TABLE OF CONTENTS

Highway materials and their properties

bituminous materials
Construction Equipment
Construction of low cost roads
Marshall Mix Design Method
Rigid pavement
Highway Maintenance
Soil Stabilization
Rotary intersection
1

Transportation Engineering-II
(CE-441), Credit: 3
2 Syllabus
• Highway materials and their properties (sub grade, sub base & base courses).
• Production, properties & uses of Bituminous materials.
• Bituminous mix design methods.
• Design of flexible pavement.
• Design of rigid pavement.
• Construction equipments.
• Soil aggregates & low cost roads.
• Construction of flexible pavements.
• Construction of rigid pavements.
• Soil stabilization.
• Maintenance of highway.
• Highway intersection design.
Text Books: Highway Engineering—S.K. Khanna & Justo
Principles of Pavement design- Yoder & Witchzak
Ref. Books: Highway Engineering—Wright & Paquttee
Highway Engineering—L.R. Kadyali
Planning, Management & Construction equipment- Purifoy
Course
3 Objectives:
• The primary objective of this course is to introduce students
to different highway materials used in road construction and
their properties with the emphasis on safe and efficient
operation of highways.
• To learn about the production procedure and different
method of mix design related to highway materials.
• To introduce with the design and construction of flexible
pavement and rigid pavement.
• To learn about soil aggregates, soil stabilization, different
construction equipments and low cost roads.
• To introduce students with the maintenance of highway and
various highway intersection design.
Course
4 Outcomes:
• Transportation is a core discipline within CE; students will
obtain a basic understanding about different highway
materials used in road construction and their properties.
• Students will be able to utilize the obtained knowledge
about the different highway materials while doing a practical
work in a highway.
• Students will be able to do the lab experiments on highway
materials more easily with all their gathered knowledge
about bituminous material, soil stabilization, soil aggregates
etc.
• Students will be able to maintain the highway and
performance of the used material and will also be able to
design highway with highway intersection design.
 5 Lecture Plan
Name of the Topic Sub-topic Period Remarks

Highway materials Types of Highway and their various layers

2
and their properties with neat sketch
(sub grade, sub base Functions and materials used in each layer
& base courses) Materials properties and laboratory 1

evaluation
Production, Types of bituminous materials and their 1

properties & uses of origin

Bituminous Production and properties of bitumen 2
materials Cutback and emulsion 1

Design of flexible Various types of flexible design methods 6

pavement
Design of rigid Various types of rigid design methods 5
pavement
Construction equipments 1
equipments Soil aggregates & low cost roads
Construction of flexible Sub grade, sub base and base construction 2
pavements Surface course construction 2
 6 Lecture Plan(cont’d)

Name of the Topic Sub-topic Period Remarks

Bituminous mix design Various types of bituminous mix design 1

methods methods 2
Marshal method
Construction of rigid Methods of construction, slab construction 1
2
pavements Types of joints and their construction, joints
sealer & filler materials
Soil stabilization Various types of soil stabilization, Mechanical 3
stabilization,
Soil-cement, soil-lime, soil-bitumen design
Maintenance of Maintenance and its importance 1
highway Maintenance management 2
Maintenance operation
Highway intersection Geometric design of intersection 2
design 1
Design of mini roundabout
7 Lecture 1
Highway materials and their properties (sub grade, sub base & base
courses). Types of Highway and their various layers with neat sketch
8
9
10 Fig: Rigid Pavement
11
12
Functions and materials used in each layer

Functions of Wearing Course:

They provide smooth, quiet running surfaces for vehicles.

They are highly resistant to surface wear and deformation.

They have high resistance to skidding.

They help to transmit the applied wheel loads in such a way that the layers

beneath are not overstressed.

They act as covers protecting the underlying pavement and sub grade from

the detrimental actions of moisture.

13
Functions of Base Course:
Base course are used under rigid pavements for various reasons such as

• Control pumping.

• Control of frost action.

• Drainage purposes.

• Control of shrink and swell of sub grade.

• Expedition of construction.

• Besides it will lend some structural capacity to the pavement although

capacity relatively minor.

14
Functions of Sub-base:

• To carry constructional traffic and act as a platform on which

subsequent layer can be constructed.

• To act as a cutoff blanket & prevent moisture from migrating

upward from the sub-grade.

• To act as a cutoff blanket to prevent the infiltration of sub-grade

materials into the pavement.

15
Functions of Sub-grade soil:

• To give adequate support to the pavement.

• Should possess sufficient stability under adverse climate and loading

condition.
16

Depending on the material used, road classified as

i) Earth road

ii) Gravel

iii) Soil stabilized road

iv) WBM

v) Bituminous road

vi) Cement concrete road

17
Materials

Sub-grade: Soil

Sub-base: Soil aggregate, lime soil, cement treated

soil, industrial waste.

Base: WBM, bitumen treated aggregate, soil cement, lean cement

concrete(1:6:12),roller compacted concrete.

Surface course: Bituminous or asphaltic coat, hot mix or cold mix asphaltic mixer.
Cement concrete.
18

Materials used in highway construction:

• Soil
• Cement
• Aggregate
• Bitumen
• MS rod
• Brick
• Timber
• Lime
• Water
• Tar
19
Desirable properties of Sub-grade (Soil)

• Stability
• Incompressibility
• Permanency of strength
• Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse
condition
• Good drainage
• Ease of compaction
Soil
20 Laboratory Tests:
• Index properties: GSD, Atterberg limits, Plasticity index,
MDD, FD, FMC etc.
• Soil classification: MIT, Unified, AASHTO
• Soil strength: Shear tests, Bearing tests, Penetration tests
Shear test:
• Direct shear test
• Triaxial compression test
• Unconfined compression test
• Vane shear test
Bearing test: Plate bearing test
Penetration test: CBR test
21
Direct shear test:
Shear resistance (Sr) = C + σ tanФ
• Where C = Cohesion/unit area
• σ = Normal stress
• Ф = Angle of internal friction
22

Basic principle of Tri-axial compression test

23 Stones (Aggregate)
(ref: Aziz, Neville, Shetty, Troxell)
Aggregates are generally considered as inert materials in a
structural mix. But some of the aggregates are chemically
active & also that certain aggregates exhibit chemical bond
at the interface of agg. & paste.

Aggregates may be classified as;

Natural: sand, rock, etc.
Artificial : broken bricks, slag, ctc.

Sand: lower size limit 0.07mm or a little less.

Silt: lower size limit 0.002mm
clay: size less than 0.002mm.
Loam: a soft deposit consisting of sand, silt & clay about equal
proportions.
24 Aggregate types

According to size- i. Coarse aggregate-retained on 4.75mm sieve

ii. Fine aggregate -passing 4.75mm sieve- retained on 0.075mm sieve.
iii. Filler material-passing 0.075mm sieve.

According to water affinity- i. Hydrophilic ii. Hydrophobic

According to Source (ch-2; Aziz)

i. Igneous rock- from volcanic eruption after cooling & solidifying. They
are very heavy, strong & durable. e.g.; granite, trap,& basalt.
ii sedimentary rock- form by hardening the sedimentation under lakes,
seas & steams. They are not very heavy & strong. e.g. limestone &
sandstone.
iii. Metamorphic rock- Due to high press. & temp. inside the earth-
crust both igneous & sedimentary rocks are converted into this rocks.
They are very strong & durable e.g. marble, quartzite & slate.
25
Aggregate stages based on presence of moisture
1. Damp or wet: saturated & with free or surface
moisture on the particles.
2. Saturated surface dry (SSD): no free/surface water
on the particles, but all voids within the particles
filled with water.
3. Air dry: no surface water on the particles. Some
internal moisture present, but not saturated.
4. Oven dry: all moisture, external & internal driven
off by heating at 100-1100C.
1 2 3 4
26
According to Gradation/GSD-
A. Poorly/uniform graded
B. Well graded/dense graded
C. Gap/open graded
27
Stones available in BD (Ref. Aziz-Ch 2)
Granite-used for ornamental & monumental works, small amount in
Sylhet & Chittagong.
Trap- in bldg. works & road works. small amount in Sylhet & Chittagong.
Basalt- in foundation of structures. small amount in Sylhet.
Sandstone- used as local bldg. materials. abundantly found in greater
Chittagong.
Limestones- used as cheap railway ballast, road metal, manufacturing
cement & hydraulic cement and local bldg. materials. abundantly found
in BD.
Quartzite- used as retaining walls, aprons etc. found in cox’s bazar.
Slate-use as roofing material, damp proof course, steps, floor tiles & as
road materials. Found in Sylhet & Chittagong.
Marbles- for decorative purposes. Found in Sylhet & Chittagong.

