This test includes Plate tectonics, Sediments and Soils, Sedimentary Rocks, and Metamorphism

To practice for this test, please read the textbook, PowerPoint slides (both text and listen to my narration),
summary for each chapter, and study the following questions!

Plate Tectonics

1. What evidence did Alfred Wegener use to support his continental-drift hypothesis and the formation and
break-up of Pangaea? Was the evidence compelling? Why or why not?

ANS:
Wegener’s evidence for his continental-drift hypothesis included the fit of the continents, locations of past
glaciations, distribution of climate belts in the past, distribution of fossils, and matching geologic units.
These distributions made sense if the continents were not separated, but instead were joined together as
one supercontinent that he called Pangaea. Pangaea later broke apart and was split by the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans. His evidence was compelling because it explained many observations, but it lacked a
mechanism to move continents through the oceans.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.2

OBJ: 2A. Explain Alfred Wegener's continental-drift hypothesis and the evidence he used to show that it
takes place. MSC: Evaluating

2. Describe the process of seafloor spreading, making sure to address why the diameter of the Earth is not
growing.

ANS:
Magma rises and erupts onto the surface at mid-ocean ridges, forming new oceanic crust. The new crust
slowly moves the plates apart. Because this is balanced by the return of old oceanic crust into the Earth’s
interior during subduction, the Earth is not actually growing in size.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.3

OBJ: 2B. List observations from studies of the ocean floor that led Harry Hess to propose seafloor
spreading. MSC: Applying

3. Describe how the thickness and age of sediments on the seafloor change with distance from a mid-ocean
ridge. What can be learned from this?

ANS:
Seafloor sediments everywhere are too thin to have been accumulating for the entirety of the Earth’s
history. They are thickest at the margins of continents and thinnest near the mid-ocean ridge axes, and
become thicker with increasing distance from the ridge. The deepest sediments are older at locations
further from ridges. These observations support seafloor spreading. As new oceanic crust moves away
from the ridge, sediments begin to accumulate. The older the oceanic crust becomes, the more sediment
accumulates.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.3

OBJ: 2B. List observations from studies of the ocean floor that led Harry Hess to propose seafloor
spreading. MSC: Evaluating

4. What are magnetic anomalies? Why are these important supports for the theory of seafloor spreading?
 ANS:
Magnetic anomalies are the differences between the expected strength of the Earth’s magnetic field at a
location and the observed strength of the magnetic field at that location. Field strengths that are greater
than expected are positive anomalies, whereas field strengths that are less than expected are negative
anomalies. These anomalies are recorded in igneous rocks, including seafloor basalts. There are
symmetrical patterns of magnetic anomalies recorded in seafloor basalts on either side of mid-ocean
ridges. This tells us that new oceanic lithosphere is continually being created at mid-ocean ridges and
pushed apart; ridges are the locations of seafloor spreading.

DIF: Difficult REF: 2.4

OBJ: 2C. Explain how studies of paleomagnetism and marine magnetic anomalies prove continental
drift and seafloor spreading. MSC: Evaluating

5. What does the distribution of earthquakes around the globe tell us about plate tectonics? How do
earthquakes differ among the three types of plate boundaries?

ANS:
Earthquakes do not occur randomly and are not evenly distributed. They occur in distinct zones along
seismic belts. These belts coincide with all three types of plate boundaries. Convergent boundaries show
deep earthquakes that follow the path of the subducting plate. Transform boundaries have movement that
is horizontal and not vertical. Divergent boundaries have earthquakes and faults that result from tension
(pulling apart).

DIF: Difficult REF: 2.5

OBJ: 2E. Use a map of earthquakes to locate plate boundaries and triple junctions. | 2F. Distinguish
among the three types of plate boundaries, and characterize geologic features associated with each.
MSC: Analyzing

6. Why is it possible for oceanic lithosphere to subduct under continental lithosphere at a convergent
boundary but continental lithosphere cannot subduct under oceanic lithosphere?

