Accepted Manuscript

Origin of the mud volcanoes in the south east Caspian Basin, Iran

Hadi Omrani, Mostafa Raghimi

PII: S0264-8172(18)30214-9
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.05.017
Reference: JMPG 3347

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 1 December 2016

Revised Date: 2 May 2018
Accepted Date: 21 May 2018

Please cite this article as: Omrani, H., Raghimi, M., Origin of the mud volcanoes in the south east
Caspian Basin, Iran, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.05.017.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Origin of the Mud Volcanoes in the South East Caspian Basin, Iran

Hadi Omrania*; Mostafa Raghimib

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a,b
Department of Geology, Golestan University, 4913815759 Gorgan, Iran

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*Corresponding Author

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h.Omrani@gu.ac.ir

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Abstract:

The Gorgan Plain (SE Caspian Basin) contains several mud volcanoes. The Gharenyaregh, Neftlijeh,
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Sofikam and Inche mud volcanoes are active and erupting mud and gas. Mud volcanoes occur in an area

characterized by seismic activity. The Sofikam mud volcano consists of five craters that define a NE-
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directed (60°) linear arrangement, which coincides with a subsurface anticline of the western Kopeh Dagh
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fold-thrust belt. The main craters of the Inche and Neftlijeh mud volcanoes are submerged. The

Gharenyaregh mud volcano is an active mud volcano whose crater is nearly 500 m in diameter. Clasts
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collected from the Gharenyaregh mud volcano (GMV) mainly consist of glauconite-sandstone, limestone

(±ammonite), marl, and fossiliferous limestone (lumachelle) with bioclasts ranging in size from
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millimeters to centimeters. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses revealed quartz, calcite, feldspar, chlorite,
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illite, glauconite, halite and gypsum minerals in the clasts and soft materials of the GMV. The clasts are

comparable with rock fragments originating from the underlying Kopeh Dagh related formations and the

uppermost Caspian basin sediments. Regression of the South Caspian Sea shoreline from east to west

(across modern-day Golestan province), seismic activity and buried folds indicate that the south east

Caspian basin mud volcanoes are located in a tectonically active area and generated from deeper parts of

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the Gorgan Plain. Some large, conical hills with a record of historical human activity, located between the

Kopeh Dagh zone and the South Caspian Sea, seem to be inactive mud volcanoes.

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Key words: Mud volcano, Ancient hills, Clast, Gorgan Plain, Iran.

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1. Introduction

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Mud volcanoes, like magmatic volcanoes, are a natural phenomenon that can give direct information

from beneath the Earth’s surface. Mud volcanoes have been reported from several different geologic

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settings, including: active subduction zones (e.g., Makran mud volcanoes: Delisle et al., 2002),
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compressive settings (e.g., South Caspian Sea: Bonini et al., 2013; Oppo et al., 2014), and environments

with high sedimentation rates (such as modern fans; e.g. Aslan et al., 2001). Approximately 80% of all
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mud volcanoes occur on convergent and transform continental margins (Milkov, 2005). Mud volcanoes,
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mud domes, sedimentary volcanoes and mud pies are terms that describe features where fluid-rich, fine-

grained sediments ascend through the upper lithologic succession (Kopf, 2002). Based on their outcrop
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structures, mud volcanoes are divided into mud pies and mud domes. ‘Mud pie’ refers to mud volcanoes

with a low cone slope (<5%), whereas the term ‘mud dome’ refers to structures with a higher slope (Kopf,
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2002). The size of a mud volcano is mainly a function of the size of the conduit and the driving force of

the mud volcanism in the area (Satyana and Asnidar, 2008), volumes and type of extruded sediments.
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Mud volcanoes can be essentially divided in two groups: those associated with magmatic complexes
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and those related to petroleum provinces (Mazzini, 2009). Several factors can trigger the generation of a

mud volcano, such as: 1) a rapid sedimentation rate; 2) a thick sedimentary cover; 3) the presence of a

plastic layer in the subsurface; 4) a high gas supply and petroleum potential; 5) abnormally high

formation pressure; 6) a compressional tectonic setting; 7) high seismicity; and 8) the occurrence of faults

(Milkov, 2000). The mentioned factors often don't occur all together. Gas supply is the most important

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factor. Mud volcanism is generally controlled by brittle elements (fault, joints) associated with fold

anticlines (Bonini, 2012). Depending on both the magnitude and epicentral distance, earthquakes with

magnitude Mw > 4 are considered sufficiently large to initiate mud volcano eruptions (Aliyev et al., 2003;

Wang and Manga, 2010). Mud volcanoes around the South Caspian Basin (SCB) are among the most

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important mud volcanoes in the world because of their frequency, relief, and oil/gas links (e.g. Yusifov

and Rabinowitz, 2004; Feyzullayev, 2012; Bonini et al., 2013; Oppo et al., 2014; Oppo and Capozzi,

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2016).