Gneiss, schist, laterite, shale etc. are also available.

28
Uses of stones in Engineering Construction
• Concrete & foundation: granite, quartzite, trap & basalt
• Paving of roads: granite, gneiss, trap & slate.
• Bldg floors: sandstone, granite & marble.
• Roofing: slate.
• Super structure: granite, trap, laterite & sandstone.
• Arches & curvings: granite & marble.
• Ballast: granite, trap & quartzite.
• Bed-block: granite, &quartzite.
• Bridges: Granite & slate.
• Dams: granite & Trap.
• Damp proof course: Granite & slate.
• Lintels: granite.
• Marine structures: Granite .
29
Aggregates properties & their tests
•Strength- crushing/10% fineness test
•Hardness- abrasion test
•Toughness- impact test
•Durability- soundness test
•Shape of aggregate - Flakiness index, Elongation
index, Angularity number test
•Adhesion with bitumen - Stripping test
•Sp. Gr. & water absorption capacity
•Grain size distribution- gradation test
•Bulking-
•Organic impurities
•Clay lumps & friable particles
30
Specification for single size aggregate
40 size(say) 50 size(say)
% passing % retained
sieve size, mm

50 60 100 0

40 50 85 min 15 max Over size

25 40 15 max 70 min Normal size

19 25 5 max 10 min Under size

2.36 2.36 2 max 3 min

(40-25) (50-40) Flakiness index 5% max

31
Representative samples
• Sampling (flotation process or quartering method)
• Blending (From Transparent sheet)
• Production process (note book)
32
Bulking of aggregates (ref.-Aziz)
• It is the increase in volume of a given wt. of aggregate caused by the
formation of water film around the agg.
• Fig 10.4 p-116 for coarse agg.
• Fig 8.1 p-83 for fine agg.

• Mechanism of bulking : it is due to the formation of thin film of

water around agg. grains and interlocking the air in between grains
& the film of water.
• Bulking phenomena: p-83
• Bulking =(Vm-Vs/Vs where, Vm=max vol. in flax
Vs= dry/saturated vol.
Field mix ratio & real mix ratio-p 116
33

Properties of Cement:
• a)Hydration- Consistency test
• b) Setting- Initial setting & Final setting
• c) Fineness- Blane air permeability test
• d) Soundness- Autoclabe test or Lee Chatellier
test
• e) Strength- Tensile & Compressive test
34
Classification
35

Bituminous Material: are very commonly used in highway

construction because of their binding & water proofing
properties.
Tar: is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or wood. It is
produced in 3 stages: -
 Carbonization of coal to produce crude tar.
 Refining (distillation of crude tar) to take out various chemicals.
 Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil fraction.
Tar is divided into: - Rd tar-1
Rd tar-2
Rd tar-3
Rd tar-4
Rd tar-5
36

Fig: Tar
 Now a day’s road tar is not used in road construction because
37

 It becomes soft at temperature due to its high temp.

susceptibility.
 It Oxidizes very easily, so brittle nature may come.
 It does not dissolve in low cost solvent.
 Manufacture cost or production cost is high.

Special Applications:
Blend of 80% bitumen and 20% tar sometimes used for
creating skid resistance on the road surface.

Tar can be used in lower layers due to its-

•High adhesive property to aggregate.
•Stripping is almost absent.
38

Asphalt: when the bitumen contains some inert materials or

minerals, it is called asphalt.

Asphalt

Petroleum Native

Rock Asphalt Lake Asphalt

Rock Asphalt is further classified into Lime Stone Deposit &

Sand Stone Deposit (10% Bitumen)
Lake Asphalt contains 54% Bitumen
39

Fig: Rock Asphalt Fig: Lake Asphalt

40

 Bitumen content may taken out from rock by giving benzene,

getting a benzene and bitumen mixture from which we get
bitumen used only to a limited extent as road surfacing.

 Large deposit with the conjunction of solid mineral matter

used in road surface with high solid resistance.
41
42

Cutback: The viscosity of bitumen is reduced sometimes by a

volatile diluents. This material is known as cutback. For use in
surface dressing, some type of bituminous macadam and soil
stabilization, this is needed.
Cutback is classified as: Rapid Curing (RC), Medium Curing
(MC) & Slow Curing (SC)
 RC-70 means viscosity of binder at 140o F is 70-140
centistokes.

 RC-250 means viscosity of binder at 140o F is 250-500

centistokes & so on.
43

What happens when bitumen is over heated-

 Solvent of bitumen is evaporated.

 Oxidation take place.

 Giving toxic gases.

 Become brittle.
44

Emulsion: When the bitumen is suspended in a finely divided

condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized with an
emulsifier, the material is known as emulsion. Emulsifiers are
generally soaps. Binder 40-60%, the remaining portion is water.

In water, bitumen globules come in contact each other, form bigger

particles, which may settle down. So requirement of emulsifier is
must to keep the bitumen globules away from each other, either in
the form of positively or negatively charged. Depending on the
charged, the bitumen emulsions are cationic and anionic.
45

0.5-1% emulsifier by wt. of finished emulsion is usually taken.

 In cationic emulsion, globules are coated with positive charge.

e.g. Cytile trimethyl ammonium bromide- C16H33(CH3)3NH4br

 In anionic, globules are coated with negatively charged particles

like Sodium stearate

CH3(CH2)6COONa

CH3(CH2)6COO- + Na+

 Bigger size are not stable.

 Globular size- 2µ-10µ.

46

Emulsion is two types-

1. Anionic- a. Rapid setting b. Medium setting c. Slow setting

2.Cationic

Advantages:

 It is used with cold and hot aggregate.

 It can be used in dry or damp places.

 It don’t required any fire hazard.

Disadvantages: It cannot be used during rainfall.

47

Mechanism of Breaking:
At the beginning, it looks generally dark brown liquid, slowly it
turns into black. Then it starts breaking
Breaking depends on-
 Evaporation of water faster, breaking also faster.
 Factors- air temp. asphalt temp. wind condition, relative humidity.
 Type of agg.- either positively charged aggregate or negatively
charged aggregate.
 Porosity of the underlying layer.
 Mechanical disturbance.
About 1/5 of water evaporates ( color changing brownish to black)
compaction can be started, breaking of emulsion accelerated.
 Cationic- CRS, CMS, CSS
 Anionic- RS, MS, SS
48

Construction Equipment
Site clearance equipment
Excavation & Filling equipment
Compaction equipment
Mixer equipment
Testing equipment- a) Lab testing b) Field testing
49
SITE CLEARANCE EQUIPMENT
 Manual appliances-spade, Pick, & hand shovel
 Mechanical equipment- dozer scraper and
ripper

MIXER EQUIPMENT
 Bituminous mixer
 Concrete mixer
 Soil-aggregate mixture
50 Site Clearance with Scraper Dozer
51 Uproot of Trees
52
53 Tree Cutting & Site Clearance Equipment
Excavation Equipment
54

 Bulldozer, scraper- for shallow excavation & for hauling the

earth for relatively short distance
 Power shovel- to excavate earth for all classes except rock and
to load it into wagons.
 Dragline- to excavate soft earth & to deposit in nearby banks
or to load into wagons.
 Clamshell- placing and handling aggregate at a stockpile,
dredging operation. Soft to medium or loose material at or
below ground level.
 Hoe- below existing ground in firm or hard material.
55
BULLDOZER
56
POWER SHOVEL
57
CLAMSHELL
58
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
 Smooth wheeled rollers- 4 to 18 tons. Generally all types
materials. 4-8”

 Pneumatic tired rollers- 50T, non-plastic silts & fine sands. 7-24”

 Sheep foot tired rollers- 20T, clayey soils, silty. 7-12”

 Rammers (self propelled)- small areas where rollers cannot

operate. Such as compaction trenches, foundation and slopes.

 Vibrators- 30T, dry cohesion less granular material. 3-6”

 Watering- compacting cohesion less soil.

