CHAPTER 10

ECOSYSTEMS
● The word “Ecology” is derived from the two Greek words
● Okios meaning house or dwelling space
and
● logos means knowledge.
●
● Ecology is study of

The relation of organisms or groups of organisms to their

environment.
or
The science of the interrelations between living organisms to their
environment.
10.1 CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
What is an ecosystem?

Interrelation
Biotic component Abiotic component
Interaction

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction

with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as
a system.
Ecosystem was also referred by other names like biocoenosis, geo-
biocoenosis, microcosm, and biosystem.
A.G Tansley defined ecosystem as “The system resulting from the
integration of all the living and the nonliving factors of the
environment”.

Both the biotic and the abiotic components are necessary for
maintenance of life and hence ecosystem is the basic functional
unit in ecology.

Ecosystem development is an autogenic (self generated) process.

10.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

The two major aspects of ecosystem are

 STRUCTURE
 FUNCTION
STRUCTURE COMPRISES OF
1 The composition of the biological community of plants, animals and microbes i.e.
their species, numbers, biomass, life cycle, trophic level and distribution in space.

2. The quantity , distribution and cycling of non living materials such as major and
micronutrients, trace elements and water.

3. The range or gradient of conditions like temperature, light, rainfall relative

humidity, wind and topography.
● Functional or working means
● (i) The rate of energy flow
● Production, respiration rates of the community
● (ii) The rate of material cycles
● Nutrient cycles
● (iii) Biological regulation
● (a) Regulation of organisms by environment
● Ex: Photoperiodism
● (b) Regulation of environment by the organism
● Ex: Nitrogen fixing bacteria
● Photoperiodism:
● Photoperiodism the response by an organism to
synchronise its body with changes in day length
● At high latitudes this is important because the change
in length of the day indicates the season
● Days getting shorter indicate winter is approaching
● Days getting longer indicate summer is approaching
● Some plants regulate their flowering this way
● Photoperiodism is the phenomenon of physiological
changes that occur in plants in response to relative
length of day and night (i.e. photoperiod). The
response of the plants to the photoperiod, expressed
in the form of flowering is also called as
Photoperiodism
Response to day length
● Some plants flower only after a CRITICAL DAY LENGTH
● Some plants only flower after a CRITICAL NIGHT LENGTH

Image Credit: Chrysanthemum

FUNCTION INVOLVES

1.The rate of biological energy flow, i.e. production and respiration rates of the
community.

2. Rate of material or nutrient cycles

3. Biological or ecological regulation which includes regulation of organisms by

environment e.g. photoperiodism, or regulation of environment by organisms e.g.
nitrogen fixation by bacteria.

Photoperiodism means developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths

of light and dark periods
From the trophic standpoint, the ecosystem has two components ( trope = nourishment)

1. Autotrophic component and 2. Heterotrophic component

Autotrophic component

Autotrophic component means self nourishing e.g. synthesis of food material by plants in
the presence of sunlight from CO2 and H2O, synthesis of starch, proteins and fats etc.

Heterotrophic component In this component, utilization, rearrangement and

decomposition of complex substances predominate.

These are macro-consumers such as herbivores, carnivores and omnivores,

(Phagotrophs) and micro consumers such as decomposers , osmotrophs and
saprotrophs.
Functional standpoint
From the functional standpoint an ecosystem may be analysed in terms of the
following

1. Energy circuits
2. Food chains
3. Diversity patterns in space and time
4. Nutrient cycles
5. Development and evolution
6. Control ( cybergenetics)
10.3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

The components of an ecosystem may be arranged as

1. Producers
2. Consumers
3. Decomposers

1. Producers are the green plants which can prepare their food material with the
help of CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight
producers
consumers
Consumers can be A) macroconsumers or Phagotrophs

B) microconsumers or Saprotrophs
microconsumers
Macroconsumers or phagotrophs are chiefly animals which ingest other organisms or
particulate organic matter are included in this category. They are of three types.