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The aim of this study is to remedy the lack of scholarship on the mud volcanoes in the Iranian sector

of the SCB, to investigate the erupted material of mud volcano with the aim of better understanding its

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buried plumbing system, and to compare the result of the current work with other mud volcanoes of SCB.
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2. Material and Methods

One of the important benefits associated with the study of mud volcanoes is obtaining information
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about the areas underlying the mud volcanoes. This study investigates the SE portion of the Caspian basin
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(Iranian part), where four active mud volcanoes and some inactive/silent mud volcanoes, known as
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ancient hills, occur. In this study, we focused mostly on the Gharenyaregh mud volcano (GMV), which is

an active mud volcano with the largest crater (500 m) among the ones we have studied. Among the
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erupted materials of GMV, there is a high quantity of chaotically distributed angular to rounded rock

clasts. Different clasts were collected to study the root of the mud volcano, where the mud volcano
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conduit crosses different lithostratigraphic units. Hand specimens, petrography and thin section studies,
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and X-ray diffraction (XRD) have been employed to identify the characteristics of the clasts and to gain

information on the stratigraphic units that the conduit crosses at the root of the mud volcano. Geophysical

and seismic data (from 1950 to 2017) have been employed to identify the link between the studied mud

volcanoes with the surface and buried structures. The seismic data (from 1950 to 2017) are adopted from

International Seismological Center (ISC) bulletin (http://www.isc.ac.uk/).

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3. Geological Setting

3.1. Mud volcanoes of South Caspian Basin

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The south Caspian basin (SCB) mud volcanoes are among the most famous natural phenomenon on

the Earth. Since 2002, approximately 1700 individual mud volcanoes have been reported around the

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world, including over 900 terrestrial and 800 offshore mud volcanoes (Dimitrov, 2002). More than 50%

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of the total number of mud volcanoes is situated along the Alpine-Himalayan active belt (Dimitrov,

2002). Around 400 onshore mud volcanoes are reported within the SCB, from eastern Azerbaijan to

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southwestern Turkmenistan (Rashidov, 2014). Around 50 mud volcanoes with different morphologies and

characteristic are reported from the lowlands of the SE Caspian basin (Western Turkmenistan; Oppo et
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al., 2014).

Mud volcanoes of the western Caspian Sea are related to anticlines and trapped oil/gas fields (Jakubov
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et al., 1971; Oppo et al., 2014). The South Caspian basin is a deep sedimentary basin hosting a sediment
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pile up to 20 km thick, ranging from Oligocene to Holocene in age (Zonenshain and Pichon, 1986;
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Abrams and Narimanov, 1997; Brunet et al., 2003). It is bounded by the Khazar fault to the south, in

northern Iran, and by the Apsheron-Balkan fault in the north, south of the central Caspian Sea (Fig. 1A).
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To the west it is bounded by the Astara fault and the Kura basin, and to the east it is bordered by the

Turkmenistan plain (Fig. 1). The term ''the land of eternal fire'' (Yergin, 1991) has been used for many
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parts of the SCB, where natural gas seeps from fractures and mud volcanoes. One of the best locations to
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observe natural gas seepage is ''The Gate of Hell'' in Turkmenistan.

The uplift and the subsequent erosion of the Caucasus, Alborz and Kopeh-Dagh ranges since the late

Eocene caused high sedimentation rates, up to 4.5 km My-1, in the whole basin (Oppo and Capozzi,

2016). Most of the SCB mud volcanoes were generated from the Oligocene- to Miocene-age Maykop

Shale Formation (Devlin et al., 1999; Feyzullayev et al., 2001; Kopf et al., 2003). In the western SCB, the

Maykop Formation is located at a depth of 3-7 km (Davies and Stewart, 2005). Fluids (gas/oil and saline

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water) that have originated from the deeper Jurassic and Cretaceous stratigraphic layers migrate into fold

cores and accumulate at shallower reservoirs in the Productive Series (Bonini et al., 2013).

Jackson et al. (2002) estimated the present-day motion of the SCB to be ~13-17 mm yr-1 to the SW

relative to Iran and ~8-10 mm yr-1 to the NW or NNW relative to Eurasia. Radjaee et al. (2010) found that

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the focal depth of earthquakes is more than 30 km along the Alborz mountain ranges. Tectonic activity

has produced faults, and tectonic loading favors the development of fluid overpressure (e.g. Jackson et al.

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2002). Upward transport of a mixture of muddy gas-bearing materials can bring a variety of different

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clasts to the surface in the form of mud breccias, which contain clasts of variable composition, size, shape

and abundance (Kopf et al., 2003).

3.2. Geodynamic History of Study area

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Following the closure of Paleotethys between the Central Iranian Microcontinents (CIM) and the
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Eurasian plate (Omrani et al., 2013a) and subsequent uplift and collapse, the Kopeh Dagh basin opened
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(Berberian and King, 1981; Lasemi, 1995; Robert et al., 2014). The Middle Jurassic Kashafrud Formation
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(Kopeh Dagh basin) with evidence of syn-rift normal faulting outcrops to the north of the ophiolitic

complex of the Paleotethys (Alborz Mountain Ranges) (Robert et al., 2014). The Kopeh Dagh Mountains
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form a NW-SE-trending range composed of folded Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments (Shabanian et al.,

2010).
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The closure of Neotethys branch in north of the CIM during the Eocene (Sabzevar Zone; Omrani et al.,
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2013b) caused the collision of the CIM with the Alborz continental block and subsequent folding, uplift

and erosion in the Kopeh Dagh basin. The South Caspian oceanic/continental crust is restricted by the

northward-dipping Apsheron-Sill fault to the north and the southward-dipping Khazar fault to the south

(Fig. 1A). This set of structures in a compressional area led to subsidence of the SCB and adjacent areas

(the future Gorgan Plain) and sedimentation within the SCB (Berberian, 1983; Jackson et al. 2002; Brunet

et al., 2003).