59 SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER
60 PNEUMATIC TIRED ROLLER
61 SHEEP FOOT ROLLER
62
RAMMER
63
VIBRATOR
64
WATERING EQUIPMENT
65
Construction of low cost roads
Low Cost Roads are classified as below:
Earth road
Gravel road
Soil stabilized road
Water bound macadam(WBM) road

Construction of earth roads: Earth road is the cheapest

type of road prepared from natural soil.
•The construction depends upon the type of soil at site.
•The camber provided to the earth roads is very steep and
ranges between 1 in 20 to 1 in 33.
•The maximum cross slope of 1 in 20 is recommended to
avoid erosion due to rain waters and formation of cross
ruts.
Specification
66 of materials (Earth road):

Base Course Wearing Course

Clay content < 5% 10 to 18%
Silt content 9 to 32% 5 to 15%
Sand content 60 to 80% 65 to 80%
Liquid limit < 35% < 35%
Plasticity index < 6% 4 to 10%

Construction procedure:
Material: The soil survey is carried out and suitable
borrow pits are located within economical haulage
distances.
Location: The centre line and road edges are marked on
the ground along the alignment by driving wooden pegs.
67
Preparation of sub-grade: Site clearance manually or
mechanically
• Cutting ,filling(to bring the road to a desired grade)
• Compaction (field density & m.c check)
• Shaping of sub-grade(such as: camber, grade etc.)
Pavement construction: The borrowed soil is dumped
on the prepared sub-grade and pulverized. The field
moisture content is checked and additional water is
added if necessary, to bring it up to OMC. The soil is
mixed, spread and rolled in layers such that the
compacted thickness of each layer doesn’t exceed
10cm. The type of roller for compaction is decided
based on soil type, desired amount of compaction and
availability of equipment.
Opening to traffic: The compacted earth road is
allowed to dry out for a few days before opening to
traffic.
68
Construction of gravel roads: Gravel roads are considered
superior to earth roads as they can carry heavier traffic.
• The camber may be between 1 in 25 and 1 in 30.
Material: Hard variety of crushed stone or gravel of specified
gradation is used. There are no specifications for the materials.
Rounded stones and river gravel are not preferable as there is poor
interlocking.
Construction procedure:
Material: Gravel to be used for the construction is stacked along the
side of the proposed road.
Location: The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground
along the alignment by driving wooden pegs.
Preparation of sub-grade: Site clearance manually or mechanically
• Cutting ,filling(to bring the road to a desired grade)
• Compaction (field density & m.c check)
• Shaping of sub-grade(such as: camber, grade etc.)
69
Pavement construction: Crushed gravel aggregates are placed
carefully in the trench so as to avoid segregation. Aggregates are
spread with greater thickness at centre and less towards the
edges so as to obtain the desired camber. The layer is rolled
using smooth wheeled rollers.
Opening to traffic: A few days after the final rolling and drying
out, the road is opened to traffic.

Construction of Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads:

John Macadam (1756-1836) was the surveyor general of roads in
England and his new concept of road construction became
known by the year 1827.
70
WBM (water bound macadam): The broken stones of the
base course & surface course are bounded by the some dust in
presence of moisture. prof.skp .... highway construction

The pavement base course made of crushed or broken agg.

mechanically interlocked by rolling & the voids filled with
screening & binding materials with the assistance of water.
71
•When WBM used as a surface course, it gets deteriorated rapidly
under adverse condition of traffic & weather. Therefore it is
desirable to provide a bituminous surfacing course over the WBM in
order to prolong its life.
•WBM Course agg.+ Screening + binding materials + water with
compaction
•Course aggregate: a) Crushed agg. B) Broken stone c) Over burnt
brick d) Crushed slag
•Screening Materials: same as course agg. but smaller sizes,
LL<20%, PL<6%
•Binding materials: a) Fine aggregate b) Lime dust c) Stone dust
Type
72 of coarse aggregates:
Property Requirements for pavement
layer
Sub-base Base course Surfacing
course
Los Angeles abrasion value (max. %) 60 50 40
Aggregate impact value (max.%) 50 40 30
Flakiness index (max.%) - 15 15
Quality of materials: The grading requirements of screenings for WBM
Classification Size of screenings Sieve size Percent passing the
grading mm mm sieve, by weight
A 12.5 12.5 100
10 90-100
4.75 10-30
0.15 0-8
B 10 10 100
4.75 85-100
0.15 10-30
73
WBM Construction procedure:
1) Preparation of foundation for receiving WBM course: The
foundation may be either the sub-grade or sub-base or base course.
• Prepared to the required grade & camber
• Foreign material should be cleaned
• Depression & pot holes are filled
• Corrugations are removed by scarifying and reshaping the surface
to the required grade and camber.
2) Provision of lateral confinement: Lateral confinement is to be
provided before starting WBM constructions. This may be done by
constructing the shoulder in advance, to a thickness equal to the
compacted WBM.
3) Spreading of coarse aggregate: are spread uniformly to proper
profile to even thickness upon the prepared foundation and
checked by templates.
74
4) Rolling: Rolling is started from the edges, the roller being
run forward and backward until the edges are compacted.
But for the super elevated portion of the road, rolling is
started from the inner edge or lower edge towards outer or
upper edge of the pavement.
5) Application of screenings: After rolling, the dry screenings
are applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices
in three or more applications.
6) Sprinkling & grouting: After the application of screenings,
the surface is sprinkled with water, swept and rolled.
Additional screening are applied & rolled till the coarse
aggregate are well bonded & firmly set.
7) Application of binding material: After the application of
screening and rolling, binding material is applied at a
uniform and slow rate at two or more successive thin layers.
When crushable screening is used like moorum or gravel,
there is no need to apply binding materials, except in the
surfacing course.
75
8) Setting & drying: After final compaction, the WBM
course is allowed to set over-night. Next day hungry spots
are located & are filled by screening or binding material,
lightly sprinkled with water. No traffic is allowed till
WBM layer set & dried out. Then bituminous surfacing is
laid.

Construction of soil-stabilized roads:

• Common methods used are: a) Mechanical soil
stabilization b) Soil-cement stabilization c) Soil-lime
stabilization d) Soil-bitumen stabilization
* Details will be discussed later on
 Construction of bituminous pavement
76

Sub-grade preparation:
•Site clearance: manually or mechanically
•Cutting, filling(to bring the road to a desired grade)
•Compaction (field density & m.c check)
•Shaping of sub-grade (such as camber, grade etc.)
77
Sub-base preparation (Soil-aggregate, lime-soil, cement treated
soil, industrial waste) :
• Desired proportions of materials are mixed on the prepared sub-
grade.
• Field, m.c is checked, if less than OMC
• Requisite amount of water is to be added & mixed again.
• Then the mix is to be spread & rolled in layer by layer
Base course construction:
• WBM (is widely used as base course for road construction)
• bitumen treated aggregate
• soil-cement
• lean cement concrete (1:6:12)
• roller compacted concrete.
78
i) Surface treatment
79

a) Interface Treatments
• The surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove
dust & dirt & a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed before
the construction of any type of bituminous layer over this surface.
This treatment with bituminous material is called interface treatment.
Objectives: To provide the necessary bond between the old and the new
layers.
1. Prime coat: is the 1st application of a low viscosity liquid bituminous
material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface like
the WBM base course.
• Low viscosity liquid material- MC or SC cutback.
Objectives: i) to plug in the capillary voids of the porous surface.
ii) To bond the loose material particles on the existing surface.
• The primer is sprayed uniformly using a mechanical sprayer at a rate
of 7.3 to 14.6kg per 10m2 area.
• The primed surface is allowed to cure for 24hrs, no traffic is allowed.
80
2. Tack coat: is the application of bituminous material over an
existing pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an
existing bituminous surface as a cement concrete or a pervious like
the WBM which has already been treated by a prime coat.
• Higher viscosity like hot bitumen @ 4.9kg-9.8kg / 10m2
b) i. Surface dressing
• Bituminous surface dressing is provided over coat. The single coat
surface dressing consists of a single application of bituminous
binder material followed by spreading of aggregate cover and
rolling.
• When surface dressing is similarly done in two layers, it is called
two coat surface dressing.
• Where better adhesion are required, aggregate pre-coated with
bituminous binder are used in
• Of conventional surface dressing is known as bituminous surface
dressing with pre-coated aggregate.
81

Main Functions:
•To serve as a thin wearing course of pavement and to protect the
base course.
•To water proof the pavement surface and to prevent infiltration of
surface water.
•To provide dust-free pavement surface in dry weather and
mud-free pavement in wet weather.
82
ii) Seal coat:
• Top single coat surface dressing over certain bituminous
pavement which are not impervious. Such as, open graded
bituminous construction like - i) premixed carpet ii) grouted
macadam.
• Seal coat is also provided over an existing bituminous
pavement which is worn out.

