
c) 8500mL (L) f) 1.6 µL (L)
3. Change each of the following measurements to one in which the unit has
an appropriate SI prefix.
a) 3.76 × 103 m b) 6.34 × 10–6 s c) 1.09 × 10–3 g

Grade 8
UNIT TWO
2. COMPOSITION OF
MATTER
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
♻ narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of substances;
♻ appreciate that atoms are the building blocks which make up all
substances;
♻ demonstrate understanding of the idea that the identity of a substance
is determined by its atomic structure;
♻ differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of compounds;
and
♻ demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit: communicating,
asking questions, drawing conclusions, applying concepts.
Main Contents
2.1. Early thinking about the composition of matter
2.2. Inside of an atom
2.3. Molecules
UNIT TWO :
COMPOSITION OF MATTER 25
Introduction
Can you
1. What is meant by matter?
recall?
2. What do you think matter is made up of?
In grade seven general science textbook, you learned about matter and particulate
nature of matter, thus you are familiar with the concept of matter.
Do you think matter is the stuff that is all around you? Yes, you are right. Those all
things you see and touch every day are matters and consist of small particles. These
small particles do have some mass. But one never can see these small particles with
eyes, even not with the best microscopes. However, the structure and behavior of small
particles is the key for understanding both the physical and chemical properties of
matter. Therefore, in this unit, you will learn the fundamental concepts of composition
of matter in exploring the early thinking about an atom, the subatomic particles of the
atom, atomic number and mass number, and molecules.
2.1. EARLY THINKING ABOUT THE

COMPOSITION OF MATTER
After completing this section, the learners will be able to:
♻ give a short history of the concept of the atom;
♻ compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness (discontinuity)
theory of matter, and
♻ compare earlier conceptions of the structure of matter with their
conceptions.
26 Early thinking about the composition of matter

Grade 8
Activity 2.1.
Perform this activity in group, and present your opinions

to the class.
1. Prepare an aluminum foil and cut it into two halves and continue cutting.
2. How long could you continue cutting? Is there a limit or could you
infinitely divide into smaller and smaller pieces? What do you conclude
from this?
3. What is the fundamental building block proposed by the ancient Greek
philosophers?
4. Debate on one of the following ideas assigned to your group.
Idea 1: Matter is continuous.
Idea 2: Matter is discrete
About 2500 years ago, the Greek philosophers thought about the nature of
matter and its composition. They described matter as continuous or discrete.
The Greek philosopher, Democritus (460-370 B.C.) argued that matter is made
of small indivisible particles. He called these small particles ‘atomos’, meaning
indivisible. Democritus also thought that matter is discrete (discontinuous). On
other hand, Aristotle (384-322 B.C) argued that matter can be divided endlessly
into smaller and smaller pieces; and he concluded matter is continuous. The
ancient debate about matter is illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.
Figure 2.1 Ancient debates about the nature of matter
UNIT TWO :
Based on the above debate, basic difference on the idea of continuity and
discreteness of matter is summarized in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Comparison between the discrete and continuous theory of

matter
Discreteness of Matter Continuity of Matter

(Democritus) (Aristotle)
• Matter is discrete • Matter is continuous

• There is a limit to which matter is
• Matter is infinitely divisible
broken
• Believed in the existence of atoms • Rejected the idea of atoms
Although, Democritus’ idea was not accepted by many of his contemporaries

(notably Plato and Aristotle), somehow it suffered. Therefore, Democritus
philosophy about matter was assumed to be “wrong” and Aristotelian view
of the composition of matter were succeeded until John Dalton disproved
Aristotelian view by experimental investigation. This confirmed that science-
based ideas are continually being tested, modified and improved as new
knowledge and explanations supersede existing knowledge and explanations.
An atom is the smallest individual particle of an element and does not exist
freely in nature. The idea that matter is made up of fundamental particles were
explained by atomic theory of matter. You will discuss more about atomic
theory in grade 9 Chemistry.
28 Early thinking about the composition of matter

Grade 8
Exercise 2.1
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.

1. Among the following things, the one is a matter.
A. Water C. Shadow
B. Sound D. Light
2. Which of the following is not true about Democritus philosophy of

matter?
A. Matter is discrete C. An atom is indivisible
B. Matter is continuous D. None of the above
3. One of the following agreed on continuity of matter.

A. Democritus C. John Dalton
B. Aristotle D. J.J. Thomson
II. Give short answer to the following questions.

1. According to Democritus, what is “atomos”?
2. What do you mean by a matter is “continuous?”
3. What is an atom?
UNIT TWO :
2.2. INSIDE OF AN ATOM

♻ describe the structure of an atom as a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells (energy levels);
♻ state the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a proton, a
neutron and an electron;
♻ draw hydrogen atoms, including the location of the protons and
electrons, with respect to the nucleus;
♻ differentiate between mass number and atomic number; and
♻ determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.
Activity 2.2.
Discuss the activity within a group and present your

response to the class.
1. How could you describe the structure of an atom?
2. Draw the picture if you imagine what an atom look like?
2.2.5. Parts of an atom
🔄 Is there any particle smaller than an atom?

An atom has two regions such as the atomic nucleus and the electronic shells
(energy levels or orbits). Atoms are made of even smaller particles called
electrons, protons and neutrons.
🔄 How are these particles arranged in an atom?

The central part of the atom is called the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are
present in the nucleus. Electrons revolve in shells around the nucleus like
planets move around the sun. Note that shells are paths of the electrons take as
they move around the nucleus.
30 Inside of an atom
Grade 8
Project work
Perform the project work in a group and present your

work to the class.
First draw the diagrammatic representation of the structure of hydrogen atom
on paper and next obtain atomic model of hydrogen atom by using locally
available material.
(Hint: hydrogen atom has 1 electron, 1 proton only; draw a circle
around the nucleus and add a symbol such as a dot for the electron).
Surrounding the nucleus, there is a region occupied by electrons. This region

is very large compared with the size of the nucleus.
A) B)
Figure 2.2 Diagrammatic representation of the structure of A) hypothetical
atom (not to scale) and B) hydrogen atom
2.2.6. The Subatomic Particles
🔄 What are protons, electrons and neutrons?

An atom has a definite number of protons, electrons and neutrons. A proton
is a positively charged subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus. The positive
charge of the nucleus is due to the proton in it. An electron is a tiny negatively
charged particle found outside the nucleus of an atom. Since, electrons are
found outside the nucleus they are always available at the surface an atom. A
neutron is electrically neutral particle located in the nucleus of an atom.
UNIT TWO :
Relative mass, the charge and location of subatomic

particles
Activity 2.3.
Explain the following questions.

1. How protons, neutrons and electrons are alike and different?
2. Is an atom neutral? Why?
When you compare the masses of electrons, protons and neutrons, what you find
is that electrons have an extremely small mass, compared to either protons or
neutrons. Proton has a mass 1837 times greater than that of electron. The mass
of proton and neutron is approximately equal. Therefore, most of the mass of
an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, assuming the mass of an electron to be
negligible or almost zero compared with the masses of protons and neutrons.
Hence the nucleus is a heavy part of an atom. But the nucleus occupies a very
small space as compared to the volume occupied by the electrons. Compare,
the relative mass, charge and location of sub-atomic particles in Table 2.2
below.
Table 2.2 Nature and location of sub-atomic particles
Actual Relative
Electric
Particle mass (in atomic mass Location
charge
gram) (amu)
Electron(e-) 9.109x10-28 1/1840 Negative Outside the nucleus
Proton (P+) 1.673x10-24 1 Positive Inside the nucleus
Neutron(on) 1.675x10-24 1 Neutral/Zero Inside the nucleus
You know that electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively
charged, but what is amazing is that the positive charge on a proton is exactly
equal in magnitude to the negative charge on an electron. Negative and positive
charges of equal magnitude cancel each other out, and neutron is neutral.
Therefore, an atom is neutral.
Grade 8
Atomic Number and Mass Number

🔄 What makes an atom of one element different from an atom of another
element?
The significant difference on among atoms of different elements is in their
subatomic composition. It is possible to distinguish between different elements
by counting the number of protons. If an atom has only one proton, we know it
is a hydrogen atom. An atom with two protons is always a helium atom.
🔄 What is the difference between atomic and mass number? How they
can be represented with symbol of an element?
Indeed, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of any particular
element is called the element’s atomic number. It is also equal to the number of
electrons around the nucleus if the atom is neutral. The physical and chemical
property of the elements depends on proton number in atom of element.
Z = p+ or Z = e– (in a natural atom)
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus.
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

A = p+ + n°
Mass number is designated by the letter ‘A’ whereas atomic number is

designated by the letter ‘Z’. However, both mass number and atomic number
is always given in whole number.
UNIT TWO :
Check point 2.1
Answer the Following Questions

1. Using the periodic table, write the symbolic notation and determine their
number of protons, neutrons and electrons for the following elements.
(hint: in a periodic table, mass number is approximately equal to
atomic mass).
a) Lithium c) Carbon e) Oxygen
b) Beryllium d) Nitrogen
2. Determine the atomic number, mass number, and number of protons for
the following elements:
a) 115 B b) 1020 Ne c) 19
9 F
For example, 42He is symbolic notation of helium and its atomic number is 2
and its mass number is 4.
Determination of the Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
🔄 How number of electrons, protons and neutrons can be determined?

We have seen how atomic number and mass number is determined in the above
section. Since, the mass number is total number of protons and neutrons in
an atom; then the number of neutrons is therefore the difference between the
mass number and the atomic number. The number of neutrons in an atom is
calculated by:
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
Grade 8
Example:
🔄 How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in an atom of 19

9
F?
Solution
No of neutrons= mass number - No of protons, or mass number – atomic

number. Thus,
No of neutrons= A-Z or A- No of protons= 19-9=10
If an atom is not neutral, the number of electrons and protons are not equal.
Check point 2.2
Answer the Following Questions.

1. How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in an atom of 2311 Na ?
2. How many neutrons are in atom having 14 protons with mass number
28?
Exercise 2.2
I. Label each of the following statements as true or

false.
1. All the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
2. An atom is electrically neutral.
3. In an atom, number of electrons is necessarily equal to number of
neutrons.
4. The nucleus is one of the fundamental particles of an atom.
UNIT TWO :
II. Match terms under column ‘A’ to column ‘B’.

Column A Column B
1. Proton A. Negatively charged
2. Electron B. Neutral
3. Neutron C. Positively charged
III. Fill the blank spaces.

1. Electron, proton, neutron are the types of_____________in an atom.
2. Atomic number is the number of____________in an atom.
3. The central dense part of an atom is called _____________.
2.3. MOLECULES
♻ define molecules;
♻ give examples of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecule;and
♻ use models or particles model diagram to represent molecules of
elements and compounds.
Activity 2.3.
Discuss the following questions in a group and present

your opinion to the class.
1. What is a molecule?
2. How molecule is differ from an atom?
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that can exist

freely in nature. Only a few elements, such as the gases helium, neon, argon
etc. consist of a collection of individual atoms that move about independently
of one another. In nearly all molecules, two or more atoms are bonded together
in very small, discrete units (particles) that are electrically neutral.
36 Molecules
Grade 8
2.3.1. Molecules of elements
🔄 What are molecules of elements?

Molecules of elements consist of single atom. They can be classified as
monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic. Atoms of some elements such as helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar) contain a single atom and are monatomic molecules.
Other molecules are formed with two atoms of an element and called diatomic
molecules.
Examples: hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), and nitrogen (N2). Hydrogen molecule
is formed with combination of two hydrogen atoms as follows.
Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom → Hydrogen molecule
H + H H2
🔄 Can you list other monatomic and diatomic molecules?

Sometimes, more than two atoms of an element combine to form molecules of
that element and called polyatomic atomic molecules.
Example: ozone (O3), Phosphorus (P4), and sulphur (S8).
Therefore, the molecules which are formed with similar atoms, like hydrogen
molecule (H2) are called molecules of elements. These three kinds of molecules
of element are illustrated in figure 2.3.
Helium, (He) Hydrogen, (H2) Ozone, (O3)

Monoatomic molecule Diatomic molecule Triatomic molecule
Figure 2.3 Diagrammatic representations of molecules of element

UNIT TWO :
2.3.2. Molecules of Compounds
🔄 What is a molecule of compound? How it differ from molecules of

element?
When atoms of different elements combine with each other, the molecules of
compounds are formed. A molecule of a compound contains at least two atoms.
Water exists in molecular form and formed when an atom of oxygen combine
with two atoms of hydrogen as shown in chemical equation and figure 2.4
below.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

2H2 + O2 2H2O
Figure 2.4 Schematic representations of a) structure of individual water

molecule b) water molecules in steam.
Here, the atoms of oxygen and hydrogen are different because hydrogen and
oxygen are different elements. Therefore, the molecules which are formed
from two or more different atoms are called molecules of compound. Other
molecules such as ammonia (NH3), glucose (C6H12O6) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) are molecules of compounds.
🔄 Can you list some other examples of molecules of compound?
38 Molecules
Grade 8
Exercise 2.3
Give short answer to the following questions.

1. Define a molecule.
2. Consider the molecules shown below.
i. Ar ii. CO2 iii. N2 iv. O3 v. S8 vi. H2O vii. Cl2 viii. HCl
a) Classify the molecules as monatomic, diatomic or polyatom-

ic molecules of element?
b) Which of these molecules are molecules of elements?
c) Which of them are molecules of compounds?
3. What is the difference between H and H2?
UNIT TWO :
🔒 🔑🔑 Atom
KEY TERMS
🔑🔑 Molecules
🔑🔑 Atomic number
Electron 🔑🔑 Neutron
Nucleus
🔑🔑 Mass number
Matter
Matter discontinuity
🔑 Proton
Subatomic particles
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯDemocritus suggested that all matter in the universe was made up of tiny,
indivisible particles.
ʯAn atom is the smallest individual particle of an element and does not
exist freely in nature.
ʯElectrons are a negatively charged, protons are a positively charged and
neutrons are neutral.
ʯAn atomic number is a number of protons. The mass number of an atom
is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the atom.
ʯA molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that can
exist freely in nature.
ʯThe molecules which are formed with similar atoms are called molecules
of elements. Molecules formed with two or more different atoms are
called molecules of compound.
40 Molecules
Grade 8
REVIEW QUESTIONS
I. Label each of the following statements as true or false.
1. Neutral atoms must contain the same number of neutrons and protons.
2. An element’s atomic number is equal to the number of protons.
3. A neutral atom with 4 protons must have 4 electrons.
4. O3 is a molecule of compound.
5. According to Aristotle an atom is indivisible.
6. All matters are made up of an atom.
II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.

1. Which of the following has the smallest mass?
A. Proton C. Neutron
B. Electron D. None of them
2. The atomic number and mass number of Aluminum is 13 and 27,

respectively. The number of proton, electron, and neutron respectively
are:-
A. 13, 13 and 13 C. 27, 13 and 14
B. 13, 13 and 27 D. 13, 13 and 14
3. Identify the one which is not a molecule.

A. H2SO4 D. Cl2
B. O E. He
C. S6
4. The atomic number of an atom is based upon the number of_________.

A. neutrons C. electrons
B. protons and neutrons D. protons
5. The central portion of an atom is called a/an____________ .

A. electron C. nucleus
B. proton D. Neutron
UNIT TWO :
III. Fill in the blank space in the following questions.

1. ______ and neutrons have approximately the same mass.
2. A molecule containing two or more different type of atoms is called______.
3. A molecule containing more than two similar atoms is called__________.
IV. Give short answers for the following questions.

1. Compare the Democritus and Aristotle philosophies about atom.
2. What are the two main parts of an atom?
3. What is the difference between atomic number and mass number?
4. What are the fundamental sub-atomic particles?
5. Complete the following table.
Z A Number of Neutron Number of Proton
14 7
15 31
27 14
6. Distinguish between molecules of element and compounds. Give at least

three examples for each.
7. The atomic number and mass number of calcium are 20 and 40 respectively.
Deduce the number of neutron present in the calcium nucleus.
8. Explain the following molecules and give examples for each.
a) Monatomic molecules
b) Diatomic molecules
c) Polyatomic molecules
42 Molecules
Grade 8
UNIT THREE
3. CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPOUNDS
Learning Outcomes
♻ explain the classification of compounds into organic and inorganic;
♻ write the formulas and name the first eight alkanes, alkenes and
alkynes and list the uses of some important common organic
compounds;
♻ classify oxides into different groups and give examples of each group;
♻ develop skills in identifying acidic, basic and neutral solutions;
♻ define, and apply the concept of neutralization;
♻ explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;and
♻ demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along with this unit: observing,
classifying, comparing and contrasting, communicating, asking
questions, designing experiment, drawing conclusion, applying
concepts and problem solving.
UNIT THREE :
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS 43
Main Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Organic Compounds
3.3 Inorganic Compounds
3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts
Start-up Activity
Form groups and discuss the following and present to the

class.
Assume that you are given two compounds (water and alcohol) in two different
containers. Explain how you could distinguish between these two compounds.
Introduction
In Grade 7, you have learned about elements, compounds and chemical reaction. You
have distinguished elements from compounds and how they are represented by symbols
and formulae. You are also familiar with naming compounds and writing their formulas.
In this section you will learn about compounds and their classifications.
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPOUNDS

After completing this section, you will be able to:
♻ define organic compounds as carbon containing compounds;and
♻ define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other than
carbon.
Compounds are classified into two classes; organic and inorganic. Compounds
obtained from living things (plants and animals) are organic compounds
and compounds obtained from the constituents of the earth are inorganic
compounds. Organic compounds are carbon containing compounds where as
inorganic compounds are compounds of elements other than carbon including
carbonates (CO32-), hydrogen carbonates (HCO3-), carbonmonoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2).
44 Introduction to Compounds
Grade 8
Activity 3.1.
Perform the following research activity and present to the

class.
From different science books, discuss the historical origins of organic and
inorganic; and their relationship between organic chemicals and living things.
Exercise 3.1

1. What are the differences between organic and inorganic compounds?
2. Classify each of the following compounds as organic or inorganic.
a) Common salt (NaCl)
b) Sugar ( C12H22O11)
c) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
d) Alcohol (C2H5OH)
3.2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

After completing this section, learners will be able to:
♻ define hydrocarbons and mention at least one source of hydrocarbons;
♻ write the general formula of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
♻ write the specific chemical formulas of the first eight members of
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
♻ describe a homologous series and its general characteristics; and
♻ identify some common uses of organic compound.
UNIT THREE :
3.2.1. Hydrocarbons and its sources
Activity 3.2.
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share

your opinion to the class.
1. Which elements are constituents of hydrocarbons?
2. How hydrocarbons are named? Is it based on certain rules or randomly?
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon.

The natural sources of hydrocarbons include coal, petroleum and natural gases
which are formed from the remains of living organisms. The three major classes
of hydrocarbons are alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The name of a hydrocarbon
is derived from the number of carbon atoms present (prefix) and the ending
(suffix) that relate to their names. To find the base name of hydrocarbons
(alkanes, alkenes and alkynes) use the following prefixes.
Table 3.1 Prefixes of the first eight hydrocarbons
No carbon atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Name Meth- Eth- Prop- But- Pent- Hex- Hept- Oct-
Nomenclature of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

Nomenclature of Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n+2, where n =
1, 2, 3, etc. and stands for the number of carbon atoms in each alkane. For
example, if n=1, the formula of alkane is C1H2×1+2 = CH4. Any consecutive
group of hydrocarbon differs from the next one in a series by a CH2 unit called
homologues series.
CH2 CH2 CH2
CH 4 C 2 H6 C 3 H8 C 4 H10
The names of alkanes end with the suffixes ‘-ane’. For instance, the formula of
the alkane containing one carbon atom is CH4. Therefore, n=1 prefix is ‘meth-’
46 Organic Compounds
Grade 8
and we add the suffix ‘-ane’ to the prefix. Thus, the name of the alkane becomes
methane.
🔄 What is the formula and name of an alkane containing three carbon

atoms (n=3)?
Check point 3.1

1. Write the formula and name of an alkane containing 2, 4, 5, 6 and 8
carbon atoms.
2. Give the formula and name for the alkane homologues coming before
and after C7H16 and find their difference in the number of carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
Nomenclature of Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n, where n = 2, 3,
4, etc. For example, if n=5, the formula of the alkene is C5H2×5 = C5H10.
The names of alkenes end with the suffixes ‘-ene’. The first member of alkene
starts with two carbon atoms (n=2), C2H4. The prefix is ‘eth-’ and we add the
suffix ‘-ene’ to the prefix. Thus, the alkene named as ethene. Similarly, the
name of C5H10 is pentene.
🔄 What is the formula and name of an alkene containing three carbon

atoms (n=3)?
UNIT THREE :
Check point 3.2

1. Write the formula and name of an alkene containing 4, 5, 7 and 8
carbon atoms.
2. Give the formula and name for the alkene coming before and after
C6H12; and find their difference in the number of carbon and hydrogen
atoms.
Nomenclature of Alkynes
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3,
4, etc. For example, if n = 4, the formula is C4H2×4-2 = C4H6.
The names of alkynes are obtained by changing the suffix ‘-ane’ of alkanes
to ‘-yne’. For example, the formula of alkyne containing four carbon atoms
is C4H6. The prefix is ‘but-’ and the suffix is ‘-yne’. Combining the prefix and
suffix gives butyne.
🔄 What is the formula and name of the first member of alkyne homologous
series?
Check point 3.3

1. Write the formula and name of an alkyne containing 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8
carbon atoms.
2. Give the formula and name for the alkyne coming before and after C7H12;
and find their difference in the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Grade 8
Uses of Common Organic Compounds
Activity 3.3.
Perform the following activity in group and present your

opinion to the class.
List the sources of hydrocarbons that are found in Ethiopia and report to the
class; and explain how they have made life more comfortable for human
beings.
• Methane: Methane (CH4) is mainly used as a fuel gas for cooking, heating
and generating light. Methane is the major component of natural gas
(~85%), commonly called Biogas, which is used as a domestic fuel.
• Propane and butane: Both propane and butane are gaseous alkanes
marked as bottled gas and commonly known as “buta gas”. It is mainly used
for cooking and heating.
• Ethyne: One of the main uses of ethyne is to produce oxyacetylene flame,

which is used in the cutting and welding of steel and iron at high temperature.
Figure 3.1 Ethyne produces oxyacetylene flame

UNIT THREE :
• Ethanol: is used in alcoholic beverages. Nowadays, ethanol is mixed with

petrol for an automotive fuel. It is used in hospitals and clinics for cleaning
wounds; and as a solvent for many substances and in making perfumes and
paints.
• Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid): Vinegar (Ethanoic acid) is used as food

flavoring agent and preserving vegetables.
• Formalin: is used for preservation of biological specimens. It is also

commonly used as an industrial disinfectant, and as a preservative in homes
and medical laboratories as antiseptics, medicines, and cosmetics.
Exercise 3.2
Write your answers to the following questions.