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Conjugate right-lateral and left-lateral components are reported along the Kopeh Dagh and eastern

Alborz respectively, which suggest that the SCB has a westward component of motion relative to both

Eurasia and Iran (Jackson et al., 2002). This movement could be an effect of the northward motion of the

central Iranian Microcontinent relative to the South Caspian Sea (Fig. 1A).

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Lyberis and Manby (1999) constructed balanced geological sections across the western part of the

Kopeh Dagh and estimated ~75 km of N-S shortening, which they assumed had occurred over the last 5

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Ma, yielding a shortening rate of ~16 mm yr-1. Due to N-S shortening, the west of Kopeh Dagh is being

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expelled to the west (Fig. 1A; Hollingsworth et al., 2006).

3.3. South Caspian and Kopeh Dagh basins

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The study area is a part of the Gorgan Plain in Golestan Province, NE Iran. It is situated between the
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Alborz mountain ranges, the Kopeh Dagh Mountains and the South Caspian Sea (Fig. 1A). Seismic
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sections of the Gorgan Plain indicate that the area is composed of two units (Robert et al., 2014). The
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lower unit consists of Kopeh Dagh-related formations (Jurassic to Eocene) that have been folded and

eroded (Fig 1B). The upper unit (Pliocene to Pleistocene) consists of South Caspian Basin sediments and
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river deltas (Fig 1B). The boundary between these units is an angular unconformity (Robert et al., 2014).

The main characteristics of these units are summarized below:

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3.3.1. Kopeh Dagh Basin units

Five transgressive-regressive sequences are recorded in the Kopeh Dagh region, dating from the

Jurassic up to the Eocene (Raisossadat, 2004; Sharafi et al., 2013). Up to 10 km of sediments were

deposited from Jurassic to Oligocene time through subsidence (Berberian and King, 1981). Lower

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks begin with the conglomerates and sandstones of the Shurijeh Formation

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and end with the dark grey shales and siltstones of the Sanganeh Formation (Raisossadat, 2004). The

Upper Cretaceous sequence begins with the Aytamir glauconite sandstones and ends with limestone units

of the Kalat Formation (Kalantari, 1987; Immel et al., 1997). These sediments were folded into parallel,

asymmetric folds during the Oligo-Miocene orogenic phases (Lyberis and Manby, 1999; Shabanian et al.,

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2009).

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3.3.2. South Caspian Basin units

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The western part of the Kopeh Dagh related formations is covered by SCB sediments (Burk, and

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Drake, 1974), which are described next from bottom to top. In the northern Gorgan Plain, the oldest

reported unit is the Pliocene Cheleken Formation, which is composed of brownish claystone sediments.
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The Red Series (Miocene to early Pliocene) fluvial-deltaic sands (known as the ‘Productive Series’ in

Azerbaijan) are up to 5 km thick (Reynolds et al. 1998), which is equivalent to the lower part of the
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Cheleken Formation (Early-Middle Pliocene) in the Gorgan Plain (Mousavi Rohbakhshhsh, 2005). The
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Cheleken sediments contain sparse organic matter and have not reached sufficient maturity for petroleum
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generation (Kamali et al., 2013). The thickness of the Cheleken Formation is ~175 m at the northern

Gorgan Plain (Khajeh, 2006 and Khajeh, et al., 2007).

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The 1000-m thick Pliocene Akchagyl Formation is composed of marine, coastal-continent and

volcanogenic facies (Kadirov et al., 2004). A different thickness of the Akchagyl sediments (from 550 m
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to 1000 m) is reported for different places within the western part of the SCB (Kadirov et al., 2004). The
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thickness of the Akchagyl Formation is ~185 m for the northern Gorgan Plain (Khajeh et al., 2007).

The Pleistocene Apsheron Formation is described as a massive section of pale gray to green claystones

with interbedded thin sandstones (Torres, 2007). In western Turkmenistan, the Apsheron Formation has a

thickness of 600 m, thinning to ~430 m at the northern Gorgan Plain (Khajeh et al., 2007). At the northern

Gorgan Plain, the Apsheron Formation is divided into lower and upper parts. The lower part consists

primarily of silt and fine sandstone, whereas the upper part is composed of clay and siltstone (Khajeh et

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al., 2007). The Baku, Khazar, Khavelyniscian and Neo-Caspian Formations (Quaternary to Holocene) are

composed of clay, silt, and aeolian sediments in the northern Gorgan Plain (Khajeh 2006 and Khajeh et

al., 2007).

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3.4. Gorgan Plain Structures

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The Gorgan Plain was covered by loess during the Late Pleistocene (Asadi et al., 2013). These fine

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and soft sediments covered all older sediments and structures, including folds and faults. For this reason,

links between structures and mud volcanoes are difficult to find on the surface.

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To assess the impact of tectonic activity on mud volcano generation, earthquake records and other

geophysical data are used. Seismic data from 1950 to 2017 were extracted from the Bulletin of the
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International Seismological Center (ISC). Figure 2 clearly indicates a higher concentration of hypocenters

near the middle of the Gorgan Plain, whereas the eastern and western parts have less seismic activity. The
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recorded seismic data apparently outline NE-SW- and NW-SE-trending fault directions in the Gorgan
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Plain (Fig. 2). The recorded earthquakes with magnitude higher than 5 Mb define a linear arrangement of
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hypocenters with a NE-SW direction, but earthquake hypocenters with magnitudes lower than 5 Mb

shows a NW-SE-directed linear arrangement (Fig. 2). We interpret the seismic data to show two main
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buried fault clusters under the Gorgan plain. The SW-NE-oriented earthquake hypocenters in the Gorgan

