1) The origins of language:

1. Divine Source:
The divine source theory suggests that language is a gift from a divine being or supernatural entity. According to
this view, human beings were endowed with language by a god or gods. Different religious traditions support this
idea.

2. Natural Sounds Source:

The natural sounds source theory, often referred to as the “bow-wow” theory, posits that the earliest words were
imitations of natural sounds heard by humans. For example:
● Early humans might have created words that mimic the sounds of animals (like "cuckoo" or "buzz").

3. Yo-He-Ho Theory:
The yo-he-ho theory proposes that language developed from the sounds of people working together. It is also
known as the social interaction source:
● The idea is that these sounds, originally used to coordinate physical labor, became associated with
specific tasks or objects and gradually evolved into more complex language forms.

4. Physical Adaptation Source:

The physical adaptation source theory focuses on the biological and anatomical features of humans that made the
development of language possible. This includes:
● Changes in the human vocal tract that allowed for a wider range of sounds.
● The lowering of the larynx (voice box), which enabled a greater variety of articulated sounds.
● The development of the brain's Broca's and Wernicke's areas, which are crucial for language processing
and production

5. Innateness Hypothesis:
The innateness hypothesis suggests that the ability to acquire language is inherent in humans. This concept is
most closely associated with the linguist Noam Chomsky, who proposed that:
● Humans are born with a "language acquisition device" (LAD), a built-in mechanism that allows children to
learn any language to which they are exposed.
● According to this hypothesis, the ability to acquire language is part of our genetic inheritance, and all
humans share a universal grammar—a set of structural rules common to all languages.

2) Features of human language vs non-human language:

1. Arbitrariness refers to the lack of inherent connection between the words used in a language and their
meanings. This means that:
● The relationship between a linguistic sign (like a word or sound) and its meaning is not naturally linked; it
is arbitrary.
● For example, there is nothing in the sound of the word "tree" that inherently connects it to the concept of a
tree. Different languages have different words for the same object (e.g., "arbre" in French, "árbol" in Spanish).

2. Displacement is the ability of language to refer to things that are not present in the immediate physical
environment. This means that:
● Humans can talk about things that are not currently happening, such as past events, future plans, or
abstract ideas.
● For example, we can discuss what happened yesterday, plan for a meeting next week, or talk about
concepts like love or justice, none of which need to be physically present or immediately perceptible.
3. Productivity (also known as creativity or open-endedness) is the ability of language users to create and
understand an infinite number of sentences, including ones that they have never heard before.

4. Cultural transmission refers to the way language is passed down from one generation to the next through
social learning, rather than being inherited biologically. This means that:

● Language is not something we are born with; it is acquired from the culture and environment in which we
are raised.
● For example, a child born to Korean parents but raised in France will naturally learn French as their first
language, not Korean.

5. Duality refers to the two levels at which language operates:

-At one level, there are individual sounds (like "p," "a," "t"), which by themselves have no meaning.
-At another level, these sounds can be combined in various ways to create meaningful units like words ("pat,"
"tap").

6. Reflexivity is the ability of language to be used to talk about itself. This means that:

● Humans can use language to discuss language, analyze its structure, describe its use, and even create
new words or expressions.

3) Semiotics and types of signs

1. Index:
An index is a type of sign that shows a direct, causal, or physical connection to what it represents. The relationship
between the sign and its referent is not arbitrary but rather a direct consequence of the referent's presence or
activity. Examples include:

● Smoke as an index of fire: Smoke directly indicates the presence of fire.

● Footprints as an index of a person or animal: Footprints are directly caused by someone walking.
● Clock hands as an index of time: The position of the clock hands directly indicates the time.

2. Icon:
An icon is a type of sign that resembles or imitates the object it represents. The relationship between the sign and
its referent is based on similarity or likeness. Examples include:

● Photographs: A photograph of a person is an icon because it visually resembles the person.

● Pictograms: Icons on restroom doors (e.g., a stick figure of a man or woman) are icons because they
visually represent the human figures they indicate.
● Onomatopoeic words: Words like "buzz" or "meow" are iconic in the sense that their sounds resemble the
sounds they refer to.

3. Symbol:
A symbol is a type of sign where the relationship between the sign and its referent is arbitrary or conventional. The
meaning of a symbol is not based on resemblance or direct connection but on social agreement or cultural
convention. Examples include:

● Words: The word "dog" is a symbol because there is no inherent reason why the sound "dog" should be
associated with the animal it represents. The relationship is purely conventional.
● Traffic signs: A red octagon used to indicate "stop" is a symbol. The shape and color do not inherently
mean "stop," but they are understood to carry that meaning by convention.

