Biology Preliminary Notes

8.2 A Local ecosystem

1.1 Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments

Abiotic features Aquatic Terrestrial

Viscosity Water is very viscous Not as viscous
Buoyancy More upthrust-things can float Little upthrust- organisms need
on water a skeleton to support
themselves
Pressure Pressure depends on depth- Pressure depends on altitude-
the lower, the more pressure the higher the more pressure

1.3 Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems

– Energy needed to sustain ecosystems is obtained from the sun

– This energy is captured by plants during photosynthesis
– Photosynthesis uses CO2 and water to make food - all organisms rely on this
– Respiration is the process by which cells obtain energy
– Organic molecules are broken down and energy is produced
– The organic molecules needed for respiration come from photosynthesis
– It all relies on the sun
– Energy is never recycled - it requires constant input
– Photosynthesis powers ecosystems

2.3 identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and
the role of organisms in each relationship

Allelopathy:

 This is the production by a plant of specific chemicals (allelo-chemicals) which inhibit the
growth of other plants around it
 The example studied was the Casuarina. Its leaves contain allelo-chemicals, so as they
dropped to the floor, they released the chemicals, preventing the growth of other plants in
the area

Parasitism:

 This is a relationship between two organisms where one benefits at the expense of the other
organism
 The example studied was the pimple wasp. It lays its eggs on the leaves of the mangrove.
The larvae eat through the leave when they hatch and the leaf is damaged

Mutualism:

 A relationship between two organisms where both of them benefit

  The example studied was lichen. This consists of a fungus and an alga joined together. The
fungi provides structure and the alga provides food

Commensalism:

 A relationship between 2 organisms where only one benefits, and the other get no harm and
no benefit
 The example studied is the golden orb-weaving spider and the dewdrop spider. The weaving
spider makes a web, and catches its prey with it. It leaves scraps behind. The dewdrop spider
eats the leftovers.

8.3 Patterns in Nature

1. Outline the historical development of the cell theory, in particular the contributions of Robert
Hooke and brown

Cell theory: all living things come from cells, all cells come from pre-existing cells and the cell is the
basic unit in which the processes of living take place.

 Cells were first observed by in 1665 by Robert Hooke

 Robert brown recognised nucleus and plant cells

Describe evidence to support cell theory

Robert Hooke’s observation of cork cells, and Leeuwenhoek’s observation of many types of
unicellular cells proved that living things were made up of cells and Walter Fleming’s observation of
cell division - mitosis - proved that cells come from pre-existing cells

Significance of technological advances to developments in cell theory

 Development of specific dyes to discover internal structure of cells

 Electron microscope to see more details in the cell, eg structure of the nuclear membrane
 Led to discovering new parts eg ribosomes

Identify cell organelles seen with current light and electron microscopes

 Cell Membrane: Sometimes called the plasma membrane, this is the organelle that
surrounds the whole cell. It is flexible and holds all the contents of the cell. It also regulates
what substances go in or out of a cell
 Nucleus: Contains the genetic information of a cell (chromosomes). The information in
chromosomes is used to control the development and the functioning of the whole cell
 Nuclear Membrane: This membrane surrounds the nucleus and holds the chromosomes in.
It is composed of a double-membrane, and has large pores in it, to allow large molecules in
and out
 Cytoplasm: This is simply the contents of the cell between the cell membrane and outside
the nucleus
 Vacuoles: Found only in plant cells, this sac-like organelle is used as food storage for the
plant. It contains cell sap, which is made of water and dissolved substances such as sugars
and salts. In some cells, the vacuole takes up 80-90% of the cell volume
  Cell Wall: Also found only in plant cells, this organelle surrounds the whole cell outside the
cell membrane. It provides strength, protection, support and shape to the plant. Cell walls
are non-living - they are made of a network of cellulose microfibrils cemented together in
pectin and other substances
 Chloroplasts: This organelle is only founding plants. It can only be seen under very strong
light microscopes. This organelle is the food production site in plants (it carries out
photosynthesis).