Main functions:
• To seal the surface against the ingress of water.
• To develop skid resistance texture.
• To enliven an existing dry or weathered bituminous surface.
83
Grouted or penetration type construction
Penetration macadam: is used as a base or binder course.
• The course aggregates are first spread and compacted well in dry
state and after that hot bituminous binder of relatively high
viscosity is sprayed in fairly large quantity at the top.
• The bitumen penetrates into the voids from the surface of the
compacted aggregates, thus filling a part of the voids and binding
some stone aggregates together.
• It is called “Full Grout” when bitumen penetrated to the full depth
of compacted aggregates and “Semi Grout” when it penetrates up to
about half the depth.
84
Premix construction:
a) Road mix surface
• Premix carpet: Consists of coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 10 mm
sizes, premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a
thickness of 20mm to serve as a surface course of the pavement.
The PC consists of all aggregates passing 20mm and retained on
6.3mm sieve.
• Rolled asphalt: is a dense sand-bitumen premix of compacted
thickness 25mm, used as a wearing course. It is consists of well
graded coarse to fine sand and a suitable penetration grade
bitumen to form a dense and impervious layer.
• Mastic asphalt: is a mixture of bitumen, fine aggregate and filler
in suitable proportions which yields a void less and impermeable
mass.
85
b) High type bituminous pavement (Hot mix)
• Bituminous bound macadam: is a premixed construction method
consisting of one or more courses of compacted crushed aggregates
premixed with bituminous binder, laid immediately after mixing.
The BM is laid in compacted thickness of 75mm or 50mm and is
essentially a base course or binder course.

• Bituminous concrete or asphalt concrete: is a dense graded

premixed bituminous mix which is well compacted to form a high
quality pavement surface course. The thickness of bituminous
concrete surface course layer usually ranges from 40 to 75mm. The
IRC has provided specification for 40mm thick AC surface course
for highway pavements.
86
High type Bituminous construction (Ref.- S.K. Khanna & L.R.
Kadyali)
Bituminous concrete: The bituminous concrete is the highest
quality of construction in the group of black top surfaces. Being
of high cost specifications, the bituminous mixes are properly
designed to satisfy the design requirements of the stability and
durability. The mixture contains dense grading of coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral filler coated with bitumen
binder. The mix is prepared in a hot mix plant. The thickness of
the bituminous concrete layer depends upon the traffic and
quality
Bituminous mix design
Objectives: To develop an economical blend of aggregate and
asphalt that meet bituminous mix design requirements.
87
Mobile Hot Mix Plant

Hot Ready Mix Plant

88
Properties of bituminous mix
a. Stability b. Density c. Durability d. Flexibility e. Skidding
g. workability
• The mix must have sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable,
compacted pavement by thoroughly coating, bonding and
waterproofing the aggregate.
• Enough stability to satisfy the demands of traffic without
displacement or distortion (rutting).
• Sufficient voids to allow a slight amount of added
compaction under traffic loading without bleeding and loss
of stability. However, the volume of voids should be low
enough to keep out harmful air and moisture.
• To accomplish this the mixes are usually designed by 4%
VTM in the lab and compacted to less than 7% VTM in the
field.
• Enough workability to permit placement and proper
compaction without segregation.
89
Bituminous Mix Design Methods: There are five
popular methods of mix design-
1. Marshall Method 2.Hubbard-Field method 3.Hveem
method 4.Smith tri-axial method
5. Superpave method
Out of these methods, Marshall Method is widely used in
the world.
Specifications of Materials
• Binder: Bitumen of grade 30/40, 60/70 or 80/100 may be
chosen depending upon the climatic condition of the
locality.
• Aggregates and filler: The coarse aggregates should fulfill
the following requirements
90
Physical requirements for coarse aggregate for bituminous concrete
Property Test Specification
Cleanliness (dust) Grain size analysis Max. 5% passing
0.075mm sieve
Particle shape Flakiness and elongation index Max. 30% (combined)

Strength Los Angeles abrasion value Max. 30%

Aggregate impact value Max 24%
Polishing Polished stone value Min 55%
Durability Soundness (5 cycles)
Sodium sulphate Max 12%
Magnesium sulphate Max 18%
Water absorption Water absorption Max 2%
Stripping Coating and stripping of Min. retained coating
Bitumen aggregate mixtures 95%

Water sensitivity Retained tensile strength Min 80%

Requirements
91 for bituminous pavement mix

Mix Properties Heavy traffic Low traffic

Minimum stability (kN at 600C) 9.0 3.4
flow value (mm) 2-4 2-4
Compaction level (No. of blows 75 50
on each face of specimen)
Percent air voids 3-6 3-5
Percent voids in mineral
aggregate (VMA)
Percent voids filled with bitumen 65 - 75 75 - 85
(VFB)
Loss of stability on immersion in Min 75% Min 65%
water at 600C (ASTM D 1075) retained strength retained strength
92 Composition of bituminous concrete pavement layers
Grading 1 2
Nominal agg. size 19 mm 13 mm
Layer thickness 50-65 mm 30-45 mm
IS sieve (mm) Cumulative % by wt. of total agg. passing IS sieve (mm)
26.5 100
19 79-100 100
13.2 59-79 79-100
9.5 52-72 70-88
4.75 35-55 53-71
2.36 28-44 42-58
4.75 35-55 53-71
2.36 28-44 42-58
1.18 20-34 34-48
0.6 15-27 26-38
0.3 10-20 18-28
0.15 5-13 12-20
0.075 2-8 4-10
Bitumen content % 5-6 5-7
by mass of total mix
Bitumen grade 65 65
93
Marshall Mix design procedure
Information given
 Type of pavement: light, medium and heavy duty pavement or axle
load
 Aggregate gradation limit: ASTM, BS and AASHTO, IS etc.
 Material used: Coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate, filler material and
bitumen
 Design criteria for selected pavement
 Marshall mix design criteria

Results to be obtained from mix design

• Job/batch mix formula-(Cagg; Fagg; Filler; Bitumen)/ton
• Mixing temperature
• Compaction temperature
94 Temperature-Viscosity relationship of Bitumen
95
• To establish mixing and compaction temperatures it is
necessary to develop a temperature viscosity chart. This
can be done by determining the viscosity at two different
temperatures - generally 135 C and 165 C. These two
viscosities are then plotted on the graph above and a
straight line is drawn between the two points.
• The desired viscosity range for mixing is between 0.15
and 0.19 Pa-s and 0.25 and 0.31 Pa-s for compaction.
Appropriate mixing and compaction temperatures are
selected as the temperature where these viscosity
requirements are met.
96
Design steps
• Aggregate qualifying, aggregate test specification
• Bitumen qualifying, bitumen test specification (IS-73, ASTM)
• Aggregate blending for specified gradation
• Specific gravity determination for coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, filler material and bitumen.
• Determination of mixing and compaction temperature.
• Marshall sample preparation with varying binder content (5-
7%) at mixing and compaction temperature.
• Analysis
a) Density-void analysis
• Maximum theoretical density determination of compacted
sample.
• Bulk density determination of prepared sample from volume
and mass.
• Determination of air void, VFA, VMA for Marshall sample.
97
 The theoretical specific gravity Gt of the mix is given by:
Gt = 100/[(W1/G1) + (W2/G2) + (W3/G3) + (W4/G4)]
Where W1 = percent by weight of coarse agg. in total mix
W2 = percent by weight of fine agg. in total mix
W3 = percent by weight of filler in total mix
W4 = percent by weight of bitumen in total mix
 G1, G2, G3 are apparent specific gravity values of the coarse agg.
fine agg. and filler respectively and G4 is the specific gravity of
bitumen.
Vv % = 100(Gt – Gb)/Gt Where Vv = air voids in the mix, %
Vb % = Gb* W4/G4 Vb = volume of bitumen
VMA % = Vv + Vb VMA = voids in mineral agg. %
VFB % = 100*Vb/VMA VFB = voids filled with bitumen, %
b) Stability-flow analysis
Determination of stability and flow from stability-flow test
98 Volume – Void Relationship in Bituminous Mix

Marshall Mix Design Sample

99
Graph drawing for-
1. Stability vs. Bitumen content 4. VMA vs. Bitumen content
2. Air void vs. Bitumen content 5. VFA vs. Bitumen content
3. Bulk density vs. Bitumen content 6. Flow vs. Bitumen content
100
  Determination of optimum bitumen content (OBC)-
101

OBC = Bitumen content at (max. stability + max. density + avg. air

void)/3
OR
OBC = Bitumen content at (max. stability + max. density + avg. air
void + 80% VFA)/4
 Matching the results at OBC with Marshall Mix design
criteria
 Establishing results with respect to followings:
• Job/batch mix formula-(Cagg; Fagg; Filler; Bitumen)/ton
• Mixing temperature
• Compaction temperature