4) Writing systems:

1.Cuneiform is one of the earliest known systems of writing, developed by the Sumerians

2.Pictogram is a symbol that represents an object or concept through a simple, often stylized image.
Characteristics include:

● Direct representation: Pictograms visually resemble the objects or ideas they represent, like a drawing of
the sun representing the sun.

3.Ideogram is a symbol that represents an idea or concept rather than a specific object. It can be more abstract
than a pictogram. Characteristics include:

● Abstract representation: Ideograms convey ideas or concepts, such as an arrow representing

direction or the symbol “≠” representing inequality.

4.Logogram is a written character that represents a word or morpheme (the smallest meaningful unit in a
language). Characteristics include:

● Each logogram corresponds to a specific word or morpheme. For example, the Chinese
character "人" (rén) represents the word "person."

5.Rebus writing is a system in which pictures or symbols are used to represent sounds rather than the objects
they depict, often to convey a word or phrase. Characteristics include:

● In rebus writing, a symbol or pictogram represents a sound or syllable rather than its usual meaning. For
example, a picture of an eye might be used to represent the sound "I."

6.Syllabic writing is a type of writing system where each symbol represents a syllable, which is a unit of sound
typically consisting of a consonant followed by a vowel. Characteristics include:

● Each character corresponds to a syllable (e.g., "ka," "mi," "so").

7.Alphabetic writing is a system where each symbol, or letter, typically represents a single phoneme, or basic
sound of speech.

5) Language and the brain / language and the mind:

1. Broca's and Wernicke's Aphasia:

Aphasia is a language disorder that results from damage to specific areas of the brain, particularly those involved
in language processing.

● Broca's Aphasia:

Characteristics: Individuals with Broca's aphasia typically experience difficulty in producing speech. Their speech
is often slow, laborious, and consists of short, fragmented sentences. However, their comprehension is relatively
preserved.

Example: A person with Broca's aphasia might say, "Walk dog" instead of "I will walk the dog." They understand
what they want to say but struggle to articulate it fully.

● Wernicke's Aphasia:

Characteristics: Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia typically have fluent speech that lacks meaning. They can
produce sentences, but these sentences are often nonsensical or contain made-up words. Their comprehension is
also impaired.

Example: A person with Wernicke's aphasia might say something like "The tulip is on the table" when trying to say
"The cat is on the table," or speak in jumbled, incomprehensible phrases.

2. Lateralisation of the Brain: Functions of the Left and Right Hemisphere:

Lateralisation refers to the specialization of functions in each hemisphere of the brain. While both hemispheres
are involved in many cognitive processes, certain functions are predominantly controlled by one hemisphere.

Left Hemisphere:

Language processing: The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for language functions, including speech
production, comprehension, reading, and writing.

Analytical thinking: It is also associated with logical reasoning, mathematical skills, and sequential processing.

Control of the right side: The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.

Right Hemisphere:

Spatial and visual processing: The right hemisphere is more involved in visual-spatial tasks, such as recognizing
faces, interpreting maps, and visual arts.

Emotional processing: It plays a key role in recognizing and expressing emotions, as well as understanding the
emotional tone of speech.

Holistic thinking: The right hemisphere is associated with holistic, intuitive thinking, and creative tasks.

Control of the left side: The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

3. Speech Errors:
Speech errors occur when the brain fails to correctly process language during speech production or
comprehension. These errors can provide insight into how language is organized in the mind.

● Tip of the Tongue (TOT):

This phenomenon occurs when a person is temporarily unable to retrieve a word from memory, despite having a
strong sense that they know the word. They may recall certain features of the word, such as the initial letter or
number of syllables, but cannot fully retrieve it.

● Spoonerism:

A spoonerism is a speech error in which the initial consonants or sounds of two words are swapped, often creating
a humorous effect. For example, saying "You have hissed all my mystery lectures" instead of "You have missed all
my history lectures."

● Malapropism:

This is the mistaken use of a word in place of a similar-sounding one, often with unintentionally amusing results.
For example, someone might say "He is the pineapple of politeness" instead of "He is the pinnacle of politeness."

● Slip of the Ear:

A slip of the ear occurs when a listener misinterprets a spoken word or phrase, hearing something different than
what was actually said. For example, hearing "great ape" instead of "gray tape."

4. Conceptual Metaphor (Source Domain + Abstract Domain):

A conceptual metaphor is a cognitive mechanism in which one idea (or conceptual domain) is understood in
terms of another. This process often involves mapping experiences from a more concrete domain (source domain)
to a more abstract one (abstract domain).

Source Domain:

The source domain is the concrete, familiar, and often physical domain that provides the basis for understanding a
more abstract concept. For example, in the metaphor "Time is money," "money" is the source domain.

Abstract Domain:

The abstract domain is the more complex, less tangible concept that is being explained or understood through the
metaphor. In "Time is money," "time" is the abstract domain.

