Phospholipids is the primary component of the cell membrane

Fatty acid tails is the part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic

The main function of cholesterol in the cell membrane is to Maintain fluidity

Small nonpolar molecules is a type of molecules can easily pass through the phospholipid bilayer of
the cell membrane

The following is NOT a function of membrane proteins:

Enzyme activity
Cell signaling
DNA replication
Transport of molecules

Active transport is a type of transport requires energy in the form of ATP to move molecules
across the cell membrane

Hypertonic is a type of solution does water move out of the cell, causing it to shrink

Endocytosis is a process involves the engulfing of large particles by the cell membrane to
form a vesicle

Cell recognition and communication is the function of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell
membrane

The "Fluid Mosaic Model" of the cell membrane-The membrane is composed of proteins embedded in
a flexible phospholipid bilayer.

Concentration gradient is the primary driving force behind diffusion

Osmosis- Movement of water molecules from low to high solute concentration

Type of solution does water enter a cell, potentially causing it to swell and burst is hypotonic.

The following ARE true about simple diffusion:

 It requires no energy.
 It involves the movement of particles from high to low concentration.
 It can occur with small nonpolar molecules.

In an isotonic solution, the movement of water molecules across the cell membrane ss at
equilibrium, with no net movement of water
The main difference between active transport and facilitated diffusion is

 Active transport requires energy, while facilitated diffusion does not.

The characteristic of facilitated diffusion is -It uses channel or carrier proteins to transport molecules.

An example of active transport is Sodium-potassium pump.

The type of transport moves ions across a membrane against their concentration gradient is
an Active transport.

Facilitated diffusion helps transport molecules that are too large or polar to cross the membrane alone.

a) It moves molecules directly through the lipid bilayer.

Structure of Carbohydrates

1. Basic Composition:
o Carbohydrates are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), typically in a ratio of 1:2:1.
The general formula can be represented as Cn(H2O)nC_n(H_2O)_nCn(H2O)n, where nnn is the number
of carbon atoms.

2. Types of Carbohydrates:
o Monosaccharides: These are the simplest forms of carbohydrates and consist of single sugar
molecules. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. They typically contain 3 to 7
carbon atoms and can exist in straight-chain or ring forms.
o Disaccharides: Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides through a glycosidic bond.
Common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose) and lactose (glucose + galactose).
o Oligosaccharides: Composed of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units linked together. They often play a
role in cell recognition and signaling.
o Polysaccharides: Large, complex carbohydrates formed from many monosaccharide units.
Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Polysaccharides can be linear or branched and
are typically used for energy storage or structural support.
3. Functional Groups:
o Carbohydrates often contain functional groups such as hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which contribute to their
solubility and reactivity.

Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Energy Source:
o Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms. Monosaccharides like glucose
are quickly utilized in cellular respiration to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
 2. Energy Storage:
o Polysaccharides like starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals) function as energy storage molecules.
When energy is needed, these polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides.

3. Structural Support:
o Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, provides rigidity and structural integrity. Chitin,
another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and in fungal cell walls.

4. Cell Recognition and Signaling:

o Carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces (glycoproteins and glycolipids) play crucial
roles in cell recognition, communication, and signaling processes. They are involved in immune
responses and the recognition of pathogens.

5. Building Blocks for Other Biomolecules:

o Carbohydrates serve as precursors for the synthesis of nucleic acids, amino acids, and lipids. They
participate in various metabolic pathways and are crucial for cellular functions.

Carbohydrates are versatile biomolecules with diverse structures ranging from simple sugars to complex
polysaccharides. Their primary functions include providing energy, serving as energy storage, offering
structural support, and facilitating cell recognition and signaling. The unique properties of carbohydrates enable
them to play essential roles in the metabolism and physiology of living organisms.

How does the plasma membrane permit certain molecules to enter selectively into the cell?

The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is a selectively permeable barrier that regulates the
entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell. This selectivity is achieved through several mechanisms and
characteristics of the membrane:

1. Phospholipid Bilayer Structure

 Basic Composition: The plasma membrane is primarily composed of a phospholipid bilayer, where
hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate heads face outward toward the aqueous environment, and
hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails face inward. This arrangement creates a semi-permeable
barrier.
 Selective Permeability: Due to the hydrophobic nature of the interior of the bilayer, the plasma
membrane allows certain nonpolar molecules (like oxygen and carbon dioxide) and small polar
molecules (like water) to pass through easily. However, ions and large polar molecules (like glucose)
cannot pass freely.

2. Membrane Proteins

 Transport Proteins: Integral membrane proteins facilitate the transport of specific molecules across the
membrane. There are two main types:
 o Channel Proteins: These proteins form pores in the membrane that allow specific ions or
molecules to pass through, usually following their concentration gradient. For example, ion
channels permit the passage of sodium or potassium ions.
o Carrier Proteins: These proteins bind to specific molecules and change shape to transport them
across the membrane. They can facilitate both passive transport (moving with the concentration
gradient) and active transport (moving against the concentration gradient using energy).

3. Facilitated Diffusion

 Mechanism: This process allows molecules that cannot easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer to enter
the cell via specific transport proteins. For example, glucose transporters facilitate the movement of
glucose into the cell without the use of energy, following its concentration gradient.

4. Active Transport

 Energy Requirement: Active transport mechanisms move molecules against their concentration
gradient and require energy (usually in the form of ATP).
 Examples: The sodium-potassium pump is a well-known example that actively transports sodium ions
out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the necessary ion gradients for cellular
function.

5. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

 Endocytosis: This process allows the cell to engulf large particles, liquids, or even other cells by folding
the plasma membrane inward to form vesicles. This includes:
o Phagocytosis: "Cell eating," where large particles are engulfed.
o Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking," where small volumes of extracellular fluid are taken in.
o Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Specific molecules are taken into the cell after binding to
receptors on the membrane.
 Exocytosis: This is the process by which cells expel materials in vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. This is important for the secretion of hormones,
neurotransmitters, and waste products.

6. Receptor Proteins

 Signal Transduction: The plasma membrane contains receptor proteins that bind specific signaling
molecules (ligands) such as hormones or neurotransmitters. Upon binding, these receptors can trigger
intracellular responses, which may influence the permeability of the membrane or activate other
transport mechanisms.

7. Membrane Fluidity

 Fluid Mosaic Model: The plasma membrane is described by the fluid mosaic model, which means that
the components (lipids and proteins) can move laterally within the layer. This fluidity allows the
membrane to adapt to different conditions and facilitates the movement of proteins involved in transport.
The selective permeability of the plasma membrane is crucial for maintaining homeostasis within the cell.
Through its phospholipid bilayer structure, specialized transport proteins, active transport mechanisms, and
endocytic/exocytic processes, the membrane ensures that essential molecules enter the cell while keeping out
unwanted substances, thereby regulating the internal environment of the cell.