1. Classify each of the following hydrocarbons as alkane, alkene or
alkyne and write their names.
a) C5H10 c) C4H10 e) C6H10
b) C3H4 d) C8H18
2. Write the molecular formulas of the following hydrocarbons and

indicate their differences.
a) Butane, butene and butyne
b) Propane, propene and propyne
3. List common organic compounds and explain their uses.
Grade 8
3.3. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

After completing this section, students will be able to:
♻ classify oxides into metallic and nonmetallic;
♻ describe the properties of acidic oxides and basic oxides;
♻ predict the nature of common oxides;
♻ prepare sulphur dioxide in laboratory by burning sulphur in air;
♻ prepare magnesium oxide in laboratory by burning magnesium in air;
♻ define acid and base and describe their properties;
♻ name and write formulas for some common acids and bases;
♻ describe how indicators can be used to classify solutions as acidic or
basic;
♻ investigate properties of bases/alkalis experimentally by preparing their
own indicator by extracting the colour from a vegetable or flowers;
♻ investigate household chemicals using locally prepared indicators;
♻ explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;and
♻ create a safety booklet dealing with the handling of acids and alkali.
Activity 3.4.
Perform the following activity and share your opinion with

your group.
List some elements and inorganic compounds with which you are familiar in
your daily activities.
Inorganic compounds are compounds consisting of mineral constituents of the

earth or generally found in non-living things. Inorganic compounds are mostly
found in nature as oxides (O2-), carbonates (CO32-), sulphides (S2-), sulphates
(SO42-), chlorides (Cl-) and nitrates (NO3-). Inorganic compounds can be
classified into four groups according to their composition and their properties.
These include oxides, acids, bases and salts.
UNIT THREE :
3.3.1. Oxides
Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other element. Binary
compounds are those consisting of only two elements.
Element + Oxygen → Oxide
Some examples of oxides are calcium oxide (CaO), aluminium oxide(Al2O3),

sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen oxide (water or H2O),
etc.
Types of Oxides
Most oxides are classified as metallic oxides and non-metallic oxides. Metallic
oxides are binary compounds containing only metal and oxygen. Some examples
of metallic oxides are Calcium oxide (CaO), Sodium oxide (Na2O), Aluminium
oxide (Al2O3), Magnesium (MgO), etc.
Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only non-metals and
oxygen.
Some examples of non-metallic oxides are Nitrogen dioxide, (NO2),
hydrogen oxide (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), etc.
Based on their chemical behaviour oxides are classified in to acidic oxides
and basic oxides.
Acidic oxides: Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals. They are also called
acid anhydrides. Acid anhydride means acid without water. Most non-metals
form oxides that exhibit acidic properties and dissolve in water to give acidic
solutions.
Examples of acidic oxides include; sulphur dioxide (SO2,) nitrogen

dioxide (NO2,) carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. It is important to note that all
non-metal oxides are not necessarily acidic oxides.
🔄 What is the nature of phosphorous pentoxide, P O ? 2 5
52 Inorganic Compounds
Grade 8
Basic oxides: Basic oxides are oxides of metals. They are also called basic
anhydrides. Basic anhydride means base without water. Some metals form
oxides which exhibit basic properties and dissolve in water to give alkaline
(basic) solutions.
Some examples of basic oxides are sodium oxide (Na2O), calcium
oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), etc. All metallic oxides are not
necessarily basic oxides.
🔄 What is the nature of potassium oxide, K O? 2
Properties of oxides
i. An acidic oxides (acid anhydride) reacts with water to form an acid.
Acid oxide + Water → Acid
Example: SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Sulphur trioxide Water Sulphuric acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Carbondioxide Water Carbonic acid
ii. A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a
base (Alkaline).
Basic oxide + Water → Base
Example: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
K2O + H2O → 2KOH

Potassium oxide Water Potassium hydroxide
Preparation of Oxides
The common method for preparing oxides is direct combination of elements
with oxygen. The following practical activity shows the preparation of oxides.
UNIT THREE :
Experiment 3.1
Title: Preparation of Sulphur Dioxide
Objective: To prepare SO2 and test whether it is an acidic oxide or a basic

oxide.
Materials required: Sulphur, litmus paper (blue and red), gas jar, bunsen
burner, deflagrating spoon.
Procedure:
1. Put some powdered sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and ignite.
2. When it starts burning, put it into a gas jar.
3. When the burning stops, add 5 mL of water
to the gas jar and shake.
4. Put blue and red litmus paper, one after the
other, in the jar.
5. Record your observations.
Figure 3.2 Burning sulphur in air

(f) What is the color of the flame when sulphur burns in air? What
happens to the color of blue and red litmus papers in step 4?
(g) Write the chemical equation for this combustion reaction.
(h) Classify the oxide formed by the combustion of sulphur as acidic
or basic.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the class.
Grade 8
Experiment 3.2
Title: Preparation of Magnesium Oxide
Objective: To prepare magnesium oxide and test whether it is an acidic oxide

or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Magnesium ribbon, red and blue litmus papers, bunsen
burner, tongs, crucible.
Procedure:
1. Cut about 2 cm of magnesium ribbon.
2. Hold the ribbon with a tong and burn it over a flame from the Bunsen burner.
3. After burning, put the burning metal into a crucible and collect the product.
4. Add small amount of water to the resulting powder in the crucible and shake
it.Test the solution with red and blue litmus paper and record your observations

(a) What is the color of the flame
produced when magnesium
burns in air?
(b) Write the chemical equation for
the reaction.
(c) What happens to the color of the
red and blue litmus papers?
(d) Is the resulting solution basic or
acidic?
Figure 3.3 Burning of magnesium

in air
UNIT THREE :
Exercise 3.3
1. Classify the following oxides as acidic or basic oxides. Give reasons
for your classifications.
a) SO3 c) N2O5 e) P2O5
b) K2O d) BaO
2. Complete the following reaction.

a) CO2 + H2O → ?
b) Na2O + H2O → ?
3. Identify the anhydrides of the :

a) HNO3 c) H2SO4
b) Mg(OH)2 d) KOH
4. What products are formed when the following metals react with an
excess Oxygen?
a) Magnesium b) Zinc c) Lithium
3.3.2. Acids
Activity 3.5.
Form a group and perform the following activity.

Imagine a taste experiment using orange, lemon, tomato and grape fruit.
They all taste alike. In what way would they taste alike, and why? What is
the name of the acid in lemon and orange?
Acids are among the most familiar of all chemical compounds that we encounter
every day. Citric acid in lemons, sour ‘Tella’ contains acetic acid, human
Grade 8
stomach contains hydrochloric acid and some insects such as bees and ants
contain formic acid. It is important to remember that not all acids are harmful.
🔄 Can you mention the acids found in milk and soft drinks?
Acids are compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when they are in aqueous
solution.
H2O
Example: HCl (g) H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
Hydrochloric acid, HCl, nitric acid, HNO3 and sulphuric acid, H2SO4 are the
three common laboratory acids. These acids are called mineral acids.
Rules for writing and naming common acids

Acids are named based on their anion or the ion attached to the hydrogen. In
simple binary acids, one ion is attached to hydrogen. Names for such acids
consist of the prefix “hydro-“, the first syllable of the anion, and the suffix
“-ic”. These anions usually have the ending “-ide”. For example, HCl, which
is hydrogen (H) and chlorine (Cl), is called hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Hydro + Base name of non-metal + ic acid
Example: HBr, contains the anion bromide named as hydrobromic

acid.
🔄 How do you name HI?

Acids containing polyatomic ions are named as follows.
If the polyatomic ion ends in –ate, change the ending to –ic acid
If the polyatomic ion ends in –ite, change the ending to –ous acid
Examples:
a. HNO3, contains the polyatomic ion nitrate, is called nitric acid.

b. HNO2, contains the polyatomic ion nitrite, is called nitrous acid.
UNIT THREE :
Check point 3.4

1. Name the following acids.
a) HF b) H2SO4 c) H2CO3
2. Write the formula of the following acids.

a) Sulfurous acid
b) Phosphoric acid
c) Nitric acid.
Acid- base Indicators

An indicator tells us whether a substance is acidic or basic in nature by showing
changes in colour. The common indicators available in laboratories are litmus,
phenolphthalein, methyl orange or methyl red and universal indicators.
The pH Scale
Substances can be classified as acidic, basic, or neutral based on their pH values.
pH (Power of hydrogen) is a measure of acidity or basicity of a solution. pH
scale is ranging from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic/alkaline). Acids have a
pH value less than seven and bases have a pH value greater than seven. The pH
of a neutral solution equals seven.
Figure 3.4 The pH scale
Grade 8
Properties of Acids
i. Acids have a sour taste: The sour taste of many unripe fruits, lemon, vinegar
and sour milk is caused by the acids present in them. Never taste mineral
acids because they are corrosive.
ii. Acids change the colour of indicators: Indicators show the presence of
an acid or a base with specific color changes when placed in a solution.
Acids change blue litmus and methyl orange solution to red and in
phenolphthalein becomes colourless. The following practical activity
shows the effect of acids on indicators.
Experiment 3.3
Title: Effect of acids on acid-base indicators
Objective: To investigate the effect of dilute hydrochloric acid and

sulphuric acid on the colors of litmus paper, phenolphthalein and methyl
orange.
Materials required: Blue and red litmus papers, phenolphthalein,

methyl orange, test tubes, test tube rack, dilute HCl and H2SO4.
Procedure:
1. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into three test tubes.
2. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red
litmus papers turn by turn into it and see if there is any colour change.
3. Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops of
methyl orange in the third and observe if there is colour change.
UNIT THREE :
4. Repeat the above procedure using dilute H2SO4 solution.
Observation and analysis

Record your findings on table. Write a laboratory report in groups.
Table 3.2: Effects of acid on Indicators

Color of the indicator in the acid solution
Acid
Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Dilute HCl
Dilute H2SO4
iii. Reaction of Acids with metals: Dilute acids react with active metals like
zinc, magnesium and aluminum to form salts and liberate hydrogen
gas. Very active metals like sodium, potassium, and calcium react very
violently with dilute acids, so care should be taken.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Example:
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Calcium Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride Hydrogen gas
The following practical activity demonstrates the reaction of acids on metals.
Experiment 3.4
Title: Reaction of an acid with a metal

Objective: To investigate the reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric
acid.
Materials required: A test tube, zinc granules, dilute hydrochloric acid,

match box rubber stopper and a test tube holder.
Grade 8
Procedure:
1. Add a few zinc granules in a test tube.
2. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into a test tube as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.5 Reaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid
3. Remove the rubber stopper and introduce the lighted splint in to the mouth
of the test tube and record your observations.
Caution! Note that you should hold the test tube and the lighted
splint away from Yourself and others!
Observation and analysis:

(a) What happens when you drop zinc metal into the test tube containing
dilute HCl?
(b) What is the colour of the gas?
(c) What happens when the lighted splint is held inside the mouth of
the test tube?
(d) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between zinc and
hydrochloric acid.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class
UNIT THREE :
iv.Reaction of Acids with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates: Acids react

with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salts, water and carbon
dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example:
2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Hydrchloric acid Sodium carbonate Sodium chloride Carbon dioxide
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example:
HCl (aq) + 2NaHCO3 (aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2(g)

Hydrchloric Sodium bicarbonate Sodiom carbon- Water Carbon diox-
acid ate ide
The following practical activity demonstrates the reaction of acids with

carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Experiment 3.5
Title: Reactions of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Objective: To investigate the reactions of carbonates and hydrogen

carbonates with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Materials required: test tube, boiling tube fitted with cork, thistle funnel,
delivery tube, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, dilute HCl
and freshly prepared lime water (calcium hydroxide solution).
Grade 8
Procedure:
1. Take the boiling tube and add about 0.5 g sodium carbonate to it.
2. Take about 2 mL of freshly prepared lime water in a test tube.
3. Add about 3 mL dilute HCl to the boiling tube containing sodium
carbonate.
4. Immediately fix the cork filled with a delivery tube.
5. Dip the other end of the delivery tube in the lime water.
6. Observe the lime water carefully.
7. Repeat the above procedure for sodium hydrogen carbonate and dilute
H2SO4.
(a) When dilute HCl is added to sodium carbonate or sodium hydrogen
carbonate, what gas is evolved?
(b) What happens to the lime water the gas passing to it? Why is that
so?
(c) Write the chemical equation that occurred on the reactions.
v. Acids neutralize bases: Acids react with bases to form salts and water. This
reaction is called neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Hydrchloric acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride Water
The following practical activity demonstrates the neutralizing effect of an acid

on a base.
UNIT THREE :
Experiment 3.6
Title: Neutralizing effect of an acid on a base.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of HCl on sodium

hydroxide.
Materials required: A test tube, dropper, methyl orange or

phenolphthalein solution indicators, solution of sodium hydroxide and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Procedure:
1. Take about 2 mL solution of sodium hydroxide in a test tube.
2. Add a drop of phenolphthalein indicator to it and observe the colour.
3. With the help of a dropper add dilute hydrochloric acid drop wise and stir
the solution constantly till the colour disappears.
4. Now add a few drops of NaOH solution. The colour of the solution is
restored.
Figure 3.6 Reaction between NaOH and HCl
Grade 8
Observation and analysis

(a) What colour appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the solution of
NaOH?
(b) Why does the colour disappear on adding HCl?
(c) What will happen when sodium hydroxide has reacted with hydrochloric
acid?
(d) Write the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place in this experiment.
Exercise 3.4
Write the Answer for the Following Questions.

1. Which ion is a characteristic of acids in water solution?
2. What will happen if you add the following on hydrochloric acid, HCl?
a) Phenolphthalein
b) Blue litmus
c) Methyl orange
3. An acid reacts with a substance Z with the liberation of CO2 gas.

What can be the nature of Z?
4. List the properties of acids.
5. Complete the following reaction
a) Zn(s) + HCl (aq) → ?
b) HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → ?
c) HNO3 (aq) + KOH(aq) → ?
UNIT THREE :
3.3.3. Bases
Activity 3.6.
Perform the following activity and share your opinion with

the class.
When plants are partly burned, ash is formed. When the ash is dissolved in
water, it gives a solution which tastes bitter and feels slippery when rubbed
between the fingers. Why do you think this happens?
Bases are chemical compounds that we encounter every day and used in
industry and at home. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, used in washing soaps and
detergents; potassium hydroxide, KOH in bathing soaps, calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2 neutralizes acidic soil, etc. Bases are substances that react with acids
to form salts. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis. An alkali is
a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dissolved in water.
H2O
For example: NaOH (aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Sodium Hydroxide Sodium ion Hydroxide ion
Some of the example of bases include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
calcium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide.
🔄 What is the name of the base used to neutralize excess acidity in our
stomach?
Naming Bases
The names of bases end with hydroxide. Start with name of the cation (metal
ion or ammonium ion, NH4+) followed by name of the anion (hydroxide
ion).
Metal (cation) name + hydroxide (OH-)
Example: Na+ + OH- → NaOH

Sodium ion Hydoxide ion Sodium hydroxide
Grade 8
Check point 3.6
Answer the Following Qustions.

1. Name the following bases.
a) Mg(OH)2 b) Al(OH)3 c) Ca(OH)2
2. Write the formula of the following bases.

a) Potassium hydroxide
b) Iron(III) hydoxide
c) Ammonium hydroxide
Properties of Bases
i. Bases are slippery to the touch and have a bitter taste in aqueous solutions:
Strong bases such as NaOH and KOH are very corrosive. So they should be
neither brought in to contact with the skin nor tasted.
ii. Bases change the colour of indicators: Bases turn red litmus to blue, methyl
orange solution to yellow and Phenolphthalein to pink. The following practical
activity demonstrates the effect of a base on indicators.
Experiment 3.7
Title: The effect of a base on indicators
Objective: To study the effect of a base on indicators
Materials required: Red and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein

solution, methyl orange, calcium hydroxide, test tubes, test tube holder
and rack.
UNIT THREE :
Procedure:
1. Take four clean test tubes.
2. Add about 5 mL calcium hydroxide solution in each of the test tubes
and label the test tubes as 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.7 Testing the effect of base on indicator
3. Put red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, 2 drops of phenolphthalein

solution and 2 drops of methyl orange solution in test tubes 1,2,3 and 4
respectively. Observe the colour change and record your observation.
What happens to the colours of the red litmus paper, blue litmus
paper,phenolphthalein and methyl orange solutions after the addition
of calcium hydroxide (Lime water) solution?
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your to the rest of the class.
iii. Bases neutralize acids: Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
Base + Acid → Salt + Water
Example: KOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → KCl (aq) + H2O (aq)
Potassium hydroxide Hydrchloric acid Potassium chloride Water
Grade 8
Experiment 3.8
Title: Neutralizing effect of a base on an acid.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of NaOH on HCl.
Materials: test tube, dropper, methyl orange or phenolphthalein solution

indicators, solution of sodium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Figure 3.8 Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
Procedure:
1. Take about 2 mL solution of HCl in a test tube.
2. Add a drop of methyl orange solution indicator to it and observe the
colour.
3. With the help of a dropper add dilute NaOH acid drop wise and stir the
solution constantly till the colour disappears.
4. Now add a few drops of HCl solution. The colour of the solution is
restored.
Observation and Analysis

(a) What colour appeared when methyl is added to the solution of HCl?
(b) Why does the colour disappear on adding NaOH?
(c) Write the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place in this
experiment.
UNIT THREE :
Investigation using local indicators

Project Work
The objective of this project work is to investigate household chemicals using

locally prepared indicators. In group, with guidance, you should prepare
your own acid-base indicators by extracting the colour from different plants
(flowers, fruits, vegetables) and investigate the presence of acid and base
in different house hold chemicals such as vinegar, baking soda, lemon, etc.
found in your local areas and present your result to the class using a table
(chart).
Safety precautions while working with acids and Bases

It is very important to avoid contact with acids and bases with any part of your
body or clothing. The following safety precautions are useful in handling acids
and bases in school laboratories or anywhere while working with them.
✅ If a concentrate acid is spilled or splashed on your skin, wash thoroughly

the affected part with water, and then wash it with 10% Na CO solution.
✅ If an acid enters your eye, wash thoroughly with plenty of water.
2 3
✅ If you accidentally drink corrosive acids, take a base such as Mg(OH) .

✅ If you drink corrosive base, neutralize it by drinking 1 - 2% dilute solution
2
of acetic acid or lemon juice.

✅ Never add water into concentrated acids! Instead add acid to water.
✅ If a base is spilled on your skin wash the affected area with plenty of water
and then treat the affected part with a weak acid such as dilute acetic acid.
✅ If a base comes into contact with your eyes, wash the eyes with cold
water.
Assignment
In groups, conduct an investigation using science books or internet; search
and develop a safety booklet on the correct ways of handling acids and alkalis.
Grade 8
Exercise 3.5
1. Indicate whether each of the following is a property of acids, bases,
or both acids and bases.
a) Have a sour taste

b) Taste bitter
c) React with metals
d) Turns litmus paper red
e) Feels slippery
f) Turns litmus paper blue
2. What measures should you take if:

a. an acid accidentally enters your eyes?
b. you accidentally drink a base?
3. Write a least two important properties of bases.
4. What ion is a characteristic of all bases in water solution?
5. complete the following reaction
a) NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → ?

b) Mg(OH)2 (aq) + HNO3 → ?
UNIT THREE :
3.4. NEUTRALIZATION REACTION AND

SALTS
After completing this section students will be able to:
♻ identify some everyday uses of neutralization;
♻ define salt and give its examples;and
♻ name and write formulas for some common salts.
Activity 3.7.
Discuss the following in groups and share your opinion to

the rest of the class.
What is the importance of neutralization in daily life?
3.4.1. Neutralization Reaction
A neutralization reaction is the reaction between an acid and a base to

form salt and water. Neutralization reactions are very useful in our daily
activities. Some of the applications of neutralization in our daily activities are
as follows.
i. Neutralization at Home
We use neutralization for most of the activities in our home for different
purposes. Baking powder is usually used to help the dough rise to bake bread.
Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair. Toothpaste
contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by bacteria in our mouth.
🔄 Can you mention other applications of neutralization reaction in home?

ii. Neutralization in Health
72 Neutralization Reaction and Salts

Grade 8
Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. The excess acid in the stomach is
neutralized by taking antacid like milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2. The sting of an
ant and bee contains formic acid. When an ant or bee bites, it injects the acidic
liquid into the skin. The effect of the sting can be neutralized by rubbing moist
baking soda (NaHCO3). Wasp stings are alkaline and can be neutralized with
vinegar.
🔄 Can you mention other applications of neutralization reaction in

health?
iii. Neutralization in Agriculture
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers results in increased acidity of the soil.

When the soil is acidic, it is treated with powdered lime (CaO), limestone
(CaCO3) or ashes of burnt wood. If the soil is basic, organic matter is added to
it. The acidic gas from the decomposition of compost neutralizes the alkalis in
basic soil.
🔄 Can you list other applications of neutralization reaction in agriculture?

The ability of plants to take nutrients from the soil into their roots is affected
by the pH content of the surrounding soil particles. When organic materials,
such as dead leaves, animal wastes, decay, organic acids, etc are produced and
these lower the pH of the soil so, over the years, soil naturally becomes more
acidic. For the soil to produce good yields of crops, it is necessary to raise the
pH by spreading lime in the form of limestone, CaCO3, quick lime, CaO or
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2.
🔄 Why it is necessary to adjust the pH of the soil?

In agriculture different crops require different nutrients in different proportions
and, as a result each crop grows best in soil within a particular pH range.
Maintaining proper soil pH is one of the most important aspects of soil fertility
management. Soil pH is a measure of active acidity based on the concentration
of hydrogen ions (H+) in soil solution. Soil pH directly affects the life and
growth of plants because it affects the availability of all plant nutrients.
Between pH 6.0 and 6.5, most plant nutrients are in their most available states.
A nutrient must be soluble and remain soluble long enough to successfully
travel through the soil solution in to the roots.
UNIT THREE :
The best pH ranges for growing different crops are for example: potatoes 5.5 –
6.5, oats 5.5 – 7.0 and beans 6.0 – 7.5.
Practical Activity
Perform the following activity in groups and present your

work to the class.
1. Create a written or digital display to exhibit the use of neutralization
reactions in daily life.
2. Using a pH meter in your school laboratory, perform a measurement on the
pH of different soil samples taken from different locations.
3.4.2. Salts
🔄 What is a salt? Does common salt (sodium chloride) is the only salt?
The term ‘salt’ does not refer only to the table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl)
which we use to make our food. The word ‘salt’ applies to a large group of
compounds. Salts are widely used as raw materials in chemical industries, as
fertilizers, and building materials, etc. A salt is a compound consisting of the
positive ion of base and the negative ion of an acid. Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)
is a salt that contains sodium ion (Na+), derived from NaOH and the sulphate
ion (SO42–), derived from H2SO4. Some examples of salts are sodium chloride,
(NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3) and Sodium
bicarbonate, (NaHCO3).
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts

Salts are named by writing a prefix with a cation name followed by base name
of an ion such as -ate, -ite and –ide.
Name of Cation + Base Name of Anion + ide/ ate/ite

Grade 8
Example:
The formula and name of the compound formed from Mg2+ and Cl− is:
For each ion of Mg2+ ion one Cl- ions is needed; so write 2Cl- and deduce the
formula as:
Mg2+ + 2Cl- → MgCl2 (Magnesium chloride)
For writing and naming a salt containing polyatomic ions, the positive ion is
named first followed by the name of the polyatomic ion.
• Polyatomic anions end with –ate: includes NO3− (nitrate), PO43−(phosphate),

CO32− (carbonate), and SO42− (sulphate).
Examples: NaNO3sodium nitrate, Potassium carbonate, K2CO3, etc
• Polyatomic anions end in –ite: includes NO2−, nitrite and SO32−, sulphite.
Examples: Potassium sulphite, K2SO3, Sodium nitrite, NaNO2,etc.
• Polyatomic anions with hydrogen attached use the prefix -hydrogen (or
bi): HCO3−( hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)), HSO4− (hydrogen sulfate)
and HPO4- (hydrogen phosphate).
Example: (NH4)2HPO4, diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP)
Uses of salts
Activity 3.8
In this activity you are expected to perform the following

tasks in groups by reading different Science reference books
and present to the class.
Prepare a table and write the formula and important uses of:
a) sodium chloride d) potassium nitrate
b) calcium carbonate e) diammonium phosphate
c) sodium bicarbonate (DAP)
UNIT THREE :
Exercise 3.6

1. Name the following salts.
a) Na2SO4 c) Mg3(PO4)2
b) K2CO3 d) NaHCO3
2. Write the formula of the following salts.

a) Calcium sulphate
b) Sodium carbonate
c) Ammonium phosphate
d) Potassium nitrate
3. Name the base and the acid from which the positive and the
negative ions are derived in each of the following salts.
a) Sodium nitrate
b) Calcium chloride
c) Potassium sulphate
4. Mention and explain the importance of neutralization in daily

activities?
5. How do you treat if the soil is too acidic and too basic?
🔒 🔑🔑 Acid
KEY TERMS
🔑🔑 Metallic oxide
🔑🔑 Acidic oxide
Alkane 🔑 Naming salts
Neutralization
🔑🔑 Alkene
Alkyne 🔑🔑 reactions
Nomenclature
🔑🔑 Base (Alkali)
Basic oxide 🔑🔑 Non metallic oxide
Organic compound
🔑🔑 Homologous series
Hydrocarbon
Inorganic compound
🔑 Oxide
Salt

Grade 8
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯOrganic compounds are carbon-containing compounds except the oxides
of carbon, carbonates, and hydrogen carbonates.
ʯHydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and
hydrogen.
ʯAlkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2 where ‘n’ is
the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
ʯAlkenes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n where ‘n’ is
the number of carbon.
ʯAlkynes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n-2 where ‘n’ is
the number of carbon.
ʯInorganic compounds are classified as oxides, acids, bases, and salts.
ʯOxides are classified as acidic and basic oxides depending on their
properties.
ʯAcids are compounds that release hydrogen ions in water solution.
ʯSalts are mainly prepared by neutralization reactions.
ʯNeutralization reactions have different applications in everyday life and
industrial Processes. Neutralization reactions are very useful in our daily
activities such as in home, health and agriculture.
UNIT THREE :
REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Match the items under column ‘A’ with those under
column ‘B’.
1. Bottled gas used as fuel. A. Ethyne
2. A fuel to produce flame used for cutting B. Formalin
C. Methane
and welding metals.
D. Butane
3. A constituent of all alcoholic beverages. E. Ethanoic acid
4. Organic chemical used to preserve F. Octane
biological specimens. G. Ethene
5. A chemical used as food flavoring agent. H. Ethanol
6. Major component of natural gas called Biogas
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

for each of the following questions.
1. A molecule with the formula C3H8 is a(an):
A. propene C. propyne
B. propane D. ethane
2. When a drop of vinegar solution is put on the blue litmus paper, it turns;
A. red C. colourless
B. blue D. no change
3. What must be added when the soil is too basic?

A. Organic matter C. Slaked lime
B. Quick lime D. Lime stone
4. The correct formula of octene is:

A. C8H18 C. C8H16
B. C8H14 D. C8H20
5. Which of the following feel soapy on touching?

A. Acid C. Salt
B. Base D. None of these

Grade 8
6. The formula of sodium carbonate is:

A. NaHCO3 C. Na2CO3
B. Na2SO4 D. NaHPO4
7. Which of the following salts is used as a baking powder?

A. (NH4)2HPO4 C. CaCO3
B. NaHCO3 D. KNO3
8. Which one of the following pairs of compounds produces calcium sulphate?

A. CaO and HCl. C. CaO and H2O.
B. Ca(OH)2 and HNO3. D. Ca(OH)2 and H2SO4.
9. Which of the following are not the characteristics of a base?