Plain are sub-parallel to the Alborz and Kopeh Dagh Mountains and fault directions (Fig. 2). The NE- and
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SW-trending structures in the Gorgan Plain/western Kopeh Dagh are thrust faults (Robert et al., 2014),
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which are characterized by a transpressive kinematics, with dextral (NE trend) and sinistral (NW trend)

component, respectively (see Figs. 1A and 2). The Kopeh Dagh faults show two main NW-SE and NE-

SW trends (Berberian, 1976). Berberian and King (1981) reported the presence of some anticlines in the

Gorgan Plain (Fig. 2) with E-W and NE-SW trends (Fig. 2). The inferred mud volcanoes are roughly

aligned in an E-ENE direction, which is seemingly subparallel to the trend of the Kopeh Dagh anticlines

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(Fig. 2). It seems that the buried folds of Kopeh Dagh under the Caspian basin sediments experienced

faulting, doming and basin folding.

Seismic reflection profiles across the Gorgan Plain indicate a sharp unconformity between younger

Eocene/Oligocene sediments (related to the SCB) and older folded ones (related to Kopeh Dagh) (Robert

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et al., 2014). Also, geophysical studies reveal active faults and folding beneath the Golestan Plain

(Rezvandehy et al., 2011; Robert et al., 2014). The locations of the active Gharenyaregh, Neftlijeh,

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Sofikam (Ghobkeljeh) and Inche mud volcanoes overlap substantially with the earthquake distributions,

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which indicate that they lie in a tectonically active area (Fig. 2). Faults close to the GMV trend in two

directions: NE-SW and NW-SE (Rezvandehy et al., 2011). The Gharenyaregh mud volcano formed near

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the conjunctions between these two faults directions. In particular, seismic data reveal that the

Gharenyaregh mud volcano is located on the crest of a buried anticline (Rezvandehy et al., 2011). The
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Neftlijeh mud volcano (NMV) is located to the northeast of the GMV and close to the Caspian Sea. West

of the NMV, small folds trending NE-SW are visible (see next section).
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4. Mud Volcanoes of the Gorgan Plain

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Four principal mud volcanoes are reported from northeastern Iran (Golestan province): the
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Gharenyaregh, Neftlijeh, Sofikam (Ghobkeljeh) and Inche mud volcanoes (Fig. 2). In the Turkmen

language, 'Gharenyaregh' refers to a location where the “Earth’s stomach is torn open" and its contents
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extruded. Neftlijeh’s name comes from ''oil spots and the smell of methane gas'' at this mud volcano. The
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name 'Ghobkeljeh' means ''small navel'', reflecting the small cones of this mud volcano. Inche derives its

name from the nearby Inche lagoon.

Gharenyaregh is the largest active mud volcano in the northeast of Iran (Golestan province), with a

crater near 600 m in diameter (Table 1). The Gharenyaregh Mud Volcano (GMV) has a circular form with

negative caldera-like morphology showing different eruption periods (Fig. 3A). The main and older

extruded materials formed the hill-like structure at the middle of the GMV caldera (Fig. 3A). Some newer

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but smaller eruptions are visible at the corners of the middle parts of GMV caldera (Fig. 3B). Recent

renewed-activity started in November 2017 with the outflowing of mud (Fig. 3C and 4) in the southern

parts of the middle caldera. At least for more than 80 years before November 2017, the only activity of

the GMV consisted of the outflow of muddy water (Fig. 4A).

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Based on its morphology, the GMV may be divided into inner and outer parts (Fig. 3D). The inner part

erupted during more recent phases of activity, with the erupted material mostly composed of sand and

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clay, while the outer parts comprise older materials and collapsed rims. The outer parts indicate a collapse

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of 5-7 m, while the inner part consists of a bulging plateau encircled by a bank and leading to a deeply

sunk rim depression (Fig. 3D). Such a morphology is referred to as a caldera-type crater (Dimitrov, 2002;

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Evans et al., 2008; Bonini, 2008). The inner part is composed of mud volcano breccias (diapiric mélange;

Dimitrov, 2002), which consist of sand and clay matrix that support a variable quantity of chaotically
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distributed angular to rounded rock clasts.

Clast sizes in the GMV range from millimeters to centimeters. They are composed of lumachelle,
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glauconite sandstone, marl, and limestone. This range of compositions indicates that the feeder channel
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passes though different lithologies beneath the GMV. In some parts of the inner mud volcano, there are
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seeps of saline water with crystallized salts and gypsum (Fig. 4B and C). Throughout the entire outer part

of the GMV, reddish mud and water (especially in summer) are visible as a result of Cyanobacteria
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activity (Fig. 4E) (e.g. Yalovik et al., 2016).

The Neftlijeh mud volcano (NMV) is an active mud volcano with surface outflows of mud and gas
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(3E). It has a bulging structure (~1 m) with mud extrusion (Table 1). It displays recent circular collapse
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structures that have formed a small basin (Fig. 3F). The basin is filled with water (Figs. 3E and 4F),

derived from mud volcano activity and rainwater (e.g. Oppo et al., 2014). Bubbles of methane gas and oil

spots on the brine water are visible (Fig. 4F). Similar phenomena are reported from other mud volcanoes

in Turkmenistan (Oppo et al., 2014). Clasts could not be collected from Neftlijeh because the main crater

is submerged. At the western part of the NMV, small folds with axes trend of NE-SW are visible (Fig.