Organelles seen under a ELECTRON MICROSCOPE:

 Nucleolus: It is an organelle within the nucleus. It is the region where the genes for
ribosomal RNA are found and is the site of ribosome formation
 Mitochondria: An organelle found in the cytoplasm composed of many folded layers of
membrane. It is the site of respiration and the production of energy
 Ribosomes: Tiny organelles found in the cytoplasm or on endoplasmic reticulum. They are
responsible for protein synthesis
 Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a system of membranous sacs and tubules connected to the
nuclear membrane. It provides an internal surface for many chemical reactions in the cell
and provides a series of channels for materials to be moved.
 Lysosomes: These are small spherical organelles that consist of a membrane surrounding
highly acidic contents. They are used to break down wastes or old organelles and are
involved in digestion
 Centrioles: These are found in pairs in animal cells, and are involved in the formation of the
spindle for mitosis
 Golgi body: Consists of stacks of flattened membrane sacs. It chemically modifies, stores and
distributes substances made by the endoplasmic reticulum. These ‘packages’ are then
secreted into the cell or moved out of the cell

Describe the relationship between the structure of cell organelles and their function

 NUCLEUS: Has large pores in nuclear membrane to allow large molecules, such as genetic
information and proteins to move in and out
 MITOCHONDRIA: The inner membrane is greatly folded. This increases the surface area
greatly, thus increasing the rate of reactions. This produces more energy for the cell
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: Is composed of many folded layers of membranes. The many
folds increases the surface area, providing a surface for many chemical reactions to occur
 CHLOROPLASTS: The many layered membranes of the chloroplasts, which contain pigments,
increase the surface area for photosynthesis to take place. This increases the amount of
sugars produced.

Use available evidence to assess the impact of technology, including the development of the
microscope on the development of the cell theory

 Cell theory would not exist without the microscope

 Using the microscope it was observed that cells are the smallest units of life

2. Identify the major groups of substances found in living cells and their uses in cell activities
 – Organic molecules contain carbon. Most inorganic molecules don’t
– Inorganic substances in the body:
 Water: The most abundant inorganic substance in the body. 70% of the body’s molecules are
water. Most reactions in cells require water. Nutrients and wastes are carried around in
water. It has many other uses in the body.
 Oxygen gas: Used to release energy in the body
 Salts: These are usually in the form of ions, such as chlorides, phosphates and sulphates of
various metals. Their uses include:
 Calcium Ion: Builds bones, teeth, helps blood clot and proper nerve and muscle functions.
 Iron Ion: Carries oxygen in red blood cells.
 Phosphate Ion: Part of the energy carrier ATP. Also part of nuclei acids.
 Sodium Ion: Functioning of nerves.

Organic Substances in the body include:

 Carbohydrates: Compounds composed of C, H and O. CH20

 USES: An energy source in cells; also used in structure in plants (cellulose)
 The three groups of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbs. They consist of only one unit of sugar. Examples
are glucose, fructose and ribose. Monosaccharides are the basic building blocks of more
complex carbs
 Disaccharides are simple carbohydrates composed of 2 units of sugar. An example is sucrose
(table sugar) made of glucose and fructose.
 Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of many sugar units joint into a huge
molecule. An example is starch, which is a food store in plants.
 Lipids: They are compounds made of the same elements as carbohydrates; that is, carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. There is usually very little oxygen in lipids. They have more than
twice the energy of carbs
 USES: Used as stores of energy, used as water-proof coating on leaves, makes up part of the
cell membrane
 Proteins: Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (C, H, O and N).
 USES: Needed for growth and repair, make up a major part of the body’s structure. Vital to
the structure and function of cells. Are essential for metabolism (all chemical reactions in
cells) as enzymes are made up of proteins.
 Made up of long chains of amino acids, joined together by peptide bonds
 There are 20 different amino acids
 The 3D shape of a protein determines which amino acids are on the outside of the protein,
and this determines the protein’s characteristics
 When a protein is heated, the structure changes, and the protein’s behaviour and
characteristics are changed
 Nucleic Acids: Are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus (C, H, O,
N and P). They include DNA and RNA
 USES: They determine heredity in organisms. Is needed for the manufacture of proteins.
 Are made up of groups of nucleotides; a nucleotide is made up of a nitrogen base, a pentose
sugar and a phosphate
  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is mostly found in chromosomes Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is
found throughout the cell

Identify that there is movement of molecules in and out of cells

Molecules are continually moving in and out of cells. Raw materials are needed and wastes need to
be expelled. The cell continually exchanges materials with its external environment

Cells are bound by a plasma membrane. Water, gases, ions and other small molecules are able to
move through the membrane, while other substances cannot. This is known as semipermeable or
differentially permeable membrane.

Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration of particles to an area of
low concentration of particles. Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable
membrane from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration.

 Passive transport: moving down a concentration gradient

 Active transport: substances can move against a concentration gradient however energy is
needed to force the particles to a place of higher concentration

Explain how the surface area to volume ratio affects the rate of movement of substances into and
out of cells

 EFFICIENT
 The smaller the cell the higher the SA/V ratio
 The higher SA/V ratio the more efficient the rate of diffusion of materials into an object
 When cells get to a certain size they split so they never get too big

Experiment to identify the following substances in tissues

Substance Test
Starch Iodine test
Fat/lipids Brown paper test
Protein Biuret test
Glucose Benedicts test
Chloride ions Silver nitrate
Lignin Toluidine blue

3. identify some examples that demonstrate the structural and functional relationships between
cells, tissues, organs and organ systems in multicellular organisms

Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.

– CELLS are the smallest unit of life. They perform specific functions:

– TISSUES are groups of cells with similar functions. They perform functions as a group of cells:

– ORGANS are made up of groups of tissues that function as a whole:

– ORGAN SYSTEMS are groups of organs that function together as a coordinated system to perform a
role for the body

Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient requirements

 Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis:
 Nutrient requirements: Autotrophs, such as plants, require the substances necessary for
photosynthesis. These are water, carbon dioxide and sunlight. They also need oxygen and
sugars for respiration
 Heterotrophs are organisms that consume other organisms for nutrition:
 Nutrient requirements: Heterotrophs require other organisms to feed on, such as how
herbivores eat plants, and carnivores eat meat. They also need oxygen for respiration and
water for life

Identify the materials needed for photosynthesis and its role in ecosystems

 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants create glucose

 This synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic compounds is a process all living things
ultimately depend on
 Plants make food through photosynthesis, herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat herbivores,
and the food chain continues. However, they all begin with plants
 The materials needed for photosynthesis are water, CO2, and chlorophyll

Identify the general word equation for photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + water --sunlight and chlorophyll  sugar and oxygen

6CO2 + 12H2O ----- C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Explain the relationship between the organisation of the structures used to obtain water and
minerals in a range of plants and the need to increase surface area available for absorption

Obtaining water and minerals:

 In aquatic environments, water and minerals are absorbed across the whole surface of the
plants
 However, for terrestrial (land) plants, water and minerals are obtained through root systems
 Root systems must have a very large surface area to absorb enough nutrients for the whole
plant
 They achieve this through having a branching structure and many root hairs
 The root system can also be used to anchor the plant
 Many different types of root systems exist

Explain the relationship between the shapes of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their
role

 The specialised leaf structure of the plant used for obtaining light and carbon dioxide is the
leaf
 Most of the photosynthesis of plants occurs in leaves
  Most leaves are broad, thin and flat. This gives them a large surface area for the capture of
sunlight and gas exchange needed for photosynthesis and respiration
 XYLEM: Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves
 PHLOEM: Transports products of photosynthesis to the rest of plant
 Cuticle, spongy mesophyll, palisade mesophyll, epidermis, stomates

Describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of complex foods for exposure to digestive
chemicals

Teeth cut food into small pieces, which are then softened by saliva. The food pieces now have a
greater surface area, and can therefore react more efficiently with digestive enzymes. The enzyme
amylase breaks down any starch present.

Incisors; cut. Canines; tear. Molars; grind

Explain the relationship between the length and overall complexity of digestive systems of a
vertebrate herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with respect to: the chemical composition of their
diet and the functions of the structures involved

 Meat is easy to digest so carnivores have short intestines

 Grass is difficult to digest so there is a large intestine

Compare the roles of the respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems

Respiratory Circulatory Excretory

Organs Lungs, gills, skin, Heart, blood, vessels, Kidney, lungs, skin,
spiracle lymph malpighian tubules
Function Movement of gases Transports nutrients Rid the body of waste
throughout the body and waste products materials, water
around the body balance

Identify and compare the gaseous exchange surfaces in an insect, a fish, a frog and a mammal

Frogs: two gaseous exchange surfaces, lungs and skin. This enables the diffusion of gases directly
through the skin.