Quality control-
• All time supervision during construction
• Test before construction- Laboratory test
• Test during construction- Laboratory and field test
• Test after construction- Laboratory and field test
102
Construction steps
Preparation of the existing base course layer
• The existing surface is prepared by removing the pot holes
or ruts if any.
• The irregularities are filled in with premix chippings at least
a week before laying surface course.
• If the existing pavement is extremely wavy, a bituminous
leveling course of adequate thickness is provided to lay a
bituminous concrete surface course on a binder course
instead of directly laying it on a WBM.
Application of tack coat
• It is desirable to lay AC layer cover over a bituminous base
or binder course.
• A tack coat of bitumen is applied at 6 to 7.5 kg per 10 m2
area, this quantity may be increased to 7.5 to 10 kg for non-
bituminous base.
103
Preparation and placing of premix
• The premix is prepared in a hot mix plant of a
required capacity with the desired quality control.
• The bitumen may be heated up to 150-10C and the
aggregate temperature should not differ by over 140C
from the binder temperature.
• The hot mixed material is collected from the mixer
by the transporters, carried to the location and is
spread by a mechanical paver.
• The camber and the thickness of the layer are
accurately verified.
• The control of the temperatures during the mixing
and the compaction are of great significance in the
strength of the resulting pavement structure.
104
Rolling
• A mix after placed on the base course is thoroughly
compacted by rolling at a speed not more than 5 km
per hour.
• The initial or breakdown rolling is done by 8 to 12
tones roller and the intermediate rolling is done with
a fixed wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to 30 tones
having a tire pressure of 7 kg per cm2.
• The wheels of the roller are kept damp with water.
The number of passes required depends on the
thickness of the layer.
• In warm weather, rolling on the next day helps to
increase the density if the initial rolling was not
adequate.
• The final rolling or finishing is done by 8 to 12 tone
tandem roller.
105
Quality control of bituminous concrete construction
• The routine checks are carried out at site to ensure the
quality of the resulting pavement mixture and the pavement
surface.
• Periodical checks are made for a) aggregate grading b)
grade of bitumen c) temperatures of aggregate d)
temperatures of paving mix during mixing and compaction.
• At least one samples for every 100 tones of the mixed
discharged by the hot mix plant is collected and tested for
above requirements.
• Marshall tests are also conducted. For every 100 m2 of
compacted surface, one test of the field density is conducted
to check whether it is at least 95% of the density obtained in
the laboratory.
• The variation in thickness allowed is 6mm per 4.5m length
of construction.
106
Finished surface
• The AC surface should be checked by a 3m straight edge.
• The longitudinal undulations should not exceed 8mm and
the number of undulations higher than 6mm should not
exceed 10 in a length of 300m.
• The cross profile should not have undulations exceeding
4mm.
107
Construction of cement concrete pavement

Advantages: i) Excellent riding surface, ii) Pleasing appearance

iii) More life time
Drawbacks: i) High initial investment, ii) Stage construction cannot
be possible, iii) Provision of joints creates construction difficulty, iv)
Need curing period 28 days minimum, v) Easy maintenance cannot be
possible like flexible pavement
 108
Purposes for keeping sub-base course beneath cement
concrete pavement:

To provide a strong supporting layer.

To provide a capillary cut-off preventing the damages due
to mud pumping
To reduce thickness requirement of CC slab & thus lower
the cost of construction
To increase the service life of the CC pavement
To expedite the construction work
To control shrink & swell of sub grade
109
Construction of CC pavement
It is dealt with-
1. Construction of pavement slab-a) cement grouted layer
b) rolled concrete layer c) cement concrete layer
2. Construction of joints
There are two modes of construction of pavement slab
a) Alternate bay method b) Continuous bay method
• The later method is preferred mainly because of the
advantage that construction of half the pavement width
can be taken at a time while essential traffic could be
diverted on the other half of the road.
1. Construction of pavement
110

Materials specification
• Cement
 Ordinary Portland cement is generally used.
 In case of urgency rapid hardening cement may also be used to
reduce curing time.
• Coarse aggregate
 Maximum size of aggregate ≤ ¼ of the slab thickness.
 The gradation of coarse aggregate may range from 50 to 4.75 or 40
to 4.75 mm, the aggregate is collected in two size ranges, one below
and the other above 20mm size.
 The aggregate should be from harmful materials like iron, pyrites,
coal, mica, clay, alkali, organic impurities etc.
111
The desirable limits of important properties are:
Aggregate crushing value 30 % max

Aggregate impact value 30 % max

Los Angeles abrasion value 30 % max as per the ISI and 35%
max as per the IRC
Soundness, avg. loss in wt. after 10 cycles 12 % max in sodium sulphate
18 % max in magnesium sulphate

• Fine aggregate: Natural sand should be preferred as fine

aggregate through crushed stones may also be used.

Proportioning of concrete (Mix design): The concrete may be

proportioned so as to obtain a minimum modulus of rupture of 40
kg/cm2 on field specimens after 28days curing or to develop a
minimum compressive strength or 280 kg/cm2 at 28 days, or
higher value as desired in the design.
112
Construction Equipments
a) Concrete mixer: If batching by volume is required then the
separate measuring boxes are provided for different agg.
b) Batching device: It has a rated capacity of not less than 0.2 m3 of
mixed concrete. The mixer is equipped with a water measuring
device capable of accurate measurement of water required per
batch.
c) Wheel borrow: are used to transport concrete for short distances
from mixer.
d) Vibrating screed: comprises of a wooden or mild steel screed
with suitable handles driven by vibrating units mounted thereon.
e) Internal vibrators: used to ensure compaction of the cement
concrete along with the forms and also to avoid any tendency of
honey-combing at the edges of the slab.
113
f) Float: used for smoothing the concrete.
g) Straight edge: used to check the finished pavement surface in
longitudinal direction.
h) Belt: used for finishing the pavements surface before the concrete
hardens.
i) Fibre brush: used to make broom marks across the pavement
surface and to make it skid resistant.
j) Edging tool: used for rounding the transverse edges at expansion
joints and the longitudinal edges.
k) Other small tools: Spades, shovels, and pans water pots etc. are
also used.
114
Construction steps
• Preparation of sub-grade and sub-base- Requirements are:
 No soft spots are present in the sub-grade or sub-base
 The uniformly compacted sub-grade or sub-base extends at least 30
cm on either side of the width to be concreted
 The sub-grade is properly drained
 The minimum modulus of sub-grade reaction obtained with a plate
bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2.
 The sub-grade is prepared and checked at least two days in advance
of concreting.
• Placing of forms
 The steel or wooden forms are used for the purpose.
 The steel forms are of M.S. channel sections and their depth is
equal to the thickness of the pavements.
 Wooden forms have minimum base width of 10 cm for slab
thickness of 20 cm and a minimum base width of 15 cm for slabs
over 20 cm thick.
115
• Batching of material and mixing
 All batching of materials is done on the basis of one or more whole
bags of cement, the weight of one bag is taken as 50 kg or the unit
weight of cement is taken as 1440 kg/m2.
 The mixing of concrete is done in batch mixer which will ensure a
uniform distribution of the materials throughout the mass, so that
the mix is uniform in color and is homogenous.
• Transporting and placing of concrete
 The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate
use and is deposited on the soil sub-grade or sub-base to the
required depth and width of the pavement section.
 Care is taken to see that no segregation of materials results while
the concrete is being is transported from the mixer to its placement.
• Compaction and finishing
116

 Floating & straight edging:

 The concrete is further compacted by means of the longitudinal float.
 The longitudinal float is held in a position parallel to carriageway
centre line and passed gradually from one side of the pavement to the
other.
 Belting, brooming & edging:
 Just before the concrete becomes hard, the surface is belted with a
two-ply canvas belt.
 The short strokes are applied transversely to the carriageway.
 After belting, the pavement is given a broom finish with fibre broom
brush.
 The broom is pulled gently over the surface of the pavement
transversely from edge to edge.
 Brooming is done perpendicular to the centre line of the pavement.
 Before the concrete develops initial set, the edges of the slab are
carefully finished with an edging tool.
117
• Curing of cement concrete
 Initial curing: The surface of the pavement is entirely covered with
burlap, cotton, or jute mats. Prior or being placed, the mats are
thoroughly saturated with water and are placed with the wet side
down to remain in intimate contact with the surface.
 Final curing: It is done by impervious membrane method.