1. Primary consumers or herbivores

2. Secondary consumers or carnivores
3. Tertiary consumers or carnivores and omnivores

Microconsumers or saprotrophs or osmotrophs are chiefly bacteria and fungi,

which break down complex compounds of dead organic matter , absorb some of the
decomposed products and release inorganic nutrients that can be used by producers
together with organics.
The generalized model of an ecosystem
Mode of movement of materials and energy in an ecosystem
The producers or the green plants fix radiant energy in the presence of the green
pigment , chlorophyll and with the help of the minerals taken from the soil i.e. their
nutrient pool they build up complex organic matter i.e. the carbohydrates, fats, amino
acids and proteins.

Sometimes the green plants are also called as converters or transducers, since plants
produce only carbohydrates and not energy and convert or tranduce radiant energy into
chemical energy.

They are also called primary producers.

This energy is transferred to other trophic levels like consumers.

The dead organic matter comprising plant and animal matter is then broken down by
decomposers into simple organic substances which finally reach the nutrient pool and
made use by producers again.

The two ecological processes of energy flow and mineral cycling involving interaction
between the physico chemical environment and the biotic communities is considered as
the ‘heart’ of the ecosystem dynamics.

In an ecosystem the energy flows in a non cyclic manner ( unidirectional) from

the sun to the decomposers via producers and macro-consumers, whereas the
minerals move in a cyclic manner
10.4 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance
moves through biotic and abiotic compartments of Earth.

Minerals are limited in quantity in the earth's system so, to keep the system
going on, they have to be recycled.

The six most common elements in organic molecules—carbon, nitrogen,

hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, take a variety of chemical forms. They
are called macronutrients along with magnesium ,calcium ,potassium, iodine
present sometimes.

There are about 40 elements considered as essential to living organisms.

Copper, cobalt and iron etc. are called micronutrients.
They may be stored for long or short periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or
beneath the Earth’s surface, as well as in the bodies of living organisms.

Geologic processes—such as weathering of rocks, erosion, water drainage, and the

subduction of continental plates—all play a role in this recycling of materials, as do
interactions among organisms.
Which biogeochemical cycles are key to life?

1 Water, which contains hydrogen and oxygen, is essential for living organisms.

2 Carbon is found in all organic macromolecules and is also a key component of

fossil fuels.

3. Nitrogen is needed for our DNA, RNA and proteins and is critical to human
agriculture.
4. Phosphorus is a key component of and is one of the main ingredients—along
with nitrogen—in artificial fertilizers used in agriculture.

5 . Sulfur is key to protein structure and is released to the atmosphere by the

burning of fossil fuels.
The hydrosphere—the set of places where water can be found as it cycles on
Earth—is large and diverse.

These cycles don't happen in isolation, and the water cycle is a particularly important
driver of other biogeochemical cycles.

For example, the movement of water is critical for the leaching of nitrogen and
phosphate into rivers, lakes, and oceans.

The ocean is also a major reservoir—holding tank—for carbon.

Though each element or compound takes its own route, all of these key
chemical nutrients cycle through the biosphere, moving between the biotic—
living—and abiotic—nonliving—worlds and from one living organism to another.
Biosphere exchanges water vapour, oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere
and hydrosphere in continuing the cycle.

All the earth's water is split by plant cells and reconstituted by animal and plants cells
every 2 million years.

Oxygen generated by the process enters the atmosphere and is recycled every 2000
years.

CO2 respired by animal and plant cells enters the atmosphere and is fixed again by the
plant cells after an average atmospheric residence time of about 300 years.
The atmosphere
The atmosphere is a thin envelope of air around the planet.

It is is comprised of layers based on temperature. These layers are

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere and
4. Thermosphere.

A further region at about 500 km above the Earth's surface is called the exosphere.
The troposphere
● It extends to about 17 Km or 11 miles above sea level.
● It contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow.
● In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance
above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre.
● The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and
almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain).
● The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing
pressure.
● If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of the lower pressure).
When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower down.
● The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause
The Stratosphere
● This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km.
● It contains much of the ozone in the atmosphere.
● The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone.
● By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin
cancer and other health damage.

The Mesosphere

● The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere.

● Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -
90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere
● The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again
increase with height.
● This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray
radiation from the sun.

The Ionosphere
● The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere",
since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms,
turning them into "ions" with a positive charge.