ANS:
Although the mantle portions of oceanic and continental lithosphere are similar in composition and
thickness, the crustal portion of continental lithosphere is much thicker and lower in density than oceanic
crust. As a result, continental lithosphere is too buoyant to sink into the asthenosphere, while oceanic
lithosphere is actually more dense than asthenosphere and can subduct. If continental and oceanic
lithosphere meet at a convergent boundary, it is always the oceanic lithosphere that will subduct.

DIF: Difficult REF: 2.7

OBJ: 2D. Sketch a cross section of the lithosphere, and contrast oceanic and continental lithosphere. |
2F. Distinguish among the three types of plate boundaries, and characterize geologic features associated
with each. MSC: Analyzing

7. Compare and contrast a convergent boundary involving two continental plates with a convergent
boundary involving two oceanic plates.

ANS:
At an ocean–ocean convergent plate boundary, one of the oceanic plates will be subducted beneath the
other and island arc volcanism will result. At a continent-continent plate boundary, subduction cannot
take place because continental crust cannot be subducted. Collision and mountain building take place
instead.
 DIF: Medium REF: 2.7
OBJ: 2F. Distinguish among the three types of plate boundaries, and characterize geologic features
associated with each. | 2G. Discuss rifting, continental collision, and hot-spot formation, and show where
these processes happen today. MSC: Analyzing

8. What are deep sea trenches and volcanic island arcs, and why are these features commonly adjacent to
each other?

ANS:
Deep sea trenches are elongate troughs of very deep ocean, and represent where the subducting plate
bends downward under the overriding plate. Volcanic island arcs are lines of islands with active
volcanoes that are supplied by magma created during subduction; the magma rises through the overriding
plate to create a line of volcanoes. Trenches and arcs are adjacent because they are parallel features
associated with subduction zones.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.7

OBJ: 2F. Distinguish among the three types of plate boundaries, and characterize geologic features
associated with each. MSC: Understanding

9. How can hot-spot volcanoes be used to measure past plate velocities?

ANS:
Hot-spot volcanic islands form on the surface of the Earth directly above hot spots. As tectonic plates
slowly move over time, these volcanic islands are moved away from the hot spot. The volcanic islands
become extinct and slowly subside below sea level, becoming seamounts. The chain of inactive volcanic
islands and seamounts is known as a hot-spot track. Using the ages and distances between the islands and
seamounts, average plate velocity can be calculated.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.9 | 2.11

OBJ: 2G. Discuss rifting, continental collision, and hot-spot formation, and show where these processes
happen today.| 2H. Characterize the processes driving plate motion, the rates at which this motion takes
place, and how rates can be measured. MSC: Applying

10. How does continental rifting lead to the formation of a new plate boundary and new ocean basin?

ANS:
During rifting, continental lithosphere is pulled apart to create a low area called a rift valley. This leads to
faulting and eruption of volcanoes in the rift valley. If rifting continues, the continental lithosphere is fully
split into two pieces separated by an ocean. The volcanoes in the rift valley become a new mid-ocean
ridge, and seafloor spreading creates new oceanic lithosphere between the split pieces of continental
lithosphere.

DIF: Medium REF: 2.10

OBJ: 2G. Discuss rifting, continental collision, and hot-spot formation, and show where these processes
happen today. MSC: Evaluating

Sediments and Soil

1. Describe the difference between sediment and soil.

ANS:
Sediment consists of loose broken rock, mineral, or shell fragments. Soil contains sediment that has been
progressively broken down and mixed with organic materials and water to form a substrate that can
sustain life.

DIF: Medium REF: B.1 | B.3

OBJ: IB B. Explain how weathering produces sediment. | IB D. Appraise factors that affect the character
and thickness of soil. MSC: Analyzing

2. What are some differences and similarities between physical and chemical weathering? Make sure to
address both what is the same and what is different.