• Opening of traffic: When the concrete attains the required

strength or after 28 days of curing the concrete road is opened to the
traffic.
118
2. Construction of joints
• Joints are provided in cement concrete roads for expansion,
contraction and warping of the slabs due to variation in the
temperature of slabs.
Requirements of a good joint
•Joint must move freely.
•Joint must not allow infiltration
of rain water.
•Joint must not allow ingress
of stone grits.
•Joint must not protrude out the
general level of the slab.
119
Depending upon the direction of placement, joints are
1. Transverse joints: a) Expansion joint b) Contraction joint
c) Warping joint d) Construction joint
2. Longitudinal joints

Fig: Isometric view of a rigid pavement

120
a) Expansion joints: are provided to allow for expansion of
the slab due to rise in slab temperature above the construction
temperature of the cement concrete. They also permit in
contraction of slabs.
• Expansion joints are provided at interval of 50-60m for
smooth interface if laid in winter and 90-120m if laid in
summer.
• For rough interface the spacing between expansion joints may
be 140m. The approximate gap width for this type of joints is
20-25 mm.
121
• Problem: due to forming a joint adds a weaker plane &
due to wheel load at such joint, weaker plane at corner &
edge.
• Measures: A system of reinforcement (dowel bars) can be
provided at suitable intervals projecting in the concrete in
longitudinal direction.
b) Contraction joints
 are provided to permit
the contraction of the slab.
4.5m spacing
Dowel bars may be
or may not be provided
In reinforced slab of
thickness 20cm
spacing is 14m.
122
c)Warping joints: This joint is provided to relieve
stresses included due to warping. These are known as
hinged joints. These joints are rarely needed if the
suitably designed expansion and contraction joints are
provided to prevent cracking.
d) Construction joints: The compulsory break
provided in continuity of the slabs is due to the
close of day’s job and the commencement of the
same the next day with a construction joint.
Normally the construction joint is planned to
coincide with an expansion joint.
123
Longitudinal joints: are provided in cement concrete roads which
have width over 4.5m.
 To allow differential shrinkage on soil sub grade of clay
 To allow swelling due to rapid changes in sub grade moisture
 To prevent longitudinal cracking in the pavements
 To maintain the two slabs together at the same level, as it acts as a
hinge
124

Tie bars are provided to hold the adjacent slabs

together. But joint can be provided with tie bar & formed
by painting the joint faces with bitumen.

Arrangement of joints
The joints in transverse direction are
placed as follows:
a) Staggered arrangement
b) Uniform arrangement
c) Skew arrangement
125
Joint filler & sealer: Joints can allow the infiltration of water
& ingress of stone grits.
Affects:- a) The infiltration of water damages the soil sub grade
& give rise to the phenomenon known as mud pumping.
b) The ingress of stone grit joint width gets reduced & faults like
spalling of joint edges take place.
c) In extreme cases, the blowup takes place.
So, joint spaces are filled by compressible filler materials &
the top of the joints are sealed using a sealer.
Filler material property
 Compressibility
 Elasticity
 Durability
126
Joint Filler Materials: a) Soft wood without knot b) Fiber board
c) Cork or cork board with bitumen

Sealer material property

a) Adhesion to cement concrete
edges
b) Extensibility without
fracture
c) Resistance to ingress of grit
d) Durability
Joint sealer Materials
a) Bitumen
b) Bitumen & rubber mixture
c) Air blown bitumen
127
Sealing characteristics
Characteristics Requirements
Pour point 180oC max
Softening point 75oC min
Increase in softening 5oC max
point after heating to
20oC above pour point
for 3 hours
Penetration value 15 to 50

Extensibility 6mm max

Resistance to grit 20 max
penetration (on impact
test at 35oC in tenths of
mm)
128
Highway maintenance (Ref. Wright & Paquette)
 Highway maintenance is defined as preserving and keeping
the serviceable condition of a structure as normal as possible,
so as to maintain its original condition as constructed or as
subsequently improved.
129
H/M includes
a. Physical maintenance activities-
patching, filling joints, blading etc.
b. Traffic service activities-
painting pavement markings, snow removing, traffic sign
etc.
Importance of H/M
 It helps- a. in providing service facilities
b. to protect the substantial investment
c. to provide longer life
d. in economic & safety benefits of the road system
e. to give better appearance
130 Traffic Service Activities
131
H/M can be classified into two broad categories-
A.Maintenance management
B. Maintenance operation

A. Maintenance Management
To increase the productivity of labor & equipment used in
maintenance operations, highway agencies are increasingly
applying modern management method in maintenance function.

Typical features of a maintenance management system include-

1. Development of an annual work program.
2. Budgeting & allocating resources.
3. Work authorization & control.
4. Scheduling.
5. Performance evaluation.
6. Fiscal control.
132
1. Work program development
a) Defining work activities
b) Establishing work quantity planning values
c) Establishing maintenance performance standards
d) Conducting a road inventory and inspection
e) Estimating the size of the work program

2. Budgeting and allocating resources

a. Involves estimating the amount of labor, equipment and
materials required to carry out the program and computing
the annual costs of the work.
b. In most highway agencies, average costs of labor, equipment,
and materials can normally be provided by the accounting
division. It is then a simple matter to convert resources
requirements of each work activity to the overall estimated
activity cost
133
3. Work authorization and control
 In a state agency, the authorization to proceed with the
maintenance work must be passed along the various levels of
administration; from top management to the district engineer,
to the sub districts, and areas where the work is to be
performed.

4. Scheduling
 In order to provide a reasonable balance of workload
throughout the year, a seasonal schedule of maintenance
operations should be developed to facilitate the schedule of
appropriate work activities during specific periods of the year.
 Typically each road maintenance division has equipment
scheduling boards that indicate reservations for and locations
of available equipment at all times.
134
135
5. Performance evaluation
 The work performance of maintenance crews, as reported on
the crew schedule cards, should be periodically summarized
and reviewed by management personnel.
 Such summaries typically include, for each maintenance
activity: 1) the number of crew schedule cards used to date,
2) the number of person-days or person-hours reported, and 3)
the work units accomplished.

6. Fiscal control
 Most highway agencies also have fiscal control procedures to
ensure that budgetary limitations are observed.
 Maintenance manager should carefully monitor the status of
expenditures and costs and their relationship to the
performance budget.
136
B. Maintenance operation
a) Roadway surfaces
b) Shoulder & approaches
c) Roadsides
d) Bridges, tunnels and drainage structures
e) Traffic control & safety devices
f) Control of snow & ice

a) Maintenance of roadway surfaces

1. Road surfaces other than paved surfaces: Water bound and
traffic bound macadam surfaces are included in this
classification. To maintain this type of road properly, it is
necessary that the surface be kept smooth, firm, and free from
excess loose material. Maintenance of this type of road can
include-
137

i. Patching
 Failures of soil-aggregate roads are principally due to
improper drainage, poorly mixed materials, or an
inadequate foundation.
 Excessive moisture in the sub-grade may be eliminated
by lateral or side drains.
 When road failure is due to a poor mixture or gradation
of materials, it is usually necessary to remove the
unsuitable material and replace it with suitable materials
of the proper gradation.
138 Patching
139

ii. Blading
 It is a general operation carried out on all soil and
stabilized surfaces.
 Its purpose is to fill in the ruts and smooth out any
irregularities in the surface.
 Blading is done by a motor grader.
 Blading should be done as soon as practicable after a
rain, when the surface materials are moist.
140 Blading
141

iii. Scarifying & resurfacing

 When the areas to be patched are numerous, or when
they extend over a considerable area, it is often more
efficient to recondition the entire surface.
 The usual procedure is to scarify the surface of the
roadway to the full depth of the surface material, proper
care being exercised so that any undesirable material
from the shoulder or the sub-grade is not mixed with the
surface course materials.
142 Scarifying
143
iv.Stabilization & dust treatment with palliatives
 Stabilization of roads with the use of binder soil such as
clay, the chlorides or other additives is often done by
maintenance forces.
 The use of dust palliatives serves two purposes: 1.
Elimination of dust 2. Preservation of the soil-aggregate
surface.
 The most commonly used as dust layers are calcium
chloride, sodium chloride and bituminous substances.