● The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave
radio broadcasts
The Exosphere

● The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere.

● It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that
they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity,
and some of them escape right out into space.
10.4.1 Hydrological cycle or water cycle
 ● Water is the most important basic material of life which is in limited supply.
● Living forms are dependent on freshwater.
● Of the total water content on the earth , only 5% is free and is in circulation.
● 99 % of water is in the oceans and remaining in lithosphere and in sedimentary
rocks.
● Fresh water amounts to 3% of the total supply and ¾ th of it is in ice caps and
glaciers.
Rain water is the pure form of water . As it falls down , it dissolves some of the
atmospheric dust, gases and salts.

Once on the ground , it flows down according to the topography and some may
percolate into the soil and settles as groundwater.

On the surface, the lakes, ponds streams and rivers are sources of freshwater while
groundwater is the source of fresh water where water gets collected in between the
aquifers.
The hydrological cycle of the earth is the sum total of all processes in which water moves from
the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of precipitation.

The hydrological cycle is dependent on various factors and is equally affected by oceans and
land surfaces.

Many processes work together to keep Earth's water moving in a cycle.

There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle: condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
runoff, and evapotranspiration. These occur simultaneously and, except for precipitation,
continuously.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as
water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow sublimates directly into water vapor.

Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil.
 At higher altitudes the lower temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water
droplets which are heavier than the air, and fall unless supported by an updraft.

Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out
of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation.

Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can
store frozen water for thousands of years.

Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as
surface runoff.
A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the
oceans.

Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not
all runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration.

Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater
for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge.
Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs.

In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water
and ground water in the hyporheic zone.

Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

There are two ways by which water moves across the earth.

1. Major ocean currents

2. Discharge of rivers.
In producing 20 fresh weight tons of crop, 2000 tons of water will pass through the plants
at their roots.

At harvest about 15 tons of water supply will be in transit leaving the crop with a dry
weight of 5 tons.

To produce 5 tons of dry matter , 3 tons of water will have been fixed and transformed.

The energy fixed in the dry matter will be 1% or less of the total solar energy received by
the crop.nearly 40% of energy will be used to evaporate the transpired water.
10.4.2 CARBON CYCLE
In all biotic systems, carbon is the most essential element in terms of energy flow and
material synthesis.

Energy from the sun is stored during the photosynthesis by the plants which synthesize
glucose. .

About 68,600 cal. of energy is stored per day.

Glucose is the starting point for synthesis of other essential organic compounds like
amino acids, nucleotides etc. necessary for living beings. All this can be accomplished
by carbon cycle.
Carbon dioxide is produced in nature by different processes. They are

1. From volcanic emission

2. During burning of forests
3. During respiration of biotic and abiotic organisms
4. Weathering of rocks
5. Combustion of biomass
6. Biodegradation of dead organisms

During photosynthesis carbon dioxide is consumed. This process is reverse of

respiration.
The concentration of CO2 is maintained because CO2 dissolves in water to form H2CO3
which in turn form carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium in water.

CO2 concentration also influences photosynthesis.

Most of Earth’s carbon is stored in rocks and sediments. The rest is located in the
ocean, atmosphere, and in living organisms. These are the reservoirs through.which
carbon cycles. Ocean is considered as global CO2 sink.
Carbon Cycle is a biogeochemical cycle where various carbon compounds
are interchanged among the various layers of the earth, namely, the
biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

The four steps in a carbon cycle are

● Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2

● CO2 is absorbed by autotrophs such as green plants
● Animals consume plants, thereby, incorporating carbon into their
system.
● Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is
reabsorbed back into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle can be classified into two types based on the duration of the
process into two types:

● Short term – This type occurs within a relatively short period of time. It is
named as such because it takes just days, months or years for carbon to
flow across the various carbon reservoirs.
● Long term – This type takes thousands of years to occur. The excess
carbon from the short-term cycle is stored for a long time before they are
released.
10.4.3 OXYGEN CYCLE
● Multicellular organisms evolved after free oxygen appeared in the
atmosphere.
● Free oxygen is potentially destructive to all forms of carbon based life.
● 1.5 billion cubic kilometres of water on earth split by photosynthesis
and reconstituted by respiration once in every 2 million years.
The oxygen cycle helps in the movement of oxygen through the three main
regions of the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lithosphere.