Insects: spiracles on sides of body allow air to move into trachea. Efficient in small animal, but
inadequate as it gets larger ie sa/v ratio

Fish: The respiratory system in fish are called gills. The gills have a plentiful blood supply

Requirements for efficient gas exchange

 Large surface area

 Moist gas exchange membrane
 Close contact with blood supply

Explain the relationship between the requirements of cells and the need for transport systems in
multicellular organisms
  in multicellular organisms, the surface area is not great enough to provide nutrients for all
the organisms cells
 Transport systems are used to carry nutrients to all the body’s cells, and to carry wastes
away
 Transports systems provide all the needs of organisms

Outline the transport system in plants, including root hair cells, xylem, phloem, stomates and
lenticels

STOMATES: These are located on leaves of plants. They are pores in the leaf which enable the
diffusion of gases. Stomates receive the gases needed for photosynthesis.

In flowering plants, the transport system is called vascular tissue, or conducting tissue. Vascular
tissue is made up of xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem together in the leaves are called veins.
Xylem and phloem together in roots is called stele

XYLEM: Transport water and mineral ions up the plant stem to the leaves. Xylem also gives strength
and rigidity to the plant

PHLOEM: Transport the products of photosynthesis (sugars) throughout the whole plant. Organic
material in the phloem is transported up and down the plant

ROOT HAIRS: These structures are on the surface of the roots. They provide a large surface area for
water to diffuse into the plant. Water enters the plant via the root hairs and then enters the xylem

Transpiration:

 Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant through the stomates in leaves
 When stomates are open, gases flow in for photosynthesis. However, at the same time,
water is lost by evaporation. This water loss is transpiration
 As water is lost, more water flows in through the roots
 The constant flow of water from roots, to vascular tissue, to leaves and into the air is called
the transpiration stream

Compare open and closed circulatory systems using one vertebrate and one invertebrate

Open Circulatory System:

 Invertebrates such as molluscs and arthropods have open systems

 This involves the movement of body fluids (or haemolymph) around the whole body by a
simple pumping system
 The pressure is very low and fluids circulate slowly
 Open systems suit smaller animals eg a fly

Closed Circulatory System:

 Large animals such as vertebrates and squids have closed systems

 The closed circulatory system consists of a muscular pump (heart) that forces a liquid (blood)
through a series of tubes (blood vessels)
  These tubes carry materials rapidly throughout the body
 No body cell is far from a blood vessel
 The nutrients, wastes and gases are all carried in blood
 The nutrients must first diffuse into the body fluid (called lymph) before it can be used.
 Closed systems meet the needs of large active animals

Discuss the use of radioisotopes in tracing the path of elements through living plants and animals

 A radioisotope is a radioactive form of certain elements

 In tracing the movement of substances through plants; carbon 14 is added to the carbon
dioxide supply of a plant, which is taken in by the plant and used for photosynthesis. The
movement of carbon 14 can be traced by taking an autoradiograph.
 It increases our knowledge of being able to detect what is happening in animals and plants
by tracing biochemical pathways in plants. It can show the reactions that occur in plants and
make them visible

Identify mitosis as a process of nuclear division and explain its role

 Mitosis is just the process where the nucleus divides into two separate nuclei
 Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm forming two new cells
 The role of mitosis is the GROWTH and REPAIR of multicellular organisms
 It also provide reproduction for unicellular organisms

Identify the sites of mitosis in plants, insects and mammals

Plants- Mitosis occurs in:

 Root tips and stem tips: This results in increase in length of plant
 Cambium cells: These are cells in between the xylem and phloem. Mitosis here results in
increased thickness of the plant

Insects:

 Mitosis occurs when the insects changes (metamorphosis) from larvae into adult. The
stage is called the pupal stage
 In pupal form, the larval cells break down, and adult cells (called imaginal discs) undergo
mitosis to create a massive transformation from larvae to adult

Animals:

 Mitosis occurs in many places including skin cells, hair cells and nail cells
 Blood cells are also constantly being made in the bone marrow
 The cells lining the digestive tract are also constantly replaced

Explain the need for cytokinesis in cell division

 Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) usually occurs immediately after mitosis

 This is necessary to ensure that chromosome numbers remain constant
  After mitosis, 2 sets of chromosomes are made, so cytokinesis ensures that two cells with
the normal amount of chromosomes are made

Cytokinesis occurs like this:

ANIMALS: Occurs during a process called cleavage. A ring of microfilaments constricts the centre of
the cell until it splits

PLANTS: The dividing plate - or cell plate - forms across the centre of the cell. This splits the cell into
two new cells. The cell plate forms the new cell wall

Identify that nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplast contain DNA:

– Nuclei contain DNA in the form of chromosomes

– These contain genetic information that determines heredity

– It also has information in producing proteins, which in turn determines our characteristics

– Mitochondria have a set of DNA of their own

– It is a ring of DNA, like in a procaryotic cell.