Examples:

■ "Argument is war": Here, "war" (source domain) helps us understand "argument" (abstract domain),
leading to expressions like "He attacked my point" or "I won the argument."
■ "Love is a journey": In this metaphor, "journey" (source domain) is used to conceptualize "love" (abstract
domain), resulting in expressions like "We are at a crossroads" or "Our relationship has hit a dead end."

5.Language acquisition and its stages:

1. Motherese (Child-Directed Speech):

Motherese, also known as child-directed speech (CDS), refers to the modified way adults often speak to infants
and young children. This style of speech is characterized by:

● Exaggerated intonation
● Extra loudness
● Slow tempo
Motherese is believed to play a crucial role in language acquisition, as it helps children to segment speech,
recognize phonetic patterns, and connect sounds with meanings.

2. Cooing and Babbling (First Months):

The earliest stages of language development involve vocal experimentation by the infant:

● Cooing (around 2-3 months):

Sounds: During this stage, babies produce cooing sounds, which are typically vowel-like sounds such as "oo,"
"ah," and "ee." These sounds are made as the baby begins to control their vocal cords and explore the range of
possible vocalizations.

Purpose: Cooing is not yet language but is important for the development of speech. It reflects the infant’s growing
control over their vocal apparatus and their interest in social interaction.

● Babbling (around 4-6 months):

Sounds: Babbling involves the repetition of consonant-vowel combinations, such as "bababa" or "dadada." These
sounds are more varied and include combinations of sounds that are found in the child’s native language.

3. One-Word Stage (Between 12 and 18 Months):

During this stage, children begin to produce their first recognizable words:

4. Two-Word Stage (Between 18 - 24 Months)

Following the one-word stage, children begin to combine words to express more complex ideas:

5. Telegraphic Speech (After 24-30 Months):

As children’s language abilities continue to develop, their speech becomes more complex, resembling the structure
of adult language:

● Multiple-word sentences: Children start producing longer sentences that resemble telegrams—brief and
to the point, often omitting non-essential words. For example, a child might say "want cookie" instead of "I want a
cookie" or "daddy go work" instead of "Daddy is going to work."

7) Word formation process:

Types of morphemes:

prefixes - un-

infixes - | -><-

suffixes - | -es

affixes - a bound morpheme such as un- or -ed added to a word

Word formation processes:

eponyms - Pochodzą od imion, nazwisk, nazw urządzeń, miast

 borrowing - Zapożyczenia np laptop, krasz, martyr

compounding - process of combining 2+ words to create a new word, f.e. wheelchair

blending - Mieszanie (Smog = Smoke + Fog)

clipping - Skracanie, aplikacja = Apka, jak sie masz = siema, refrigerator = fridge

backformation - word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to (usually a verb) Editor -> Edit:

conversion - rzeczownik staje się czasownikiem (google -> googlować)

acronyms - BBC, Benelux, ATM, OK Oll Korekt, am. p.m. YOLLO

diminutives - proces tworzenia nowych słów poprzez dodawanie afiksów (un-; -ed)

8) Language and regional variation:

1. Language vs. Dialect:

● Language:

A language is a complex system of communication used by a particular community or country. It typically

includes a standardized form that is used in formal contexts, such as government, education, and media.

Example: English, Spanish, Mandarin, Polish.

● Dialect:

A dialect is a regional or social variation of a language that is distinguished by pronunciation, grammar,

and vocabulary. While dialects are often mutually intelligible, they may differ significantly from the
standard or "prestige" variety of the language.

Example: The difference between British English and American English, or between the Silesian and
Kashubian dialects of Polish.

2. The Standard Language:

● A standard language is the form of a language that is promoted as the norm for use in public life,
including in education, government, and media. It is often codified in grammar books, dictionaries, and style
guides.
● Characteristics:

Formal: Standard languages are typically used in formal settings and are taught in schools.

Codified: They have established rules for grammar, spelling, and pronunciation.

Prestige: The standard form is often associated with higher social status and education.

Example: Standard Polish (język ogólnopolski), which is used in official communication and media, as
opposed to regional dialects or colloquial Polish.

3. Major Regional Dialects in Poland:

Poland has several major regional dialects, which are variations of the Polish language spoken in different parts of
the country. These dialects differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and sometimes grammar.
4. Isoglosses and Dialect Boundaries:
● Isoglosses:

An isogloss is a geographical boundary line that separates areas with different linguistic features. For
example, it might mark the boundary where one word is used in one area but a different word is used in
another area for the same concept.

Example: In Poland, an isogloss might separate areas where "kwiat" is used for "flower" from areas
where "kwiotek" is preferred.

● Dialect Boundaries:

A dialect boundary is formed where several isoglosses coincide, creating a more distinct linguistic
division between regions. However, these boundaries are often fluid and can overlap or blend into each
other.