A. A base changes the colour of an indicator.
B. A base produces hydrogen ions in water.
C. A base has a bitter taste.
D. A base can neutralize acids.
10. Which one of the following compounds is used as a fertilizer?

A. Mg(OH)2 C. HCl
B. NaCl D. NH4NO3
III. Give short answers for each of the following questions.

1. Deduce the molecular formula of:
a) butyne c) hexane e) heptene
b) propene d) octyne
2. Write the names and formulas of the acids and bases required to prepare
each of the following salts.
a) Potassium phosphate
b) Sodium sulphate
c) Magnesium carbonate
3. Write the name and the formula of a salt used in:

a) our diet.
b) making construction materials
c) making gun powder
UNIT THREE :
UNIT FOUR
4. HUMAN BODY
SYSTEMS AND
HEALTH
Learning Outcomes
♻ list down the major organs that constitute the human body systems;
♻ explain the main functions of the major human body systems;
♻ list down the main diseases associated with the major human body
systems;and
♻ discuss the effects of diseases of the major human body system.
Main Contents
4.1 Integumentary System 4.5 Respiratory System
4.2 Muscular System 4.6 Circulatory System
4.3 Skeletal System 4.7 Reproductive System
4.4 Digestive System
Introduction
Grade 8
In grade 7, you have learned about cells as the basis of life; their basic structures, functions
and the level of organization. A human body is the result of coordinated activities and
functions of different systems which are made up of several organs found in human
body. In this unit you will learn about the body systems which include the integumentary,
muscular, skeletal, digestive, respiratory, circulatory and reproductive systems. The aim
of this unit is to introduce the major organs that constitute the human body systems
and their functions in your daily life and to identify the diseases associated with the
human body systems. The unit also deals with the causes or effects of major diseases or
disorders of these body systems.
Start-up Activity
Discuss this activity in groups and present your discussions

to the class.
Identify and name of organs that form human body systems
Figure 4.1 Human body systems
UNIT FOUR :
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH 81
4.1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

At the end of this topic, learners will be able to:
♻ distinguish the major structural components of human integumentary
system;
♻ describe the main functions of human integumentary system; and
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
integumentary system.
🔄 How the human body is protected from foreign invaders?

Integumentary system is a system that covers and protects the entire human
body. It consists of skin and accessory organs to protect the body from the
outside world.
4.1.1. Components of Integumentary System
Activity 4.1.
Discuss the following questions in a group and present

your response to the class.
1. Name the structures that form human integumentary systems.
2. Identify and discuss the outer layer and inner layer of a skin, the outer
and inner parts of hair.
3. Discuss about sweat and sebaceous glands with their ducts.
82 Integumentary System
Grade 8
Figure 4.2 Integumentary system
🔄 What are major layers that form skin?

The integumentary system consists of the skin and its accessory organs such
as hair, nails, and cutaneous glands. Skin is the largest organ in the body and
composed of three layers of tissue: the outer epidermis, the middle dermis and
the inner hypodermis (subcutaneous) layer.
Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin made of stratified squamous epithelium.
It has no blood supply. Dermis/true skin is strong, flexible, connective tissues
of a mesh work of collagen, reticular and elastic fibers. Most part of the skin is
composed of dermis. Hypodermis is a subcutaneous layer (under the skin) found
beneath the dermis. It is composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue, which
is richly supplied with lymphatic and blood vessels and nerves. Hypodermis is
much thicker than dermis.
🔄 What are accessory organs of integumentary system?

Accessory organs of integumentary system include the hair, nails, sebaceous
and sweat (sudoriferous) gland, etc.
UNIT FOUR :
Hair is composed of keratinized threads of epithelial cells, which develops

from the epidermis. Hair consists of two regions: the shaft part above skin
(protruded through the epidermis to the outside) and the root embedded in the
skin (dermis).
Nails are scale-like modifications of epithelial cells in the epidermis. They are
made of hard, flat, keratin on dorsal side of the distal segment of fingers and
toe.
Sebaceous (oil) glands are made of modified cuboidal epithelium and occur all
over the body except in the palm and sole. They secret sebum (oily semi fluid
substance, form entirely lipids). Sudoriferous gland is sweat gland that found
all over the body, except the lips, nipples, and external genitalia. They are two
types: eccrine and apocrine glands.
Eccrine glands occur over most of your body and open directly onto the surface
of skin. Apocrine glands open into the hair follicle, leading to the surface of
the skin.
4.1.2. Functions of Integumentary System
Activity 4.2.
Perform this activity in a group and present your responses

to the class.
Discuss the roles of skin and accessory organ forming the integumentary
system.
🔄 What are the functions of integumentary system?

i. Protection: The integumentary system is used to protect physical, chemical
and biological barrier against skin infection by secreting substances.
ii. Excretion: Waste materials such as ammonia, urea and excessive salt are
eliminated in the form of sweating.
Grade 8
iii. Body temperature regulation: Sweating by the sweat glands promotes

evaporation, resulting in a loss of excessive body heat.
iv.Cutaneous sensation: Nerve receptors in the dermis (skin) layers detect

sensations such as heat, cold, pain, pressure, and touch.
v. Vitamin D synthesis: Radiation of the sunlight activates a series of chemical

reactions in the epidermis layer, resulting in the synthesis of vitamin D.
4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases
Activity 4.3.
Discuss in groups and list as many skin diseases you know as possible from
your personal experience and present your opinion to the class.
Acne is a skin disease marked by pimples on the face, chest, and back caused
by excessive amount of sebum into hair follicles at puberty.
Blister is characterized by watery, clear, fluid-filled area on the skin.

Hives are the familiar welts (raised, red, itchy areas) that can occur on the skin.
They are an allergic response due to food, drug, insect bite, infection or stress
causes.
Actinic keratosis is caused by sun damage and lead to squamous cell

carcinoma.
Roscea is redness of skin around eyes and nose accompanied by rash like
lesions.
Carbuncle is red, painful and irritated lump under the skin and may be
accompanied by fever, body aches and fatigue. It can cause skin crustiness/
oozing.
Latex allergy is warm, itchy, red wheals at the site of contact that may take on
a dry, crusted appearance with repeated exposure to latex.
UNIT FOUR :
Eczema is non-contagious, inflammatory skin disorder caused by allergen or

irritant such as diet, make-up, soaps, medications, and emotional stress.
Warts are small growths caused by a viral infection of the skin or mucous
membrane. They are contagious and can easily pass from person to person.
Chickenpox is clusters of itchy, red, fluid-filled blisters in all over the body.
Rash is accompanied by fever, body aches, sore throat, and loss of appetite.
Grade 8
Exercise 4.1
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.

1. Which of the following layer of the skin does not contain blood vessels?
A. Epidermis C. Dermis
B. Hypodermis D. Reticular layers
2. Which of the following is the proximal part of nail?

A. Free edge C. Lunula
B. Nail body D. Shaft
3. The glands that are found all over the skin except on the palms and soles
are:
A. Merocrine glands C. Apocrine glands
B. Sebaceous glands D. Sweat glands
4. Which of the following sensations is not detected by nerve receptors in

the dermis layers?
A. Heat C. Pressure
B. Pain D. Taste
5. What causes acne?

A. Clogged merocrine glands
B. Clogged apocrine glands
C. Clogged sebaceous glands
D. Clogged sweat glands
UNIT FOUR :
4.2. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

♻ distinguish the major structural components of human muscular system;
♻ describe the main functions of human muscular system;and
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases and effects of human muscular
system.
🔄 What is muscular system?

Muscular system is a system that allows movement of part of a body, the whole
body or fluids such as blood via a blood vessel. It is composed of muscle fibers.
4.2.4. Components of Muscular System
Activity 4.4.
Discuss in group about the human muscular system and

present your responses to the class.
1. Identify and name musles that form the muscular system.
2. What do you feel when you relax and contract your arm and leg muscles?
🔄 Can you mention the types of muscles?

There are three types of muscles in human body. They are skeletal muscles, the
smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.
88 Muscular System
Grade 8
Figure 4.3 Human muscular system
Skeletal (voluntary) muscles are muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton
by tissues called tendons. They are capable of permitting body movement.
When these muscles contract, skeletal parts move. The contraction of the
skeletal muscles is under conscious or voluntary control and occurs faster than
other muscles.
Smooth (involuntary) muscles are muscles found in the walls of viscera

(intestine, stomach, and other internal organs) and blood vessels. Their
contraction is involuntary and contract more slowly than the skeletal muscles.
Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. Unlike the skeletal
muscles its contraction is involuntary for the most part. Its contraction pumps
blood and accounts for the heartbeat.
UNIT FOUR :
4.2.5. Functions of Muscular System
Activity 4.5.
Perform the activity in group of 5 or 6 and present your

responses to the class.
Explain the main functions of muscles and special property of muscle cell
that allows movement.
The functions of muscular system are:
• muscles produce movements of body as a result of contraction;

• muscles force or transport substances to move through visceral
tracts;
• muscles enable quick response to changes in environment such as
expression of emotions (facial and neck muscles);
• muscles maintain posture by overcoming gravity effects while
sitting/standing;
• muscles are also needed to pump blood and maintain blood pressure;
• muscles produce body heat and regulate body temperature;
• muscles act as protection of internal organs.
🔄 How do muscles work?

When muscles are involved in body movement, they actually work in pairs in
antagonistic (opposite) manner. While one muscle in the pair contracts the other
must relax. For instance, if you were to bend your arm at the elbow, the biceps
contracts and bulges and at the same time the triceps relaxes. You can see the
bulges in your arm as the biceps contract. The biceps relax while the triceps
contract during lower the arm to the original position. In your heart also, when
the upper chamber (auricles) contract, the lower chambers (ventricles) relax.
90 Muscular System
Grade 8
4.2.6. Major Muscle Disorders
Activity 4.6.
Discuss the activity in group and present your discussion

to the class.
Mention and explain any muscle disease you know from your personal
experience.
Muscle strain is an injury that affects the muscle or the tendon and ligament.
Muscle strain is caused by general weakness and fatigue; challenges with
flexibility; body not conditioned enough.
Muscle dystrophy is inherited disorder characterized by muscle weakness

and a loss of muscle tissue.
Exercise 4.2

1. Which type of muscle is contracted under conscious or voluntary
control?
A. Cardiac C. Smooth
B. Skeletal D. A and B
2. Which one of the following muscle is found in the walls of stomach?

A. Smooth C. Skeletal
B. Cardiac D. Heart muscle
3. What would happen if you were to bend your arm at the elbow?
A. The biceps contracts C. The triceps relaxes
B. The biceps bulges D. All of the above
UNIT FOUR :
4. Which of the following is not the function of muscular system?

A. Movement of the body
B. Maintain blood pressure
C. Give response to environmental change
D. Protect external structures of the body
5. Which one is inherited disorder characterized by loss of muscle tissue?

A. Fibromyalgia
B. Myasthenia gravis
C. Muscle dystrophy
D. Muscle strain
4.3. SKELETAL SYSTEM

♻ distinguish the major structural components of human skeletal system;
♻ describe the main functions of human skeletal system; and
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases and effects of human skeletal
system.
🔄 What is the skeleton and its importance in our body?

The skeleton is the entire collection of bones inside our body. It can be defined
as the hard framework of human body around which the entire body is built.
Skeletal system is a system that supports our flesh or soft tissue giving us an
erect posture as well as protection of major organs.
92 Skeletal System
Grade 8
4.3.1. Structural Components of Skeletal System
Figure 4.4 The human skeleton
Activity 4.7.
Be in groups and discuss on the above figure 4.4 of the

human skeletal system. Observe, record and investigate
bones of the major body parts.
1. How many number of bones in the various body parts of human skeletal
system?
2. Identify axial and appendicular skeletons and examine their types, sizes
and shapes.
UNIT FOUR :
🔄 What are structural components of skeletal system?

Skeletal system is also the system of bones, associated with cartilages and
joints. Bones are tough, rigid (strongest) and dense forms of connective tissues
made up of living cells. The body of the baby has about 300 bones at birth. These
eventually fuse (grow together) to form the 206 bones that adults have. The
bones of the skeleton can be categorized into two: the axial and appendicular.
🔄 What is the axial skeleton?

The part of the skeleton along the axis of the body is the axial skeleton. The
axial skeleton consists of skull, sternum, ribs and vertebral column. Skull is
a bony outline of the head formed from cranial and facial bones. The cranium
protects the brain. However, the facial bones provide structure for the upper
and lower jaws, cheeks and nose.
Sternum is the breast bone in the middle of the rib cage attached to it by
cartilage.
Ribs are twelve (12) pairs of thin and flat bones. They are slightly curved and
connected to sternum in the middle of the chest.
Vertebral column also referred to as the back-bone or spine vertebral column

is extending from the end of skull to the pelvis (hip).
🔄 What is the appendicular skeleton?

The appendicular skeleton supports the limbs and connects them to the
axial skeleton. It is composed of all the bones of shoulder, hip and limbs or
appendages.
Shoulder bones are composed of clavicle and scapula. The clavicle or collar
bone is connected to the sternum in front while the scapula bone is at the back.
Hip bones are also known as hip girdle and composed of two hip bones.
Fore limbs are the front limbs that refer to the arms, the forearms and the
hands. It consists of various bones like humerus (upper arms), radius (inner
lower arm), ulna (outer lower arm), carpals (wrists), metacarpals (hands) and
94 Skeletal System
Grade 8
phalanges (fingers).
Hind limbs are the back limbs or appendages and consist of different bones
like femur (upper leg or thigh), tibia and fibula (lower legs or shin), patella
(kneecap) tarsals (ankles), metatarsals (feet), and phalanges (toes).
🔄 Do our bones have the same size and shape?

Bones of the skeleton vary in shape and size so do in their structure.
i. Long bones are compact bones with hollows or cavities filled with yellow bone
marrow. Their ends contain spongy bones covered with cartilage for cushion.
They are designed for strength. Example: Upper and lower limb bones. Bone
marrow is soft structure in the bones where red blood cells are made.
ii. Short bones are compact bones with chambers or partitions but without
marrow. Example: Bones of fingers and toes.
iii. Flat bones are compact bones that have no cavity or hollow. Examples are
bones of ribs, sternum and scapula.
Activity 4.8.
Perform the activity in group and present your responses

to the class.
1. Explain the type of movement allowed by each type of joint by giving
example.
2. Your teacher may display charts and observe the types of joints and then
cut the cardboard or any thick paper.
3. Construct models of types of joints by using cardboard, papers and glue.
Joint is a junction between two or more bones, bone and cartilage as well as
between two or more cartilages. It is a structure to permit movements in a hard
and rigid skeleton. Joints keep bones apart and hold them in place as they move
or rotate. Based on their function or movability, there are two different types of
UNIT FOUR :
joints; these are fixed (immovable) and movable joints.
i. Immovable joint is joint in which the bones are fixed in place and do not move
at all. It is made up of bones fused together with fixed joints. Example:
skull bone.
ii. Movable joints allow a person to twist and bend. Some movable joints allow
us to move all direction and others only allow us to move one direction.
4.3.2. Functions of Skeletal System
Activity 4.9.
Form a group of 5 or 6 to discuss the following questions

and share your discussions to the class.
1. Discuss and report the roles of the bones of the upper and lower extremities.
2. Why joints are important at articulations of two or more bones?
The roles of skeleton in our body are:
✅ it protects vital organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs,

✅ it supports the body and gives us our distinctive shape,
✅ it allows us to move in particular ways,
✅ it makes new blood cells within the marrow cavities of certain bones to
maintain a healthy bloodstream.
4.3.3. Major Diseases of Skeletal System
Activity 4.10.
Perform the activity in a group and present your response

to the class.
Discuss and list various skeletal system diseases and their effects.
96 Skeletal System
Grade 8
The major skeletal disorders are osteoporosis, osteoarthritis and fracture.
Osteoporosis is increased porosity or softening of the bones caused by hormone

deficiency, prolonged lack of calcium in the diet, and sedentary lifestyle.
Osteoarthritis is a chronic disease that usually occurs as a result of aging

and affects the hips and knees. It leads joint pain, stiffness, aching and limited
motion.
Fracture is a broken bone due to high physical impact or other bone disorders.
Exercise 4.3
Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
1. Which bone is axial skeleton?
A. Skull C. Tibia
B. Humerus D. Metatarsals
2. Which of the following bone is the appendicular skeleton?

A. Vertebrae C. Sternum
B. ribs D. Metacarpals
3. Which of the following bones are found in both fore and hind limbs?
A. Wrist C. Ankle
B. Phalanges D. Ribs
4. Which bones is wrongly paired with its example?

A. Long bone - humerus C. Short bone-vertebrae
B. Flat bone – ribs D. A and B
5. Which of the following skeletal disease is usually occurs as a result

of aging?
A. Osteoarthritis C. Fracture
B. Osteoporosis D. Botulism
UNIT FOUR :
4.4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

♻ distinguish the major structural components of human digestive system;
♻ describe the main functions of human digestive system; and
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases and effects of human digestive
system.
🔄 What is digestive system?

The digestive system is a group of organs that break down food into smaller
components so that nutrients can be absorbed and assimilated, providing
energy to sustain the body.
4.4.1. Structural Components of Digestive System
Activity 4.11.
Perform the activity in group and present your responses

to the class.
Your teacher may display you a chart; observe and identify the various parts
of alimentary canal and their associated accessory organs such as salivary
glands, liver and pancreas.
98 Digestive System
Grade 8
Figure 4.5: Human digestive system
🔄 What are structural components of digestive system?

Human digestive system consists of alimentary canal and associated glands.
The alimentary canal consists of the following parts: oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. The
associated glands of the digestive system are tongue, salivary glands, liver,
gall bladder and pancreas.
Mouth (oral cavity) is the beginning of the digestive tube where food is taken
in. It consists of the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, cheek and palate form the
mouth.
Activity 4.12.
Discuss the activity in group and present your discussion

to the class.
Look a teeth model and tell the types, numbers and roles of their teeth.
Humans have two sets of teeth (dentitions) such as deciduous and permanent.
i. Deciduous teeth (decidu- falling out) also called primary teeth, milk teeth,
UNIT FOUR :
or baby teeth begin to erupt at about 6 months of age, and approximately

two teeth appear each month then, until all 20 are present complete by the
age of 2 years.
ii. Permanent teeth-the milk teeth drop out and replaced by permanent teeth.
By age 7, 32 permanent or secondary teeth are developed & are divided
into 4 types: Incisors (for cutting), Canines (for tearing), Premolars (for
crushing) and Molars (for grinding). These teeth follow the human dental
formula of 2-1-2-3.
Pharynx (throat) is a tube running from the nose and mouth to esophagus.
Epiglottis is a lid-like structure at the top of the windpipe.
Esophagus is the muscular tube which leads from the pharynx to stomach.
Stomach is a muscular bag which lies in upper abdomen on the left side.
Liver is the largest gland situated in the abdominal cavity and has two lobes.
Gallbladder is a pear shaped organ that stores bile until it is needed for
digestion.
Bile is a yellow-green, pasty material that contains water, bicarbonate ions,

cholesterol, phospholipids, bile pigments and a number of bile salts.
Pancreas is a soft, oblong, pale grey gland which consists of head, body and
tail.
Small intestine is a long and highly coiled and folded structure. It is divided
into three regions such as duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Large Intestine is the terminal end of the alimentary canal runs from the
appendix to the anus. It is divided into four regions: cecaum, colon, rectum
and anus.
100 Digestive System

Grade 8
4.4.2. Functions of Digestive System
Activity 4.13.
Discuss the activity within a group and present your

1. Discuss how food moves and what moves it through the alimentary canal.
2. Differentiate physical and chemical digestion in mouth, stomach and
small intestine.
🔄 What are the functions of digestive system?

The digestive system performs the basic processes such as ingestion, propulsion,
digestion (mechanical/physical and chemical), absorption, assimilation and
defecation. These processes are takes place by the alimentary canal or gut and
the accessory (associated) structures.
Ingestion is the process of taking foods and liquids into the mouth (eating).
Digestion is the process of breaking down food in to small particles. Digestion

of food start in the mouth and end in small intestine. Digestion is divided in to
two. These are physical or mechanical and chemical digestions.
🔄 How mechanical (physical) digestions take place in alimentary canals?

Mechanical digestion is muscular movement of the digestive tract physically
breaks down food into smaller particles. The process of mechanical digestion
in the mouth which is performed by the teeth and the tongue with the help
of saliva is called mastication. Teeth are adapted for cutting, grinding and
masticating food in the oral cavity. Tongue is a freely movable muscular organ
that moves swallow and holds food in place. Mechanical digestion of food
takes place by emulsification and churning action due to muscular contraction
of stomach and small intestine.
UNIT FOUR :
🔄 How can food moves along the gut?

Mixing and propulsion refers to the movement of food through the digestive
tract. It includes both the voluntary process of swallowing (deglutition) and the
involuntary process of peristalsis. Peristalsis is the wave like contraction and
relaxations of smooth muscles pushing food along the gut.
🔄 How chemical digestions take place in alimentary canals?

Chemical digestion in the mouth is performed by saliva which is produced
by salivary glands. Saliva contains salivary amylase (ptyalin), mucus, water,
chloride, bicarbonate and phosphate ions, and lysozyme enzymes and releases
it to the oral cavity. The contents of saliva dissolve lubricate and facilitate food
digestion.
Starch Salivary Amylase at (pH = 6.8) Maltose
Chemical digestion in the stomach is started by gastric juice which is secreted

by gastric glands. The gastric juice consists of a lubricant called mucin,
hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1-2 (too acidic) and enzymes like pepsin and
rennin (in children only). Here mostly digestion of proteins is taking place.
Proteins Pepsin Peptone (smaller polypeptides)
Renin
Milk proteins (milk casiens) Curdle of milk
Chemical digestion in the small intestine by digestive enzymes (pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsin and chymotrypsin) secreted from
pancreatic juice digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins respectively in the
duodenum of the small intestine.
Polysaccharides ^starchh
Pancreatic Amylase
Disaccharide
Trypsin (Chemotrypsin)
Proteins and Peptones Dipeptides
Pancreatic Lipase
Fats (triglycerides) Diglycerides
Nuclease
Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) Nucleotides + Nucleosides
Chemical digestion is also takes place in small intestine by producing intestinal

juice consisting of the enzymes such as maltase, sucrase, lipase and peptidase
convert maltose into glucose and glucose, sucrose into glucose and fructose,
fats into fatty acids and glycerol and peptides into amino acids respectively.

Grade 8
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Lactose
Sucrase
Sucrose Fructose + Glucose
Dipeptidase
Dipeptides Amino acids
Intestinal Lipase
Diglycerides and Monoglycerides Fatty Acid and Glycerol
Nucleosidases Nucleosidases
Mucleqtides Nucleosidises Sugar and Bases
🔄 What are the end products and wastes of digestion?

Absorption is the process by which digestion end products (glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids and glycerol) and other substances pass through the wall of
alimentary canal. This is mainly takes place in small intestine. The inner wall
of small intestine is covered with millions of tiny finger like projections called
villi (villus) which increase the surface area for absorption.
Assimilation is the process of utilization of absorbed food and converting it

in to body cells and tissue.
Egestion is the process of eliminating the undigested food (semi solid waste,
feces) out of the body through the opening of anus. Most of the water is
absorbed here.
The process of digestion is summarized as follows:
Ingestions " Digestion " Absorption " Assimilation " Egestion
UNIT FOUR :
4.4.3. Major Diseases of Digestive System
Activity 4.14.
Discuss the activity in group and present your work to the

class.
List and explain some digestive system diseases and their effects.
The major diseases of digestive system are as follows.
Constipation occurs due to the slow movement of feces that promotes the
water re-absorption and as a result feces become more solid. This leads to pain
in the anus and difficulty in defecating.
Hemorrhoids are painful, swollen blood vessels in the anal canal. Symptoms
include pain, itching, and bright red blood after a bowel movement.
Gastritis is a condition resulting inflammation of the stomach which can be

due to excess secretion of HCl by glands of the stomach wall and leads damage
to the mucosa, prolonged starvation and mental stress.
Peptic ulcer Disease (PUD) is an open sore in the lining of the stomach or
upper part of the small intestine. The causes and symptoms are similar with
gastritis.
Diarrhea is abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity

of faecal discharge. Absorption of food is reduced in case of diarrhea.

Grade 8
Exercise 4.4
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Most of the water in the alimentary tract is absorbed through፡
A. Small intestine C. Stomach
B. Large intestine D. Esophagus
2. Which of the following enzymes is correctly matched with its

source?
A. Amylase – stomach tine
B. Peptidase – pancreas D. Maltase – small intes-
C. Trypsin – small intestine.
3. The finger-like projections that increase surface area of wall of in the

small intestine are:
A. Bilirubin C. Sphincters
B. Ileocecal D. Villi
4. The voluntary swallowing of food or fluid from the mouth to the

esophagus is:
A. Deglutition C. Ingestion
B. Absorption D. Peristalsis
5. All of the following are substances found in pancreatic juice except:

A. Amylase D. Trypsin
B. Pepsin
C. Lipase
UNIT FOUR :
4.5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

At the end of this topic, students will be able to:
♻ distinguish the major structural components of human respiratory
system;
♻ describe the main functions of human respiratory system; and
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases and effects of human respiratory
system.
🔄 What is respiration?
Respiration is a system that plays a role in the breathing in (inhalation) of fresh
air (oxygen) and breathing out (exhalation) of waste air (carbon dioxide).
4.5.1. Structural Components of Respiratory

System
Activity 4.15.
Perform the activity in group and present your discussion

to the class.
1. Your teacher may display a chart and observe, discuss and record various
parts of respiratory tract.
2. Now, take in air deeply and release it out and observe carefully. What
happens to your chest cavity, rib bones and diaphragm? Can you mention
the parts of breathing route?
106 Respiratory System

Grade 8
Figure 4.6 Human respiratory system
🔄 What are structures of human respiratory system?

