Increasing Reading Fluency

17
Neil J. Anderson

The most important issue that should be addressed by researchers engaged in the
examination of reading fluency is the definition of reading fluency. The definition
must be clear and measureable.
Zadeh et al. (2012) emphasize in their work that for both first and second
language reading there is not an agreed upon definition of reading fluency. That can
be troublesome for researchers. However, it is clear when examining definitions of
reading fluency that researchers define it simply as the number of words read per
minute either silently or orally (Carver, 2000; Dubin & Bycina, 1991; Grabe &
Stoller, 2011; Jensen, 1986; Nuttall, 2007; Taguchi et al., 2006, 2012).
Grabe (2009) defines reading fluency as “the ability to read rapidly with ease and
accuracy, and to read with appropriate expression and phrasing” (p. 291). Note that
this definition highlights three elements of fluency. First, the idea of reading with
ease, points out the importance of automaticity. Second, accuracy assumes that we
recognize the words when we see them. Third, oral reading is key to this definition
of fluency. Notice what is lacking in this definition of reading fluency; there is no
explicit inclusion of comprehension while reading.
Anderson (2018) defines reading fluency as “reading at an appropriate rate with
adequate comprehension” (p. 2213). This definition is unique among definitions of
reading fluency for several reasons. First, it combines both reading rate and reading
comprehension in the definition. Anderson explains that various conditions deter-
mine appropriate rate and adequate comprehension. Variables such as whether the
subject is reading orally or silently must be considered. Also, the grade or age level
of the reader will also determine appropriate rate. Younger readers read slower than

N. J. Anderson (&)
Department of English Language Teaching & Learning, Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Laie,
HI, USA
e-mail: neil.anderson@byuh.edu

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 91

H. Mohebbi and C. Coombe (eds.), Research Questions in Language
Education and Applied Linguistics, Springer Texts in Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79143-8_17
92 N. J. Anderson

older readers, both silently and orally. Adequate comprehension will be determined
by the reading purpose. Far too many readers assume they need to have 100%
comprehension of what they have read. That percentage of comprehension is rarely
needed for most reading tasks.
It is important to consider why the development of reading rate should be
considered in isolation of reading comprehension. Is there a scenario in the real
world of reading when we would give preference to reading rate with no expec-
tation of comprehension? The reverse question is also relevant. Is there a scenario in
the real world of reading when we desire 100% comprehension and at the same
time we do not care how long it takes an individual to reach that level of com-
prehension? Refer to Anderson (2018) for additional explanations of appropriate
rate and adequate comprehension.
Zadeh et al. (2012) give support to Anderson’s (2018) definition when they point
out that the frameworks that predict successful reading suggest “that it may be of
theoretical value to consider an expanded [simple view of reading] framework, in
which reading fluency (rate) and reading comprehension are treated as distinct, yet
related, parallel outcome behaviors” (p. 167). Because reading rate and reading
fluency are “distinct, yet related” (p. 167) behaviors, both could be combined into a
single definition of reading fluency.

The Research Questions

1. Based on a careful review of publications, what is the strongest definition of

reading fluency?
2. Should reading rate be separated from reading comprehension in order to better
understand the relationships between the two critical components of reading?
3. Using Anderson’s (2018) four quadrants of reading fluency, what are typical
movement patterns through the quadrants?
4. What is the minimal reading fluency that a second language learner of English
should have to successfully navigate through college/university reading
assignments?
5. How does silent reading fluency differ from oral reading fluency for the same
individuals?
6. Does reading fluency vary by language proficiency level?
7. How does reading fluency vary across learners when reading online versus
reading hard copy?
8. How long does it take to break the cycle of word-by-word reading to fluent
reading?
9. How does reading fluency correlate with course grades for students at different
levels of academic achievement?
10. What classroom pedagogical activities could teachers draw upon to facilitate
the development of reading fluency?
17 Increasing Reading Fluency 93

Suggested Resources

Anderson, N. J. (2018). (Ed.). The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language

Teaching, Volume IV, Teaching Reading, 1st Edition. Edited by John I.
Liontas (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini) Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
This resource is key to success in both L2 reading research and classroom peda-
gogical practices. As noted earlier, various factors ultimately influence the devel-
opment of reading fluency (as defined by Anderson). This volume of the TESOL
Encyclopedia includes 39 entries on a variety of second language reading topics
central to research and pedagogical instruction. Researchers may want to review
each entry to determine the impact each has on the development of reading fluency.
Each entry follows a consistent format: framing the issue, making the case, peda-
gogical implications, references, and suggested readings. The entries could play a
key role in using appropriate classroom activities to then research the impact on
reading fluency.
Evans, N., Anderson, N. J., & Eggington, W. (Eds.) (2015). ESL readers and
writers in higher education: Understanding challenges, providing support. New
York, NY: Routledge.
This resource is valuable for researchers focusing on university learners of English
as a second/foreign language. The 15 chapters focus on challenges that readers (and
writers) face in university contexts and what support can be provided by institutions
to address the challenges. This resource is valuable for researchers because of the
contextual variables that influence the development of reading in adult learners. The
support provided within university contexts could be a factor that ultimately
influences reading fluency.
Anderson provides a key chapter in this volume that focuses on the academic
reading expectations and challenges of university readers. Data gathered from 114
university departments across five majors resulted in the identification of 12 overall
reading expectations that faculty have of readers and 15 challenges that faculty
view in their learners.
Grabe, W. & Stoller, F. L. (2011). Teaching and researching reading (2nd ed.).
Harlow, UK: Pearson.
Grabe and Stoller provide an extremely valuable resource on both aspects of
teaching and researching reading. It is important for both of these areas to be
combined. Research should inform effective classroom practices and the realities of
classroom practices should inform research. This resource allows us to keep both
perspectives in mind.
The book is divided into five sections: understanding L2 reading, exploring
research in reading, teaching reading using evidence-based practices, investigating
reading through action research, and resources. The area of reading fluency is
addressed within the section on action research. Key questions related to word
94 N. J. Anderson