ANS:
Physical and chemical weathering both work to break down rocks into smaller pieces. Physical
weathering involves the mechanical breaking of rocks by jointing or wedging processes; however, there is
no alteration of the mineral makeup of the rock. Chemical weathering involves breaking up a rock by
changing the chemical makeup of the rock. Chemical weathering involves the dissolving of minerals to
form ions in solution or the stripping away of electrons from atoms during the oxidation process, both of
which change the chemical makeup of the rock.

DIF: Easy REF: B.2

OBJ: IB A. Describe the changes that rocks undergo at and near the Earth’s surface due to weathering. |
IB B. Explain how weathering produces sediment. MSC: Analyzing

3. Describe how physical and chemical weathering can work together to break down rocks.

ANS:
If a rock is broken apart mechanically, there is more surface area exposed to the elements. With more
surface area exposed, chemical weathering has more surface area to attack. This in turn weakens the rocks
and makes it easier for the physical weathering processes to continue, thus creating even more surface
area for chemical weathering. By working together, physical and chemical weathering speed up the
breakdown of rocks into sediment.

DIF: Medium REF: B.2 OBJ: IB B. Explain how weathering produces sediment.
MSC: Applying

4. Label the different soil horizons on the image below, then provide a brief description of each horizon next
to the corresponding layer.
ANS:
See the image below for correct labels. Soil horizon descriptions: The O-horizon is the thin top layer that
contains mainly organic material. The A-horizon contains more heavily decayed organic material mixed
with clay, silt, and sand. The E-horizon has been extensively leached and contains little to no organic
material. The B-horizon is where ions and clays that were leached from the O-, A-, and E-horizons
accumulate. The C-horizon contains weathered bedrock but has not been subjected to leaching or
accumulation. Below the C-horizon is coherent bedrock.

DIF: Difficult REF: B.3

OBJ: IB C. Recognize the basic components and layers of soil.
 MSC: Applying

5. List one factor that controls the thickness of soil and describe how this factor controls soil thickness.

ANS:
Answers will vary but may include the following:

Climate controls soil thickness by controlling the amount of rainfall and temperature of an area; the
more humid and warm an area is the more likely it will have plentiful chemical weathering and plants and
microbes to produce organic material.

The composition of the rock on which the soil forms will control the thickness because different
minerals have different resistances to weathering. Thus, a quartz sandstone is highly resistant to
weathering and will form a very thin soil.

The steeper a slope, the thinner the soil will be because the newly weathering rock is more likely to be
washed downslope and away from the area.

Wet soils will be thicker for several reasons, including the high rate of chemical weathering, large
amount of vegetation growing in the area, and high percentage of microbes and other organisms available
to aid in decomposition of material.

Soil takes time to develop; thus, the older a soil is the thicker it will be.

The types of plants and organisms in an area will control soil thickness because more plants mean more
organic material, and more plentiful organisms that aid in decomposition of matter will produce more
organic material.

DIF: Medium REF: B.3

OBJ: IB D. Appraise factors that affect the character and thickness of soil.
MSC: Applying

Sedimentary Rocks

1. Which of the three types of rock would you expect to be most abundant at the Earth’s surface? Why?
How does this relate to how these rocks form?

ANS:
Sedimentary rocks are expected to be the most abundant on the surface of the Earth because they form at
or near the surface of the Earth. Sedimentary rocks form a “cover” that buries the underlying “basement”
of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

DIF: Easy REF: 6.1

OBJ: 6A. Distinguish among various classes of sedimentary rocks.
MSC: Applying

2. Describe the difference between lithification and diagenesis.

ANS:
 Lithification is the transformation of loose sediment into intact sedimentary rock via compaction and
cementation. Diagenesis is the process (chemical, biological, or physical) by which any sedimentary rock
is produced.