The respiratory system is made up of body parts such as nose, nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli (together forming
the lungs). Route air moves from nose to lungs as follows.
Nose → nasal cavity → larynx → trachea → bronchi → lungs→

bronchioles → alveoli (where gas exchange takes place)
Table 4.1 The Process of Breathing
During inspiration (inhalation or During expiration (exhalation or

breathing in) breathing out)
• Air is taken into the lungs • Air is expelled out from the lungs
• The rib bones get upward • The rib bones get lowered
• The diaphragm gets lowered • The diaphragm gets upward
• The volume of chest cavity • The volume of chest cavity
increase decreased
• The air pressure inside
• The air pressure inside increased
decreased
• As a result air enters in to • As a result air moves out of the
the lungs lungs
UNIT FOUR :
4.5.2. Functions of Respiratory System
Activity 4.16.
Discuss the activity in a group and present your responses

to the class.
Explain the roles of:
a) hairs in the nasal cavity,
b) cartilaginous rings in the structure of trachea,
c) alveoli
The functions of respiratory system include:
• respiratory structures are the passage way for air between the
external environment or atmosphere and lungs;
• the ciliated mucous membrane helps to trap dust and other particles
by prevent dirt from passing into the lungs and moving them upward
to be expelled by coughing, sneezing, or blowing the nose;
• pleural fluid between the pleural membranes reduces friction while
breathing;
• pleural membrane covers and protects the lungs;
• alveoli serve as the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs; and
• surfactant-secreting cells to help prevent alveolar collapse by
reducing the surface tension of water.
4.5.3. Major Diseases of Respiratory System
Activity 4.17.
Discuss the activity in a group and present to your opinion

to the class.
List and explain some respiratory system diseases and their effects

Grade 8
The major diseases of respiratory system are as follows.
Bronchitis is a disorder that causes the bronchi to become inflamed and filled
with mucus, which is expelled by coughing. It can be caused by a bacterial
infection.
Emphysema is an obstructive respiratory disorder in which the walls of the

alveoli break down and lose their elasticity lead breathing difficulty. This
reduces the surface area for gas exchange and causes oxygen shortages in the
tissues.
Asthma is a disease, in which the air passages of the lungs periodically become
too narrow, often with excessive mucus production. This causes difficulty
breathing, coughing, and chest tightness.
Sinuses are hollow, air-filled spaces in skull bones around the nasal cavities.
They produce mucus that normally drains into the nasal cavities. The
inflammation due to infections blocks the sinus openings and prevents the
mucus from draining.
Influenza is commonly called “the flu,” is a contagious disease. The flu virus
moves into the respiratory tract and enters epithelial cells that line the airways.
The body’s immune response causes high fever, chills and muscle aches.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that mainly

affects the lungs. It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria that are
spread from person to person through tiny droplets such as cough, sneeze, spit,
laugh, talk, etc. Symptoms are general weight loss, cough, sputum containing
blood and slight fevers.
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames your lungs’ air sacs (alveoli). The
air sacs may fill up with fluid or pus, causing symptoms such as a cough,
fever, sweating, chills, trouble breathing and chest pain that is worse when you
breathe or cough.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the

SARS-CoV-2 virus. The virus can spread from an infected person’s mouth or
UNIT FOUR :
nose in small liquid particles when they cough, sneeze, speak, sing or breathe
near to infected person, touch contaminated surface and then your eyes, nose
or mouth. The virus spreads more easily indoors and in crowded settings.
Most people recover without special treatment. However, some will become
seriously ill and require medical attention.The most common symptoms such
as fever, dry cough, shortness of breath (breathing difficulty), headache, chest
pain, Pink eye (conjunctivitis), etc.
The spread of COVID-19 is prevented by frequent cleaning of hands using

alcohol-based hand rub or soap and water; covering the nose and mouth with a
flexed elbow or disposable tissue when coughing and sneezing; and avoiding
close contact with anyone that has a fever and cough.
Exercise 4.5

1. Which of the following process does not occur in the nasal cavity?
A. Trapping of large foreign bodies
B. Exchange of gases
C. Humidification of inhaled air
D. Warming of inhaled air
2. In which of the following organ of your body the gas exchange

takes place?
A. Pharynx C. Trachea
B. Bronchi D. Alveoli
3. Which one is the role of the goblet cells on the epithelium of the
trachea?
A. Move dirt and mucus away from the lungs
B. Move dirt and mucus down the trachea into the lungs
C. Produce mucus
D. Prevent food getting into the lungs

Grade 8
4. Which of the following is incorrect concerning inspiration?

A. Diaphragm moves upward
B. Rib cage moves up and out
C. Pressure in lungs decreases and air comes rushing in
D. Volume of chest cavity increase
5. Which of the following respiratory diseases is caused by the

breakdown of walls of alveoli?
A. Asthma C. Bronchitis
B. Emphysema D. Sinusitis
4.6. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

♻ distinguish the major structural components of human circulatory
system;
♻ describe the main functions of human circulatory system;
♻ identify and discuss the main diseases and effects of human circulatory
system.
🔄 How digested foods and the air we breathe are distributed in the body?
The circulatory system is the system that transports materials around the body
from cell to cell. Different materials such as nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones
etc are transported from one part of the body to another.
UNIT FOUR :
Figure 4.7 (A) Organs of circulatory system (B) The path of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
4.6.1. Components of Circulatory System
Activity 4.18
Discuss the questions given below in group and present

your responses to the class.
1. Observe, discuss and record various parts of circulatory system above.
2. Which chamber of the heart has thicker wall than the others?
3. What is the name of the artery that can carry deoxygenated blood?
The components of circulatory system are blood, blood vessels and heart.
112 Circulatory System

Grade 8
I. Blood
Blood is a viscous (thick) fluid that varies in color from bright to dark red,
depending on how much oxygen it is carrying. The blood is composed of
55% liquid (plasma) and 45% cells. Blood Plasma contains 90% of water and
10% of proteins and nutrients such as glucose, Amino acids, fatty acids and
mineral salts like chloride, carbonate, phosphate salts of sodium, potassium,
and magnesium.
The Formed Elements (Blood Cells): there are three types of blood cells
i. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) are tiny disk-shaped bodies with a central
area that is thinner than the edges. They are many in number and
small in size. Their sizes in average from 4.5 to 5 million per cubic
millimeter of blood and their mature form do not have a nucleus.
ii. White blood cells (Leukocytes) are very different from the red blood
cells (erythrocytes) in appearance, quantity, and function. They
contain nuclei of varying shapes and sizes; the cells themselves are
round. White blood cells are outnumbered by red cells by 700 to
1, numbering 5,000 to 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood. White
blood cells tend to be colorless and small in number as well as large
in size.
iii. Platelets (Thrombocytes) are the smallest, tiny structures fragments of cells.
The number of platelets in the circulating blood has been estimated
at 200,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimeter.
II. Blood Vessels

The three types of blood vessels in the body are arteries, veins and capillaries.
i. Arteries are the blood vessels which have thick muscular wall. The largest
artery is called aorta which start from heart.
ii. Veins are blood vessels which have thin walls. They have valves to prevent
the back flow of blood. The largest vein which enters into the heart
is vena cava.
UNIT FOUR :
iii. Capillaries are small, very thin walled vessels. They are the smallest and lie
between the cells of every body organs.
III. The heart
Heart is a muscular organ found in the chest cavity between the two lungs.
The human heart is a hollow structure divided into four chambers. The two
upper chambers are called auricles or atria (atrium-singular). The other two
lower chambers are called ventricles. The left side of the heart is completely
separated from the right side by the wall called septum.
🔄 How does our heart works?

The right auricle receives deoxygenated blood from different part of the body
through vena cava. The right auricle contracts and forces blood in to the right
ventricle through the tricuspid valves. Contraction of the right ventricle sends
blood to the lung through pulmonary artery. A blood with more oxygen from
the lungs travels into the left auricle through pulmonary veins. As the left
auricle contracts, blood is forced (pumped) into the left ventricle through the
bicuspid valves. A powerful contraction of left ventricle (more thick walled)
forces (pumps) blood into the largest artery called aorta. Aorta pushes the blood
to different body parts. The valves in the heart pass forward and control back
flow of the blood.
Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary circulation (lungs) →

Left atrium → Left ventricle → Systemic circulation (body) → Right
atrium.
The two major circulations (circuits) in human are:
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation in which the blood travels from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart again.
Systemic circulation is the circulation in which the blood travels from the
heart to all other parts of the body and back to the heart again.

Grade 8
4.6.2. Functions of Circulatory System
Activity 4.19
Discuss activity in group and present your responses to the

class.
1. What is the role of heart and blood in blood circulation?
2. Explain types of blood cells?
3. Observe a diagram/chart of human blood circulation and reason out why
the blood flows in two circuit.
The functions of circulatory system are transportation, regulation and

protection.
i. Transportation: blood transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells and to

carry CO2, urea and other wastes away from the cells. Blood carries
hormones from their sites of origin to the organs they affect.
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart except

pulmonary artery.
• Veins carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart except pulmonary

vein.
• Capillaries diffuse gases and nutrients from the blood to the cells of
the body.
ii. Regulation: blood serves to maintain the proper osmotic pressure and
aiding in the regulation of body temperature by transporting heat.
iii. Protection: blood carries the cells that defend the body against pathogens.
UNIT FOUR :
4.6.3. Major Diseases of Circulatory System
Activity 4.20
Discuss the activity in group and present your responses to

the class.
List and explain some circulatory system diseases and their effects
The major diseases of circulatory system are hypertension, heart attack, heart
failure, Atherosclerosis and stroke.
Hypertension (High blood pressure): Sustained elevated blood pressure

above normal limits is called hypertension. Caused by obesity, diabetes
mellitus, family history, smoking, a sedentary life style, high intake of salts,
alcohol, stress and deposition of low density lipoprotein (LDL) on artery walls.
Its effects are kidney damage, adrenal gland disorders, heart attack, stroke,
damaged blood vessels.
Heart attack leads damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue due to lack of
adequate oxygen and nutrients.
Heart failure refers to the heart not pumping enough blood to the body.
Stroke is blockage due to atherosclerosis/rupture of arteries supplying blood

to the brain may cause the death of nervous tissue due to lack of oxygen and
nutrients.

Grade 8
Exercise 4.6
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Which of the following is the largest artery in the human body?
A. Aorta C. Hepatic artery
B. Pulmonary artery D. Renal artery
2. Which structure of circulatory system contains oxygenated blood?

A. Right ventricle C. Left Ventricle
B. B. Pulmonary artery D. Veins
3. Which structures carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the

lungs?
A. Aorta C. Veins
B. Arteries D. Capillaries
4. Which of the following chamber of the heart has the thickest walls?
A. Right atrium C. Right ventricle
B. Left atrium D. Left ventricle
5. Which of the following mechanisms is the main role of the platelets

in your blood?
A. The carriage of carbon dioxide
B. The carriage of oxygen
C. The clotting mechanism
D. Production of antibodies against invasion
UNIT FOUR :
4.7. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

♻ distinguish the major structural components of human reproductive
system;
♻ distinguish between the primary and secondary sexual characteristics;
♻ describe the main functions of human reproductive system;
♻ identify secondary sexual characteristics of males and females;
♻ explain the concept of menstruation and menstrual cycle; and
♻ discuss the main diseases associated with human reproductive system.
🔄 What is reproduction?
Reproduction is the production of one or more offsprings by the existing
organisms. It is one of the fundamental properties of life.
4.7.1. Structural Components of Reproductive

System
Activity 4.21
Perform the activity in group and present your

discussionto the class.
1. Discuss the importance of reproduction in humans and in other organisms
2. Look at models and discuss and label the parts of male and female
reproductive organs.
🔄 Can you mention the male reproductive organs?

The male reproductive system (figure 4.8) consists of the testes and other sex
organs like penis, scrotum, vas deferens, urethra, prostate glands, and Cowper’s
glands.
118 Reproductive System

Grade 8
Figure 4.8 The male reproductive system
Testes are seminiferous tubules lined with germinal epithelium cells. Penis is an
erectile cylindrical organ made up of spongy tissue and blood vessels. Scrotum
is a sac-like structure hanging on the lower end of the penis. Epididymis and
Vas deferens (sperm ducts) are coiled and a long tube respectively.
Prostate glands are small glands at the base of the urinary bladder. Cowper’s
gland is very small gland below the prostate. Seminal vesicles are two small
pouches behind the bladder. Urethra is a tube inside the penis to discharge
semen and urine. Sperm is a mass of male reproductive cells produced by the
testis. Semen is a mixture of sperm cells and a watery secretion of prostate
glands and seminal vesicles.
🔄 Can you list the female reproductive organs?

The female reproductive system (Figure 4.9) consists of ovary and other
structures such as vagina, uterus, fallopian tube, cervix, clitoris, and vulva.
UNIT FOUR :
Figure 4.9 The female reproductive system
Ovaries are two female reproductive glands made up of Graafian follicle.

Fallopian tube (oviduct) is a narrow tube from the ovary to uterus. Uterus is
wide muscular tube for implantation of the fertilized egg and development of
an embryo.
Vagina is a muscular tube opening into the vulva and enclosed by lip- like sheet
of double muscle such as labia majora (outer) and labia minora (inner). Cervix
is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus and it opens at the time of
menstruation and child birth. Clitoris is small protruding fleshy, erectile and
sensitive tissue like a penis. Urethra is a tube which conducts urine from the
bladder to the exterior.

Grade 8
4.7.2. Functions of Reproductive System
Activity 4.22

the class.
Explain the roles of each reproductive organ in the reproduction process.
The roles of the human male and female reproductive structures are as follows.
Testes produce sperm cells and sex hormone, (testosterone) while ovaries
produce egg cells and sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) at puberty to
maintain secondary sexual characteristics. Penis is to transfer male gametes in
to female sexual organ and for urination. Scrotum ventilates the testes to lower
temperature for maturation of sperm cells. Epididymis stores temporary sperm
cells for maturation. Vas deferens used for transportation of sperm cells mixed
with a fluid.
Glands produce lubricating substances and alkaline fluid released during

ejaculation to mobilize sperm cells and neutralize the acids and urine in the
vagina. Seminal vesicles secrete mucous and alkaline fluid containing fructose
sugar. Urethra used to discharge semen and vaginal secretion during sexual
intercourse.
Fallopian tube is site for fertilization and moves ova. Sperm and egg cells are
important for the fertilization. Uterus is used for implantation of fertilized egg
and development of an embryo. Vagina is used for intercourse and acts as birth
canal.
UNIT FOUR :
Activity 4.23

the class
1. Compare the primary and secondary sexual characteristics of both sexes.
2. Explain menstrual cycle and examine the major events during menstrual
cycle.
🔄 What are primary sexual characteristics?

Primary sexual characteristics are characteristics born with sex already
determined. The male individuals are born with the penis, testes, and scrotum.
Similarly, the females are borne with vagina, ovaries and uterus. These are the
body reproductive structures that distinguish one sex from the other, (males
from females).
🔄 What are the secondary sexual characteristics?

Secondary sexual characteristics occur at puberty or adolescence and displayed
on the average, at the age of 10-15. The secondary sexual characteristics display
distinct changes in males and females. These changes are brought about by sex
hormones produced by matured reproductive organs.
Table 4.2 Secondary sexual characteristics of males and females
In Males In Females
✅ Deepening of voices ✅ Enlargement of breast

✅ Fast body growth ✅ Fast body growth
✅ Broadening and widening of ✅ Widening of hips
✅ chest and shoulder
Growing pubic hair (in armpits ✅ Growing pubic hair (in armpits
and groin) and groin)
✅ Enlargement of genital organs ✅ Enlargement of genital organs

Grade 8
✅ Production of sperm cells and ✅ Production of egg cells and sex

sex hormones hormones
✅ Nocturnal emission of sperm ✅ Menstruation
✅ cells
Development of desire to the ✅ Development of desire to the
opposite sex opposite sex
🔄 What is menstrual cycle?

Menstrual cycle is a monthly cyclic change that normally takes place in a
woman reproductive system. The cycle occurs normally unless the woman
gets pregnant or reaches the stage of menopause (45-50 years of age). It takes
place from the time of puberty to menopause. Generally this cycle involves
the two processes, ovulation and menstruation. Ovulation is the process of
releasing ova every month from ovaries of the female after 14 days of the last
menstruation. Menstruation is the out flow of blood through the vagina. The
average length of the menstrual cycle is about 28 days.
Menstrual characteristics: In many women, various symptoms are shown

by the combined effect of hormones and the contraction of uterus after
menstruation. These include menstrual pain, abdominal pain, emotional
sensitivity, nausea, etc.
4.7.3. Major Diseases of Reproductive System
Activity 4.24
Discuss the activity in group and present your responses.

Explain major reproductive system diseases and their effects.
🔄 What are Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)?

Sexually transmitted diseases are diseases due to adultery and prostitution (by
UNIT FOUR :
having a number of sexual partners). These diseases can be gonorrhea, syphilis,

chancroids, HIV/AIDS, etc (see table 4.3).
Table 4.3 Common sexually transmitted infections
Disease and
Symptoms
causative agent
Men: inflammation and discharge from the penis pain while

Gonorrhea: Caused
urinating.
by the bacterium called
Nisseria gonorrhea.
Women: inflammation of the vagina and urethritis may be
present without noticeable symptoms.
First stage: appearance of a chancrae

Syphilis: caused
Second stage: appearance of a rash all over the body
by the Treponema
palladium bacteria
Latent stage: asymptomatic or noninfectious stage
Tertiary stage: affects the heart, eyes, brain, nervous system,
bones and joints.
Chancroid: Caused
Symptoms are similar to those of syphilis
by bacterial
AIDS: caused by HIV
Damage of the immune system
Virus

Grade 8
Exercise 4.7
Choose the correct answer for each of the following

questions.
1. Which of the following is not included in primary sexual characteristics
of males?
A. Testes C. Penis
B. Scrotum D. Sperm cells
2. Secondary sexual characteristics of females do not include the presence

of:
A. breast enlargement C. ovum production
B. voice deepening D. pubic hair
3. Which parts of the male and female reproductive system are equivalent?
A. Testes and ovaries C. Vas deferens and uterus
B. Penis and cervix D. Urethra and clitoris
4. Which parts of reproductive structure are concerned with sex cells’

transport?
A. Vagina and epididymis
B. Uterus and urethra
C. Fallopian tube and vas deferens
D. All of the above
5. Which of the following processes are involved in the menstrual cycle?

A. Ovulation C. Ejaculation
B. Menstruation D. A and B
UNIT FOUR :
🔒 🔑🔑 Blood
KEY TERMS
🔑🔑 Muscular system
🔑🔑 Blood Vessels
Circulatory system
🔑🔑
Primary sexual
characteristics
🔑 Digestive system
Female Reproductive
🔑
Reproductive system
Respiratory system
🔑🔑 System
Functions
Integumentary 🔑🔑
Secondary sexual
characteristics
Skeletal system
🔑🔑 system
Major diseases
Male Reproductive
🔑 Skin
The Heart
system
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Integumentary system is a system that covers and protects the entire human
body. It consists of the skin and its accessory organs. The integumentary
system are used for excretion, body temperature regulation, sensations
and vitamin D synthesis by secreting substances and protection against
physical, chemical and biological barrier against skin infection or
invasion.
ʯ Muscular system is a system that allows movement of a body or fluids such
as blood via a blood vessel. The muscular system is used for movement
of the body, pump blood, breathe, produce body heat, and regulate body
temperature, maintain posture, environmental change responses and
protect internal organs.
ʯ Skeletal system is also the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints
of human body. The major roles of skeletal systems of the human body
are movement of body, protection of vital organs, production of new
blood cells, supports the body and gives us our distinctive shape.
ʯ The digestive system is a group of organs that break down food into smaller

Grade 8
components so that nutrients can be absorbed and assimilated, providing

energy to sustain the body. Human digestive system consists of alimentary
canal and associated glands.
ʯ Respiration is a system that plays a role in the breathing in of fresh air and
breathing out of waste air. The organs of respiratory system are used to
filter dust, bacteria and other particles from the air using the mucus and
hairs.
ʯ The circulatory system is the system that transports materials such as
nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones etc around the body from cell to
cell. The components of circulatory system are blood, blood vessels and
heart. The circulatory system is used for transportation, regulation and
protection. The major diseases of circulatory system are hypertension,
heart attack, heart failure, Atherosclerosis and stroke.
ʯ Reproduction is the production of one or more offsprings by the existing
organisms. Menstrual cycle is a monthly cyclic change that normally
takes place in a woman reproductive system.
UNIT FOUR :
REVIEW EXERCISE
Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and false if
statement is incorrect
1. Number of bones in adult greater than the number of bones in child.
2. Our nose is important for warming and humidifying the air.
3. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton.
4. The volume of chest cavity increase during expiration or exhalation.
5. Fertilization mostly occurs if there is sexual intercourse during menstruation.
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given

alternatives
1. Which layer contains accessory structures such as sweat glands and
sebaceous glands?
A. Epidermis C. Dermis
B. Hypodermis D. Hyperdermis
2. Which one of the following is not true?

A. Skeletal muscles move skeletal bones
B. Smooth muscles are found in blood.
C. Cardiac muscles work life long
D. Muscles work antagonistically.
3. The hind limb consists of:

A. Tibia C. Femur
B. Metatarsals D. All
4. What would happen if you were to bend your arm at the elbow?
A. The biceps contracts C. The triceps relaxes
B. The biceps bulges D. All of the above
5. Which of the following valves of the heart controls back flow of the blood
from right ventricle?
A. Bicuspide valve C. Semilunary valve
B. Tricuspide valve D. Aortic valve

Grade 8
6. Which of the following digestive enzymes work efficiently in acidic media?

A. Amylase C. Pepsin
B. Lipase D. Maltase
7. What is the name of the structure that prevents food from entering the
trachea?
A. Glottis C. Septum
B. Epiglottis D. Adam’s apple
8. As penis is an erectile tissue in males, is erectile in females.
A. Uterus C. Clitoris
B. Cervix D. Oviduct
9. One of the following is true concerning secondary sexual characteristics?
A. Appear during childhood
B. Begin at puberty age
C. Similar in males and females
D. Begin at old age
10. Menstrual cycle occurs during;

A. Menopause C. Old age
B. Pregnancy D. Puberty
11. Which of the following circulatory system diseases is caused by obesity,

diabetes?
A. Hypertension C. Atherosclerosis
B. Heart attack D. Stroke
Part III: Match the digestive enzymes in column B with

their roles in column A
Column A Column B
UNIT FOUR :
1. Conversion of starch in to maltose A. Pepsin

2. Conversion of protein into peptone B. Maltase
3. Conversion of fat droplets into fatty acids C. Salivary amylase
D. Intestinal lipase
4. Conversion of disaccharides in to E. Nuclease
monosaccharide Nucleosidase
5. Conversion of peptones in to peptides F. Trypsin/
6. Conversion of DNA and RNA in to bases Chemotrypsin
Part IV: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate terms

1. The human skeleton is divided into _______________ and
________________ skeleton.
2. A junction between two or more bones, bone and cartilage is called
______________________.
3. The structure which increases surface area for gas exchange is known as
__________________.
Part V: Give short answer for the following questions

1. Define the term integumentary system.
2. Explain how the chemical digestion takes place in the stomach.
3. What is the difference between pulmonary and systematic blood
circulation?
4. Differentiate between primary and secondary sexual characteristics.