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3E). The recorded earthquake hypocenters indicate the presence of the conjugate faults with NW-SE and

NE-SW directions (Fig. 2). The GMV and the NMV are located near the intersections of these faults.

The Sofikam (Ghobkeljeh) mud volcano (Fig. 2) is one the active mud volcanoes in the Gorgan plain

(Table 1). It is composed of five craters within relatively short distance of one another (2 meter) forming

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a linear arrangement (Figs. 5A and B). Four of five craters have outflows of mud and gas (Figs. 5C and

D). The smaller crater (~1 m diameter) seems to be younger and does not show any activity of gas and

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mud outflows. The other mud volcano has a bigger crater (~ 3 m diameter), which is submerged. Gas

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bubbling is visible in the middle of the crater. Except for youngest one, the craters show collapses along

their walls. The five craters of the Sofikam (Ghobkeljeh) mud volcano define an alignment with northeast

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direction (N60º), which is coincident with the fold axes and main faults of Kopeh Dagh.

The Inche mud volcano is located close to an iodine mine (Fig. 2). The crater of this mud volcano is
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around 40 m wide with roughly vertical walls (Table 1; Figs. 5E and F). The main crater is submerged,

and gas release is evident from gas bubbles in the middle of the crater (Figs. 5F).
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Furthermore, in Golestan province there are many hills that are referred to as ancient hills with a
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record of historical human activity on them (Table 1; Figs. 6 and 7). It is likely that these hills are extinct
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mud volcanoes (Fig. 7), older than those located at the western parts of the Gorgan Plain (i.e., the

Neftlijeh, Gharenyaregh, Ghobkeljeh and Inche mud volcanoes). The hills show a good correlation with
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fold/fault structures (Figs. 2 and 6).

Overall, mud volcanoes located in the Turkmenistan region show good correlation with gas/oil fields
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(Oppo and Capozzi, 2016). Those fields in turn have an obvious link with anticlines and mud volcanoes
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(Fig. 6).

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Petrography of clasts extruded at the Gharenyaregh mud volcano

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In this section we focus on the clasts extruded from the GMV, which provide useful information

regarding the deeply buried source layers of the mud volcano. As mentioned in the previous part, clasts

could not be collected from Neftlijeh and Inche because the main crater from each is submerged. Also,

the craters of Sofikam (Ghobkeljeh) mud volcanoes are small, and their craters are submerged under mud

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and water. Different breccias from the GMV contain clasts of variable composition, size, shape, and

abundance. Hand specimen and optical petrography descriptions of the clasts indicate four rock types:

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glauconite sandstone, bioclast, sandy limestone, and marlstone (Fig. 8). The composition of the soft

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materials was determined by XRD analysis.

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5.1.1. Glauconite sandstone AN
Millimeter- to centimeter-size grains of glauconite sandstone show light green color in the hand

specimen (Fig. 8A). Depending on the glauconite modal, the rock color changes from light to deeper
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green colors. Some sandstone clasts contain brachiopods (Fig. 8B) that are 1-2 cm in diameter. Quartz,
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calcite/dolomite and glauconite are the rock-forming minerals (Fig. 9A, B). Plagioclase, muscovite,
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chlorite and opaques are the minor minerals. The quartz is subhedral to anhedral with curved and semi-

rounded shapes. The grains are mature to sub-mature and indicate parallel extinction. Quartz and calcites
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are lower than 200 µm in diameter with fairly good sorting. The calcite/dolomite has the same grain size

as the quartz. Glauconite is light to dark green in color and varies in frequency from sample to sample.
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Glauconite occurs in around 10 to 15% of the samples. Glauconite is most abundant (around 20 percent)
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in some parts of the Aytamir Formation (Kopeh Dagh basin), but most of its layers indicate lower

glauconite contents (<20%). The Aytamir Formation is the only glauconite-bearing formation among the

other Kopeh Dagh and Caspian Sea related formations. Figure 9C shows a comparison between the

GMV's glauconite sandstone and the glauconite sandstone of the Aytamir Formation (Kopeh Dagh

Basin).

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5.1.2. Lumachelle

These samples are lumachelle with abundant fossil fragments (Fig. 8C). The bioclasts include shell

fragments derived from brachiopods, gastropods, bivalves, and ostracods (Fig 9D). All fragments are

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cemented by micrite and calcite. The bioclasts range from millimeters to centimeters in grain size. Hand

specimen samples are gray to white in color with abundant pores (Fig. 8C).

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5.1.3. Sandy limestone

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These clasts contain calcite/dolomite, quartz, glauconite, and opaque minerals. They are fine-grained

and appear gray in hand specimen. The sandy limestone samples contain a network of fractures, which are
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filled by calcite (Fig. 8D). Glauconite abundance is nearly 5-8% while the quartz abundance ranges from

15 to 20% in the samples.

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5.1.4. Marlstone
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These clasts are fine-grained and gray in color (Fig. 8E and F), range from millimeters to centimeters
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in size, and contain small ammonites (Fig. 8F). Ammonite-bearing marlstone is also reported in the

Kopeh Dagh zone (Raisossadat, 2004). Pencil-shaped fragments of marlstone are also visible in the
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collected marlstone samples from the GMV.