The Atmosphere is the largest reservoirs of free oxygen on earth.

Life evolved only after free oxygen appeared in the atmosphere 3 billion years
ago.

The atmosphere contained N2 ,NH3, H2O, CO, CH4 and H2O vapour .

Because of lack of O2 there was no O3 layer to shield out Sun’s deadly UV

radiation.
Since O2 is a reactive element, it combined with other
elements to form compounds.

Small amounts of O2 was obtained from non biological

sources like dissociation of Water.

The first living organisms could have been aquatic yeasts like
anaerobes.
Scarcity of organic food led to the evolution of photosynthesis which
liberated O2.

O2 filled the atmosphere and the layer of O3 thickened.

3O2 2O3.

Because of O3 the earth's surface became shielded and life could move
up to the surface in the oceans
O3 is formed by a photochemical reaction followed by a three
body reaction:
O2 + hn (242 nm) O +O
O + O2 + M (N2 or O2) O3 + M
The third body (M) absorbs excess energy liberated and
thereby stabilizes the O3 molecule.
 Development of
Aerobic
complex
respiration Made possible
multicellular
organisms.

The first multicellular organisms could have evolved when the oxygen in
the atmosphere was about 0.6 % 600 million years ago. (Present 20%)

Subsequently, life began to invade land and large creatures evolved.

Aerobic organisms made their appearance when oxygen was evolved
during photosynthesis by plants.
 Ozone level of atmosphere gets depleted by the reaction with atomic oxygen,
reactive
hydroxyl radicals (OH.) and by NO.
(i) O3 + O O2 + O2

(ii) O3 + OH. O2 + HOO.

HOO. + O HO. + O2

(iii) O3 + NO NO2 + O2
NO2 + O NO + O2
10.4.4 NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen
is converted into many forms, consecutively passing from the
atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.
Stages of Nitrogen Cycle
Process of Nitrogen Cycle consists of the following steps
1. Nitrogen fixation,
2. Assimilation
3. Ammonification
4. Nitrification
5. Denitrification.
Nitrogen fixation:
Conversion of free nitrogen in atmosphere into biologically acceptable form
or nitrogenous compounds.
The entire process of Nitrogen fixation is completed by symbiotic bacteria
which are known as Diazotrophs. Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a
major role in this process. These bacteria consist of a nitrogenase enzyme
which has the capability to combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to
form ammonia.

Nitrogen fixation can occur either by the atmospheric fixation- which

involves lightening or industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under
high temperature and pressure condition. This can also be fixed through
man-made processes, primarily industrial processes that create ammonia
and nitrogen-rich fertilisers.
Nitrification

In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil.
Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of Ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria
species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. This conversion
is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for plants.
The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:
2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 4H+ + 2H2O
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–

Assimilation
Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help
of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins.
This way, it enters the food web when the primary consumers eat the plants.
Ammonification

When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into the soil.
The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter back into
ammonium.
This process of decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for other biological
processes.

Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds makes its way back into the
atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3) into gaseous nitrogen (N2).
This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacterial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas,
which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and gives out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.
10.4.5 PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the
movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere

Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a
significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and
phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of
temperature and pressure found on Earth.

The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions.

Therefore, the phosphorus cycle should be viewed from whole Earth system
and then specifically focused on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems.
Mineral elements required by living organisms are obtained from inorganic sources.

They occur as salts dissolved in soil water.

Mineral cycles essentially consists of two phases

1. The salt phase

2. The rock phase

Mineral salts come directly from the earth's crust and then enter water cycle.

P occurs in the soil in five forms.

1. P1 Stable organic
2. P2 Labile organic
3. P3 Labile inorganic
4. P4 Soluble
5. P5 Mineral form
Of these P3 and P4 are in equilibrium and the entry of phosphorus in green plants is
considered to occur via labile inorganic pool.

The dissolved P is absorbed by the plants and converted into organic form.

It travels through various trophic levels from plants.