Grade 8
UNIT FIVE
5. ECOSYSTEM AND
CONSERVATION OF
NATURAL RESOURCE
Learning Outcomes
♻ define ecosystem and components of ecosystem;
♻ describe the types of biological interactions of organisms in an
ecosystem;
♻ construct simple food chain and explain its components;
♻ differentiate between food chain and food web;
♻ distinguish between the different components of food chain;
♻ describe the role of nutrient recycling in nature;
♻ explain how energy flows from producers to consumers;
♻ explain why nutrients are said to recycle while energy flows(does not
recycle);
♻ summarize the characteristics of soil;
♻ describe the various types of soils;
♻ explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being;
♻ list down and describe the various soil conservation strategies;
♻ engage in the Environment Club of School and participate in
awareness creation campaigns;
♻ list down and describe the various water conservation strategies;
UNIT FIVE:ECOSYSTEM AND CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE 131
♻ describe the various components of atmospheric air;

♻ discuss the various human activities that cause air pollution;
♻ discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples;
♻ explain the various uses of air in nature and to human being;
♻ explain the cause and impacts of global warming;
♻ list down the various actions that can be taken to reduce the emission
of carbon dioxide to atmosphere;
♻ define forest and give examples of natural forests in Ethiopia;
♻ explain the various uses of forest in nature and to human being;
♻ discuss the various human activities that cause deforestation;
♻ devise and coordinate various forest conservation actions;
♻ organize groups that would campaign to teach the community on
environmental protection;
♻ organize plantation campaigns in their school compound and its
environs
♻ describe the values of biodiversity;
♻ list down the various in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies in
biodiversity conservation; and
♻ give examples of the various indigenous knowledge and practices that
are used in the conservation of various natural resources such as soil,
forest, etc.
Main Contents
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions
5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources
Introduction
In previous grade levels you have studied about natural environment. In this unit you will
learn ecosystem and its components, the types of biological interactions of organisms,
food chain and its components, food web, nutrient recycling in nature and energy flows
from producers to consumers in an ecosystem. The units also deals with the uses and
conservation strategies of natural resources; and discover indigenous knowledge and
practices that are applied in the conservation of natural resources in your locality.
Grade 8
5.1. ECOSYSTEM AND INTERACTIONS

At the end of this topic learners will be able to:
♻ define ecosystem and components of ecosystem;
♻ identify and describe the types of biological interactions of organisms in
an ecosystem;
♻ construct simple food chain and explain its components;
♻ differentiate between food chain and food web;
♻ distinguish between the different components of food chain;
♻ describe the role of nutrient recycling in nature;
♻ explain how energy flows from producers to consumers; and
♻ explain why nutrients are said to recycle while energy flows (does not
recycle)
5.1.1. Definition and Components of ecosystem

(biological and physical)
🔄 What is ecosystem? Can you list things included in the ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a given area where biotic factors interact with abiotic factors.
The biotic factors refer to all living things (plants, animals and microorganisms).
Abiotic factors refer to all non-living things (climatic and soil factors). In any
ecosystem, biotic factors interact with abiotic factors, biotic factors interact
with each other and abiotic factors interact with each other (See Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: Communities of organisms (domestic animals and human)

Activity 5.1
Perform this activity in group and present your responses

to the class.
1. Observe the chart provided by your teacher, discuss and reflect how you
understand an ecosystem.
2. Categorize the components of ecosystem as biological and physical.
The components of an ecosystem are biological and physical.
1. Biological (Biotic) Components

Biotic components are the living components, i.e., the community together
with their interactions and processes.
🔄 What are the different components in a community?

The biotic components of the ecosystem include the producers (autotrophs)
and the consumers (heterotrophs).
I. Producers (Autotrophs)
The autotrophs are self feeder organisms, which can manufacture organic
compounds (food) from simple inorganic compounds. Autotrophs include
chemo-autotrophs and photo-autotrophs.
i. Photo-autotrophs are photosynthetic organisms which utilize light energy

from the sun to produce organic compounds. Photo-autotrophs can be
photosynthetic plants, algae and protests.
ii. Chemo-autotrophs are chemosynthetic bacteria which make their food

using the energy from oxidations of simple inorganic compounds. The
amount of organic compounds produced by chemo-autotrophs is very
small.
134 Ecosystem and Interactions

Grade 8
II. Consumers (Heterotrophs)

These are organisms that cannot prepare their own food. The heterotrophs
depend on autorophs directly or indirectly. The heterotrophs can generally be
categorized as macro-consumers and micro-consumers.
(a) Macro-consumers are animals which ingest solid particles and digest
it within their body. Macro consumers can further be divided into
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and scavengers.
i. Herbivores include plant-eating animals that feed on leaves, fruits,
seeds and other plant parts. Animals which feed on grasses are
known as grazers (e.g. cow, sheep, zebra, and etc) others which feed
on bushes, shoots and different parts of trees are known as browsers.
Examples; camel, giraffe, goat, etc)
ii. Carnivores are flesh- eating animals that feed on herbivores or other
carnivores. Examples; hyenas, lion, eagle, etc.
iii. Omnivores are animals that feed on both plants and other animals.
Example; humans.
iv. Scavengers are animals that feed on the remains of animals’ leftover
by a carnivore or on the dead body of any animal without killing it
Examples; crabs, vultures, jackals, etc.
(b) Micro consumers are heterotrophs, which do not ingest solid food,
but they feed on partially or fully digested food. Decomposers are
micro-consumers, which decompose dead tissues of plants and
animals. They absorb some of the decomposed products to obtain
their food. These include many saprophytic fungi and bacteria that
obtain their energy by breaking down dead organism.
1. Physical (Abiotic) Components

The abiotic components influence the kind and numbers of organisms found
in the environment. The change in the physical and chemical environment
of organisms changes or affects the abundance and distribution of organisms
living in that area. Abiotic factors in an ecosystem can generally be categorized
as: climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic factors.
i. Climatic factors include light, temperature, rainfall, (or humidity)

and availability of wind.
ii. Edaphic factors include soil texture, soil fertility, soil moisture and
soil pH. The physical structures of the soil fertility, soil moisture and
soil pH are important abiotic factors limiting the distribution of
plants and in turn of animals.
iii. Topographic factors are physiographic factors related to slope of

land and altitude. Altitude refers to vertical height above sea level.
Air pressure, oxygen levels and temperature decrease as altitude
increases.
5.1.2. Types of biological interactions
Activity 5.2
Perform this activity in group and present your discussions

to the class.
Identify and describe the types of biological interactions of organisms in an
ecosystem.
🔄 What are biological associations?

All living organisms are directly or indirectly related for survival. The general
biological term of living together in a close association of two or more organisms
of different species is called symbiosis. Sometimes a symbiotic relationship
benefits both species, sometimes one species benefits at the other’s expense,
and in other cases neither species benefit. Some of these biological associations
are described as mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, competition and
parasitism.

Grade 8
🔄 What is mutualism?
Mutualism is a form of symbiotic relationship where two organisms mutually
benefit from each other.
Examples:
✅ The Egyptian Plover bird and the crocodile have a mutual relationship.
✅ Mutual relationship between insects (Bees) and flowers
✅ Growing Lichens (association between algae and fungi) on a bark of a
tree.
Figure 5.2: A. Bird and Crocodile B. Bees and flowers C. algae and
fungi
🔄 What is commensalism?
Commensalism is a form of symbiotic relationship between organisms of
different species in which one organism benefits but the other neither benefits
nor is harmed.
Example 1: Some birds use trees for nesting sites. The birds obtain shelter
and protection while the trees get nothing and not harmed.
Example 2: White, small insect feeding birds (Ergets) concentrate their

feeding by going with the herds of grazing cattle. When the herds of
cattle graze and move, insects dwelling under the grass start to jump
and are easily catched by ergets. The cattle are neither benefited nor
affected by the ergets and only ergets get benefit (figure 5.3A).
Example 3: The remora fish which attaches itself to the underside of

a shark and travels with it, the remora fish takes advantage of
protection from other predators by attaching its self to the shark

(figure 5.3.B).
Figure 5.3: (A) Birds following cattle (B) Shark and remora fish
🔄 What is Ammensalism?
Ammensalism is interspecies interaction in which one inhibits the growth or
even causes the death of the other organism but the former remains unaffected.
In this interaction, none of them derives any benefits, but only one gets harmed.
Example 1: Species of fungi (penicillin) produce antibiotic, penicillin

that inhibits the growth of bacteria.
Example 2: Eucalyptus tree produces a certain chemical that inhibits the

growth of other nearby plants.
🔄 For what reason organisms compete with one another?

Competition is defined as the active demand by more than one organism for
a resource that is in limited supply. Naturally, resources of any sort are found
in limited supply, and hence organisms must compete for them. For example,
plants compete for space, light, minerals and water; animals compete for food,
shelter and mate. Therefore, most of the time, competition cannot occur when
the resource is adequate and the competitor organisms are too small in number.
🔄 What is parasitism?
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species
in which one organism benefits (the parasite) while the other is harmed (the
host). In such relationship the host is the victim of the relationship by providing
food and shelter to the parasite. Parasites living inside the host are endoparasite

Grade 8
For example: ascaris, tapeworm, amoeba, hookworm etc are endoparasites.

Whereas those living on external body of the host are ectoparasites. For
example: fleas, bugs, ticks etc. (See Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: (A) Hookworm (B) Tapeworm (C) Tick
5.1.3. Trophic (feeding) relationships
🔄 What is a food chain?

Food chains are single linear feeding relationships which shows who eats whom
in succeeding trophic levels. A food chain is a simplified food relationship
showing food transfer from green plants to the different organisms. A food
chain always begins with a producer, or an organism that makes its own food
through photosynthesis, and consists of organisms that feed on the other.
Terrestrial food chain:
Grass → Grasshopper → Lizard → Eagle
Aquatic food chain:
Phytoplankton →Zooplankton →Fishes → Sharks

Figure 5.5: Food Chain in (A) terrestrial habitat (B) aquatic

habitat
Activity 5.3.

to the class.
1. Identify the major components of food chain.
2. Construct simple food chain and explain its components.
🔄 What are the components of food chain?

i. Producers (Autotrophs): The autotrophs are self feeder organisms, which
can manufacture organic compounds (food) from simple inorganic
compounds.
ii. Consumers (Heterotrophs): These are organisms that cannot prepare their
own food. The heterotrophs depend on autorophs directly or indirectly.
Consumers mainly divided into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and
scavengers.
iii. Decomposers: are micro-consumers, which decompose dead tissues of

plants and animals to obtain their food. These include many saprophytic
fungi and bacteria that obtain their energy by breaking down dead
organism.

Grade 8
🔄 What is food web?

Food webs are complex feeding relationships made of many interconnected food
chains that show actual food transfer in nature from producers to consumers.
The actual feeding relationship occurring in natural ecosystems is food web. A
food web may begin with grass (producers), which would be eaten by insects,
mice or rabbits, which would be eaten by different predators. More species are
included in a food web, which uses a series of arrows to describe relationships.
Figure 5.6: Food web in (A) Terrestrial habitat (B) Acquatic habitat
Trophic Pyramids
Activity 5.4
Discuss the activity in group of five and present your

response to the class.
Why the number of organisms in each group (level) decreases from bottom
to top?

Figure 5.7: Trophic Pyramids
🔄 What are trophic levels?

Trophic level is the feeding level of an organism in a food chain. Each stage of
a food chain is called a trophic level. The producers occupy the lowest (first)
trophic level of any ecosystem. At the second trophic level are herbivores.
They are primary consumers. The third trophic level constitutes animals that
eat herbivores, called carnivores, and are secondary consumers. Some food
chains may contain a four trophic level composed of carnivores and are called
tertiary consumers or top carnivores.
5.1.4. Nutrient cycles and energy flow
🔄 What are nutrient recycling and its roles?

All the chemicals in living things circulate between the living and non-living
components of the ecosystem. The nutrients are continuously transferred from
the environment to the organisms, and then back to the environment. This
exchange of materials has a biological and a geological component. Therefore,
nutrient recycling is named as biogeochemical cycle. The earth does not receive
a continuous supply of elements from space unlike energy. These nutrients are
neither produced nor used up but are passed around from one organism to
another in these biogeochemical cycles.
Grade 8
Check point 5.1

1. Explain how nutrients such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen contained in food materials eventually return into the
environment.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Activity 5.5

to the class.
1. How trophic relationships help energy flow in an ecosystem?
2. Reason out why energy is said to flow but not cycles in nature.
Solar energy is the energy for life on Earth which gives light and warms or
heats the atmosphere. All organisms need energy for movement, for active
transport of nutrients, for synthesis of molecules and for growth and repair.
Producers obtain their energy from the sun through photosynthesis and energy
passes from producers to consumers within complex organic compounds. This
means that while organisms feed one another they get the energy in the food
being consumed. The energy flowing through ecosystems initially comes from
the sun. Then it passes from one trophic level to the next and will be lost to the
environment in the form of heat. Therefore, energy flows through food chains
and food webs in a continuous and one-directional manner. In other words
energy cannot be recycled while materials do. The way in which energy flows
through ecosystems is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 5.8: Pattern of energy flow in an ecosystem
Exercise 5.1
Part I: write true if the statement is correct and false if

the statement is incorrect
1. The biotic factors refer to all non-living things of the ecosystem.
2. Plants form the base of the pyramid by producing food for consumers.
3. Herbivores are the secondary consumers in the feeding relationship.
4. Food web is more complex type of food relationship than food chain.
5. The flow of energy increases as we go from producers to the
consumers.
Part II: Choose the correct answer for each of the

following questions
1. An ecosystem is a given area where:
A. only biotic community exists and interact
B. both biotic community and abiotic factors exist and interact
C. only abiotic factors exist and interact
D. all of the above

Grade 8
2. Abiotic factors are:

A. living organisms in an ecosystem
B. soil and water of an ecosystem
C. all non-living factors that surround the living things in an
ecosystem
D. the climate of an ecosystem
3. One of the following is not an example of terrestrial ecosystem?

A. Tree C. Lake
B. Forest D. Grassland
4. Parasitism is an association where:

A. both benefits
B. both are harmed
C. neither benefits nor is harmed
D. one benefits while the other is harmed
5. Which of the following consumers is characterized by eating only

meat?
A. Carnivores C. Omnivores
B. Producers D. Herbivores
Part III: Give short answer

1. Define the term ecosystem.
2. Write the differences between food chain and food web.

5.2. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL

RESOURCES
♻ summarize the characteristics of soil;
♻ describe the various types of soils;
♻ describe the various soil conservation strategies; and
♻ engage in the Environment Club of School and participate in awareness
creation campaigns.
5.2.1. Soil
🔄 Can you list some of the natural resources?

Soil is an important abiotic (physical) factor of the ecosystem. Soil is the basis
for the sustenance of life. Soil consists of a matrix of tiny particles of rock
which result from the erosion and weathering of rocks. Soil contains air, water,
organic materials and mineral salts that accumulated over time. These together
provide a habitat for plants and small animals.
🔄 How soil is formed? What are the contributing factors of soil formation?
The formation of soil takes place over a very long period of time. It can take
several years before it becomes a soil. Soil is formed from the weathering
of rocks and minerals (see Figure 5.9B). The surface rocks break down into
smaller pieces through a process of weathering and are then mixed with moss
and organic matter. Over time this creates a thin layer of soil.
Soil is formed as a result of the interaction of the following five factors; parent
materials, climate, organisms, relief (topography), and time (See Figure 5.9A).
146 Conservation of Natural Resources

Grade 8
(B)
Figure 5.9: Factors affecting formation of soil
🔄 What are the processes in soil formation?

Soil formation process is a complex process and does not merely consist of
random collection of particles. This complex system requires various processes
such as weathering, decomposition and humification.

Activity 5.6

to the class.
Your teacher will provide you the samples of various types of soil (clay,
sandy and loam soils) in plastic bags.
Observe the soil samples and record your differences in color, granule or
particle size, etc. Name the soil samples as you might know them locally.
There are three basic types of soil: Loam (silt), sand and clay.
i. Clay soil is very fine particle which is less than 0.002 mm in diameter.
It is difficult for cultivation during the
rainy season due to its sticky nature of
holding highest water capacity. Clay soil
would be good for making pottery. Its
water retention capacity is valuable in a
dry season and it is rich in nutrients.
Figure 5.10 Clay Soil
ii. Sandy soil is light and dry soil and its particle size is between 0.002 mm and
2.00mm in diameter. It contains less than 10 percent of clay and consists
of very small particles of silica and quartz. The amount of humus present
will alter the colour and the texture. Comparatively, it is easy to cultivate
but poor in plant nutrients, coarse grained and does not retain moisture.

Grade 8
Figure 5.11 Sandy Soil
iii. Loam soil is an ideal blend of sand and clay soil. It is considered as the
best soil for large number of plants because it is formed from dead and
decayed bodies of organisms called humus. The ideal loam has all the
advantages of sandy and clay soils. The sand property allows the plant
roots to work easily throughout it; the clay present helps to look after the
plant nutrients, and prevents rapid drying out.
In wet weather the water can percolate

through quite quickly, and so the soil
does not become water logged and in
dry weather it does not become too
hard for the roots to work through.
Figure 5.12: Loam soil

Experiment 5.1
Title: Water retention capacity of soil
Objective: to determine the status of water holding capacity of clay, loam

and sand soils.
Materials: soil samples, beaker (250 ml), measuring cylinder, funnel,

filter paper, water, spoon, stirrer, mortar, pistil and watch.
Procedure:
1. Collect clay, loam and sand soils from your locality (school compound).
2. Take three measuring cylinders and label them as clay, loam and sandy
soil.
3. Take three funnels and place them in each measuring cylinder. Then put
filter paper in each funnels.
4. Add equal amount (100gm) of each soil in funnels placed in measuring
cylinder.
5. Take 200ml of water in the beaker and pour it slowly over each soil
samples. As the soil gets wet, the water trickles down in to the measuring
cylinder.
6. Measure the water collected in the measuring cylinder after 3 minutes.
Observation and Analysis

(a) Which soil sample passes water quickly through it and which one
tends to hold more water? Which soil sample tends to have an
intermediate capacity of holding or retaining water?
(b) Which of the three soil samples you observed tends to be more
fertile i.e. contains nutrients important for plant growth, and
reason out why?
Write a laboratory report and present to class

Grade 8
Activity 5.7
Discuss the following questions in group and present your

1. Explain uses of soil in nature and to human being.
2. What are the factors that could lead to loss of soil fertility?
3. List down and describe the soil conservation strategies.
Soil is one of the important aspects of an ecosystem. Green plants that are the
source of food production take up minerals and water from the soil. A plant
that grows in a favorable soil texture brings much fruit or production. Clay soil
would be good for making pottery. Its water retention capacity is valuable in a
dry season and it is rich in nutrients.
🔄 What are the factors that could lead to loss of soil fertility?
Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it
may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The causes of
soil erosion can be grouped as natural and man-made. Natural factors for soil
erosion such as rainfall, wind and gravity are the main natural reasons for
soil erosion. Man-made factors such as inappropriate land use; deforestation,
overgrazing, faulty farming systems, high crop intensity, housing construction
and mining are some of the major cause of soil erosion.
Figure 5.13: Severe rill and gully erosion due to improper land use
🔄 What conservation measures could be taken to avoid the soil erosion?

Soil conservation is the wise and sustainable utilization of soils avoiding
factors, which lead to soil erosion, depletion and pollution. Soil conservation is
used to maintain good soil structure, protect the soil surface by adequate crop
and residue cover, and use special structural erosion control practices where
necessary.
Soil erosion can be reduced by several ways such as:
1. Plant and crop residue cover: materials left in an agricultural field or

orchard after the crop has been harvested.
2. Afforestation: Planting trees on a land which is affected by deforestation

(See Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14: Afforestation
3. Crop rotation: Land that is planted with the same crop year after year loses
its mineral value and its capacity to hold waters and the yield of the crop
is also reduced. This can be avoided by crop rotation.
4. Terracing: Making slopes into steps so that rain cannot run down
a hill carrying soil off. When building
terraces, it is important to stabilize the
slope. The easiest way to do this is to
plant grass. If there is enough rock
around it may be possible to construct a
wall out of them.
Figure 5.15: Terracing

Grade 8
5. Contour ploughing: Similar to terracing except that it follows the

contours of a hill more closely than terracing, possibly even
encircling a top hill. The contours are
not wide like terraces. It is more like
planting along the contours, so the
hill slope remains gentle or less steep.
Figure 5.16: Contour ploughing
Project Work
The objective of this project work is to encourage students to participate in
environmental protection club. Engage in the Environment Club of School and
participate to perform the following agricultural activity. Identify a suitable
plot of land in your school compound (a garden) and plant indigenous plants
and provide continuous care.
5.2.2. Water

♻ explain the various uses of water in nature and to human being;
and
♻ list down and describe the various water conservation strategies.
The surface of the earth comprises water and land. Of these, the water occupies
a much larger part than the land. The 75% of the Earth is water but the vast
majority of which is salty and not palatable for human consumption. A very
small quantity of water is available for drinking; yet it is enough for all living
things. The distribution of water on the Earth’s surface is extremely uneven.
Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh; the remaining 97% resides in the

ocean. Of freshwater, 69% resides in glaciers, 30% underground, and less than
1% is located in lakes, rivers, and swamps.
Figure 5.17: Distribution of water on the Earth’s surface

Grade 8
Activity 5.8

to the class.
1. List the uses of water for living things.
2. What human activities could cause pollution of water?
Water is an important abiotic factor in any ecosystem. It is a precondition for

existence of human, animal and plant life. Water also plays a fundamental role
in the climate regulation cycle and a country’s economic growth. Water that
lands or falls on high ground has potential energy and can be converted into
electric energy by a hydroelectric power. Productivity in agriculture is directly
related to the availability of water. Water is also essential for living organisms
to regulate body temperature, moisten tissues in the eyes, nose and mouth,
protect body organs and tissues, carry nutrients and oxygen to cells, lubricate
joints, lessens burden on kidneys and liver by flushing out waste products,
helps to dissolve minerals and nutrients in our body and produce food in plants
through photosynthesis.
🔄 What human activities could cause pollution of water?

Our water resources face a host of serious threats, all of which are caused
primarily by human activity. They include sedimentation, pollution, climate
change, deforestation, landscape changes, and urban growth. Humans are
the main cause of water pollution, which is triggered in many ways: by the
dumping of industrial waste; due to temperature rise, that cause the alteration
of water by reducing the oxygen in its composition; Or due to deforestation,
which causes sediments and bacteria to appear under the soil and therefore
contaminate ground water. In the same way, the pesticides used in agricultural
fields filter through underground channels and reach the consumption networks;
and also as a result of accidental spillage of soil.
🔄 What is water conservation?

The amount of water within any environment varies from season to season.
During rainy season there is enough or excess amount of water available and
provides moisture to the ground and also flows into streams or rivers and joins
into pools, lakes or seas. It is so important in an area where rainfall is scarce to
conserve water using various conservation methods (See Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18: A) Abay River B) The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance

Dam
Activity 5.9
Perform this activity in group and present your response

sto the class.
What conservation strategies could be used to counteract water pollution and
ensure sustainable use of water?
Some of the methods used on water conservation include:
1. Building dams and reservoirs on the rivers.

2. During the rainy season collecting as much of the rain as possible in
reservoirs and store ponds.
3. Eliminating leakage from the pipes used to transport water from
storage to the user.

Grade 8
4. As individuals, reducing ways in which water is wasted at home such

as leaking taps and leaving taps on unnecessarily.
5. In times of shortage eliminating unnecessary uses such as car washing
and garden watering.
Figure 5.19: Water reservoir a means for water conservation
Global water conservation day is celebrated on the 22nd March every year and
its aim is to create awareness for community about water conservation.
5.2.3. Air

♻ describe the various components of atmospheric air;
♻ identify and discuss the various human activities that cause air
pollution;
♻ explain the various uses of air in nature and to human being;
♻ explain the cause and impacts of global warming; and
♻ describe the various actions that can be taken to reduce the
emission of carbon dioxide to atmosphere.
🔄 Is the composition of atmospheric air is constant?

Air is a natural resource and available abundantly. The atmosphere is a huge
blanket of air that surrounds the earth. It provides us the air we breathe and
protects us from the harmful effects of the sun’s rays. Atmosphere consists of

mainly nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%)
and other gases like helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen (0.04%).
Activity 5.10
Discuss this activity in group and present your responses to the class.
1. Identify the uses of air for living things.
2. What human activities could cause pollution of air?
3. How tree plantation could help reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted
into the air, and thus reduce global warming?
Air is used to sustain life and growth, combustion, maintaining temperature,

supplier of energy and photosynthesis.
Air consists one of the main life sustaining gas called oxygen. Almost all
living things breathe in and breathe out this air. Air supports burning or
combustion. For example, oxygen present in air help in burning of the fuels.
Another important aspect of air is that it helps in maintaining the temperature
on the earth surface by circulating hot and cold air. Air acts as a conductor of
heat as well. Carbon dioxide which is a component of air is used by plants
during the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen is used in the production of
ammonia whereas hydrogen and other gases are also used routinely in science
and technology.
🔄 What are human activities that could cause air pollution?

Air pollutants produce different effects on the environment. Air pollution refers
to the release of pollutants (harmful gases) into the air through combustion of
fuels in vehicles, in big industries and incomplete combustion of fuels like
wood and coal. Humans increase the amount of carbon dioxide released to the
atmosphere when they burn fossil, solid wastes, and wood and wood products
to heat buildings, drive vehicles, and generate electricity.

Grade 8
The release of carbon dioxide (CO2) from various sources (such as fuel burning
from vehicles and factory smokes) can cause global warming. Global Warming
is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of
greenhouse gases such as CO2, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutant gases.
The consequences of global warming on the environment are worsening
and cause natural disasters, like storms, heat waves, floods, and droughts by
increasing rise of temperatures.
The release of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas from coal mining would lead
to acid rain. Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals.
Combustion of coal and petroleum releases sulphur dioxide (SO2) and fossil
fuels containing nitrogen componds (NO and NO2) form acid rain when they
react with rain water. Acidic rain washes away all nutrients which are required
for the growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way
how it alters the composition of the soil.
Health impacts of air pollution

Air pollution can harm the lives of animals and plants directly or indirectly.
Some air pollutants are responsible for acid rain, while others affect breathing,
cause coughing and irritation to the lungs. Air pollution is now the biggest
environmental risk for early death, responsible for more than 6 million premature
deaths each year from heart attack, strokes, diabetes and respiratory diseases.
🔄 Can you tell some methods used to reduce a global warming?