– Chloroplasts also have a circular ring of DNA in their own structure

8.4 Life on Earth

2. Identify the major stages in the evolution of living things, including the formation of; organic
molecules, membranes, prokaryotic heterotrophic cells, prokaryotic autotrophic cells, eukaryotic
cells, colonial organisms, multicellular organisms

Organic molecules: - The first stage of the evolution of life was the creation of organic molecules,
either through synthesis from inorganic molecules, or from outer space

- These organic molecules began to clump together in a “soup”

Membranes: - A membrane had to be developed to protect the internal environment of the large
organic molecule

- The internal environment, i.e. the contents began to evolve into nucleic acids and the primitive cell
could now replicate

- RNA was thought to be the first genetic material

Procaryotic heterotrophic cells: - The first and simplest types of cells, like bacteria

- No membrane-bound nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

- These consumed other organic molecules to provide energy (heterotrophic)

Procaryotic autotrophic cells: - Some of the heterotrophic procaryotic cells developed pigments
- These pigments allowed them to use the energy from the sun to create food

Eucaryotic cells:- These cells had membrane-bound nuclei and organelles

- Examples include animals, fungi, plants

Colonial organisms: - Colonial organisms are groups or colonies of similar cells, eg, stromatolites

- All the cells in the colony have the same function; no differentiation

- They form when daughter cells from cell division become bound together

Multicellular organisms: - These are groups of cells, where some cells have differing functions from
others

- Each cell has its own specialised function and all cells depend on each other

- The organism functions as a coordinated whole

Describe some of the paleontological and geological evidence that suggests when life began on earth

 Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks, the oldest of which are 3800 million years old
 Stromatolites, layered clumps or photosynthetic cyanobacteria
 3400 – 3500 mya rocks from Warrawoona Group, Western Australia
 Oxygen did not immediately begin to build-up in the atmosphere, but rather it was taken up
by rocks.
 Oxidised rocks can be seen in ancient banded iron formations and red bed rocks
 The fact that anaerobic cells developed first, in an anaerobic environment, says that life
could not have evolved in the presence of oxygen

Explain why the change from anoxic to oxic was so significant in the evolution of living things

 At first all oxygen was tied up in h20

 Allowed for ‘modern style’ of photosynthesis
 Atmospheric oxygen allowed development of ozone layer. This absorbed uv rays and meant
development of life on land could occur
 Due to oxic environment, cellular respiration began, more efficient way to use food energy
 The energy efficiently produced in respiration enabled organisms to increase in size and in
their complexity

Construct a timeline of the main events that occurred during the evolution of life on earth
4. Explain the need for scientists to classify organisms

It assists in the identification of unknown organisms and makes communication between scientists
much more precise and simpler. It convenient and provides a quick and accurate description of an
organism eg mammal immediately provides information about how it feeds its young etc. It enables
TRENDS in groups to be observed, shows pathways in evolution.

Describe the selection criteria used in different classification systems and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of each system

The 2 KINGDOM system, consists of PLANTS and ANIMALS:

Selection criteria:

- PLANTS: autotrophic, no locomotion, no cell wall

- ANIMALS: heterotrophic, locomotion, no cell wall

Advantages:

- The oldest system that works well with familiar organisms

Disadvantages:

- Some unicellular organisms possess plant and animal traits

- Does not recognise differences in eucaryotic and procaryotic cells

- Fungi is difficult to classify

The 3 KINGDOM system, consists of MONERA, PLANTS and ANIMALS:

Selection criteria:

- MONERA: procaryotic

- PLANTS: eucaryotic, photosynthetic, no locomotion, cell wall

- ANIMALS: eucaryotic, heterotrophic, locomotion and no cell wall

Advantages:

- Separating the eucaryotes is useful as their structure is different

Disadvantages:

- Some unicellular eucaryotic organisms possess animal and plant traits

The 5 KINGDOM system, consists of MONERA, PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTS and ANIMALS:

Selection criteria:

- MONERA: Procaryotic
- PROTISTA: Eucaryotic, unicellular

- FUNGI: Eucaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, no locomotion, cell wall