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5.2. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

Two samples of the soft materials of the GMV were collected from the inner part (youngest eruption)

and two other from outer parts (older eruptions) of the mud volcano. The samples were analyzed for their

mineralogical composition by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a Philips W1800 instrument (Cu-Kα

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radiation, 40 kV, 30mA). XRD analyses revealed that quartz, calcite, feldspar, chlorite, illite, and

glauconite are the dominant minerals in the inner part of the mud volcano (Fig. 10A and B). The outer

sample is dominantly composed of quartz, calcite, chlorite, illite, feldspar, and glauconite (Fig. 10C and

D). The samples appear to be fragment mixtures of different wall rocks during mud volcano activity.

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Halite and gypsum are minor minerals (Fig. 10), generated from the saline waters of the mud volcano.

The presence of an iodine mine close to the GMV mud volcano indicates a direct link between iodine-

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bearing, deeply trapped saline waters and mud volcano activity.

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5.3. Origin of GMV clasts AN
Previous studies have been unable to determine the deeper structural units of the Gorgan Plain (e.g.

Robert et al., 2014). Figure 11 shows the seismic imaging of the main GMV structures (Rezvandehy et
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al., 2011). It shows that the GMV (and probably most of the other mud volcanoes in the SE Caspian
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basin) is located on the crest of a buried anticline. Also, at the eastern part of the SCB, mud volcanoes in
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Turkmenistan coincide with fold anticlines (Oppo et al., 2014). Such a structural setting also controls the

occurrence of mud volcanoes in the Iranian part of the SE Caspian basin.

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Figure 12 shows a schematic cross section across the GMV. Rezvandehy et al. (2011) introduced the

Cheleken Formation (consisting of the sandstone and some interlayers of clay and siltstone) from the
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deeper parts of the Gorgan Plain. The Cheleken Formation has a 9.6 m-thick water-saturated sandstone
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layer and gas reservoir, underlain by a caprock of clay and siltstone (Rezvandehy et al., 2011). The

presence of water, gas, soft sediments and tectonic activity are considered important factors for GMV

activity (Rezvandehy et al., 2011). The study of mud breccia clasts indicates that the initial conditions for

GMV activity arose from the burial of the Kopeh Dagh units. In particular, the presence of the clasts from

the Aytamir Formation in the mud volcano breccia indicates that the GMV was generated from Kopeh

Dagh units (Figs. 8 and 11). Up to 10 km of sediments were deposited from Jurassic to Oligocene time

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within the subsiding Kopeh Dagh basin (Berberian and King, 1981). These sediments were folded into

parallel, asymmetric folds during the Oligo-Miocene orogenic movements (Stöcklin, 1968; Afshar Harb,

1979; Lyberis and Manby, 1999). The occurrence of the glauconitic sandstone (Aytamir Formation) in the

mud breccia clasts indicates that the GMV was generated from deeper parts of the Gorgan Plain, and the

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presence of gas resources at this location is indicative of burial of Kopeh Dagh sediments. Such a deep

origin of gases (7-15 km) is also reported for some of the South Caspian Sea mud volcanoes

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(Feyzullayev, 2012), as well as for the Azerbaijan mud volcanoes, where fluids (gas/oil and saline water)

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of the deeper Jurassic and Cretaceous stratigraphic layers migrate into fold cores and accumulate in

shallower reservoirs within the Productive Series (Bonini et al., 2013).

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5.4. Relationships between mud volcanism and subsurface structures
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The Gorgan Plain is located north of the Alborz mountain ranges, by the eastern South Caspian Sea
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and the western Kopeh Dagh basin (Fig. 1A). Towards the South Caspian Sea, folded structures are
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buried by the thick Oligocene to Quaternary sediments, as imaged from the numerous seismic lines
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available in the Gorgan Plain (Robert et al., 2014).

Integration of seismic attributes indicates that most sediments of the Gorgan Plain were deposited
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within the Cheleken Formation, a lower-middle Pliocene unit that is mostly formed of green or dark red

sand-containing marls together with thick layers of sandstone and conglomerate (Rezvandehy et al.,
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2011). Younger formations, such as Akchagyl (upper Pliocene), Apsheron (lower and upper Pleistocene),
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Baku (Quaternary), Khazar (Pleistocene), Khavelyniscian (Pleistocene) and Neo-Caspian (Holocene), are

reported from the Gorgan Plain (Khajeh et al., 2007), as well as older and deeper formations from the

Mesozoic/Tertiary border (Rezvandehy et al., 2011). Two formations with particular significance for

resource extraction are the Apsheron and Cheleken formations. The Apsheron Formation is the most

important layer for iodine extraction from brine water. The brine water of the Apsheron Formation has 65

ppm of iodine (Khajeh et al., 2007). Such a high iodine concentration in saline water is also reported from

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western Turkmenistan (Oppo and Capozzi, 2016). The location of the iodine mine is shown in Figure 1A.

Some thin layers of the Cheleken Formation with thickness of 9.6 m have a capacity of 200,000 m3

extractable gas per day (Rezvandehy et al., 2011).

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5.5. Comparison with other mud volcanoes of the South Caspian Basin

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A comparison of mud volcanoes from the eastern and western SCB indicates some differences in

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abundance and vertical relief (please see Bonini et al., 2013; Oppo et al., 2014; Oppo and Capozzi, 2016;

and the result of current work). The western SCB mud volcanoes are more abundant and larger in size

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than eastern ones. Some of the largest mud volcanoes in the world are located in Azerbaijan (western

SBD). Mud volcanoes with large vertical relief (greater than 200 m) are clustered in the southwest part of
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the SCB (Yusifov and Rabinowitz, 2004). Bigger mud volcanoes have a height of 300-400 m and base

diameter of 4.4-4.6 km (Bonini and Mazzarini, 2010). In the eastern SCB, mud volcanoes have lower
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relief, usually lower than 50 m, for instance the Boyadag and Kipyashchiy Bugor mud volcanoes in
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Turkmenistan (Oppo et al., 2014; Oppo and Capozzi, 2016) and also even with lower relief (<35m) like
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the Torang Tapeh, Gharenyaregh and Neftlijeh mud volcanoes in Iran (Table 1).