DIF: Medium REF: 6.2 | 6.5

OBJ: 6A. Distinguish among various classes of sedimentary rocks. | 6B. Explain how clastic
sedimentary rocks form, and how to recognize and name major types.
MSC: Analyzing

3. What are the steps involved in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rock?

ANS:
Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by the following steps: weathering of the Earth’s materials,
downslope movement and erosion, transportation, deposition, and finally lithification as a sedimentary
rock.

DIF: Medium REF: 6.2

OBJ: 6B. Explain how clastic sedimentary rocks form, and how to recognize and name major types.
MSC: Applying

4. What attributes would a clastic sedimentary rock have if it had traveled far from its source and was
carried in a current with uniform energy?

ANS:
A clastic rock that had traveled far from its source and was carried in a uniform energy current would
have well-rounded, well-sorted sediment that would contain very stable minerals such as quartz.

DIF: Medium REF: 6.2 |6.4

OBJ: 6B. Explain how clastic sedimentary rocks form, and how to recognize and name major types.
MSC: Analyzing

5. In which of the following three basin types might you be able to find oil forming and why? Rift basin,
passive-margin basin, and foreland basin.

ANS:
Passive-margin basins are formed in shallow-marine environments, which would allow for the
accumulation of organic-rich sediments. Over time, the organic-rich material could potentially turn into
oil.

DIF: Difficult REF: 6.2 |6.5

OBJ: 6C. Describe the role of life in the production of rocks such as limestone and coal. | 6F. Discuss
why thick accumulations of sedimentary rock can be found only in certain locations.
MSC: Analyzing

6. Limestone can be either a biochemical or a chemical sedimentary rock. Explain how both types of
limestone are formed. Make sure to describe the environments in which they were formed.

ANS:
 Fossiliferous limestone is a type of biochemical limestone consisting of shells or shell fragments. It is
generally formed in shallow marine environments, often near reefs. Travertine is a type of chemical
limestone consisting of crystalline calcium carbonate. It can be formed in several ways, one of which is in
caves as speleothems or other cave formations. Travertine can also be formed along carbonate terraces
such as those found near hot springs.

DIF: Difficult REF: 6.2| 6.4

OBJ: 6C. Describe the role of life in the production of rocks such as limestone and coal. | 6E. Recognize
the shapes and textures preserved in sedimentary rocks that reflect depositional environments. MSC:
Applying

7. Describe a rock formation that is bedded. How might this formation have formed?

ANS:
Student answers might be similar to the following:
These beds formed as layers of sedimentary materials accumulated in a changing fluvial environment.
Under normal conditions (slower speeds), silt is deposited. During flood conditions (faster speeds) larger
sediments can be carried by the current and sand/gravel is deposited.

DIF: Medium REF: 6.2 | 6.3

OBJ: 6D. Produce a model to illustrate how the layering (bedding) in sedimentary rock develops.
MSC: Analyzing

8. Notice the turbidity current in the image below. Briefly describe and sketch the deposit that will result.

ANS:
As the turbidity current slows, larger grains will settle first, followed by progressively finer grains. A
graded bed will result.

DIF: Difficult REF: 6.3

OBJ: 6E. Recognize the shapes and textures preserved in sedimentary rocks that reflect depositional
environments. MSC: Applying
 9. What is an alluvial fan? How is it different from a marine delta?

ANS:
An alluvial fan is a wedge-shaped accumulation of sediment (usually sand and gravel) deposited in an
arid environment, typically at the edge of a mountain front where fast-moving streams empty onto a plain.
A marine delta is an accumulation of sediment where a river enters the sea.

DIF: Easy REF: 6.4

OBJ: 6E. Recognize the shapes and textures preserved in sedimentary rocks that reflect depositional
environments. MSC: Applying

10. How are a marine transgression and regression different? What happens to the shoreline in each?

ANS:
Transgressions involve relative sea level rise, which consequently causes a coastline to migrate landward.
A regression involves sea level fall, which results in the coastline migrating seaward.