The tree plantation reduces the amount of CO2 emitted into the air and thus
reduces global warming through photosynthesis. Trees are especially good at
storing carbon removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis. Expanding,
restoring and managing forests to encourage more carbon uptake can leverage
the power of photosynthesis, converting CO2 in the air into carbon stored in
wood and soils.

🔄 What other measures could be used to reduce air pollution?

Methods of reducing air pollution are:
✅ avoid burning leaves, trash and other materials

✅ using less fossil fuels
✅ reduce fire wood (domestic fires) and smoking
✅ reduction of forest fires
✅ reducing car (vehicle) smoke emissions.
5.2.4. Forests

♻ define forest and give examples of natural forests in Ethiopia;
♻ explain the various uses of forest in nature and to human being;
♻ identify and discuss the various human activities that cause
deforestation;
♻ discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples; and
♻ list down and describe the various actions that can be taken to conserve
forests.
🔄 What are forests?

A forest is an association of plants in which trees are the most common
elements. The distribution of forest is mainly related to the climatic factors,
soil type and geological formation. If the climate of a region is favorable with
enough amounts of rainfall and if there is also a fertile soil, there will be well
distribution of forest resource on a particular area.
🔄 Can you mention the major forests found in Ethiopia with their
location?
Depending on the climatic variation, distinct forest types are recognizable over
the surface of the earth, our country’s forest resource can be classified as: the
high land forest and the low land forests.

Grade 8
i. The highland Forests

(a) The broad-leafed rain forests found in the administrative regions
of Western Ethiopia namely Kaffa, Illubabor and Wellega. They grow
well between 1500-1800m above sea level. The most common trees
are Coffee, Weira, Kerrero, Wanza and Tukur inchet.
(b) The podocarpus forests are found in isolated patches in parts of
Wellega, Bale, and Arsi plateau. The Zigba (Podocarpus gracilier)
is the main species, which grows at elevations above 1500 meters in
low temperature.
(c) The Juniper forests are temperate forests that grow above elevation
of 2000 meters mainly contains the species Juniperus procera
(Tid). They are usually found scattered in the southeast high lands,
the plateau of Showa and the North central high lands.
(d) Tundra (high mountain vegetation) is found above 3000m of
elevation. The most common species are the giant heather, red-hot
pokers and course and coarse grasses. It is found at Northern high
lands, Bale high lands, etc.
ii. Lowland Forests
(a) Gallery forests are found along the riverbanks that descend from
the Ethiopian plateaus toward the lowland. Examples of such forests
are found along the banks of the Awash, Wabishebelle and Ganale
River.
(b) Scrub lands consist of tropical woodlands and thorn bushes. They
are found on the Western and southern low lands, the upper rift
valley and the lower parts of the escarpment in places where the
rainfall is as high as 1000mm as in Shashemane area. In some cases
they form savanna vegetation as in around Gambella, Bamboo
forests are common in the western lowland.
(c) Desert vegetation is found in areas where desert and semi-
desert climatic conditions are experienced. The areas include the
northeastern part of the Barka low lands and Danakil region.

(d) Savanna (grass lands) occupies varied environments and accounts

for some 11.2% of the total area of Ethiopia. It is found at elevations
from as low as 250m to as high as 2,200m, and a mean annual rainfall
of from 250 to 875mm.
Activity 5.11
Discuss this activity in group and present your discussions

to the class.
Explain the roles of forests and their uses to human being.
Forests have great importance to human being:
✅ to keep balance of nature,

✅ as source of wood for pulp and paper,
✅ for construction purposes than any other natural elements,
✅ as source for some tree products such as saps, gums, resin, and certain
nuts,
✅ as a source of medicine,
✅ to control soil erosion,
✅ for moderating effect on the climate of the local environment,
✅ for recreation, aesthetics, and as habitat for diverse wild life.
🔄 What is deforestation? What are the problem of deforestation and its
impacts?
Deforestation is destruction of forests by natural and human factors.
Reforestation is planting seedlings to replace cut and burnt areas. Afforestation
is plant trees on land that was never covered by forest and the area which is
burned by fire.
The problems of deforestation are destruction of resources, soil erosion, and

heavy siltation of dams, heavy flood, destruction of wild life, changes in the

Grade 8
microclimate loss (destruction) of water cycle, desertification, environmental

pollution and destruction of the scenic beauty of the environment. This may
lead to food scarcity or shortage for living organisms.
Activity 5.12
Discuss this activity in group and present your responses

to the class.
1. Explain human activities causing deforestation.
2. What strategies can be implemented to counteract deforestation?
The human activities that cause deforestation are burning or cutting down forest
trees for fuel and construction, cultivation by man, settlement and furniture,
paper making, telegraph, telephone, etc.
The following are some of the methods used to conserve forests:
✅ cutting of mature trees only and protection of young trees from injury,
✅ reforestation,
✅ establishing fire controls,
✅ educating the community,
✅ organization of forestry groups and clubs,
✅ controlling plant diseases,
✅ private and public establishment of forest reserves,
✅ providing basic protection for all forests by proper legislative measures,
and
✅ afforestation.

Figure 5.20: Tree planting in Ethiopia
5.2.5. Biodiversity

♻ describe the values of biodiversity; and
♻ ldescribe the various in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies in
biodiversity conservation.
🔄 What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur.
Activity 5.13
Perform this activity in group and present your discussions

to the class.
1. Explain values of biodiversity to human being and nature.
2. List examples of national parks and zoos found in Ethiopia.
The most common classification of biodiversity values are as follows.
Consumptive value: the value of natural products such as fire wood, fodder,
and game meat that are consumed directly, without passing through a market.

Grade 8
Productive use value: the value of products that are commercially harvested
such as timber, fish sold in a market and medicinal plants.
Non consumptive use value: indirect values of ecosystem functions.
Intangible values: such as keeping use and management options open for
the future (option value) educational, scientific, aesthetic and tourism value
(information value) and respecting their right to exist (existence value).
Some examples of national parks found in Ethiopia are: Awash National Park,
Simien Mountains National Park, Alatish National Park, Bale Mountains
National Park, Abijata Lakes National Park, Omo National Park, Nech Sar
National Park, Chebera Churchura National Park, Gambela National Park,
Yabello National Park, Loka Abaya National Park, Gibe Sheleko National
Park, etc.
Conservation can broadly be divided into two types. These are:
i. In-situ (in protected areas): Conservation of habitats, species and ecosystems

where they naturally occur in-site conservation. The major aim of this
type of conservation is to preserve natural areas of the organisms and
maintain their number. This type of conservation includes description,
managing and supervise the target in the place they are present. This
method is considered to be more dynamic because it is carried out in
the natural habitat itself. Example: National parks, wildlife sanctuaries
and biosphere reserve, etc.
ii. Ex-situ: The conservation of element of biodiversity out of the context

of their natural habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Ex-situ
conservation means conservation which takes place off-site. In this
method of biological diversity conservation, sampling, shifting, storage
and preservation of target is carried out outside the natural habitat of the
organisms. Example: Zoos, aquarium, botanical gerdens, seed banks, and
germplasm banks.

Check point 5.1
Answer the following questions

1. Distinguish the difference between in-situ and ex-situ conservation.
2. List the most common biodiversity values.
5.2.6. Indigenous knowledge and conservation

of natural resources

♻ give examples of indigenous knowledge and practices that are used in
the conservation of natural resources such as soil, forest, etc.
Activity 5.14

to the class.
Ask your family or elders in your community regarding any indigenous
practices used in your locality and Ethiopia as a whole to conserve soil,
water, and vegetation and give examples.
Indigenous knowledge is one of the greatest assets of a community. It is

unique to a given society and is embedded in their cultural traditions. In a time
when the climate is changing, this knowledge can help indigenous people to
adapt to these changes and control the environment around them. Indigenous
peoples have wide-range knowledge of the land and its ecology. Some of the

Grade 8
most important indigenous practices about natural resources conservation

mechanisms of the farmers in different parts of Ethiopia are: terracing, contour
ploughing, crop rotation, fallowing, mixed cropping, surface mulching, agro-
forestry and field boundaries. Example: Konso People/farmers.
Exercise 5.2
Part I: write true if the statement is correct and false if

the statement is incorrect.
1. Loam soil has the highest water holding capacity than clay and
sandy soil.
2. Productivity in agriculture is directly related to the availability of
water.
3. The tree plantation reduces the amount of carbon dioxide emitted
into the air.
4. Afforestation is planting seedlings to replace cut and burnt areas.
5. Ex-situ conservation is conservation of habitats, species and
ecosystems.
Part II: Choose the correct answer for each of the

following questions.
1. Which of the following is the contributing factor of soil formation?
A. Parent materials C. Organisms
B. Climate D. All of the above
2. How much surface of the Earth is covered by water?

A. 2.7% C. 75%
B. 25% D. 97%
3. Which of the following gases is the highest component of

atmosphere?
A. Hydrogen C. Oxygen
B. Nitrogen D. Carbon dioxide

4. Which of the human activities could reduce air pollution?

A. Using less fossil fuel C. Burning farm residue
B. Burning of fossil fuels D. Industrial activities
5. The area where the Gallery forests are found:

A. Bale high lands C. Gambella
B. Shashemane D. Wabishebelle
6. Which of the human activities could reduce air pollution?

A. Using less fossil fuel C. Burning farm residue
B. Burning of fossil fuels D. Industrial activities
7. The area where the Gallery forests are found:

A. Bale high lands C. Gambella
B. Shashemane D. Wabishebelle
Part III: Give short answer

1. Define the term Global warming.
2. Write the three basic types of soil.
3. Write at least four important uses of air.
4. Mention at least five major forests found in Ethiopia.
🔒 🔑🔑 Abiotic factor
KEY TERMS
🔑🔑 Food web
🔑🔑 Air
Ammensalism 🔑🔑 Forest
Mutualism
🔑🔑 Biodiversity
Commensalism 🔑🔑 Parasitism
Soil
🔑🔑 Competition
Conservation 🔑🔑 Symbiosis
Trophic pyramid
🔑 Ecosystem
Food chain
Water

Grade 8
UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Ecosystem is the system formed by the interaction of living factors and
non-living factors and topographic factors of the environment.
ʯ A biological association between two organisms or species within a habitat
is called symbiosis. Some of the major biological associations are
mutualism, commensalism, ammensalism, competition and parasitism.
ʯ Food relationship among living organisms can be food chain and food
web. A food chain is a single path while food webs are interconnected
by different paths. Trophic level is the feeding stage of an organism in a
food chain.
ʯ The nutrients are continuously transferred from the environment to the
organisms, and then back to the environment. This exchange of materials
has a biological and a geological component. Therefore, nutrient recycling
is named as biogeochemical cycle.
ʯ Soil is one of the important abiotic factors of an ecosystem.
ʯ Water is abiotic factor that plays important roles in maintaining living
things within an ecosystem. Water resources face a serious threat caused
primarily by human activity and needs caring and conservation.
ʯ Air is a natural resource and is available abundantly and it is used to sustain
life and growth, combustion, maintaining temperature, supplier of energy
and photosynthesis.
ʯ A forest is an association of plants in which trees are the most common.
The distribution of forest is mainly related to the climatic factors, soil
type and geological formation.
ʯ Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms
and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
ʯ The indigenous knowledge practices are essential to conserve natural
resources.

REVIEW EXERCISE
Part I: write true if the statement is correct and false if the
statement is incorrect.
1. Endo-parasites are parasites that live within the host’s body.
2. A plant that grows in a favorable soil texture brings much fruit.
3. Competition can occur when the resource is adequate.
4. Air acts as a good conductor of heat.
5. Energy can be recycled through the food chains and food webs.
Part II: Choose the correct answer for each of the following
questions.
1. An ecosystem is an interaction among:
A. living things only
B. nonliving things only
C. both living things and nonliving things
D. none of the above
2. One of the following is true about biotic community of a given ecosystem.

It refers to;
A. plants, animals and microorganisms.
B. plants, animals, soil and water of the environment.
C. only to plants and animals
D. animals only
3. The biological term of living together in a close association of two or

more organisms of different species is called __________.
A. parasitism C. competition
B. B. commensalism D. Symbiosis
4. Which one of the following is true about food web and food chain?
A. Plants are not involved in case of food web
B. Food chain is simpler type of food relationship
C. Both are limited to explain similar types of organisms
D. None of the above

Grade 8
5. The relationship between birds and grazing cattle is an example of:

A. commensalism C. parasitism
B. B. mutualism D. symbiosis
6. Which animal feeds on the dead body of any animal without killing?
A. Hyenas C. Vultures
B. Lion D. Eagle
7. Which of the following biological relationship is commensalism?

A. both organisms are benefited
B. one organism is benefited and the other neutral
C. one organism is benefited and the other is harmed
D. neither of the organisms is benefited
8. Which of the following is true about ammensalism?

A. Both organisms are benefited.
B. One benefited while other affected.
C. One benefited while other neutral.
D. One affected while other neutral.
9. Which of the following soil would be good for making pottery?

A. Clay soil C. Loam soil
B. Sandy soil D. Silt soil
10. Which of the following methods does not conserve soils?

A. Dam-building and reservoirs
B. Deforestation
C. Making terraces
D. Crop rotation
11. Which of the following is the origin of energy for all living organisms?
A. Water C. Plants
B. Chlorophyll D. Sun-light
12. Which forest is found at elevations b/n 250m to 2,200m in Ethiopia?

A. Rain forest C. Tundra forest
B. Savanna D. Juniper forest

Part II. Match items given under column ‘A’ with items
given under column ‘B’.
Column A Column B
1. Association between Crocodile and bird A. Symbiosis
2. Association between Tapeworm and humans B. Mutualism
3. Association between a shark and remora fish C. ommensalism
4. Association of two or more organisms of D. Ammensalism
E. Parasitism
different species
5. Association between Eucalyptus and other
nearby plants
Part III: Fill in the blank spaces with correct answers.

1. The living component of an ecosystem is known as ______________.
2. Soil is formation is a result of the interaction of factors such as
___________, ______________, ______________, ______________
and ______________________.
3. The conservation strategies in biodiversity conservation are ____________
and ________________________.
Part IV: Give short answers

1. Define briefly the following terms.
a) Food chain b) Biodiversity
2. Write the sequence of food chain contain four organisms that feed on the
other. There may be many answers for this question.
3. List at least five methods used on water conservation.
4. Which soil type is the best soil for large number of plants? Why?
5. Mention at least five methods those are used to protect soil erosion.

Grade 8
UNIT SIX
6. THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes
♻ explain family of the solar system;
♻ name all planets in the solar system;
♻ show the position of each planet in the solar system;
♻ develop the model of solar system;
♻ describe how satellites move around the earth;
♻ explain the motion of large bodies in the solar system;
♻ explain the unique characteristics of the earth;and
♻ describe the suitability of earth for life.
Main Contents
6.1 Family of the solar system
6.2 Formation of the Solar System (Planets & Satellites, Other
objects)
6.3 Earth in comparison with Solar system
6.4. Our Planet suitability for life (uniqueness)
Unit six: THE SOLAR SYSTEM 173

Startup Activity
Perform this activity in a group and present your opinion

to the class
1. What is the solar system? Where is the solar system?
2. What are the planets in the solar system?
3. Is there life in our solar system aside from on Earth?
4. What is astronomy? Do you like to be an astronomer? Why?
Introduction
In grade 7, you learned about the general properties of the earth. In this unit, you will be
introduced about the family and name of all planets and the position of each planet in
the solar system. You will also discuss about the uniqueness of earth in the solar system.
The solar system is not alone in space. The sun is a star like countless others, and other
stars also have plants circling them. As all types of galaxies, the Milky Way is actually
an aggregation of billions of stars. Our sun is one of perhaps the 250 billion stars that
make up the Milky Way, our home galaxy. The Sun, the planets, natural satellites (moons),
the Asteroids and other units are found in our solar system. Satellites are important for
serving as information provider like radio signal reflector, to make weather forecasting
more accurate, to improve worldwide telecommunication, etc. Thus this unit tries to make
students aware of the nature and benefits of satellites, and all bodies found in our solar
system.
6.1. FAMILY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

At the end of this section the students will be able to:
♻ explain family of the solar system;
♻ name all planets in the solar system;
♻ show the position of each planet in the solar system; and
♻ develop the model of solar system.
In this section you will learn about family, name, and the position of each
planet in the solar system by developing the model of the solar system.
174 Family of the Solar System

Grade 8
Activity 6.1.
Discuss the following questions in pairs or groups; present

to the class.
1. How many planets do you know? Can you name them sequentially?
2. What do you think about the size of pluto?
6.1.1. Family and Name of bodies of the solar

system
🔄 Can you list the major components of our solar system? Which celestial
bodies form the solar system?
The solar system is made up of the sun and everything that orbits around it,
including planets, moons, asteroids, comets and meteoroids. It extends from
the sun and goes past the four inner planets, through the Asteroid Belt to the
four gas giants and on to the disk-shaped Kuiper Belt. Scientists estimate that
the edge of the solar system is about 15 billion kilometers from the sun.
• Founder of modern astronomy.

• Astronomy is the study of the sun, moon, stars, planets and
other objects and phenomena in space.
• An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy.
• He convinced that Earth is a planet just like the others
known at the time. He proposed a model of the solar system
\Sun centered model of Solar system/ with the Sun at the
center other planet orbits around it.
Figure 6.1 Nicolas Copernicus (An astronomer)

Nearest the Sun there are four fairly small, rocky planets Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars. Beyond Mars is the asteroid belt a region populated by millions
of rocky objects. These are left-over’s from the formation of the planets, 4.5
billion years ago.
On the far side of the asteroid belt are four gas giants; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune. These planets are much bigger than Earth. They are mostly made
of hydrogen and helium.
Until now, Pluto was considered as the furthest and the ninth planet, even if in
2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) reclassified it under the new
category of dwarf planet along with Eris and Ceres.
The Solar System

🔄 What are the families of the solar system?
The families of solar system include a star and all the Planets, moons, dwarf
planets, comets, asteroid, and meteors that orbit it which are gravitationally
bound to our our star (the Sun).
Figure 6.2 The solar system
Our solar system is a part of Milkway Galaxy. It was formed 4.6 billion years
ago and its families revolve around the sun
Grade 8
The sun
A Sun is a gaseous sphere that produces enough light and heat.It is by far the
largest object in our solar system, containing 99.8 percent of the solar system’s
mass. It sheds most of the heat and light that makes life possible on Earth.
Location: Milky Way Galaxy
Age: 4.6 billion years
Diameter: 1.4 million kilometer
Temperature: 5505 OC
The sun is the center of our solar system.
Light from the sun takes 8 minutes and 19
seconds to reach to earth.
Figure 6.3: The sun
The planets
🔄 Can you name the planets of our solar system?

The word planet comes from a Greek word meaning wanderer. It is anybody
in orbit around the sun that it has enough mass to form itself into a spherical
shape.
The major planets can be divided into two distinct categories on the basis of
their densities (mass per unit volume). These are:
Terrestrial Planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

made up of rocks and metal.
Terrestrial, planets are earth- like
planets with solid surfaces.
Figure 6.4 Terrestrial Planets (the four inner planets)

Giant Planets
Gas Giant (composed primarily

of hydrogen and helium): Jupiter
and Saturn
Ice Giant (composed primarily of

ice, rock): Neptune and Uranus
also called Jovian planet, giant
planets, are any massive planet
Figure 6.5: Giant Planets (the outer planets)
Generally, the main characteristics of terrestrial and gas giant planets are
Table 6.1. Terrestrial versus gas giant planets
Terrestrial Gas giant (Jovian) planets

✅ are made of solids like rocks, ✅
are made primary, of gas mostly
and metals hydrogen
✅ have solid surface ✅
do not have solid surface
✅ a space ship could land on it ✅
a space ship cannot land on it
✅ are relatively small ✅
are relatively large
✅ are closer to the sun ✅
are farther from the sun
✅ are relatively warmer ✅
are relatively cool
✅ do not have rings ✅
have rings
Dwarf Planets
The dwarf planet Pluto is unique an icy, low density body, smaller than Earth’s
Moon, more similar to comets or to the large icy moons of the outer planets
than to any of the planets themselves.

Grade 8
Ceres, Pluto, and Eris: are dwarf

planets in which round rocky body
which orbit the sun, but is not big
enough to be designated as a planet.
Figure 6.6: Dwarf planets
Asteroids
The asteroids are remnants of the planet-building process in the inner solar
system. Some asteroids travel in paths that cross the orbit of Earth, providing
opportunities for collisions with the planet, which sometimes cause devastating
effect.
Millions of asteroids exist, primarily
between the orbit of Mars and Jupiter.
An Asteroid is an irregularly-shaped
body made mostly of rock and metal
which orbit the sun. Most are in the
Asteroids belt some are in Comet-like
orbits.
Figure 6.7: Asteroid on a close approach to Earth
Kuiper Belt Objects

The Kuiper beltis a thick disk-shaped zone, beyond the orbit of Neptune but
including a portion of the orbit of Pluto.

Location: Beyond the orbit of Neptune.

There are over one thousand known
Kuiper Belt Objects
Figure 6.8: The Kuiper belt objects
Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites

A Meteoroid is a small object travelling through
space. A Meteor (shooting star) is a meteoroid that
is travelling through the Earth’s atmosphere. A
Meteorite is the part of the meteor which is a large
chunk of rock and metal survives the journey to the
Earth.
Figure: 6.9: Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites
Comets
A comet is a body in an elongated

orbit around the sun made of ice, dust,
and rock. As comet approaches the
sun, they heat up and begin to outgas
creating a coma and sometimes a tail.
Figure 6. 10: comets

Grade 8
Check Point 6.1.

1. What are the two distinct categories of planet?
2. List the name of dwarf planets.
3. Define the following terms:
a) Solar system b) Star c) Planet
6.1.2. Position and name of each planet in the

solar system
Activity 6.2.
Discuss the following questions in pairs or groups and

present to the class.
1. Draw a diagram of our solar system.
2. Which planet is near to the sun?
3. Which planet is far from the sun?
In order of their distances from the Sun, the planets in the solar system are
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and the dwarf
planet Pluto. Six of the nine planets are in turn orbited by natural satellites,
usually termed “moons” after Earth’s Moon, and each of the outer planets is
encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles. There are certain dwarf
planets, among them the common are Pluto, Ceres, and Eris. Between Mars
and Jupiter lies the Asteroid Belt.

Figure 6.11: Our solar system
Project Work
Scale model of the solar system

In this project we make scale model of a solar system to show how far away the
planets are from the Sun and each other, and how much bigger some planets are
than others. The Earth is about 150 million kilometers from the Sun. Because
this distance is so important to human being, it has been given a special name,
called the Astronomical Unit (A.U.) for short.
I. Scale Model of relative Distances from the Sun

Objectives: To make scale models of relative distances from the sun.
Materials: Meter stick, outdoor space at least 33 meters long, hard paper,
pencil (marker), and scissors.
Procedure:
1. Draw nine equal circles on a paper. Because the distance scale model
only is concerned about distances between the planets, you can make all
the planets the same size.
2. Label the circles Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
3. Cut the circles out.

Grade 8
4. Position one of the students at a particular point on the out-door field as

the Sun.
5. Give each of eight students a cut-out planet to hold or you can set the
cut-out planets down on the ground after you measure the distance from
the Sun.
6. Finally the students position themselves according to the distances given
in column four Table 6.1 from the position of student who considered as
the Sun.
Table 6.2: Scale model of relative Distances from Sun
Average distance from Distance in Model distance

Planet
the sun (million km) (AU) from the sun
Mercury 58 0.38 38centimeters
Venus 108 0.72 72 centimeters
Earth 150 1.0 1.0 meters
Mars 228 1.5 1.5 meters
Jupiter 778 5.2 5.2 meters
Saturn 1430 9.5 9.5 meters
Uranus 2870 19.2 19.2meters
Neptune 4500 30.1 30.1meters
II. Scale Model of Relative Diameters of Planets

Objectives: To make scale models of relative diameters of planets.
Materials: Metric ruler, white poster board, compass (the kind you draw
circles with), pencil, scissors and marker
Procedure:
1. Use the ruler to draw a line for the diameter of each planet (the relative
diameter size of each planets are given in Table 6.2 column four)

Table 6.3: Scale model of relative diameter comparison of planets to Earth
Diameter in Relative Diameter

Planet Size in cm
kilometers compared to Earth
Mercury 4800 0.376 0.4cm
Venus 12100 0.949 0.9cm
Earth 12750 1.00 1cm
Mars 6800 0.533 0.5cm
Jupiter 142800 11.2 11cm
Saturn 120660 9.46 9cm
Uranus 51800 4.06 4cm
Neptune 49500 3.88 3cm
2. Using the compass, draw circles around the diameters and cut the circles
out.
3. The relative diameter of sun is actually 109cm, but you can’t get it,
therefore, use any large circle which is greater than the other planet.
4. Label the planets, so you don’t forget which is which when you are cutting
them out. For tiny planets, you might have to use an abbreviation.
5. Size of the planet scale model is only concerned about diameter of the
planets; you can make the distance between the planets the same.
6. Finally, attach the cut planet by glue on a large paper like the figure 6.12
shown below and you can display your model on your class room wall
Figure 6.12: Scale Model of Relative Diameters of Planets

Grade 8
Question and analysis:

1. What did you notice about the size of the planets?
2. What did you notice about the distance between the planets?
3. What did you notice about the size of the planets compared to the distance
between them?
Exercise 6.1

1. What are Asteroids?
2. Write the four inner terrestrial (Earth‐like) planets of solar system.
3. Write the four outer Jovian (Jupiter‐like) planets of solar system.
4. What are the characteristics of terrestrial and gas giant planets?
5. List the order of the planet with increasing distance from the sun.
6. List the order of the planet with increasing size (diameters) of planets.
6.2. FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Activity 6.3.
Discuss the following questions in pair and present your

result to the class.
1. When do you think the formation of the Solar System began?
2. State the nebular hypothesis.
3. What is meant by an artificial satellite?
4. What is our planet like?