When plants and animals die, the decomposers attack them and liberate P to the
environment.

This process proceeds in a cyclic way . P reaches the ocean and settles down as
sediment.
The detergent powders contain polyphosphates . Therefore, when the detergent wash
joins the water bodies, P content increases in the water leading to eutrophication.

What is meant by eutrophication?

Natural waters do not contain large amounts of phosphorus and it acts as a limiting
factor and controls the growth of algae and aquatic plants. But when more P comes into
water there will not be enough nitrogen available and hence only blue green algae which
fix nitrogen become too many and produce algal blooms in surface waters leading to
eutrophication .

Inorganic phosphates are structural components of many invertebrates.

SULPHUR CYCLE

The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves between rocks,
waterways and living systems.

sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur
compounds can be used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration.

The global sulfur cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation
states, which play an important role in both geological and biological processes.
Unlike oxygen and carbon cycle, sulphur cycle is a sedimentary cycle.

Sulphur is present normally as sulphates and sulphides.

It is present in:

● amino acids like cystine, cysteine and methionine. So, it is important for protein
synthesis.
● as a sulfhydryl group in coenzyme A.
● Fossil fuels which emit SO2 in automobile exhaust
Under anaerobic conditions sulphates are used to supply oxygen for organisms

In some of the sulphur bacteria, elemental sulphur is precipitated.

H2S produced under anaerobic conditions can be oxidised to sulphur or sulphates.

SO2 in the atmosphere gets converted into sulphurous and sulphuric acid causing the
acid rain problem in many urban and industrial areas.

In sewers, H2S is produced due to anaerobic conditions.

This gets oxidised with oxygen present in sewer pipe and gets converted into SO2 which
dissolves in water to become sulphuric acid
This acid accumulates on top inside portion of brick sewer pipe causing crown corrosion
in sewers

Sulphur cycle links soil , water and air.

Sulphur also occurs in soil and rocks as sulphides FeS, ZnS etc.

Except a few organisms which need organic form of sulphur as amino acids cysteine ,
most of the organisms take sulphur as inorganic sulphates

Under anaerobic conditions, sulphur is reduced to sulphides.

2H2S + O2 --Baggiota species----- 2S + 2H2O

2S + 2H2O + 3O2 Thiobacillus thiooxidans ----------2 H2SO4

Green and purple photosynthetic bacteria use H2S to reduce CO2

Green bacteria can oxidise sulphide to elemental sulphur whereas purple sulphur
bacteria can carry oxidation to sulphate stage.

In the ecosystem , sulphur is transferred from autotrophs to animals, then to

decomposers and finally it returns to environment through death and decay of
organisms.

Sedimentary nature of sulphur cycling involves precipitation of sulphur in presence of

iron under anaerobic conditions.

Sulphides of iron, copper, zinc, cadmium , cobalt are insoluble in neutral and alkaline
waters and consequently sulphur is bound to limit the amount of these elements.
10.5 Ecological energetics
10.5 ECOLOGICAL ENERGETICS
The flow of energy through an ecosystem is called ecological energetics.
This energy flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:

● First law of thermodynamics, that states that “energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only change from one form to another”.
● Second law of thermodynamics, that states that “no process involving an energy
transformation will occur spontaneously unless there is a degeneration of energy from
concentrated form into a dispersed form”
The sun emits light and other types of radiation. A small amount of the radiant energy is
absorbed by the green plants. They change this energy into chemical energy in the form of
glucose.

All the other living organisms obtain this chemical energy from the plants.

A large amount of energy is lost in the form of heat.

10.6.1 SINGLE CHANNEL ENERGY MODELS

Energy flow is unidirectional.