- PLANTS: Eucaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic, no locomotion, cell wall

- ANIMALS: Eucaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, locomotion

Advantages:

- Distinguishing fungi from plants is useful, as fungi have no chlorophyll and so are functionally
different

Disadvantages;

- Protista contains widely differing organisms and as such is a fairly meaningless group

Explain how levels of organisation in a hierarchal system assist classification

 A species is a group of organisms that share a common gene pool

 In the hierarchical system, the organisms are divided into the following groups: Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
 Organisms are classified into the different levels according to the features they have.
 Different levels of similarity of difference can be reflected as you go up or down the
hierarchy. The lower down you go (from kingdom to species) the more features the
organisms have in common

Discuss, using examples, the impact of changes in technology on the development and revision of
biological classification systems

 When organisms were classified just according to their external structure (Linnaeus’ system)
there were only 2 kingdoms: plants and animals
 The invention of the light and electron microscopes, and the discovery of cells and the
discovery of micro-organisms increased the number of kingdoms to 5
 The advances in molecular techniques, like DNA and amino acid sequencing have revealed
new relationships between organisms

Describe the main features of the binomial system in naming organisms and relate these to the
concept of genus and species

 Linnaeus divided matter into three kingdoms; plant, animal and mineral
 Organisms in a large group called order, then subgroup genus and species
 He suggested organisms should be called by their genus and species eg homo sapiens
 This avoids problems of different languages etc

Identify and discuss the difficulties experienced in classifying extinct organisms

 Difficulties arise due to incomplete fossil records or damaged specimens

 There is an absence of biological material eg colour, behaviour
 Fossils can be put together wrongly based on existing similar species
Explain how classification of organisms can assist in developing an understanding of present and past
life on Earth:

Ordering: Grouping organisms together brings a sense of order to a vast range of organisms.
Classification also simplifies the description of things

Communicating: All scientists throughout the world use the same names no matter what language
they speak; this means there is no confusion

Relationships: Show relationships with other organisms present today. Some show evolutionary
pathways (phylogenetic)

Conservation: Through classification and observing organisms in different environments, we can

learn about endangered species and try to save them from extinction in the future.

8.5 Evolution of Australian Biota

1. Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once a part of
Gondwana including matching continental margins, position of mid ocean ridges, spreading zones
between continental plates, fossils in common on gondwanan continents, similarities between
present day organism on gondwanan continents

The continental margin is the zone between the ocean basin and the mass of the continent

Continental shelf: area underwater from the shore to the continental margin

Gondwana: Africa, South America, Australia, India and Antarctica

 When continental margins are aligned, rock types and structures also align
 When plates move apart, molten rock rises up and forms new sea floor. In these areas,
called spreading zones, the new rock that forms is older the further it is from the ridge. This
proves that the plates have been moving apart steadily for a long time
 Spreading zones are where plates move apart

Fossil: any trace or remains of a past life

 Fossil distribution: organisms that couldn’t swim or fly were found on different continents
that were thought to be once joined
 Glossopteris and Gangamopteris are fossil plants found in rocks of the same age in Australia,
Africa, India, South America, Antarctica and New Zealand
 Fossils of marsupials have been found on all the continents that were part of Gondwana
 Similarities between present day organisms; different animals with a common ancestor eg
ostrich, rhea, emu, cassowary, kiwi

Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct species, including
mega fauna and extant Australian species

 Mega fauna are large animals, such as elephants and whales

  Mega fauna are not the ancestors of present animals, eg kangaroos didn’t come from
giant kangaroos, rather they both evolved from a common ancestor.
 Over the last 50k years most of the world’s mega fauna have become extinct
 This is due to climate change and human expansion
 Living fossil (or relict species) are organisms that have changed little or not at all since
ancient times.
 Australia has many examples of living fossils, such as: 1) Stromatolites, 2) The Wollemi
Pine, 3) Crocodiles, 4) Queensland lungfish, and 5) Monotremes.