It seems most of the South Caspian basin mud volcanoes were generated from deeper sedimentary
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layers, related to Mesozoic formations. Such a deep source is reported for mud volcanoes of Azerbaijan

(Bonini et al., 2013). The generation of mud volcanoes in the south Caspian Sea is supported by
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hydrocarbon migration from younger strata like Cheleken Formation in the east and the Productive Series
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at the west (i.e. Bonini et al., 2013) of south Caspian Sea.

6. Conclusions

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1. The present study introduces for the first time the mud volcanoes of the Iranian part of the southeast

Caspian basin through a study of clasts. Our study of the GMV illustrates the relationship of older,

buried sediments of Kopeh Dagh, tectonic activity, soft sediment mobilization, gas resources and

Caspian Sea regression.

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2. The mud breccia clasts are composed of glauconite sandstone, sandy-limestone, marlstone, and

bioclasts (lumachelle). Microscopic studies indicate that these clasts can be divided into two parts; 1)

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clasts related to the Kopeh Dagh formations and 2) clasts related to the South Caspian Sea. Mud

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breccia glauconitic sandstones are comparable with glauconitic sandstones of the Aytamir Formation

(Upper Cretaceous) from the Kopeh Dagh basin. The bioclasts are related to the shoreline of the

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South Caspian Sea. Together, they indicate that the GMV was generated from the Kopeh Dagh part

of the deeper Gorgan Plain.

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3. The presence of Aytamir Formation clasts (glauconite sandstone) in the Gharenyaregh mud volcano

indicates that the mud volcanoes of the Iranian portion of the eastern South Caspian Sea root from
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underlying Kopeh Dagh sediments and are supported by gas and soft materials of Cheleken
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Formation (Pliocene).
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4. Lumachelle units formed in the shallow reaches of the Caspian Sea. Outcrops of lumachelle at the

eastern portion of the Gorgan Plain, bordering Kopeh Dagh related formation outcrops, and the
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presence of lumachelle mud breccia clasts indicate regression of the South Caspian Sea shoreline.

5. The presence of faults with two dominant trends (NW-SE and NE-SW) and their spatial correlation
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with mud volcanoes and recorded earthquakes indicate that the Gorgan Plain is subjected to tectonic
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compression oriented roughly north-south. Such a tectonic compression may result from the Central

Iranian Microcontinent’s northward motion relative to the South Caspian crust.

6. The linear arrangement of the five craters of the SofiKam mud volcano coincide with structures of

western Kopeh Dagh basin. They are located above the crest of a buried anticline related to the

Kopeh Dagh fold-thrust belt.

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7. The presence of frequent inactive and active mud volcanoes, gas, burial structures like folds and

faults, and good reservoir layers shows that mud volcanoes occur in an area characterized by seismic

activity and this area has good potential for oil and gas resource exploration.

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Acknowledgement

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The current work financially supported by Golestan University (Grant No: 92/71/20546).

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We would like to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for careful reading of our manuscript

and their constructive comments. Also, we are grateful to Sepideh Mehrani and Majid Kamdel for their

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help with field geology and María Helga Guðmundsdóttir and Prof. Schildgen from GFZ for their help

and meticulous reading of the manuscript.

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Figure Captions

Fig. 1. A) Location of Alborz Mountain ranges, Kopeh Dagh Mountains, South Caspian Sea, Kura Basin
and mud volcanoes. B) Gorgan Plain regional cross-section (A to B adapted from Robert et al., 2014);
folded parts are Mesozoic sediments of the Kopeh Dagh zone, which are underlain by Caspian Sea

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sediments. White arrows represent GPS velocities relative to Eurasia fixed (After Tavakoli, 2007; Robert
et al., 2014). Numbers 1, 2 and 3 on figure A and B indicate Neftlijeh and Gharenyaregh mud volcanoes
and iodine mine, respectively.

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Fig. 2. Earthquake distribution (1950 to 2017) and its connection to the anticline structure and
Gharenyaregh, Sofikam, Inche and Neftlijeh mud volcanoes. Gas/oil fields show link with mud anticlines

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and volcanoes outcrops in the SE Caspian Sea. Most of the earthquakes have occurred along the Alborz
Mountain ranges and in the northern Gorgan Plain. Earthquakes with greater than 5 Mb align in a NE-SW
direction, while earthquakes with lower than 5 Mb align in a NW-SE linear arrangement. Anticlines are

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after Berberian and King, (1981); Oil/gas fields after Robert et al., (2014) and Rezvandehy et al., (2011)
and focal mechanisms after Berberian, (1983); Djamour et al., (2010) and Nemati et al., (2013).
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Fig. 3. A) Satellite images (adopted from Google Earth) of Gharenyaregh mud volcano. Gharenyaregh
mud volcano features a conical hill at the center. The rectangles number 1, 2 and 3 on figure A show the
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location of figures B, C and D, respectively. B) Border of older eruptions compared with those of the new
eruptions of the GMV. C) Newest eruption of the GMV (October 2017); D) Outer and inner parts of the
GMV. E) Neftlijeh mud volcano with mud eruption at the middle, F) Collapsed rims of the Neftlijeh mud
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volcano.
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Fig. 4. A) A small mud and gas outflow from the GMV; B) The newest eruption of the GMV (October
2017); C) Brine water and salt crystals in the GMV; D) Occurrence of gypsum and salt in the GMV; E)
Reddish water as a result of Cyanobacteria activity; F) Methane gas bubbles (M.G.B) and oil spots on
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brine water at the Neftlijeh mud volcano.