In an ecosystem, the following aspects are essential for understanding ecological

energetics:

1. The efficiency of producers in absorption and conversion of solar energy.

2. The use of this converted form of chemical energy by the consumers.
3. The total input of energy as food and its efficiency of assimilation.
4. The energy lost through respiration, heat, excretion at each trophic level
5. Gross production and net production
From the figure

1. Total incoming solar radiation = 118,872 gcal/cm2 / yr

2. Unutilized solar radiation = 118,761 gcal/cm2 / yr
3. Gross production ( net production + respiration ) = 111.0 gcal/cm2 / yr
4. Energy consumed in metabolic reactions of autotrophs for growth,
development , maintenance and reproduction= 23 gcal/cm2 / yr
5. Consumption by herbivores = 15 gcal/cm2 / yr
6. Decomposition = 3 gcal/cm2 / yr
7. Remainder of the plant material not utilized = 70 gcal/cm2 / yr
Out of the total energy incorporated at the herbivores level i.e. 15 gcal/cm2 /yr

4.5 gcal/cm2 /yr, is used in metabolic reactions. There is a considerable energy loss via
respiration by herbivores than by autotrophs.

Energy available for carnivores ie 10.5 gcal/cm2 / yr is not entirely used . only 3.0
gcal/cm2 / yr, of net production passes to the carnivores

At the carnivores level , about 60% of the energy intake is consumed in metabolic
activity and the remaining becomes part of the unutilized sediments.

Only an insignificant amount is subjected to decomposition yearly.

The respiratory loss of energy is 30% for herbivores and 21% for autotrophs.

Thus :

● There is a unidirectional flow of energy.

● The system would collapse if the primary source the sun was cut off
● There is a progressive decrease in energy dissipated as heat in
metabolic activities.
● The energy inflows balance the outflows.
● There is a successive reduction in energy flow at each trophic level.
● The shorter the food chain the greater would be the availability of food
energy.
10.6.2 Y-shaped energy flow model
Eugene. P. Odum
The double channel or Y-Shaped energy flow model depicts the simultaneous working of grazing
and detritus food chains in an ecosystem. In nature, both grazing and detritus food chains are
interconnected in the same ecosystem.

Food chains are of two types. The two types differ in where the food chain starts. One starts
from plants, while the other starts from dead things. Both are rich sources of nutrients for the
ecosystem.

The flow of energy in a single food chain; either grazing or detritus, is called the single
chain model.
Y-shaped energy flow model in ecosystems

In nature, the grazing food chain and detritus food chain often mix with each other.

For example, when a herbivore dies of natural causes, it cannot be eaten by a predator!
Instead, it enters the detritus food chain.

The Y-shaped model explains how the grazing food chain and detritus food chain connect
with each other.

The grazing food chain beginning with green plant base going to herbivores and the detritus
food chain beginning with dead organic matter acted by microbes, then passing to
detritivores and their consumers.
For instance, dead bodies of small animals that were once part of the grazing food chain
become incorporated in the detritus food chain as do the feces of grazing food animals.
Functionally, the distinction between the two is of time lag between the direct consumption of
living plants and ultimate utilisation of dead organic matter. The importance of the two food
chains may differ in different ecosystems, in some grazing is more important, in others detritus
is major pathway.
The important point in Y-shaped model is that the two food chains are not isolated
from each other. This Y- shaped model is more realistic and practical working model
than the single-channel model because,
Thus, in nature there operates multi-channel energy flows, but in these the
channels belong to either of the two basic food chains i.e., will be either a grazing
or a detritus food chain.

Interlocking pattern of such several chains in food web of an ecosystem would lead
to a multi-channel flow of energy.
E.P. Odum (1983) gave a generalized model of this relationship and called it the
Universal model of flow of energy.
This model is applicable to any living system ie animal,plant, microorganisms, individual
population or a trophic group.

Such a model may depict food chain or the bioenergetics of the entire ecosystem.

In this model, the box labelled ‘B ‘ represents the living structure or biomass of the
components

The total energy input is indicated by ‘I ‘ ( light for autotrophs and organic food for
heterotrophs)
The universal model of energy flows may be used in two ways.

1 it represents a species population in which case the appropriate inputs and links with
other species would be shown as conventional species oriented food web diagram.

2 the model can represent a discrete energy level in which the biomass and energy
channels represent all or parts of many populations supported by same energy source

However, all these models depict the basic pattern of energy flow in ecosystem.

In nature, multichannel energy flow operates due to complexity of food webs.

10.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

What is meant by ecological succession?

“Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological

community over time.”

Vegetation is dynamic ,changing over time and space.

