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D-Dalus VTOL – efficiency increase in forward flight

Article in Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology · September 2016

DOI: 10.1108/AEAT-04-2015-0104

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Introduction

Air passenger numbers are increasing rapidly, challenging future urgent environmental targets and overloading

conventional aircraft runway and traffic control capacity. Aircraft designers are therefore seeking ways to achieve vertical

launch, low emissions and high efficiency. Modest improvements in efficiency in helicopter and fixed wing aircraft have

been achieved at great cost, indicating that it is time to consider alternative and potentially disruptive forms of aircraft

propulsion.

The dream of human flight has a several thousand year old history. When looking back to the ancient Greek mythology

Daedalus (∆αίδαλος) was the very first inventor, designer and producer of a vertical take-off flying apparatus as well as the

first successful human test pilot, but remember the tragedy when his son Icaros (Ικαρος) flew too close to the sun. IAT21

has named its technology D-Dalus in respect for this mythology.

Over the last 100 years novel ideas have been born for vertical take-off and landing aircraft in America, Russia and

Europe and some of them led to the cyclogyro aircraft. There have been early rotating wings or cyclogyro used for aircraft
1 2
propulsion e. g. by G. McMullen “Aeronautic Apparatus” in 1905, E. P. Sverchkov as the “wheel ornithopter” or
3 4
“Samoliot” in 1909, J. Ashworth as “Aeroplane” 1917, S. P. Nemeth as “Machine for navigating the air” in 1920, E.
5 6 7
Garcia as “Aeroplane” 1924, J. B. Immers as “Aeroplane” 1924, A. G. Bergman as “Vertical rising airplane” 1925, J. E.
8 9
Caldwell has described a concept for a Cyclogyro VTOL in 1923 and built a prototype in around 1937, A. B. Gardner
10
filed a patent for a “Construction for Aircraft” in 1929, H. P. Massey filed a patent for an “Aircraft” in 1930, A.
11 12 13
Rohrbach filed a patent for an “Aircraft” in 1933, K. F. J. Kirsten filed patents for a “Propeller for Aircraft” and an
14
“Aircraft” in 1934, G. W. Walton filed a patent for “Improvements in Aircraft of the Cyclogyro Type” in 1936, H. M.
15
Heuver filed a patent for a “Cycloidal Rotor for Aircraft” in 1945.
16 17
Fundamental scientific work on cyclogyro rotors at low rotation speeds was done by K. F. J. Kirsten in 1928, Sachse in
18 19 20
1929, Strandgren in 1933, Wheatly in 1933 and 1935. Several cyclogyro airplanes have been built but no single one

was successfully tested at that time e. g. the Caldwell’s Gray Goose, Kirsten’s Cycloplane or Schröder’s S1 Cyclogyro see

fig. 1.
8 21
Figure 1 a) J. E. Caldwell’s “Gray Goose” in 1923, b) K. F. J. Kirsten’s wingless “Cycloplane” in 1930, c) Schroeder “S1
22
Cyclogyro” in 1930
The historic failure of cyclogyro prototypes can be attributed to one or more of 3 main weaknesses: unsuitable materials,

heavy engines and power sources or insufficient knowledge of aerodynamic phenomena.

23
A significant breakthrough in cyclogyro technology was achieved in America when James H. Boschma did his

experiments at Bosch aerospace Inc. in around 1998. Boschma’s cycloidal rotor design from 1998 (see fig. 2. b) seemed
24
to be similar to the one as shown in the “Voith-Schneider Flieger” concept published in 1935 (see fig. 2.a)

24
Figure 2 a) Voith-Schneider-Flieger 1935, b) J. H. Boschma’s Three-axis Cycloidal Propeller arrangement 1998

Review

25
In December 2001 Micheal L. McNabb graduated as Master of Science at Mississippi State University for his

“Development of a cycloidal propulsion computer model and comparison with experiment” and compared his experimental

and simulation results with experimental results from J. B. Wheatly. At the same time some fruitful scientific work and
26 27 28
development started independently in Universities and industrial companies in USA (e. g. University of Maryland ; ; ),
29 30 31
South Korea (Seoul National University ; see also fig. 3.a), Singapore (National University of Singapore , see also fig.

3.b), China and Europe.

In particular the multidisciplinary European “CROP”-project was one of the most successful projects in the last 10 years to
34
bring the cycloidal-propulsion technology closer for human flight. The work completed by POLIMI University in Milan ,

confirmed the conclusions of IAT21 in Austria, that cyclogyro rotors increase in efficiency with forward flight. The reason

for this appear to lie in the ‘Virtual Chamber’ effect generated within the rotor space. Further research is planned to fully

model the internal air flow for speeds greater than 35m/s, beyond those currently tested in conventional wind tunnels - (in

Vienna, Munich and Erlangen).