Solve problems to identify the positions of mid-ocean ridges and spreading zones that infer a moving
Australian continent

 Mid-ocean ridges occur where continental plates are moving apart

 Spreading zones are the new areas of floor created at ridges where molten rock rises out
from the mantle and solidifies
 There are spreading zones on the southern side of the Indo-Australian plate, and collision
zones on the northern side
 This implies that Australia is moving north

Platypus

 Over the past 200 years, scientists‟ attitudes to the platypus has changed greatly
 A dried platypus skin sent to England 200 years ago, in 1798, was considered to be a fake;
the bill was thought to have been stitched on
 Since then, there has been much debate as to how it should be classified
 Features that separate it from other mammals: It lays eggs, no true teeth, and an absence of
mammary glands, though it can secrete milk
 It has been shown to be able to regulate body temperature in a primitive way

Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in the terms of daughter cells produces

Mitosis:

 Cell division, where two daughter cells are produced that are identical to the parent cell
 It is used for growth and repair
 Also basis of sexual reproduction
 Division occurs only once
 The stages are Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
 Cells produced are diploid (identical number of chromosomes to parent)

Meiosis:

 Cell division that produces 4 cells with half the number of chromosomes compared to the
parent cell (haploid)
 These cells are sex-cells; also called gametes
 Human males produce gametes called sperm, females produce ova or eggs
 When two gametes join, the normal number of chromosomes is achieved
  Random segregation is, during meiosis, the separation of chromosomes by chance into the
resulting daughter cells. This means that the gametes produced can have any combination of
chromosomes. This results in increased variation

Compare and contrast external and internal fertilisation

Fertilisation is the process by which the male and female gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote.

Conditions needed for fertilisation:

1. Both male and female gametes need to be produced and ready at same time
2. Arrangements need to be bring the gametes in contact with each other
3. Water needs to be present (male gametes must swim to the female gamete

External fertilisation:

 Most aquatic animals have external fertilisation

 Male and female gametes are shot into the water in the hope of fertilisation
 To ensure fertilisation, millions of gametes are released
 The chances of fertilisation are increased because:
– Cyclical reproductive behaviours
– Synchronised timing of gamete production and release
– The development of courtship and mating behaviours in animals

Internal Fertilisation

 The male gamete is transferred directly to the female gamete

 As a result, the number of female gametes is reduced greatly
 Reproductive strategies:
– Bringing the opposite sexes together with courtship and mating behaviours
– Having a method of gamete transfer

External fertilisation is successful in water, as the gametes can spread very far and wide in the water,
increasing the chances meeting other gametes from the opposite gender, encouraging fertilisation

External fertilisation would not succeed on land, as there is no water through which the male
gametes can swim, and the gametes would not spread very far, as the buoyancy of water is not
there to support their travelling.

Internal fertilisation enabled the colonisation of land, as the watery environment needed is provided
by the female’s physiology

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora to ensure: pollination, seed dispersal, asexual
reproduction

 Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperm plants

 Flowers are protected in the bud by sepals (usually petal-like)
 Male reproductive organ:
– Called the stamen
 – Made of anther and filament
– Meiosis occurs in anther and produces pollen grains

Female reproductive organ:

– Called the pistil; made up of a number of carpels

– Each carpel is made of a stigma, style and ovary
– Meiosis occurs in the ovules, which are in the ovary

Pollination: the transfer of pollen onto a mature stigma

Fertilisation occurs after pollination, in the following way:

1. The pollen on the stigma sends a pollen tube down the style to the ovary
2. zygote forms
 Self-pollination involved pollen going on to the stigma of the same plant
 Cross-pollination involves pollen falling on the stigma of different plants
 Seed dispersal is the spreading of seeds away from the parent plant
 Flowers attract insects by scent, colour, petal arrangement

Cross pollination vectors: wind, mammals, insects, birds

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure fertilisation and survival of the
embryo and of the young after birth

 To ensure fertilisations, sexually mature individuals need to be brought together

 This process is called mating
 Many factors influence mating behaviour: temperature, food, phases of moon, etc

Kangaroo Internal fertilisation After birth, underdeveloped

Partial internal development young crawls into mother’s
Very short gestation period in pouch and continues
the uterus development while feeding on
milk, for 4 months.

Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptions has increased the chances of continuity
of the species in the Australian environment

 These adaptations have developed as a result of natural selection, and thus these are the
‘fittest’ for their environment.
 Since these reproductive adaptations are well suited to their environment, chances if
continuity are increased for the plant.

Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous

 Asexual reproduction results in the production of offspring genetically identical to the parent
 If the environment is unchanging, and the characteristics of a particular organism are well
suited to the environment, then asexual reproduction would be advantageous, since all the
offspring will have the advantageous characteristics