In this sub topic you will learn about the formation of the solar system, how
satellites move around the earth and the motion of satellites and planets in the
solar system.
🔄 How solar system is formed?

The formation of the solar system began about 4.5 billion years ago with
the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most
of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the
rest compacted into a Proto-planetary disk out of which the planets, moons,
asteroids, and other small solar system bodies formed. This model, known as
the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century. The nebular
hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse
of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud.
Planets are formed from particles in a disk of gas and dust, colliding and
sticking together as they orbit the star. The planets nearest to the star tend to be
rockier because the star’s wind blows away their gases and they are made of
heavier materials attracted by the star’s gravity. In the Sun’s system, Earth is
one of four rocky planets, but a unique one, with rigid and molten layers.
The Sun sent out energy and particles in a steady stream, called stellar winds.
These winds proved so strong that they blew off most the gases of the four
planets closest to the Sun, leaving them smaller, with only their rocks and
metals intact. That’s why they are called rocky, or terrestrial, planets. The four
outer planets were so far from the Sun that its winds could not blow away
their ice and gases. They remained gaseous, which were mostly hydrogen and
helium, with only small rocky core.
6.2.1. The motion of satellites around the earth
🔄 Why satellites move around the earth?Can you write some uses of
satellite?
This sub topic will give you the answers for this questions and more information
about artificial satellites.
186 Formation of the Solar System

Grade 8
Activity 6.4.
Discuss the following questions in pair and present your

result to the class.
1. What are geostationary satellites?
2. What do we call the path in the sky that the geostationary satellite appears
to travel around the earth?
3. How many natural satellites does the earth have?
4. Does the Moon rotate?
🔄 How long does it take our Moon to go around Earth?

Moon takes 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes to complete one full orbit around
Earth. However, it takes about 29.5 days to complete one cycle of phases (from
new Moon to new Moon). This is called the synodic month.
The Earth rotates on its axis once in a day which takes 24 hours and orbits
around the Sun once in a year (365.25 days). The other planets are also orbiting
the Sun, though each one has a different orbital period.
A satellite is celestial bodies that orbit a planet. A satellite orbit a planet due to
the force of gravity. Unlike natural satellites, like the moon, artificial satellites
are made by human beings.
A natural satellite is an astronomical object

orbiting the earth or any other planet. The
moon is the only natural satellite of the
earth. Some other planets in the solar system
have more than one natural satellite.
Figure 6.13: The motion of moon around Earth.

Artificial satellites are human-built objects orbiting the Earth and other planets
in the Solar System. This is different from the natural satellites, or moons, that
orbit planets, dwarf planets and even asteroids. Artificial satellites are used to
study the Earth, other planets, to help us communicate, and even to observe the
distant Universe. Satellites can even have people in them, like the International
Space Station and the Space Shuttle.
The first artificial satellite was the Soviet Sputnik 1stmission, launched in 1957.
Since then, dozens of countries have launched satellites, including our country
Ethiopian which named ETRSS-1, with more than 3,000 currently operating
spacecraft going around the Earth.
ETRSS-1 (Ethiopian Remote Sensing Satellite)

• Ethiopia launches first
satellite named ETRSS-1
• It is an Earth Observation
Satellite.
• Photos were released in
February 2020.
Figure 6.14 Ethiopian Remote Sensing Satellites (ETRSS-1)
Ethiopia launched its first observatory satellite into space on Friday 20 December
2019, 03:22 according to local reports. The 70 kilogram remote sensing satellite
is to be used for agricultural, climate, mining and environmental observations,
allowing the Horn of Africa to collect data and improve its ability to plan for

Grade 8
changing weather patterns for example. The satellite will operate from space
around 700 kilometers above the surface of earth.
Though it was launched from China, its command and control center is
based at the Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC)
in Ethiopia; which is part of the Ethiopian Space, Science and Technology
Institute (ESSTI).
Satellites are launched into different orbits depending on their mission. One
of the most common ones is geostationary orbit. This is where a satellite takes
24 hours to orbit the Earth; the same amount of time it takes the Earth to
rotate once on its axis. This keeps the satellite in the same spot over the Earth,
allowing for communications and television broadcasts.
All artificial satellites do not revolve in similar orbits around the earth. To put
the satellite in its proper orbit at specific height above the earth’s surface, the
satellite is taken to that height using a satellite launcher.
Artificial satellites can have a range of missions, including scientific research,

weather observation, military support, navigation, Earth imaging, and
communications. Some satellites fulfill a single purpose, while others are
designed to perform several functions at the same time.
Figure 6.15 Motion of satellite in geostationary orbit

6.2.2. The motion of satellites, planets and large

bodies in the solar system
Activity 6.5.
Discus the following activities in groups and present your

classmate.
1. What do you call the path of satellites, planets and large bodies around the sun?
2. What keeps the satellites, Earth, planets and large bodies in their orbit?
All the planets and dwarf planets, the rocky asteroids, and the icy bodies in
the Kuiper belt move around the Sun in elliptical orbits in the same direction
that the Sun rotates. This motion is termed progradeor direct motion. Looking
down on the system from a point above Earth’s North Pole, an observer would
find that all these orbital motions are in a counterclockwise direction. Planets
orbit the sun in oval-shaped paths called ellipses, with the sun slightly off-
center of each ellipse as shown in the figure 6.16 below.
Figure 6.16 The motion of satellites, planets and large bodies around the
Sun in elliptical orbits.

Grade 8
Exercises 6.2

1. How old our Solar System is?
2. The diagram below represents the Sun and planets of our solar
system. Label the name of each planet.
Figure 6.17 The positions of the Sun and planets of our

solar system
F.___________ G._________ H.__________ I. _________

J. ___________ K. _________ L.__________ M. ________
3. How many days take our moon to go around the Earth?

4. What are the purposes of satellite?
5. What is the name of the first Ethiopia launched satellite?
6. What is the direction of rotation or revolution of planet around the
sun?

6.3. EARTH IN COMPARISON WITH

SOLAR SYSTEM
Activity 6.6.
Discuss the following questions in pair or group and

present to your friends. Using the Astronomical data of
planets given in Table 6.3, answer the following questions.
1. What are the largest and the smallest planet?

2. Which are the hottest and the coldest planet of the Solar System?
3. Which is the nearest and the farthest planet to the sun?
The distance, size, position and behavior of each

planate from the sun
🔄 Can you list planets that have no natural satellite?
A. The size of Earth in
comparison with the inner
planets
B. The size of Earth

in comparison with
the outer planets
Figure 6.18 The size of earth in comparison with the inner and outer
planets
192 Earth in comparison with Solar system

Grade 8
Table 6.17 Astronomical data of planets
Average
Mean
distance Average mass Mean Orbit time Natural
surface
Planets from the of the planet radius( around the satellite
temp.
sun (million ( x1024kg) km ) sun (Moon)
( OC)
km)
Mercury 58 0.33011 2439.7 88 Earth days 167 0

Venus 108 4.8675 6051.8 225 Earth days 464 0
Earth 150 5.9723 6371 365 Earth days 15 1
Mars 228 0.64171 3389.5 687 Earth days -63 2
Jupiter 778 1898.19 69911 11.9 Earth years -108 79
Saturn 1430 568.34 58232 29.5 Earth years -139 62
Uranus 2870 86813 25558 84 Earth years -197 27
Neptune 4500 102.413 24622 165 Earth years -201 14
From Table 6.4 above, Mercury is the planet that is closest to the sun and
therefore gets more direct heat, but even it is not the hottest. Venus is the
second planet from the sun and has a temperature that is maintained at 464
degrees Celsius, no matter where you go on the planet. It is the hottest planet in
the solar system. So what makes Venus hotter than Mercury? Mercury doesn’t
have any atmosphere, and atmosphere can hold and trap heat. Any heat that
Mercury receives from the sun is quickly lost back into space. Venus is very
close to the actual size of earth and viewing it has been difficult due to a very
thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide. This thick atmosphere makes the surface
of Venus hotter because the heat does not escape back into space.
Exercise 6.3
Answer the following Questions

1. Which planet is closest to the sum?
2. Which planet is the hottest planet in the solar system?
3. What is the average distance of the earth from the sun?

6.4. OUR PLANET’S SUITABILITY FOR

LIFE (UNIQUENESS)
Our planet, Earth is unique from other planets in our solar system in many
aspects this sub topic will discuss with some of its uniqueness.
Activity 6.7.
Discuss the following question in group and write a report

and present to the class.
List some properties of our planet Earth that makes it unique from other
planets in our solar system.
Our Earth:
• has seasons
• is the only world we know that has large areas
of surface water
• has a lot of oxygen in its atmosphere
• has temperature just right for life
• is the only world known to support life
Figure: 6.19 Earth
Our Earth is beautiful. It is the only known planet that has large quantities of
water on its surface and, therefore, is the only planet with lavish vegetation
like grass, flowers, trees and so many plants. As you learned in grade seven,
the Earth has the only planet that has seasons (summer, winter, spring and
autumn).
Earth is like no other planet that we have yet observed. It is the only world we
know that has large areas of surface water and a lot of oxygen in its atmosphere.
194 Our planet’s suitability for life (uniqueness)

Grade 8
It is also the only world known to support life. This makes it very special.
About seven tenths of its surface is covered by oceans. When the water is
heated by the Sun, it changes to a gas (known as water vapor). If this gas is
cooled, it turns back to water droplets, forming clouds and rain. These types of
phenomena never observed in any other planets except Earth.
As the third planet from the Sun, Earth is neither too hot nor too cold for
oceans to exist. The temperature is also just right for life the average surface
temperature is about 14–15OC. And it has stayed that way for billions of years.
Earth’s surface is also protected by the thick atmosphere. This atmosphere

block out most of the harmful radiation comes from space. It also causes small
incoming objects to burn up as shooting stars.
Generally, Earth is not too hot or too cold, not too big or too little, not too near
the Sun or too far away, but just right for life to flourish. Studies of fossils in
ancient rocks tell us that life probably began in our planet about 4 billion years
ago.
Exercises 6.4

1. Mention at least three points that makes Earth unique from other
planet?
2. What is the average surface temperature of the earth?
3. Why our Earth is beautiful?
4. Earth’s surface is protected by the thick atmosphere, what is the
purpose of this thick atmosphere?
5. What portion of our Earth is covered by oceans?

🔒🔑🔑 Asteroids
KEY TERMS
🔑🔑Meteoroids
🔑🔑 Astronomy
Comets 🔑🔑Meteors
Outer Jovian planet
🔑🔑 Dwarf Planets
Geostationary 🔑 Proto-planetary
🔑🔑The
The nebular hypothesis
🔑🔑 Inter terrestrial planet

Kuiper Belt Objects
Meteorites
planets
🔑The sun (a star)

The Solar System
SUMMARY
ʯ Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth’s
atmosphere.
ʯ Many scientists think our solar system formed from a giant, rotating cloud
of gas and dust known as the solar nebula.
ʯ The nebular hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the
gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud.
ʯ Solar system: All of the material (planets, moons, comets, asteroids, etc.)
that is gravitationally bound to our star (the sun).
ʯ Star: A gaseous sphere that produces enough heat in its interior by nuclear
fusion to with stand the force of gravity.
ʯ Planet is anybody in orbit around the sun that has enough mass to form
itself into a spherical shape and cleared its immediate neighborhood all
smaller objects.
ʯ The solar system has two types of planets: terrestrial (or “rocky”) planets
and gas giant planets.
ʯ Asteroids are rocky or metallic object in orbit around the sun includes:
Main Belt asteroid: between Mars & Jupiter.

Grade 8
ʯ The Sun sent out energy and particles in a steady stream, called stellar
winds.
ʯ A satellite is celestial bodies that orbit a planet.
ʯ Unlike natural satellites, like the moon, artificial satellites are made by
human beings.
ʯ The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
ʯ Planetary Orbits are all in a single plane.
ʯ Most planets and the Sun rotate in the same direction that the planets
revolve.
REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is
wrong.
1. Pluto is the giant planet in our solar system.
2. Venus has more liquid water on its surface than Earth.
3. The solar nebula from which the planets formed was primarily composed
of nitrogen and oxygen.
4. Most asteroids are located between Mars and Jupiter.
5. The Sun, together with the eight planets, make up the nebula.
6. Mars has water in the form of water vapor.
7. All of the inner planets do not have rings.
8. The Sun’s gravitational pull keeps the Earth in its orbit.
9. Planets all revolve in the same direction.

II. Match the properties of the planets given in column “B”

with the names of planets given in column “A”
1. Neptune A. The largest planet in the solar system
2. Mercury B. The third farthest planet from the Sun
3. Jupiter C. Dwarf Planet
4. Pluto D. The eight farthest planet from the Sun
5. Earth E. The smallest planet in the solar system
6. Venus F. The hottest planet in the solar system
III. Identify the choice that best completes the statement

or answers the question.
1. Among the following which one is not a dward planet?
A. Pluto C. Ceres
B. Earth D. Eris
2. The force of attraction between all objects in the universe is;

A. nebula. C. maria.
B. perihelion. D. gravity.
3. The Sun, together with all planets, make up the _____________.

A. solar system C. nebula
B. Big Bang D. asteroid belt
4. A piece of rock or metal that strikes a planet’s or moon’s surface is a

A. A. meteorite. C. C. meteoroid.
B. B. meteor. D. D. meteor shower.
5. The hottest planet in the solar system is

A. Earth C. the Sun.
B. Mercury D. Venus.
6. What is the Earth’s radius?

A. 6371 km C. 12400 km
B. 1237 km D. 25000 km
Grade 8
7. Where is the main asteroid belt in the Solar System?

A. Just outside Pluto’s orbit
B. Between Earth and Mars
C. Between Neptune and Saturn
D. Between Mars and Jupiter
8. Mercury’s Orbit time around the sun is:

A. 88 Earth days C. 176 Earth days
B. 10 Earth days D. 3 Earth years
9. How many moons does Jupiter have?

A. 1 C. 79
B. 62 D. 27
10. Which planet has the most moons?

A. Jupiter C. Mars
B. Mercury D. Uranus
11. What is the comet belt outside of Pluto’s orbit called?

A. the Oort cloud C. Main asteroid Belt
B. Kuiper Belt D. Halley Belt
12. What makes Earth different from any other planet? It is the only planet
know to have:
A. living things on it.
B. air that is safe for animal to breathe.
C. liquid water on its surface.
D. all of the above.
13. A body made up of rock, dust, gases, and ices that orbits the Sun is a
A. Comet C. meteoroid.
B. meteor. D. meteorite.

14. Which diagram shown in Figure 6.19, below correctly shows the orbit of
the Earth (E) and moon (M) around the sun (S)?
Figure 6.19
A. diagram A C. diagram C
B. diagram B D. diagram D
IV. Answer the following questions

1. Why would some planets be rocky and some gaseous?
2. What is the difference between an asteroid and a meteor?
3. How is a planet different from a star?
4. What is the collection of small rocky bodies, whose orbits lie between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter?
5. To which of the planets do you think we should send humans (Mars or
Neptune)? Why?

Grade 8
UNIT SEVEN
7. PHYSICAL
PHENOMENA IN THE
SURROUNDING
Learning Outcomes
♻ describe sources of light, reflection, refraction, dispersion of light;
♻ describe nature of materials for light transmission and image
formation;
♻ define sound as a form of energy;
♻ demonstrate the formation and propagation of sound;
♻ explain the cause of sound pollution and strategies to minimize it;
♻ define echo and demonstrate its application;
♻ explain heat and heat transfer;
♻ classify materials as good conductors of heat and poor conductors of
heat;
♻ construct simple circuit and its component;and
♻ explain magnetism, magnetic lines of force and uses of magnet.
UNITSEVEN: PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN THE SURROUNDING 201

Main Contents
7.1 Phenomena of Light 7.4 Heat
7.2 Vision and Imaging 7.5 Simple circuit
7.3 Sound 7.6 Magnetism
Startup Activity
Discuss the following questions with your class mates.

1. What is the importance of light in your life?
2. How are sounds produced?
3. What are the different ways of heat transfer?
Introduction
In grade 7 physics, you learned about the basic concepts and nature of science and its
branches, definition of science, Science and technology. This unit is also deals with the
physical phenomena in our surroundings in general and an introduction of concepts
about light, sound, heat, simple circuit and magnetism in particular; where you just
extend your previous knowledge and skills. The unit tries to make students aware of
how image is formed in mirrors and lens, the cause of noise pollution; and strategies to
minimize this pollution and how magnets used in our houses and surroundings.
7.1. PHENOMENA OF LIGHT (SOURCE

AND PROPERTIES)
♻ list some sources of light;
♻ describe reflection and refraction;
♻ explain dispersion of light;and
♻ show colors formed on the other side of the prism.
In this section you will learn about the sources and some properties of light.
The Sun and Other stars seen in the night sky are the main natural source of
light. You may have seen in the afternoon, rays of light entering through a slit
202 Phenomena of Light (source and properties)

Grade 8
in a door or a small hole in the roof. As these rays of light from the slit or the
hole move towards the floor, the dust particles in their way are seen clearly.
Due to these particles, the path of the light becomes visible and we can see that
their path is along straight lines.
7.1.1. Sources of light
Activity 7.1.
Discuss the following questions in group and present to

the class.
1. What helps us to see the objects around us?
2. Name some local sources of light in your area.
3. Is moon emits its own light?
🔄 Can you see anything in total darkness?

Object from which the light comes out are called source of light. Some sources
are natural while many others are man-made. The sun, the stars, fires, lightning
and the glowworm are some of the natural source of light.
Candles, oil lamps of all kinds, electric lights and fluorescent lamps are
called artificial or man-made source of light.
The objects or materials which emit light, meaning those which themselves are
a source of light, are called luminous objects.
The objects or materials that are not sources of light themselves, are called
non-luminous objects. The Sun is the main natural source of light.
🔄 Can you list sources of light and classify them into natural and artificial
sources of light?

Figure 7.1The natural versus manmade source of light
Check point 7.1

1. List two examples of a natural source of light.
2. List four examples of an artificial source of light.
7.1.2. Reflection and Refraction
Activity 7.2.
Discuss the following questions in pair and present to the

class.
1. How do we see an object?
2. What is meant by refraction of light?
3. How does refraction occur?

Grade 8
Reflection of light
🔄 What is meant by reflection of light?
When light strikes the surface of a body, some of the light is thrown back from
the surface of that objects. This is called reflection of light. We see the object
when the reflected rays reach our eyes.
The light ray before
reflection or light that
comes from the source is
called incident light. The
light ray after reflection is
called reflected light.
Figure 7.2 How do we see things?
Refraction of light
When light travels obliquely from one transparent
medium into another it gets bent. This bending of
light is called refraction of light. Because of refraction,
when a pencil immersed in a glass cup filled with
water it appears twisted or looks broken.
Figure 7.3 A pencil immersed in a glass cup filled with water appears
twisted

7.1.3. Dispersion of light
Activity 7.3.
Discuss the following questions in pair and present to your

classmate.
1. What is dispersion?
2. What is ‘white light’?
3. What is a rainbow? Have you seen it in the sky? When do you see it?
Sunlight is often called white light, although it is a combination of different

colors. We can see these colors in a rainbow. These colors are red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. We can also spilt white light into its
colors by passing it through the prism. The band of seven colors obtained is
called spectrum of white light. The splitting of white light into its component
colors is called dispersion of light.
When light passes through a prism,
it refracts and bends at an angle. A
prism can split white light into its
component colors. Abbreviated as
ROY G BIV
Figure 7.4 Spectrum of light
The rainbow is a phenomenal that formed in the sky when the sun is shining
and it is raining at the same time.

Grade 8
Exercise 7.1
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The things which give off light are called
A. light sources C. lamps
B. stores of light D. solar
2. Man-made sources of light includes;

A. oil lamp C. fireworks
B. burning wood D. all
3. Beam of light striking the reflecting surface is

A. reflecting ray C. refracted ray
B. incident ray D. normal ray
4. Band of seven colors is called;

A. VIBGYOR C. dispersion
B. spectrum D. reflection
II. Answer the following questions.

1. How possible is it to split white light in to different colors?
2. Identify the order of colors of a spectrum.
7.2. VISION AND IMAGING

♻ determine the purpose of light;
♻ classify materials as transparent, translucent and opaque; and
♻ demonstrate how image is formed.
Light is a form of energy. It is given off by things like stars, light bulbs, and hot
objects. Our Sun, which is also a star, transmits light energy to Earth. As we
learned in unit six the Sun is the closest star to the planet Earth and radiates
light energy. Most of the energy on Earth comes from the Sun in the form of
light energy.
7.2.1. The purpose of light
Activity 7.4.
Discuss the following questions in group of 4 or 5 and

present to your classmate.
1. Who need more light (old or young people) to see things? Why?
2. Why light levels in kitchens are much higher than that for bedrooms or
living rooms?
🔄 Why and how light is important to our daily life?

Light is something that produces in us a sensation of vision. Light in the home
can be used to create a warm and welcoming effect when relaxing or serve to
provide functional light for tasks such as reading, sewing, watching television,
dining or security.
The following are some of the purpose of light in our daily life.
1. Food: The light which falls on the leaves and other greenish surfaces
on plants are trapped. This trapped energy is converted to
reserve energy in the form of food by a process known as
photosynthesis. Here the light energy is used to synthesize
carbohydrates.
2. Colors segregation: We would not be able to see the color if the light
is absent or our eyes are not functional.
3. Sterilization: Light especially its ultraviolet component kills the

germs in the air keeping the area germ-free.
4. Body clock maintenance: There is a clock inside both plants and

animals which keep them active during the day and relaxed at
208 Vision and Imaging
Grade 8
night. This clock is controlled by light.
7.2.2. Transparent, translucent and opaque

materials.
Activity 7.5.
Perform the following activity in a group and present to

the class.
Sort the following materials as transparent, translucent and
opaque.
Piece of glass, wax paper, colored glass, oil paper, white plastic, a tea kettle, a
notebook, cloth, water, a wooden cupboard, sheet of a notebook.
Light travels in a straight line. It can travel through a vacuum and through
some materials. Some objects like the wall, do not allow light to pass through
them at all. Such objects are called opaque. Other objects allow light to pass
through them partially; such objects are said to be translucent. Special glasses
used in toilet and bathroom windows and water are examples of such material.
Materials like air and ordinary window glasses allow light to pass through
them. You can see things through them clearly. Such objects are said to be
transparent.
Figure7.5 Opaque, Translucent and Transparent materials

7.2.3. Image formation
Activity 7.6.
Discuss the following questions in pairs and present to the

class.
1. What is the nature of image in plane mirror?
2. What are the two types of spherical mirror? What is the nature of image
formed?
3. What are the two types of lens? And what is the nature of image formed?
Images in a plane mirror

Stand in front of a plane mirror and look at your image in it.
1. Brush your teeth with right hand. Which hand of the mirror image is
brushes your teeth?
2. What change do you see in the image if you decrease or increase your
distance from the mirror?
3. Is there any difference between your height and height of the mirror
image?

Grade 8
Figure 7.6 Image in a plan mirror
The nature of the image formed in a plane mirror is:
✅ the left and right sides of the original object appear to be exchanged in
the mirror image.
✅ the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
✅ the size of the image is the same as that of the object.
Image in Spherical mirror
A spherical mirror can be a concave or a convex mirror depending upon the
surface of reflection. If it is bulged out then it is a convex spherical mirror
whereas if it is bent inwards it is termed as a concave spherical mirror. A
shallow bowl of a spoon can act as a concave or a convex mirror.
Figure 7.7 Images in concave mirror

The image formed by a concave mirror can be real or virtual, inverted or erect,
magnified or diminished or the same size as the object as shown in the figure
7.7 above.
The nature of the image formed by a convex mirror are always virtual, smaller
than the object and situated behind the mirror as shown in Figure 7.8 below.
Figure 7.8 Images in convex mirror
Image in lens
Concave and convex lenses, are the two major types of lens. The image formed
by a concave lens is always virtual, erect, and diminished. Whereas the image
formed by a convex lens can be erect or inverted, diminished or magnified, and
real or virtual.
Figure 7.9 Image formations in concave and convex lenses

Grade 8
Exercises 7.2
I. Choose the correct answer

1. The objects which allow light to pass through them are called;
A. transparent C. translucent
B. opaque D. none
2. Solid wax is;

A. transparent C. opaque
B. translucent D. none
3. Which of the following are transparent or allows light to pass

through it?
A. Rubber C. Copper
B. Glass D. Wood
4. The ray of light that falls on a plane mirror is called;

A. reflected ray C. dispersed ray
B. incident ray D. A and B
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable word/s.

1. __________ helps us to see objects.
2. Objects that give out or emit light of their own are called _______
objects.
3. Objects that do not have light of their own are called __________
objects.
4. Light travels in a __________ line.