DIF: Medium REF: 6.5

OBJ: 6F. Discuss why thick accumulations of sedimentary rock can be found only in certain locations.
MSC: Analyzing

Metamorphism

1. Metamorphism includes a solid-state change in a rock caused by heat, pressure, and/or hydrothermal
fluids. Explain what is meant by a solid-state change.

ANS:
A solid-state change takes place when all changes in size, shape, or composition of minerals occur while
the rock remains solid. The rock does not form from a melt, nor has it been melted or weathered into a
solution.

DIF: Easy REF: 7.1

OBJ: 7A. Define metamorphism, and characterize the changes that a rock undergoes during the
transformation of a protolith into a metamorphic rock. MSC: Understanding

2. Examine the photomicrograph of a metamorphic rock below. Label the direction of the greatest
compressive stress and the direction of preferred mineral orientation that created the foliation in the rock.
 ANS:

See the image above. Arrows indicate stress orientation.

DIF: Medium REF: 7.2

OBJ: 7D. Recognize the occurrence of foliation, and distinguish among different types of foliation.
MSC: Applying

3. What is slaty cleavage and how does it form? Contrast the form of bedding planes in slate’s protolith
versus cleavage planes in a slate.

ANS:
 Slate cleavage is a type of foliation that allows slate to break into thin sheets, typically oriented at a high
angle compared to the original bedding in the shale protolith. Slaty cleavage forms when clay grains not
aligned perpendicular to the direction of compression dissolve, while clay aligned perpendicular to
compression grow and recrystallize.

DIF: Medium REF: 7.2 | 7.3

OBJ: 7C. Contrast a metamorphic mineral assemblage with the assemblage of a protolith, and contrast a
metamorphic texture with the texture of a protolith. | 7D. Recognize the occurrence of foliation, and
distinguish among different types of foliation. MSC: Understanding

4. What is an index mineral? What do metamorphic isograds indicate? What is a metamorphic zone?

ANS:
An index mineral is a mineral that forms under a specific range of metamorphic conditions and is thus
indicative of those conditions. Isograds are lines drawn on a geologic map to indicate the location at
which index minerals first appear. A metamorphic zone is the region between two isograds and represents
an area of metamorphic rock of a given grade.

DIF: Medium REF: 7.3

OBJ: 7C. Contrast a metamorphic mineral assemblage with the assemblage of a protolith, and contrast a
metamorphic texture with the texture of a protolith. | 7G. Describe how the character of a metamorphic
rock reflects the grade of metamorphism and how metamorphic grade depends on temperature and
pressure. MSC: Understanding

5. Describe the similarities and differences between schist and phyllite.

ANS:
Schist and phyllite are both foliated metamorphic rocks containing platy mica grains such as muscovite
and biotite. Phyllite is a lower-grade metamorphic rock and thus the mica grains are finer (smaller). Schist
is a higher grade of metamorphic rock and thus the mica grains are coarser (larger).

DIF: Easy REF: 7.3

OBJ: 7D. Recognize the occurrence of foliation, and distinguish among different types of foliation. | 7E.
Identify and name examples of metamorphic rock, and explain how these rocks differ from one another.
MSC: Understanding

6. During dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism, several metamorphic processes are at work. Describe
these processes and the effects they might have on rocks subjected to this type of metamorphism.

ANS:
Dynamothermal metamorphism occurs in the cores of mountain ranges and subjects rocks to changes in
heat, pressure, and preferential stresses. Temperatures increase within the cores of mountains as a result
of the geothermal gradient and igneous intrusions. This causes changes in the mineral assemblages of the
rocks including recrystallization and neocrystallization. Rocks within mountain cores are also subjected to
high pressures and stresses as a result of increased overburden, and compressive and shear stresses. The
stresses and pressure on the rocks works to align minerals (by rotation and plastic deformation) to the
preferred orientation (foliation) and may also cause pressure solution to occur along grain boundaries.