Example: The boundary between the Masovian and Greater Poland dialects could be marked by several
isoglosses related to pronunciation and vocabulary differences.

5. The Dialect Continuum:

● A dialect continuum is a situation where there is a range of dialects spoken across a geographical area,
with each dialect varying slightly from the next. In such a continuum, dialects at either end may be quite different
and even mutually unintelligible, but those in neighboring areas are more similar.
● Example: In the Germanic dialect continuum, speakers from neighboring areas in Germany and the
Netherlands may understand each other, but dialects from opposite ends, like Bavarian in southern Germany and
Dutch in the Netherlands, are much less mutually intelligible.

6. Bilingualism and Diglossia:

● Bilingualism:

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or community to use two languages proficiently.
Bilinguals may switch between languages depending on the context, such as speaking one language at
home and another at work.

Example: In Poland, a Kashubian speaker might also be fluent in Polish, using Kashubian in the home
and Polish in official settings.

● Diglossia:

Diglossia is a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language are used under different
circumstances within a community. One variety is considered "high" (used in formal settings, like literature
and news), and the other "low" (used in everyday conversation).

Example: In Arabic-speaking countries, Modern Standard Arabic (high variety) is used in formal writing
and speech, while regional dialects (low varieties) are used in daily communication.

7. Pidgins and Creoles:

● Pidgin:
 A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between speakers of
different native languages. It typically arises in situations such as trade, colonization, or slavery, where
speakers of different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language.

Characteristics: Pidgins have simplified grammar, limited vocabulary, and are not spoken as a native
language by any community.

● Creole:

A creole develops when a pidgin becomes stable and is learned as a first language by a community. Over
generations, creoles become fully developed languages with more complex grammar and vocabulary.

9) Language and social variation:

1. Social markers are linguistic features that indicate a person's social identity or group membership (age,
education, region, occupation, sex)

2. Slang vs. Jargon vs. Vernacular vs. Idiolect:

Slang refers to informal, non-standard words or expressions used by a particular group, often associated with
youth culture or subcultures. It changes rapidly and often serves to create an in-group identity.

Jargon is specialized terminology used within a particular profession, trade, or group. It can be technical and is
often not understood by outsiders.

Vernacular refers to the native language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular region or
community, distinct from formal or standardized language.

Idiolect is the unique language use of an individual person. It includes their particular choice of words,
pronunciation, and grammar, shaped by their personal experiences and social identity.

3. Speech Style/Register vs. Style Shifting:

Speech style or register refers to the variation in language use depending on the social context,
formality, and the relationship between speakers. Registers can be formal, informal, consultative, or
casual, depending on the situation.

Style shifting is the practice of altering one’s speech style or register depending on the social context or
audience. It involves switching between different levels of formality or different dialects.

4. Overt vs. Covert Prestige:

● Overt prestige refers to the status that comes with using the standard language or a high-status
dialect, which is generally recognized as prestigious within a society. People often use overtly
prestigious forms to gain social approval in formal settings.

Example: Using Standard British English in the UK might carry overt prestige in professional
environments.
 ● Covert prestige involves the positive social value attached to the use of non-standard dialects or
language forms, often within specific communities or subcultures. Speakers may use these forms
to show solidarity or group identity, even if these forms are not valued by the wider society.

Example: Using a regional dialect or slang might carry covert prestige within a local community, signaling
authenticity or belonging.

10) Language and culture:

The relationship between language and culture is a central theme in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. It

explores how language reflects and shapes cultural practices, beliefs, and values.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that the structure of a language influences or determines the ways in

which its speakers perceive and think about the world. This hypothesis proposes that speakers of different

languages perceive the world differently because their languages shape their worldviews.

Linguistic relativity is a principle associated with the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis that suggests the structure of a

language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition. It asserts that people who speak different languages

perceive and think about the world differently. The principle is often contrasted with linguistic determinism, which

argues that language completely determines thought. While linguistic relativity suggests that language influences

thought and perception, it does not entirely dictate them.

Culture-Specific Words, Lexical Elaborations, and Cultural Key Words

Languages reflect the concerns and cultural practices of their speakers, leading to culture-specific words—terms

that exist in one language but may not have direct equivalents in others.

Lexical elaborations refer to the extent to which a language has developed specific words for particular concepts,

often reflecting what is significant in that culture. For instance, the Inuit have multiple terms for different kinds of

snow, while Hawaiians have many words for types of rain. These differences in vocabulary illustrate how language

encodes culturally significant distinctions.

Cultural key words are words or expressions that are central to understanding the values and worldview of a

culture. These words often carry meanings that are deeply embedded in cultural practices and are not easily

translatable. Understanding these terms is crucial for grasping the cultural context they arise from.