Figure 3 a) Quadrotor Cyclocopter SNU 2013 b) Singapore’s 3rd generation of cyclogyro 2007
 th
IAT21 believe that the very first successful maiden flight of an untethered 100% cyclogyro driven aircraft was on 13 June

2006 when IAT21 tested its first four rotor cyclogyro model-aircraft (rotor diameter 230 mm, span-length 230 mm, weight

around 16 kg; as shown in fig. 4.) as a follow on of the successful wind tunnel test (February 2006) and aerodynamic

studies on a 1.2 m cyclogyro rotor built in 2005. The next and larger version of a cyclocopter (rotor diameter 600 mm,

span-length 600 mm, piston engine powered, weight around 175 kg; see fig. 5.) was built in 2012 and lifted from the

ground in mid-2012. This was filmed by two international TV channels in 2013 (Servus TV and The Discovery Channel).

th
Figure 4 IAT21’s four rotor cyclogyro a) electric powered model-airplane ready to take off (13 June 2006); piston engine

powered 175 kg D-Dalus cyclogyro aircraft (2012-2013) a) ready for filming b) indoor flight

Design Progress and Aerodynamic Enhancements

The D-Dalus concept is based on a four cyclogyro rotor propulsion system integrated into an aerodynamic winged body

that adds lift in forward flight. A concept like this allows

 Vertical take off and Landing (VTOL)

 The ability to hover (with high ‘natural’ stability)

 Exceptional agility (the ability to flip, rotate, reverse and glue down with reverse thrust on inclined, slippery or

moving surfaces).
35 36 37
 High efficiency in forward flight (as confirmed by the EU Project CROP Consortium

This offers the prospect of:

  VTOL Passenger Aircraft

 Reduced carbon and nitrous emissions

 Ability to swarm – through the ability to form tight patterns, without the obstruction of broad

wings or moving external rotors. And with the ability to react fast with agility to reconfigure

for aircraft joining or leaving the swarm.

 Maritime operations, even from small ships, for high speed search and rescue at long

ranges and at high sea states

and combines the advantages of fixed wing aircraft and rotorcraft.

Figure 5 IAT21’s D-Dalus the four rotor cyclogyro aircraft with aerodynamic wing-body

Intensive research and development on three different sized cyclogyro rotor assemblies as well as on two different sized

cyclogyro aircraft led to the following results:

 L3 – Rotor diameter 1.20m: Thrust 2,000 N @ 1,000 rpm @ 70 kW power. Results: simulation and measurement

deviated by less than 5% (see fig. 7.a); has the potential for future manned cyclogyro aircraft

 L1 – Rotor diameter 0.23m: electric powered model D-Dalus maiden flight June 2006 Results: bearing failed,

additional basic research into ultra-low friction bearings was completed and patented over the following 18

months.

 L2 – Rotor diameter 0.60m: piston engine model D-Dalus maiden flight in mid-2012 (see vertical thrust fig. 7.b).

Results: successful proof of aerodynamics, flight control systems and stabilization, engine control, carbon part

design and production - in total, 32 enhancements

 L1 – version-2014: double thrust achieved for the same size and power consumption compared to the 2006-

version.
 Figure 6 IAT21’s thrust measurement results a) L3 single rotor diameter 1.2 m / span length 1.2;
b) L2 four rotor diameter 0.6 m span length 0.6 m; c) L1-2014 thrust measurement results

The lessons learned in 2006 led to the development of a nearly friction free swivel bearing (f r ic t i o n is m ore t h an

te n t im es l o wer in c om par is o n to a s t a n dar d ne e d le b e ar in g) and the subsequent design, production and test

of the L2 sized D-Dalus (see fig. 5) a 175 kg piston engine powered four rotor cyclogyro aircraft fully electronically

stabilized. As an outcome of the test results 32 enhancements were identified and formed the basis for the redesign of the

L1-rotor and airframe.

Methodology:

The research team progressed from concept definition and simulation (2004-2006), through experimental validation

and concept demonstration (2006), component optimisation (2006-2012), full system demonstration (2012-2014) and

examination of ability to scale (both larger and smaller) 2015 onwards. This paper provides details of the results of each of

these stages.