Fig. 5. Linear arrangement of the Sofikam mud volcano craters (A: adopted from Google Earth), and B)
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field geology photo. They are arranged in a NE direction (60°). The first three have mud and gas outflow
(C), the forth crater has water and gas eruption (D), and the fifth crater does not have activity. E) Satellite
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image of Inche mud volcano (adopted from Google Earth) and F) filed geology photo of Inche mud
volcano (picture view toward north).

Fig. 6. Distribution of conical hills (ancient hills) southeast of the Caspian Sea, Golestan province. White
and green circles illustrate conical hills and some main towns, respectively. The red symbols stand for
oil/gas fields.

Fig. 7. Some examples of conical hills southeast of the Caspian Sea, Golestan province. Data in the UTM
coordinate system on figures (zone 40S) indicate position of the hills.

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Fig. 8. Rock clasts of different lithologies from Gharenyaregh mud volcano: A and B) Glauconite
sandstone; C) Bioclast (lumachelle); D) Sandy limestone with fractures filled by calcite; E and F)
Marlstone with ammonite traces. All heavy black lines show 1 cm in length.

Fig. 9. Photomicrograph of rock clasts of different lithologies: A) Glauconite sandstone; B) Altered

glauconite sandstone; C) Bioclast with bivalve fragments (lumachelle); D) Glauconite sandstone from

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Aytamir Formation (Kopeh Dagh Basin, Maraveh Tapeh area, eastern Golestan province).

Fig. 10. XRD mineralogy results of inner (A and B) and outer (C and D) parts of GMV. Mineral

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abbreviation adapted from Whitney and Evans, 2010.

Fig. 11. A) Vertical cross-sections of instantaneous amplitude attribute for GMV (after Rezvandehy et al.,

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2011). B) Iodine oxide from iodine mine (scale bar shows 1 cm).

Fig. 12. Schematic cross-section (not to scale) of the QMV. The folded shape of the units is based on the

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geophysical data of Rezvandehy et al., (2011); Kopeh Dagh formations are based on the cross section of
the western part of the Kopeh Dagh basin from Robert et al., (2014) and the Caspian Basin related
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formations are based on the iodine mine well report (Khajeh et al., 2007).
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Table 1. Summary of the Gorgan Plain Mud Volcanoes.
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NO.* Name Latitude Longitude
Short Long elevation (m)
1 Neftlijeh 80 130 >1 37°12'27.02"N 54° 6'37.49"E
2 Gharenyaregh 470 600 2 37° 7'3.12"N 54°23'51.05"E
3 Iodine mine (Inche) 36 40 -3** 37°13'43.40"N 54°30'35.85"E
4 Sofikam 2.5 3 -2 37°19'14.95"N 54°24'9.48"E
5 Altin Tokmaq 146 215 6 37° 8'4.81"N 54°16'20.26"E

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6 Ghalami 105 135 35 37°11'15.24"N 55°19'5.12"E
7 Neghinshahr 74 100 5 37° 8'37.71"N 55° 9'24.23"E
8 Gala Jig 94 122 10 36°57'47.65"N 54°29'44.51"E

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9 Sorkhan kalateh 68 74 15 36°53'36.97"N 54°34'29.49"E
10 Torang Tapeh 112 142 35 36°56'17.90"N 54°35'11.15"E
11 Altin Tokmaq 148 214 8 37° 8'6.06"N 54°16'20.90"E

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12 Ounegh Yilghay 254 320 15 37° 0'33.13"N 54°34'3.98"E
13 Gala Jig 103 105 15 36°58'9.04"N 54°30'37.10"E
14 Sangdevin 92 107 15 37° 0'49.29"N 54°50'31.77"E
15 Qushkorpi 100 114 12 36°59'6.90"N 54°49'23.74"E

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16 Emam Abad 66 67 12 36°57'54.65"N 54°48'39.63"E
17 Mazraeh 135 187 15 36°57'17.28"N 54°52'24.39"E
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18 Kamal Abad 195 212 6 36°53'32.79"N 54°30'33.08"E
19 Hajji Qushan 157 208 15 37°26'31.33"N 55°20'5.83"E
20 Ghroogh 102 130 10 36°53'23.56"N 54°40'37.20"E
21 Now Deh Malek 71 82 10 36°54'28.21"N 54°38'41.19"E
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22 Ghroogh 70 91 6 36°54'48.17"N 54°41'21.91"E

23 Shirang-e-Olya 81 82 15 36°57'2.06"N 54°43'17.36"E
*Numbers 1 to 4 are active mud volcanoes but the others (numbers 5 to 23) are silent ones.
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** Negative numbers indicate mud volcanoes with collapse structures compare to the surrounding surfaces.
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Highlights

o Introducing mud volcanoes southeast of Caspian basin (in NE Iran).

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o Recovered clasts from Gharenyaregh mud volcano appear to derive from the underlying
Kopeh Dagh Formations.

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o Mud volcanoes in the SE Caspian basin are located on the crest of the buried anticlines.

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