Animal populations , particularly at lower forms also show dynamic character to

some extent though less in contrast to vegetation

Succession comprises evolution of a vegetation from its origin to attainment of

climax with several limiting factors in between

There are two main types of succession, primary and secondary.

The succession which starts from the primitive substratum without any life building
nonliving matter is called as primary succession.

The succession which starts from previously built up substratum with living matter is
called as secondary succession

If the existing community , as a result of its reaction with the environment, causes its
own replacement, such a succession is called autogenic succession.

If the replacement of existing community takes place due to the influence of any external
force , or condition, then it is called allogenic succession.
A tropical rain forest of pristine nature is an example of a climax succession .

10.7 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEB AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Food chain

What is meant by food chain ?

The transfer of energy from the producers through a series of organisms ( herbivores,
carnivores and decomposers ) with repeated eating and being eaten is known as food
chain.
In nature , two types of food chains are distinguished. They are

1. Grazing food chain

2. Detritus food chain.

10.7.1 Grazing food chain

a. This food chain starts from living green plants and goes to grazing herbivores and onto
carnivores
b. Ecosystems of such type of food chains are directly dependent on an influx of solar radiation.

c. most of ecosystems in nature show this type of food chain .

d. These chains are important from energy standpoint

.
10.7.2 DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN:
DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN:

A) . A detritus food chain initiates from dead organic matter into microorganisms
and then to organisms feeding on detritus and their predators.

B). such chains are less dependent on direct solar energy. They chiefly depend on
influx of organic matter in another system.

C) this food chain operates in the decomposing accumulated in a temperate forest

Eg. mangrove ecosystem.

D ) The leaves of mangrove trees fall into the warm shallow waters. Only 5% of
the leaf material will be removed by the grazing insects before leaf fall .
E). the fallen leaf fragments are acted upon by saprotrophs such as fungi,
bacteria, protozoa etc and colonized mainly by phytoplanktonic and benthic algae
and later eaten and re -eaten (coprophagy ) by a key group of small animals

F) these animals include crabs, copepods, insect larvae, grass shrimps,

nematodes, amphipods, bivalve molluscs etc. they belong to detritus consumer
and ingest large amounts of vascular plant detritus. These animals are in turn
eaten by some minnows and small game fish which in turn serve as a main food
for large fish and fish eating birds

G). a system must always be self sufficient under natural conditions. The grazing
and detritus food chain are lined together belonging to the same ecosystem.
10.7.3 FOOD WEBS
A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical
representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community.

Food chains never operate in isolation but are interconnected with each other forming a sort of
interlocking pattern called food web.

Linear arrangement of food chains does not occur. In a grazing food chain of grassland, in
absence of rabbit, grass may be eaten by a mouse. The mouse may in turn be directly eaten by
a hawk or a snake first and then eaten by hawk.
There are five linear food chains in a food web of a grassland.

1 grass --- grasshopper ----hawk

2. grass --- grasshopper ---- lizard ------hawk

3. grass --- rabbit ----hawk (vulture, fox, man.)

4. grass --- mouse----hawk

5. grass --- mouse ---- snake -----hawk

All these five chains are interlinked with each other at different points forming a food
web.

These food webs are important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem in nature.
Ex. decrease in population of rabbit would naturally cause an increase in the population
of an alternative herbivore the mouse. This may decrease the population of the
consumer that prefers to eat rabbit.

The balanced ecosystem is essential for survival of all living organisms of the system.
Thus food chains and food webs form a natural check to balance the ecosystem. The
complexity of any food web depends on biodiversity of the system.
The biodiversity is based on

1. Length of the food chain.

2. Alternatives in the length of the food chain.

Each step in the flow of energy through food chain in an ecosystem is known as trophic
level.

Producers----herbivores ------carnivores -----carnivores that eat other carnivores

Producers --- primary consumers-- secondary consumers --- tertiary consumers.

Omnivores , parasites, and scavengers occupy different trophic levels depending on

what they happen to eat at that time.

Each time energy moves to a new trophic level, approximately 90% of the useful energy
is lost.
10.7.4 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The interaction of the food chain phenomenon (energy loss at each transfer)and
the size metabolism relationship results in communities having a definite trophic
structure which is characteristic of a particular ecosystem. Lake, forest, coral reef,
pasture etc.