In comparison to the 2006 design, in 2014 the thrust is nearly doubled for the same size and power consumption:

L1-2006: 40 N thrust @ 4000 rpm

L1-2014: 75 N thrust @ 4000 rpm

Figure 7 Thrust measurement on Quadrotor Cyclocopter SNU 2013 as published on YouTube

 40 N @ Ø 500 mm, b 500 mm, <1000
Rotor length

The quarter sized L1-2014 rotor from IAT21 creates nearly double the thrust of the SNU 2013 Cyclocopter rotor

(fig. 7). The increase in rotor performance is a result of optimizing the aerodynamic and lightweight carbon fibre

parts. To discover the best combination in stiffness and strength at low weight is an optimization process starting at

the design stage and supported by a specialised Finite Element Method – this is a software tool applicable for

carbon fibre structures.

Based on the 3D-CAD-model dynamic forces can be calculated which are caused by rotor blade centrifugal and

swivelling acceleration when in full rotation speed and cyclic angle of attack movements out of a 3D-dynamic model

(as shown in fig. 8) and described mathematically.

Figure 8 3D-CAD-model as used for dynamic analysis and load prediction

40 N @ Ø 500 mm, b 500 mm, <1000

Rotor length

Load estimation is based on fundamental Newton’s laws with local dynamic movements of the rotor

blade in a pitching range of Өmax (e. g. +34°) and Өmin (e. g. -39°):
(1)
 e   a 2  d 2  L2 
  arcsin  cos      arccos   ;
2 a   2 ad 

(2)
a  e 2  R 2  2eR sin    

(3)   f [t ]

2
(4) i 0  1 0  i  1
N

Figure 9 a) and b) Forces, kinematics and movements of the cyclogyro rotor blade in motion

based on the simplified four bar linkage system;

For
The graphical display (figure 10) illustrates the data captured from a rotor dynamic simulation test:

centrifugal acceleration, swiveling acceleration as well as resulting forces and moments (fig. 10).

Figure 10 a) Screen shot - dynamic simulation tool; b) 3D-dynamic simulation result graphic display
Based on the results of the dynamic simulation, it was then possible to progress to additional FEM simulation of the

stresses, bending and torsional tension and deformation of the most critical parts such as rotor blade, connecting rod

and rotor disc.

Figure 11 FEM analysis on carbon fibre structure - simulation of stress distribution and rotor blade deformation
(example)

For risk reduction design, variants have been tested at rotation speeds >25 % above nominal rotation speeds to ensure

they can survive at high rotation speeds in the fully equipped cyclocopter. Bending and torsional deformation of the rotor

blades could be measured by using a stroboscope with optical marks on components running at full rotation speeds and

maximum angles of attack.

Airflow into the rotor and through the L1-sized rotor could be thoroughly watched in full speed at 4,000 rpm with a

high speed video camera at a frame rate of 20,000 fps.

Figure 12 High speed video showing the airflow a) ingested into the rotor and b) expelled from the

rotor at 4,000 rpm (20,000 fps)

In case of electric drive, each rotor is directly powered by one electric motor. The connecting rods are positioned inside the

hollow rotor discs and the center point is aligned to the offset mechanism of the pitch control.

Figure 13 Rotor assembly and offset mechanism for the pitch control and cyclic Angle of Attack

Efficiency increase in forward flight

Central to all discussions about cyclogyros (cycloidal rotors, cyclocopters) is the question of efficiency in comparison to

alternative propulsion systems and aircraft systems. Future environmental emissions targets and air passenger growth

forecasts point to the requirement for aircraft that:

 Can launch vertically with high efficiency (like a helicopter but not possible for conventional fixed wing aircraft)

 Can fly efficiently at high speed and for long duration (like fixed wing aircraft but not possible for helicopters)
 A full cyclogyro powered aircraft can reduce the open gap in between today's rotorcraft and fixed wing aircraft concepts by

combining the advantages of both and overcoming each of their challenges, and providing the additional advantages of:

 Ability to swarm

 Very high efficiency in forward flight

Simplifying the comparison process can be done on the Efficiency-Paramter and includes rotorcraft, fixed wing aircraft

and cyclogyros (cyclogyro rotor and complete D-Dalus aircraft):

Efficiency-Parameter = Thrust / Power ratio [N / kW] (5)

  Vertical take off

  Hover

 Forward flight

The complete D-Dalus L1 cyclogyro aircraft was tested in the Technical University Munich Wind Tunnel A in May 2014.

Figure 14 a) and b) D-Dalus L1 equipped with sensors and fixed on a vertical mounting beam ready for wind-tunnel

tests; c) D-Dalus L1 smoke test for aerodynamic studies in the wind-tunnel

Wind tunnel tests - selected results

Some of the test results are presented in this paper.

Variation of the thrust vector angle

The influence of the rotation speed on the thrust vector has never been previously measured or published. The cyclogyro

rotor was operated in the rotation speed range from 1300 to 4000 rpm. For a fixed position of the maximum angle of
attack at Ψ = 90° (similar to fig. 9 a.) the thrust vector created by the air flow does not remain constant in the same

direction vertical downwards. The thrust vector angle varies with rotation speed. In the speed range from 1300 to 4000

rpm the thrust vector angle could be measured between 35° and 37° (as shown in fig. 15).