v. Bituminous surface treatment

144 Dust treatment
145
2. Bituminous road surfaces: The maintenance of these surfaces
may be divided into five distinct operations-
i. Patching
 may consist simply of an application of a thin coat of bituminous
material to an area where cracking or raveling appears and
spreading a coarse mineral aggregate over the affected area.
 Care must be exercised in the application of the proper amount of
bituminous material in order to prevent bleeding.
ii. Paint patching
 is essentially a preventive maintenance operation.
 Its purpose is to seal the surface to prevent penetration of water and
to strengthen the wearing surface.
 The work consists of applying a thin coating of bitumen over the
surface and placing fine stone chips, pea stone or coarse sand over
the patched area.
 The patch is then broomed and rolled with a light roller.
146
iii. Scarifying
 On low type bituminous surfaces, such as bituminous treated
gravel, where large areas are in poor condition, the entire surface
should be scarified and reworked.
iv. Resealing
 The material is reworked, using additional bituminous material as
required.
 It is then bladed to proper crown and grade and compacted.
 The compacted surface is then sealed with a bituminous material.
v. Non skid surface treatment
 Skid proofing may be achieved by application of a surface
treatment using sharp, angular aggregate such as blast-furnace slag
or by disking the surface.
147
Resurfacing of old bituminous pavement: Factors that must be
given detailed consideration are the following:
a. History of pavement
b. Existing physical condition
c. Character of existing & anticipated traffic
d. Relation of geometric design to safe & efficient operation of
anticipated traffic
3. Portland cement concrete surfaces: The maintenance of concrete
pavements consists for the most part of-
a) Filling & sealing joints and cracks in the pavement surface
b) Repairing spalled, scaled & map-cracked areas
c) Patching areas where failure has occurred
d) Repairing areas damaged by settlement or pumping
e) Treating buckled pavements
148
b) Maintenance of shoulders and approaches
i) Maintenance of shoulders
 Adequate shoulders are necessary if the full capacity of the roadway
surface is to be utilized.
 Shoulders may comprise many times of bases and surfaces
including soil aggregate, soil surfaces.
 A well-graded gravel shoulder will provide a satisfactory all weather
shoulder for light traffic.
 Turf shoulders require the filling of holes and ruts.
ii) Maintenance of approaches
 The methods of maintaining approach areas do not differ much
from those used for regular shoulder maintenance.
c) Maintenance of roadsides
 It is grouped into three classes- a) vegetation management and
control b) maintenance of rest areas c) litter control
149
d) Maintenance of bridges, tunnels and drainage structures
 Highway agencies continually inspect bridges and elevated
structures, then take any necessary steps to minimize deterioration
or repair damage caused by accidents, floods or other unforeseen
events.
 It is important that tunnels be inspected by qualified maintenance
personnel on a regular basis. Areas requiring special concern by
inspectors are a) supports b) tunnel walls and ceilings c) portals d)
lighting and e) ventilation
 Maintenance operations of drainage and drainage structures
include-
a) surface drainage b) ditches and c) culverts
• Objective of surface drainage is to remove the water quickly.
• Ditches are preferable for maintenance and are less dangerous when
vehicles have to leave the road.
• All culverts should be checked regularly to see that they are free
from obstructions.
150 Maintenance of bridge
151
e) Maintenance of traffic control and safety devices
 Signs, signals and markings for the direction, warning and
regulation of traffic are essential to traffic safety and must be
properly maintained.
 A variety of appurtenances within highway rights-of-way are
provided for the safety of the users.
f) Control of snow and ice
 Measures preparing for snow removal and ice control are taken
before the start of the winter season.
 The most important of these are
• preparation of necessary equipment
• stockpiling of ice control chemicals and abrasives, if used
• placing of snow fences, snow guides and containers for ice control
abrasives and
• organization arrangements
152 Pavement marking
153 Broken traffic signal and sign
154 Control of snow & ice
155
Soil Stabilization
The term soil stabilization means the improvement of the stability or
bearing power of the soil by the use of controlled compaction,
proportioning and/or the addition of suitable admixture or stabilizer.
It involves combining soil in such a way that when it is compacted
under specified condition & to the specified extent, would undergo
material change in its properties & would remain in its stable
compacted state without undergoing any change under the effects of
exposure to weather & traffic.
Basic working principles of soil-stabilization
1. Evaluating the properties of the given soil.
2. Estimating the lacking properties.
3. Deciding the economical method of stabilization
4. Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability &
durability values.
5. Compaction of designed soil.
156
Methods of soil stabilization
 Mechanical soil stabilization
 Soil-Lime stabilization
 Soil-Cement stabilization
 Soil-Bitumen stabilization
 Chemical stabilization:CaCl2 ,NaCl etc.
1. Mechanical soil stabilization: It has been successfully
applied for sub-base and base course constructions. Also used
as surface course for low cost roads such as village roads
when the traffic and rainfall are low.
Basic principles: a) proportioning
b) Compaction
157
Factors affecting Mechanical stability:
 Mechanical strength of aggregates
 Gradation
 Properties of soil
 Presence of salts, mica etc.
 Compaction
Construction steps
i) Sub-grade preparation
 Site clearance: manually or mechanically
 Cutting, filling(to bring the road to a desired grade)
 Compaction (field density & m.c check)
 Shaping of sub-grade (such as camber, grade etc.)
ii) The materials are mixed to the desired proportions as per
design. Generally the proportions are converted on volume
basis.
158 Mechanical Soil Stabilization
159
iii) The existing moisture content is checked by a rapid method
and additional water required is spread and the material is re-
mixed.
iv) The wet mix is spread to the desired grade and compacted by
rollers. Rolling is started form the edges and with adequate
longitudinal overlap, it is continued up to the centre. Rolling is
continued till adequate compaction is achieved.
• When two layers such as base course and surface course are to
be constructed, the process is repeated with appropriate
proportions of mix.
v) Two field control tests necessary are: a) determination of
moisture content of the mix before compaction. b)
determination of density during and just after compaction.
vi) The stabilized road is opened to traffic after the compacted
layer hardens by drying.
160
2. Soil-lime stabilization (clayey soil)
 Soil-lime has been widely used either as a modifier for clayey
soil or as a binder.
 Soil-lime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high types of
pavements and base course for pavements with low traffic.
 As in the case of soil-cement, soil-lime also cannot be used as
a surface course even for light traffic in view of its very poor
resistance to abrasion and impact.
 Soil-lime is quite suitable in warm regions but it is not very
suitable under freezing temperatures.
Basic principles: mainly→soil modification & the soil
cementation
1) By exchanging to get flocculate.
2) Reduction in thickness of water film around clay particles.
3) Cementing action
4) Compaction
161 Soil-lime Stabilization
162
Factors affecting the properties of soil-lime stabilization
 Soil type
 Lime content
 Types of lime
 Compaction
 Curing
 Additives if any ( e.g. accelerating materials CaCl2,NaCO3,fly
ash etc)
Construction steps
i) Preparation of sub-grade
ii) Pulverization of the soil to be stabilized
iii) Addition of part of lime as dry powder or as slurry with
water and mixing
163
iv) Allowing the mixture to age for about a day or
preconditioning the soil, and re-mixing when pulverization
becomes easy
v) Adding rest of the lime, water if necessary and re-mixing
vi) Spreading to desired grade and compacting
vii) The soil-lime is protected from drying out and is allowed
moist-curing
viii) Field control test include checking moisture content at the
time of compaction and checking dry density soon after
compaction.
• When soil is very wet, CaO is used
• When soil is dry, Ca(OH)2 is used
164
3. Soil-Cement stabilization
 Soil-cement can be used as a sub-base or base course of all
types of pavements.
 However, as the material has poor resistance to abrasion and
impact, this cannot be used as a surface course.
 A bituminous wearing course is placed over the base course.
Factors influencing properties of soil-cement:
 Soil type
 Cement
 Pulverization and mixing
 Compaction
 Curing
 Additives( e.g.lime,NaOH,NaCO3,CaCl2 )
165
Construction steps: There are two methods of construction-
a) Mix-in-place b) Plant mix
Mix-in-place method
i) Preparation of sub-grade or sub-base
ii) Pulverization of soil
iii) Application of cement and dry mixing
iv) Addition of or spraying water and re-mixing
v) Spreading and grading
vi) Compaction
vii) Curing- the soil-cement layer is allowed for moist curing
either by preventing the moisture to escape or by covering
with moist soil
viii) Joint with old work
166 Soil-cement Stabilization
167
ix) Field control tests
 checking of moisture content of soil and soil-cement mix
 checking for degree of pulverization by sieving through 4.75
mm sieve
 testing of mixing efficiency by comparing the compressive
 strength of field mix and re-mixed and compacted specimens
 checking cement content of mix
 determining dry density of the compacted layer
 checking depth of the processed layer and surface regulating
of finished layer.
168
4. Soil-Bitumen stabilization (sandy soil)
• Used as a sub-base or base course of ordinary roads and even
as surface course for roads with low traffic in low rain fall
regions
Basic principles:
 Water proofing
 Binding
 Compacting
Factors affecting properties of soil-bitumen:
 Soil type
 Types of bituminous material
 Amount of bitumen
 Mixing
 Compaction
 Curing
 Additives
169
Construction steps
i) The soil to be stabilized is pulverized
ii) Water is added to soil and is mixed
iii) Cutback or emulsion is now added and the moist soil is re-
mixed for proper distribution of bitumen. The quantity of
water to be added in step (ii) would be lesser when emulsion is
used for stabilization.
iv) The mix is spread, graded and compacted
v) The compacted layer is allowed to cure when the moisture and
volatiles of the solvent evaporate
vi) Field control test include the following- a) checking of
pulverization of wet mixed soil b) checking of moisture
content and bitumen content before compaction c) checking of
dry density after compaction
170 Soil-bitumen Stabilization
171
Stabilization of desert sand
 The desert sand deposits consist of fine grained uniformly
graded sand with rounded particles.
 The cement requirement for satisfactory stabilization is
also very high in such soil.
 Use of hot sand-bitumen would result in satisfactory mix,
provided some material including filler can be added to
give a proper gradation of the mix.
 Use of hot sand-bitumen mix is not economical for sub-
base and base course construction.
 If cutback is to be used, the requirement of mixing water
content would be considerable.
172
 The most promising bituminous material in desert region
seems to be the emulsion.
 Emulsion contains about 50% water; the additional quantity of
water needed for mixing would be very less.
 During curing the water evaporates, the emulsion breaks down
and the bitumen stabilizes the sand.
 The stability of the mix could be improved by addition of
kankar powder, and other material to improve the gradation.
173