Trophic structure may be measured in terms of the standing crop per unit area or
the energy fixed per per unit area per unit time at successive trophic levels.

The graphical representation of the trophic structure and function is called

ecological pyramid.

In this the first is producer level which forms the base and successive levels or
tiers make up the apex.
Types of ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids may be of three general types.

1. The pyramid of numbers

2. The pyramid of biomass
3. The pyramid of energy

The pyramid of numbers and the pyramid of biomass may be upright or inverted ,
but the pyramid of energy is always upright
10.7.4.1 pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of numbers
They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels in terms of their numbers.

In a grassland ecosystem, the producers which are mainly grasses are always
maximum in number. This number then shows a decrease towards the apex, as
the primary consumers (herbivores) like rabbits mice etc are less in number than
the grasses.

The secondary consumers like snakes, and lizards are lesser in number than
rabbits and mice.

Finally , the top( tertiary consumers) like hawks or other birds are less in number
so the pyramid becomes upright
In a pond ecosystem also the pyramid is upright.

1. The producers which are mainly the phytoplanktons as algae, bacteria are
maximum in number.
2. The herbivores which include small fish, rotifers,cladocerans, copepods are lesser
in number than the producers.
3. Secondary consumers such as small fish eating each other ,water beetles etc are
lesser in number than the primary consumers.
4. Finally the tertiary consumers the bigger fish are least in number.
Pyramid of number in a forest ecosystem
Pyramid of number in a forest ecosystem is either inverted or spindle shaped.

1. The producers which are mainly large sized trees, are less in number and form the
base of the pyramid.

2. Primary consumers ie herbivores include fruit eating birds , elephants,deers etc and
they are large in numbers than the producers.

3. There is a gradual decrease in the number of carnivores , thus making the pyramid
inverted or spindle shaped
Pyramid of numbers in a parasitic food chain, is always inverted.

A single plant may produce the growth of many herbivores and each herbivore in turn
provides nutrition to several parasites which support many hyperparasites.

Thus, from producers to consumers there is reverse position making it inverted.

The pyramid of numbers do not provide actual picture of the food chain as they are not
very functional.

They do not reflect the relative effects of the geometric food chain and size factor of the
organisms.

They generally vary with the different communities with different food chains in the
same environment.

Sometimes it is difficult to represent the whole community on the same numerical scale
as in forests
10.7.4.2 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
Pyramid of biomass is more fundamental and shows the quantitative relationships of the
standing crops.

1. In grasslands and forest ecosystem generally there is a gradual decrease in biomass

of organisms at successive levels from the producers to the top carnivores . so the
pyramid is upright.

2. In a pond ecosystem, the producers are small organisms and hence their biomass is
least. This value generally shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid so the
pyramid is inverted in shape.
10.7.4.3 PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY
The pyramids of energy reflect the best picture of overall nature of ecosystem. In this
pyramid, the number and weight of organisms at any trophic level depends on the rate
at which food is produced but not on the amount of fixed energy at any level in a given
time.

Pyramid of energy is always upright in shape. This is because there will always be a
gradual decrease in the energy content at successive trophic levels from producers to
consumers.
10.8 MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS

WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

Any unit that includes all the organisms .

The communities in a given area interact with the physical environment so that flow of
energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biodiversity and material cycle within the
system is known as ecosystem.

Earth is a giant ecosystem where abiotic and biotic are constantly acting and reacting upon
each other bringing structural and functional changes in it.

Different types of ecosystems artificially categorized are : i. Natural ecosystems ii. Artificial
ecosystems.(man made)
Natural ecosystems : these ecosystems operate by themselves under natural conditions
without any major interference by man. Based on the habitat , they are divided into

1. Terrestrial example forest, grassland desert etc

2. Aquatic which is further divided into a)fresh water b) marine

Fresh water may be lotic ie running water as spring , stream or river or lentic ie
standing water like lake pond pools, ditches swamps.

Marine ecosystem ex. Oceans, sea and estuary

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
MARINE ECOSYSTEM