DIF: Difficult REF: 7.4

OBJ: 7B. Explain the key processes that can take place during metamorphism. | 7F. Relate kinds of
metamorphism to various geologic settings in the context of plate tectonics theory.
 MSC: Analyzing

7. Metamorphic grade describes the intensity or degree of metamorphism. The metamorphic grade of a rock
is determined mainly by the temperature and amount of recrystallization or neocrystallization to which a
rock is subjected. Starting from the protolith, list the following rocks in order from low-grade to high-
grade metamorphic rocks, then describe the changes seen in the suite of rocks as the grade is increased:
gneiss, migmatite, phyllite, schist, shale, and slate.

ANS:
The protolith is shale, and the order from low grade to high grade is: slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, and
migmatite. The changes seen in these rocks as they progress from low-grade to high-grade are primarily
in mineral assemblage and grain size. At the lowest grade, slate contains clay minerals that are
preferentially aligned with each other (and the stress direction). As the metamorphic grade increases to
phyllite, the clay minerals begin to recrystallize as mica minerals; however, they remain very small. As
the rock progresses to schist, the mica minerals continue to grow larger and begin to form a series of
wavy layers referred to as a schistose texture (varying schistosity). In addition, it is common to have new
minerals form as porphyroblasts. The jump from schist to gneiss shows a separation of light-colored and
dark-colored minerals into distinct color bands. Felsic minerals such as quartz and feldspar grow larger as
well. If the temperature reaches a bit past the melting point of felsic minerals, then the rock becomes a
migmatite, with light-colored layers of much larger felsic crystals that have been partially melted and
recrystallized.

DIF: Difficult REF: 7.4

OBJ: 7E. Identify and name examples of metamorphic rock, and explain how these rocks differ from
one another. | 7G. Describe how the character of a metamorphic rock reflects the grade of metamorphism
and how metamorphic grade depends on temperature and pressure.
MSC: Analyzing

8. What metamorphic facies would most commonly be associated with a subduction zone and why?

ANS:
In subduction zones, temperatures remain relatively low and higher pressure is the main agent of
metamorphism. These conditions are the reason that blueschist facies rocks commonly form in these
environments (accretionary prisms overlying the subducting slab).

DIF: Medium REF: 7.4

OBJ: 7E. Identify and name examples of metamorphic rock, and explain how these rocks differ from
one another. | 7F. Relate kinds of metamorphism to various geologic settings in the context of plate
tectonics theory. MSC: Analyzing

9. What distinguishes metamorphic grade from metamorphic facies?

ANS:
Metamorphic grade is a somewhat informal term that indicates the amount of metamorphism that has
occurred, reflecting the temperature and pressure conditions that led to metamorphism. Low grade
metamorphic rock have been subjected to relatively low temperatures and/or pressures, while higher-
grade rocks were subjected to higher temperatures. Metamorphic facies are named for a set of minerals
assemblages of that form under particular conditions of pressure and temperature.

DIF: Easy REF: 7.4

OBJ: 7G. Describe how the character of a metamorphic rock reflects the grade of metamorphism and
 how metamorphic grade depends on temperature and pressure. MSC: Understanding

10. What is a metamorphic aureole? What is the relationship between grade of metamorphism and proximity
to the intrusion? What types of conditions are responsible for the formation of an aureole?

ANS:
A metamorphic aureole is a zone of altered (metamorphosed) rock that forms adjacent to an igneous
intrusion. Each layer of the aureole has progressively lower-grade metamorphism the farther it is from the
intrusion. The metamorphism created by the intrusion is called thermal metamorphism or contact
metamorphism. This type of metamorphism takes place in the absence of change in pressure with an
increase in temperature.

DIF: Medium REF: 7.4

OBJ: 7F. Relate kinds of metamorphism to various geologic settings in the context of plate tectonics
theory. MSC: Understanding