Rotary intersection (Roundabout)

It is a specialized form of ‘at grade’ intersection laid out

for movement of traffic in one direction round a central
islands. The vehicles form the converging areas are
forced to move around the central island in a clockwise
direction (where the left-side rule of traffic prevails) in
an orderly manner and weave out of the rotary movement
into their desired directions.
174 Rotary Intersection
175
176
Advantages
1. An orderly and regimented traffic flow is provided by one way
movement
2. All traffic proceeds simultaneously and continuously at fairly
uniform, though low speed. Frequent stopping and starting are
avoided.
3. Direct conflict is eliminated, all traffic streams merging and
leaving at small angles.
4. Accidents occur are of minor in nature
5. All turns can be made with ease
6. A rotary is suited for intersections with five or more intersecting
legs and where there are heavy right-turning movements
7. For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no
control by police or traffic signals.
177
Disadvantages
1.A rotary can accommodate no more traffic than a properly
designed channelized layout
2. Required more land and may not be feasible at built-up locations
3. Large and relatively flat land requirement may make it
impracticable in some locality due to topographic conditions
4.Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself is not sufficient
to control traffic and has to be supplemented by traffic police
5. In high speed roads, require extremely large size
6. Where the angle of intersection between two roads is too acute, it
becomes difficult to provide adequate weaving length.
7. Where provided at close intervals they are troublesome
8. Traffic turning right has to travel a little extra distance
9. A rotary may require many warning and directional signs for
safety
Guidelines for selecting a rotary type of intersection
178

1. Suitable where volume entering from different intersecting legs

are approximately equal
2. A total volume of 3000 vehicles per hour entering from all the
intersecting legs appears to be maximum practical capacity of high
type rotaries
3. Appropriate when the proportion of turning traffic is very high
4. A rotary is a good choice when there are more than four
approaches to the junction
5. When the approach width are restricted and it is impossible to
provide separate lanes for through and turning traffic, a rotary may
be desirable
6. The lowest traffic volume for which a rotary design should be
considered is about 500 vehicles per hour
7. Suitable for moderately busy intersections in urban and suburban
areas
179

Design elements

Design speed: Rural areas- 40 Kph, Urban areas- 30 Kph

Radius of entry curve: Rural areas- 20-35m, urban areas- 15-
25m
Radius of exit curve: 1.5-2 times of Radius of entry curve
Radius of central islands: 1.33 times of radius of entry curve
Weaving lengths: Minimum weaving lengths are- for urban
areas: 30m and for rural areas: 45m
180 Width of carriageway at entry and exit
Width of
Carriageway width of
Area carriageway at entry
approach road
and exit (m)
7m (2 lanes) 6.5

10.5 (3 lanes) 7.0

Rural
14m (4 lanes) 8.0

21m (6 lanes) 13.0

7m (2 lanes) 7.0

10.5 (3 lanes) 7.5

Urban
14m (4 lanes) 10.0

21m (6 lanes) 15.0

181
182
Width of weaving section
W= [(e1+e2)/2] + 3.5
Entry and exit angles: entry angles should be larger exit angles
and it is desirable that the entry angles should be about 600 if
possible.

Capacity: QP=

Where
Qp= practical capacity of the weaving section in PCU
w= width of the weaving section in m
e= average entry width of the rotary in m= (e1+e2)/2
l= length of the weaving section
P = proportion of weaving traffic i.e. ratio of sum of crossing
streams to the total traffic on the weaving section
= (b+c)/(a+b+c+d)
183
184

The above formula is valid under the following

conditions:
1. There are no standing vehicles on the approaches to the
rotary
2. The site of the rotary is level and approach gradient do
not exceed 1 in 25
3. e/w should be between 0.4 -1.0
4. w/l should be between 0.12-0.40
5. P should be between 0.4 and 1.0
6. l should be between 18-90m
185
Equivalency factors for use in rotary design

Sl. No. Vehicle type PCU

Cars and light commercial

1 1.0
vehicles including –wheelers
Buses and medium heavy
2 2.8
commercial vehicles

3 Motorcycles and scooters 0.75

4 Pedal cycles 0.5

5 Animal drawn vehicles 4-6

 Design Problem:
186
Traffic flows in an urban section at the intersection of two highways in
the design hour are given below:
Left turning Straight ahead Right turning
Approach Comm Comm Comm.
Cars Scooters Cars Scooters Cars Scooters
veh. veh. veh.

N 200 50 100 250 100 150 150 50 80

E 180 60 80 220 50 120 200 40 120

S 250 80 100 150 50 90 160 70 90

W 220 50 120 180 60 100 250 60 100

The highways at present intersect at right angles and have a

carriageway width of 15 m. Design a rotary intersection making
suitable assumptions.
187

a= 408
b= 450+402
c= 643+493
d= 350
188
189
190
a= 408
b= 450+402
c= 643+493
d= 350
Here, e=(10+10)/2
=10m
And w=[(e1 +e2 )/2]+3.5
=13.5m
191
Mini Roundabouts
Basic principles of design:
•Provision of small diameter island of a diameter of about
1/3rd that of a hypothetical circle inscribed within the outer
carriageway boundaries, but normally not less than 8m. For
new layouts, space for a larger diameter (15-25m) may be
reserved if such a provision becomes necessary in future.
•An increase in the diameter of lanes at the give-way lane.
•A minimum stopping distance of 25m between the give-way
line and the point of conflict with a vehicle from the
left.(shown as dimension X in fig)
•A width between traffic islands and the roundabout (shown
as dimension Y in fig) which is not less than the total lane
width at the entry preceding it, i.e. dimension(shown as Z in
fig)
192

Y >= Z
193

•An entry taper (about 1 in 6) that is about twice as sharp as

the exit taper (about 1 in 12)

•A deflection island (shown as B in fig) intended to ensure

that straight-through movements do not occur.

•To maintain junction capacity, a single lane approach

should be tapered to give at least three lanes at the junction
and a 2-lane approach tapered to at least four lanes at the
junction. At the exits, the merge should normally be from
four lanes to two lanes and from two lanes to one lanes.
194 Mini Roundabouts
195
Blackmore gives the capacity of a mini roundabout as:
q = K(∑w + a1/2)
where q = total entry volume in PCU/hour
∑w = sum of the basic road width (not half widths) used by
traffic in both directions to and from the intersection, in
meters.
a = area of the junction widening
K = efficiency co-eff.
Typical values are:
K values (PCU/hr)
3 way junction 80
4 way junction 70
5 way junction 65
196
Advantages of mini roundabouts
•Increase in capacity: wherever mini roundabouts have
replaced large diameter roundabouts, a general increase in
the capacity has been noted. As compared to signalized
junctions too, mini roundabouts can bring about higher
capacities.

•Accident rates: typical accident rates before and after

conversion of junctions into mini roundabouts are yet to be
fully analyzed and evaluated, but a trend of a decrease in
the number of fatal and serious injury accidents has been
noticed.
197
Limitations for use:
•The mini roundabout requires careful considerations on the
design speed and the ways of reducing speeds at junctions
to this value.
•A very high standard of pavement markings and road
signing, and great care in provision of guide islands,
alignment of the kerbs and location of the central island are
necessary for the satisfactory functioning of this type of
junction.
•Adequate visibility to the approaching drivers is of prime
importance. This alone will enable him to give way to the
traffic on his right and to check on the traffic on his left for
giving way to him.
198