recognition, oral reading and classroom practices are addressed in the chapter on
reading fluency that can help inform any research project examining the questions
raised in this entry.
Newton, J. M., Ferris, D. R., Goh, C. C. M., Grabe, W., Stoller, F. L., &
Vandergrift, L. (2018). Teaching English to second language learners in aca-
demic contexts. New York, NY: Routledge.
Developing reading fluency while engaged in academic reading is extremely
challenging, thus the need for examining this language skill and the need for
additional research on this topic. One short section addresses the question of how
fluent should L2 readers become. The authors suggest that reading at 200
words-per-minute is an appropriate goal to work towards, but they also recognize
that when reading difficult texts, as in academic contexts, L2 readers will read
slower just as L1 readers read more slowly when reading difficult texts.
In terms of building an effective reading curriculum, the authors suggest one (of
12) key principles that should be considered: Reading fluency—at word and pas-
sage levels—is essential for efficient reading comprehension abilities. One essential
element addressed in this principle is that readers will vary their reading rate
depending of the reading purpose. That is an important element to keep in mind
when engaging in research on reading fluency.
Zadeh, Z. Y, Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2012). Toward modeling reading com-
prehension and reading fluency in English language learners. Reading &
Writing, 25, 163–187.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9252-0
This research article is valuable because of its focus on the simple view of reading
(SVR) and the initial development of reading fluency and reading comprehension in
young second language learners. The study follows 179 language learners from first
grade through third grade (n = 308 in first grade, but due to attrition data was
available from only 179 participants in year three). This article emphasizes the
central role of phonological awareness, naming speed, and oral language in the
long-term development of reading fluency and reading comprehension. Perhaps one
of the most important outcomes of this research is the importance of early identi-
fication of foundational components of reading success even before reading prob-
lems emerge in second language readers.

References
Anderson, N. J. (2018). Silent reading fluency. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of
English Language Teaching (1st ed., pp. 2212–2221) (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini;
Volume Editor Neil J Anderson), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Carver, R. P. (2000). The causes of high and low reading achievement. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Dubin F., & Bycina, D. (1991). Academic reading and the L2/EFL teacher. In M. Celce-Murcia
(Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed., pp. 195–215). Newbury
House.
17 Increasing Reading Fluency 95

Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge
University Press.
Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. (2011). Teaching and researching reading (2nd ed.). Longman.
Jensen, L. (1986). Advanced reading skills in a comprehension course. In F. Dubin, D. E. Eskey,
& W. Grabe (Eds.), Teaching second language reading for academic purposes (pp. 103–124).
Additions-Wesley Publishing.
Nuttall, C. (2007). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (3rd ed.). Heinemann.
Taguchi, E., Gorsuch, G., & Sasamoto, E. (2006). Developing second and foreign language
reading fluency and its effect on comprehension: A missing link. The Reading Matrix, 6, 1–18.
Taguchi, E., Gorsuch, G., Takayasu-Maass, M., & Snipp, K. (2012). Assisted repeated reading
with an advanced-level Japanese EFL reader: A longitudinal diary study. Reading in a Foreign
Language, 24, 30–55. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2012/
Zadeh, Z. Y., Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2012). Toward modeling reading comprehension and reading
fluency in English language learners. Reading & Writing, 25, 163–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11145-010-9252-0

Neil J Anderson is a Professor of English Language Teaching and Learning at Brigham Young
University–Hawaii. Professor Anderson is the author/co-editor of over 50 books, book chapters,
and journal articles. His interests include second language reading, language learner strategies,
learner self-assessment, motivation in language teaching and learning, and ELT leadership
development. Professor Anderson served as President of TESOL International Association from
2001–2002. He was a Fulbright Teaching and Research Scholar in Costa Rica (2002–2003) and in
Guatemala (2009–2010). Professor Anderson was the 2014 recipient of the TESOL International
Association James E. Alatis Service Award. In 2016, Professor Anderson was recognized as one of
the 50 individuals who has made a significant contribution to the profession of teaching English to
speakers of other languages.