Figure 15 Variation of the thrust vector influenced by rotation speed

For
Lift and Drag of the D-Dalus wing-body created in forward flight

In forward flight D-Dalus produces lift in the vertical direction to the forward flight direction and drag in a parallel direction

to the flight direction. Inside the wing body are the four pairwise counter-rotating cyclogyro rotors. A complex airflow is

created in forward flight by the rotors and the wing body as shown in fig. 16.

Figure 16 The complex airflow created by the counter rotating cyclogyro rotors and the wing body in forward flight
 Vertical lift and horizontal drag at flight speeds up to 30 [m/s] is shown in fig. 17.

This is one of the important aspects:

D-Dalus create lift in forward flight (thanks to its wing body design) a helicopter cannot do.

Figure 17 a) Vertical lift and horizontal drag of D-Dalus L1 in forward flight at different angle of attack (AoA); b) rotor thrust
influenced in forward flight (additional airflow feed into the rotor)
Lift and Drag created by the cyclogyro rotor in forward flight as well as the influence of an additional airflow into the
cyclogyro-rotor (such as created at forward flight speed) at the rotor thrust.

This phenomenon is quite different to several other propulsion systems.

As shown in f ig. 1 7 b and fig. 18 a) the actual thrust increases app. 3.5 times at flight speeds up to 30 [m/s]
compared to the static thrust at flight speed 0 [m/s] while propeller and fan propeller propulsion systems decrease
in thrust significantly.

Depending on which propulsion system is chosen, the influence of flight speed on propulsive thrust differs, as does the

variability of the pitch propeller (as shown in fig. 18 b). Alternative thrusters analyzed:

 Propeller Cessna, DO 228

 Fanpropeller RFB Fanliner

Figure 18 Cyclogyro rotor thrust and propulsion efficiency influenced by flight speed in comparison to alternative thrusters

a) relative thrust forces based on static thrust; b) absolute thrust

 Comparison of test results with alternative aircraft concepts and thrusters

The cyclogyro propulsion system can be compared to a wide range of aircraft concepts from VTOL to VSTOL and

standard fixed wing aircraft. Please take into account cyclogyros create a thrust vector which can be steered in any 360°
direction  means:

 Vertical for vertical take-off and hover

 Horizontal for level flight
 Any different direction for different kind of maneuvers

Figure 19 a) Alternative VTOL, VSTOL and standard aircraft (rotorcraft and fixed wing aircraft); b) Alternative thrusters –

propulsion thrust influenced in forward flight speed 32

In comparison to alternative thrusters the cyclogyro rotor has demonstrated an increase in thrust and efficiency in forward

flight.

Figure 20 D-Dalus in comparison to alternative VTOL / VSTOL aircraft (based on 33) a) Ratio of propulsion power [kW] to

aircraft weight [kN] - b) Cyclogyro in comparison to alternative thrusters  Ratio of propulsion thrust [N] to propulsion
power [kW]

As researched in CFD-simulations and in repeated wind tunnel tests the efficiency of a D-Dalus concept air vehicle as well
as a cyclogyro rotor in forward flight is shown in fig. 17 18 and 20

Conclusion
The research team proved that cyclogyro propulsion can be used for vertical launch and that, in forward flight, it has the

potential to achieve efficiency beyond the range of conventional fixed wing and rotorcraft. This work indicates that

cyclogyro propulsion could have the potential to provide vertical launch, high speed and highly efficient aircraft that have

reduced wing span, no external rotors and exceptional agility. This technology could therefore be feasible for VTOL

aircraft that can safely form densely packed swarms and would solve the challenges facing the air environment of the

future.
Further Work
Additional research is in progress according to an internal milestone planning covering a two year

time horizon. This work is focusing on two areas:

 Virtual Chamber Effect – the microsystems created inside the rotor chamber at differing forward air

speeds appear to be the source of the counterintuitive increase in efficiency as the cyclogyro rotor

increase in forward speed. Further investigation should be undertaken to analyse these internal air

patterns in detail and identify the speed at which the efficiency improvement reaches a peak, for

different scales of rotor and different rotor rpm.

 Hybrid or Compound Propulsion – the EU CROP

34
study offers the hypothesis that a

combination of cyclogyro rotor and conventional wing or rotor, could provide for considerably greater

efficiency than could be achieved with conventional propulsion. This hypothesis should be fully tested

through hardware trials for a full range of design configurations.

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23
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37
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