7.3. SOUND
At the end of this section, the students will be able to:
♻ define sound as a form of energy;
♻ explain how sound is formed;
♻ demonstrate the formation of sound;
♻ identify material medium for sound propagation;
♻ prioritize sound propagation in solid, liquid and gases;
♻ explain the cause of sound pollution;
♻ list strategies of sound pollution;
♻ identify hearing level for different sound;
♻ compare the distance, size, position and behavior of each planate from
the sun; and
♻ define echo and demonstrate its application.
Activity 7.7.
Discuss the following in groups and present to the class.

1. What is sound? What are noises?
2. What are pleasant and unpleasant sounds? List examples sounds and
which are pleasant and unpleasant to hear?
Sound is a form of energy formed by vibrations. You hear different types of

sound all day through, the sounds of cars, barking of dogs, friendly chatting,
when the teacher teaches and the music you hear. All the above mentioned and
others which stimulate the sensation of our ear is called sound.
214 Sound
Grade 8
7.3.1. Sound production and propagation in

solid, liquid and gases
Activity 7.8.
Discuss in group and present it to the class.

How sounds can be formed?
Sound production
Sound is a sensation or feeling that we hear. We produce sounds by doing
something. The motion of materials or objects causes vibrations. A sound
originates in the vibration of an object, which makes the air or another substance
around the object vibrate. Depending upon the vibrations, a sound is produced.
Sound cannot be produced without any vibration.The following are example of
how certain sounds are produced.
Figure 7.10 Production of sound through vibration: A) the ruler can move
back and forth and produce sound B) membrane of drum
vibrates producing sound. C) the string on it makes to and fro
motion

Sound propagation
🔄 How sound is transmitted?
Most sound waves which are produced by a distant source reach our ears
through the medium of air. At high altitude, where the air is less dense, sound
is not readily transmitted. Hence dense air whose molecules are close together
is a better transmitter of sound. Generally, experiments suggest that sound does
not travel through a vacuum. Solids are better transmitter of sound than liquids
or gases. Also, liquids are better transmitter of sound than gases.
7.3.2. The cause of sound pollution and

strategies to avoid sound pollution
Activity 7.9.
Discuss and list some of the major causes of noise

pollution in your locality and present to the class.
Noise pollution, also known as or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise

with ranging impacts on the activity of human or animal life, most of them
are harmful. A low sound is pleasant whereas a loud sound is unpleasant and
is commonly referred to as ‘noise’. Noise can be defined as an unpleasant and
unwanted sound. Loudness is definitely the most significant criterion which
converts sound into noise.
The following are major causes of noise pollution:

i. Industrial Sources: Textile mills, printing presses, engineering establishments
and metal works etc. contribute heavily towards noise pollution.
ii. Transport Vehicles and Agricultural Machines: Noise from airplanes,
heavy trucks, buses, trains, jet-planes, motor-cycles, etc.
iii. Household: The knocking on doors, crying of infants, moving of furniture,
216 Sound
Grade 8
the radio, etc.
iv.Public Address System: A religious function, death, marriage, elections,

demonstration, or just commercial advertising, therefore, contributes
in its own way towards noise pollution.
Harms of noise pollution:

✅ Presence of excessive noise in the surroundings may cause many health-
related problems e.g., lack of sleep, hypertension and anxiety etc.
✅ Sudden exposure to high noise level may cause temporary or even
permanent deafness.
Strategies to avoid sound pollution:

✅ Factories and other industries should be set up at a distance from
residential areas and machinery can use sound proof materials to reduce
high sound frequencies.
✅ Lubrication and better maintenance of heavy vehicles such as aircraft,
industrial equipment, machinery and other home appliances.
✅ We should always play television, radio and other music systems at a low
sound so that it does not harm the neighborhood.
✅ Trees should be planted in huge numbers as they can absorb unwanted
noise from the environment.
✅ People should be made aware of noise pollution and its adverse effects,
so that they can take an active involvement in preventing it.
Check point 7.2

1. In which medium is sound transmitted faster?
2. What are the causes of sound pollution?

7.3.3. Hearing level for different sound
Audible and inaudible sounds

Sounds that can be heard by human ears are called audible sounds. The range
of audible sounds is from 20 to 20,000 vibrations in one second.
Sounds that cannot be heard by human ears are called inaudible sounds. Any
sound having a vibration less than 20 or greater than 20,000 vibrations per
second is categorized as inaudible sound. For example, have you ever heard the
sound of the movement of our hands the vibrator that makes 3 to 4 vibrations
in one second?
Echo
Sound shows the property of reflection. If you stand in front of a mountain or a
big wall at some distance and yelling (shout), you will hear a reflection of your
voice. The reflection of your voice is called an echo.
Figure 7.11 Echo
218 Sound
Grade 8
Applications of Echo
✅ Determination of the depth of a well:
Depth of water surface of a well can be
very easily determined by means of echo.
When a sound is produced at the mouth
of the well, it is reflected from its water
surface heard in the form of an echo.
Then, the echo helps us to determine the
depth of the well.
Figure 7.12 Determination of the depth of a well
Exercise 7.3
Choose the best answer
1. Sound is a form of;
A. work C. energy
B. force D. none
2. Sound propagates maximum in;

A. gas C. liquid
B. solid D. all
3. Noise pollution is harmful for;

A. human C. cat
B. bird D. All
4. Sound cannot travel through:

A. air C. solid
B. water D. vacuum
5. Which one of the following is noise?

A. Sound produced by horns of buses
B. Music played at high volumes
C. Sound of electrical generators
D. All

7.4. HEAT
♻ define the term heat; and
♻ explain mechanism of heat transfer.
Heat is a form of energy that flows from an object at higher temperature to an
object at lower temperature.
7.4.1. Heat and mechanism of heat transfer
🔄 In what mechanisms do heat transferred?

The transfer of heat energy from one object to the other is called transmission
of heat. Heat energy transfers in three ways, i.e. conduction, convection and
radiation.
I. Conduction
If one end of a metal spoon is

heated with a flame, the other end
will also get heated up after a while
(Figure 7.13). The heat energy is
transferred from one end of the
spoon to the other without the
actual movement of particles of the
spoon. Such mode of transmission
of heat is called conduction.
Figure 7.13: Heat from the candle flame also warms the part of the spoon
in the hand due to conduction.
If one end of a metal spoon is heated with a flame, the other end will also get
heated up after a while (Figure 7.13). The heat energy is transferred from one
220 Heat
Grade 8
end of the spoon to the other without the actual movement of particles of the
spoon. Such a mode of transmission of heat is called conduction.
Conduction occurs in solids, liquids and gases, but solids usually conduct heat
better than liquids or gases.
II. Convection
🔄 What is convection? How does it occur?
Experiment 7.1
Title: Convection of heat
Objectives: To demonstrate convection of heat
Apparatus: A beaker, small pieces of paper, water and spirit lamp.
Procedure:
1. Take a beaker and put
small pieces of paper in it.
2. Fill half of the beaker
with water.
3. Heat the beaker by a
spirit lamp as shown in
Figure 7.14.

1. What do you observe about the motion of the pieces of paper?
Figure 7.14 Convection of heat
2. What do you conclude from the motion?

The transfer of heat in which molecules of a medium actually move to the source
of heat energy to absorb heat and then move away from it, is called convection.
Convection occurs in liquids and gases only because their molecules can move
freely. The molecules of a solid are held closely together. They cannot move
freely, therefore, convection is not possible in solids.
III. Radiation
The transfer of heat energy from a hot body to a cold body directly, without
heating the space in between the two bodies is called radiation.
When we sit in the sun or in front of a heater,

we feel warmth. Heat energy reaches us by
radiation. So, we can say that heat from the
Sun or a heater reaches us by radiation which
requires no medium
Figure 7.15 Heat of the sun reaches the earth by radiation
7.4.2. Good and poor conductors of heat
Activity 7.10.
Classify the following materials into Good and poor

conductors of heat
Silver, oil, copper, cork, aluminum, glass, iron, plastic, rubber, wood
222 Heat
Grade 8
Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Materials which allow heat
to flow through them easily are called good conductors of heat. Solids such
as metals are good conductors of heat. Materials which do not allow heat to
flow through them easily are called poor conductors of heat or heat insulators.
Solids such as wood, glass, plastic, foam, etc. are poor conductors of heat.
All liquids (except mercury which is a liquid metal) and gases are also bad
conductors of heat.
Experiment 7.2
Title: Conductors of heat and insulators
Objectives: To distinguish materials into conductors of heat and insulators.
Apparatus: Hot water, a beaker, a steel spoon, a glass rod, a plastic scale,
a wooden scale and a piece of thick copper.
Figure 7.16 Materials used for test

Procedure:
1. Take some hot water in a beaker
2. Dip one end of each steel spoon, glass rod, plastic scale, wooden scale
and a piece of thick copper wire in to the beaker as shown in Figure 7.16
3. Wait for 2-3 minutes. Then touch the other end of each material with
your fingers.


1. Which ones become hot and which ones do not?
2. What do you call the materials that becomes hot and that do not?
Metals, such as copper, silver, iron and aluminum are good conductors. Rubber,
glass, sand, plastic and wood are insulators.
Exercise 7.4
I. Choose the best answer.

1. Conduction is the method of transfer of heat in;
A. A. liquids C. C. gases
B. B. solids D. D. vacuum
2. Heat from the sun reaches to us by;

A. radiation C. convection
B. conduction D. all
3. Which one of the following is not good conductor?

A. copper C. iron
B. silver D. glass
II. Write true or false for the following questions.

1. In conduction objects should be in direct contact.
2. In convention heat is carried by actual movement of hot particles.
3. Radiation dose not needs medium.
4. Air is a good conductor of electricity.
5. Hands of electrical appliances are made of insulators.
224 Heat
Grade 8
7.5. SIMPLE CIRCUIT

♻ list all material used to construct simple circuit;and
♻ construct simple circuit.
Activity 7.11.
Perform the following activity and present to the class

Use the materials provided with your teacher and demonstrate a simple circuit
by connecting a source (cell), a load (bulb), a switch and connecting wire as
shown in figure 7.17. When the switch is closed what do you observe.
Electric circuit is a complete path along which current flows. There are two
types of electric current circuits. They are called the DC (Direct current)
circuit and the AC (Alternate current) circuit. The DC circuit is a circuit which
contains a directed current that flows in a definite direction or same direction.
Hence, any simple circuit consists of a source (cell), a load (bulb), a switch and
connecting wire. Electric current only flows through a closed circuit.
Figure 7.17 Simple circuit

Exercise 7.5

1. Define electric circuit.
2. Construct a simple circuit and label its components.
7.6. MAGNETISM
♻ define magnetism;
♻ do simple experiment and construct magnetic lines of force;and
♻ explain the use of magnet.
Activity 7.12.
Discuss the following questions in groups of 4 or 5.

1. What meant by magnetism?
2. In which direction does a freely suspended magnet settle?
3. Which magnetic poles attract each other?
🔄 What is magnet?
There are two types of magnets, namely, natural and artificial magnets. Load
stone is an example of natural magnet and bar magnet is an artificial magnet.
Any magnet that is suspended by a thread at its midpoint will swing around
to a nearly north-south direction. The end of the magnet that points towards
the geographic north is the North-Pole of the magnet whereas the other one is
called the South Pole.
226 Magnetism
Grade 8
Only certain metals such as iron, cobalt, nickel, and their alloys have magnetic
property. They can be changed to a magnet by a process called magnetization.
Magnets have the following properties;
✅ A magnet has an attractive properties i.e. it always attracts magnetic

materials towards it.
✅ Magnetic force of a magnet is concentrated at its two poles.
✅ The law of magnetism state that, like poles repel, but unlike poles attract
each other. For example North pole repels North pole, and south pole
repels south pole; North pole (N) attracts South pole (S).
Experiment 7.3
Title: Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials
Objectives: To identify materials into magnetic and non-magnetic

materials.
Apparatus: Magnet, sand, pieces of paper, sawdust, iron filings, rubber,

nickel, pins and plastic container.
Figure 7. 18 Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

Procedure:
1. Mix various objects like sand, pieces of paper, sawdust, iron filings,
rubber, nickel and pins together in a plastic container.
2. Take a magnet from the laboratory and bring it near the mixed objects
like Figure 7.18 shown. Observe these phenomena carefully.

1. Which of them are attacted to the magnet? Which do not?
2. Classify the objects into two groups: those materials which can be
attracted to the magnet and those which do not.
3. What do you call those materials which stick to the magnet and those
which do not?
The materials that attract to a magnet are called magnetic materials, while
those that do not stick to a magnet are called non-magnetic materials. The
metals iron, cobalt, nickel are magnetic materials.
The material to which objects made from iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. get attracted
is called a ‘magnet’. This property of a material is called ‘magnetism’.
Artificial magnets have different shapes such as a bar magnet, needle shaped
magnet, horse shoe magnet, etc. Any magnet has two poles called North (N)
pole and South (S) pole.
Figure 7.19 Artificial magnet
228 Magnetism
Grade 8
7.6.1. Magnetic lines of force
Any region in which a magnet pole would experience a magnetic force is called
a magnetic field. A magnetic field can be represented by the magnetic field
lines. The direction of the field lines is determined by using a compass needle.
Experiment 7.4
Title: Mapping magnetic lines of force
Objectives: To draw the magnetic lines of force around a bar magnet.
Apparatus: A bar magnet, white sheet, and iron filings
Figure 7.20 Magnetic field
Procedure:
1. Place the bar magnet horizontally on the table.
2. Now place the white sheet of sufficient size on the magnet such that
magnet will be in center of white sheet.
3. Now sprinkle the iron filling slowly and gently on the center of the sheet
such that it will fall on magnets.

Question:
1. What do you observe on the white sheet?
2. What is your conclusion from this experiment?
7.6.2. Use of magnet
🔄 Can you mention some uses of a magnet?

Magnets can have a variety of shapes depending upon their uses. Today,
magnets are used in many machines and appliances or devices. They are all
man-mad magnets.
When a piece of magnet hung freely, always settled

in the north-south direction. This settlement used
for finding the directions while travelling through
unknown regions.
Figure 7.21 Directions in which the magnet settles
Bar magnets, disc magnets, horse-shoe magnets, ring-shaped magnets,

cylindrical magnets are the different shapes of magnets in everyday use.
🔄 Where and how are magnets used in our houses and our surroundings?
Magnets have very wide range of uses:
• Magnetic compass: With the help of a magnetic compass, you can

know the directions at a particular place.
• Magnets in daily life: Magnets are used in refrigerator doors, as

pin holders, in screw-drivers, etc.
230 Magnetism
Grade 8
• Magnet in junkyard: In the junk yard, a large magnet is attached

at the bottom of the arm of a crane and that collects objects made
of iron.
• Magnet in electrical appliances: such as electric bells, telephone,

telegraph, radio, loudspeaker, fans, electrical motors, electric
generator, etc.
Exercise 7.6
I. Choose the correct answer.

1. A magnet is made of:
A. rubber C. aluminum
B. copper D. iron
2. The two ends of a magnet are called

A. pole C. South
B. strength D. North
II. Write true or false.

1. Magnets are made up of magnetic materials.
2. Magnetic materials are those which are attracted by a magnet.
3. Iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are non-magnetic material.
4. If a material sticks to a magnet, then it is a non-magnetic material.
5. The pole that point towards the geographic north is the North-pole
of the magnet.
III. Answer the following question.

1. What are magnetic lines of force?
2. List properties of a magnet.

🔒🔑 KEY TERMS
artificial or man- 🔑🔑 noise pollution
🔑🔑 made source
conduction 🔑
🔑🔑
non-luminous objects
opaque light
🔑🔑 Conductors
convection
🔑🔑
plan mirror
radiation
🔑🔑 dispersion of light
echo
🔑🔑
reflected ray
reflection
🔑🔑 Heat
incident light
🔑🔑
refraction
sound energy
🔑🔑 Insulators
luminous objects
natural source of 🔑
sources of light
translucent
transparent
light
SUMMARY
ʯ A substance that emits light is a source of light.
ʯ The natural sources of light are the sun, the stars and fireflies.
ʯ White sunlight contains seven colors.
ʯ The material through which light passes is said to be transparent.
ʯ Refraction causes images to form in our eyes and a rainbow to take place.
ʯ The band of seven colors of light is called the spectrum of light.
ʯ Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our
ears.
ʯ Sounds are made when objects vibrate.
ʯ Pleasant sound can be defined as the sound which feels us happy.
ʯ Convection occurs only in liquids and gases.
ʯ Radiation needs no material medium to transfer heat energy.
ʯ Heat from the Sun reaches us by radiation
ʯ Electric circuit is a complete path along which current flows.
ʯ The material to which objects made from iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. get attracted
is called a ‘magnet’. This property of a material is called ‘magnetism’.
232 Magnetism
Grade 8
REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is
wrong.
1. When white light passes through a prism, it gets deviated but not dispersed.
2. Objects that do not have light of their own are called non-luminous
objects.
3. Image formed by a plane mirror is inverted.
4. The image formed by a plane mirror is due to refraction of light.
5. Sound travel faster in air, slower in iron.
6. Sound does not travel through vacuum.
II. Directions: Match the medium of heat transfer given in

column “B” with the mechanism of heat transfer given
in column “A”
column “A” column “B”
1. Conduction A. Requires no medium
2. Convection B. Solids
3. Radiation C. Liquids
III. Choose the best answer among of the given alternatives

1. Which one of the following is the natural source of light?
A. electric bulb C. tube light
B. sun D. moon
2. The object which does not have light of its own is

A. shining mirror C. star
B. light bulb D. lighted match box
3. The splitting of white light into its constituent colors is called

A. refraction C. deviation
B. dispersion. D. displacement.
4. Light travels in;

A. straight line C. zigzag line
B. curved line D. randomly
5. A simple device that is used to either break or complete the electric circuit?
A. switch C. current
B. terminal D. conductor
IV.Answer the following questions

1. What is ‘white light’?
2. What is the order of colors in a spectrum of ‘white light’?
3. What is the difference between sound and noise?
4. List sources of noise pollution.
234 Magnetism
Grade 8
GLOSSARY
AC (Alternating current): is an electric current that periodically reverses
its direction,
Acid rain: a result of air pollution by pollutants such as sulfur dioxide.
Alkali: is a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dissolved in
water.
Anion: an ion with a net negative charge
Appendicular skeleton: is the appendage of the skeletal system.
Asteroid belt: is a torus-shaped region in the Solar System, located roughly
between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars.
Astronomical unit: is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the
Sun and equal to about 150 million kilometers.
Atomic mass: The mass of an atom in atomic mass units.
Cartilage: is a flexible connective tissue found in many parts of the body.
Cation: an ion with a net positive charge.
Concave Mirror: If a hollow sphere is cut into parts and the outer surface
of the cut part is painted, then it becomes a mirror with its inner
surface as the reflecting surface. This type of mirror is known as a
concave mirror.
Convex Mirror: If the cut part of the hollow sphere is painted from inside,
then its outer surface becomes the reflecting surface. This kind
of mirror is known as a convex mirror.
Cranial bones: are parts of the skull serving as brain case.
Cuboidal cell: an epithelial cell that shaped like a cube. Synonyms (one of
the closely packed cells forming the epithelium).
DC (direct current): is an electric current only flows in a single direction
which cannot change sporadically.
Decomposition: is the reduction of the body of a formerly living organism
into simpler forms of matter.

Epithelium: is a type of body tissue that forms the covering on all internal
and external surfaces of your body, lines body cavities and hollow
organs and is the major tissue in glands.
Humification: is a process of formation of humic substances (organic matter
that has reached maturity) decomposed from plant remains
Diminished image: the image formed is smaller than the object,
Ecto-parasites: are parasites living on external body of the host are
Endo-parasite: are parasites living inside the host
Enzyme : is a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms.
Erect image: is one that appears right-side up. An erect image is formed the
actual intersection of rays. It is an image in which directions are the
same as those in the object.
Femur: is the only bone in the thigh and the longest bone in the body.
Fertilizers: are substances that can be added to the soil to improve its fertility,
growth of crop and yield.
Frequency of oscillation: is simply the number of oscillations performed
by the particle in one second.
Hair shaft: is the non-growing portion of a hair which protrudes from the skin.
Hypothesis: is an idea that is suggested as an explanation for a natural event,
a particular experience, or a specific condition that can be tested
through definable experimentation.
Inverted image: means that the image is upside down when compared to
the object.
Limb: is one of the projecting paired appendages (such as wings) of an animal
body used especially for movement and grasping
Magnified image: the image formed is larger than the original object.
Mass : A measure of the quantity or amount of matter present in an object.
Menopause: is the age when menstrual cycle stops and marks the end of
giving birth.
Metacarpal: is a bone of the part of the hand or forefoot between the carpus
and the phalanges.
Phalanges: are the bones of the fingers and of the toes.
236 Magnetism
Grade 8
Prism: a transparent solid body, often having triangular bases, used for dispersin
light into a spectrum or for reflecting rays of light.
Product: The substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Prograde: In the Solar System, the orbits around the Sun of all planets and
most other objects, except many comets, are Prograde . (in the same
direction)
Protoplanetary disk: is a rotating circumstellar disc of dense gas and dust
surrounding a young newly formed star,
Radius: is the bone on the thumb side of the human forearm
Reactants: The starting substances in a chemical reaction.
Real image: is defined as one that is formed when rays of light are directed
in a fixed point. Areal image can be projected or seen on a screen.
Salts: are compounds that contain positive ions derived from bases and
negative ions derived from acids.
Saprophytic fungi: are organisms, especially a fungus that grows on and
derives its nourishment from dead or decaying organic matter.
Scientific investigation: is a systematic (organized) approach to answering
the unknown, solving a problem, or improving something.
Scientific method: is an organized or structured way or method to understand.
The scientific method is a process that is used to find answers to
questions about the world around us.
Shark: is any of numerous mostly marine cartilaginous fishes of medium to
large size body.
Stellar winds: are fast moving flows of material that are ejected from stars.
These winds are characterized by a continuous outflow of material
moving at speeds anywhere between 20 and 2,000 km/s.
Sterilization: the process of making something free from bacteria or other
living microorganisms.
Substance: A form of matter that has a definite or constant composition and
distinct properties.
Symbiosis: is interaction between two different organisms living in close
association, typically to the advantage of both.

Synodic month: is the period of time taken by the moon to make one complete
revolution around the earth, measured between two successive new
moons; (approximately 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds)
Tibia and Fibula: are the two long bones located in the lower leg.
Virtual image: refers to the image which forms when the light rays appear to
meet at definite point, after reflection from the mirror.
Visceral layer: the inner layer of an enveloping sac that lines the outer surface
of the enveloped structure or that lines the walls of the occupied
space or cavity.
Weathering: is the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
earth materials at or near the earth’s surface.
238 Magnetism
General Science
Student Textbook
Grade 8


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GENERAL SCIENCE

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

1. Cover the book with protective material, such as plas-

Reviewer Abraham Hailu (M.Sc.)

Team Leader Daniel Tona (M.Sc.)

Advisory and Quality Demissie Shimelis (M.Sc.)

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

This book is prepared by the Sidama National Regional State

Therefore, the Education Bureau would like to thank all

©The book is the official copyright of the Sidama Regional Education

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

restricted copying in Ethiopia by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Federal

Proclamation, 10 th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.

2014 E.C. Hawassa, Sidaama, Ethiopia

4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH 80

5. ECOSYSTEM AND CONSERVATION OF

UNIT SIX 173

6. THE SOLAR SYSTEM 173

1.1. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS

Discuss the following questions in group and present to

Science is a systematized knowledge arising from observation, study and

Perform the following activities in group and present to

1.1.1. Modern and Indigenous methods of

Measurement is an integral part of human race, without it there will be no trade,

1. indigenous methods of measurements, and

UNIT ONE: BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 3

1. Indigenous methods of measurements

Indigenous (traditional or local) methods of measurement are the methods of

I. Mass (m): Some of indigenous methods of mass measuring instruments

• dawulla: A measure of mass approximately equal to 50 kg.

🔄 How many kilograms are 4 dawulla?

Figure1.1 Azq Figure 1.2 Sinzer

iii. “Kend” in Amharic (“Cigile” in iv. “Aarb” in Amharic (“Hanqafo”

Figure 1.4 Aarb

Figure 1.5. Chamma

i. “tassa”, “ensira”, “gerewoina” and “gan” (in Amharic): these are

ii. “enqib” (in Amharic): A measure of volume used to measure grains.

2. Modern methods of measurements

🔄 Can you list some of the modern measuring instruments of Length?

Perform the following activity in group and present to the

🔄 What types of instruments do you use to measure the distance of a

II. Measuring Mass

✅ double beam balance, we can measure up to 1gm accurate.

Figure 1.8. Different types of Balances: A) Double beam balance B) Triple

III. Measuring Time

Figure 1.9 Watches: A) digital stop watch B) analog stop watch C)

IV. Measuring Volume

UNIT ONE: BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 7

Figure 1.10. Volume measuring instruments

1.1.2. Physical quantities

Discuss the following questions in groups and present to

A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified

Basic and Derived physical quantities

Table 1 Physical quantities

1.1.3. Prefixes and Conversion of basic units

Relationship between Units of length

✅ 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (10 cm) 2

✅ 1 kilometer = 1000 meters (10 m) 3

✅ 1 centimeter (1cm) = 10 millimeter (10mm)

4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH 80

UNIT SIX 173

6. THE SOLAR SYSTEM 173