UNIT 2

WRITING (TEXT FORMS)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Write well organized texts that consist of introduction, body paragraphs

and conclusion.
 Write proper openings that depict the purposes of their written pieces.
 Expand and develop the body paragraphs convincingly using suitable
details.
 Use a wide range of sentence starters and structures.
 Link ideas with suitable connectives for cohesion and coherence.
 Write appropriately for the targeted audience
DIAGNOSTIC TEST:

1. What is pre-writing and why is it necessary?

2. Explain the purpose of both the introduction and the conclusion in a text?

2.1 ORGANISATIONAL FEATURES

In writing, information has to be presented in a very clear and logical manner. To do so,
information should be divided into features and structural elements which help writers organize
and arrange their ideas and make their writing more coherent, organized and reader friendly.
These features include:

1. INTRODUCTION
This is the opening section of a piece of writing or text that:
 Provides background information; gives the general information that helps the
reader understand the topic. It can explain the history of the topic or provide some
definitions as well as statistical facts related to the topic.
 Sets the context; provides or establishes the circumstances surrounding the topic
(background information) to help to give the clearer understanding of the topic
and to explain the writer’s purpose or the intended audience. This orients the
reader and makes sure they have enough information to follow along.
 Introduces the main idea; highlights the central concept or message of the text so
that the reader knows what to expect from the rest of the text. It can be helpful to
think of the main idea as the ‘thesis statement’ of a piece of writing. In other
words, it’s the most important point that the author wants to make.

Generally, the main purpose of the introduction is to provide an overview to help the
reader understand the topic that’s being discussed and to help them grasp the purpose
of the text as well as the relevance of the content that follows.

TIP: An introduction may begin with a general statement or question that

captures the reader’s attention and interest.
2. BODY PARAGRAPHS
This is the elaboration and expansion of the topic and all the convincing details around it.
Body paragraphs normally begin with a topic sentence whose main function is to
introduce the idea and focus of each paragraph. That idea is then developed, elaborated
on and expanded with details such as examples, reasons or even necessary evidence
pertaining to it (supporting details). In cases where content points are provided (in a
question), body paragraphs are an elaboration and expansion of such content points.

TIP: Each body paragraph focuses ONLY on one idea.

3. CONCLUSION
This is the final section of a piece where the writer summarizes the main points presented
in the text and often provides their final thoughts and opinions, recommendation or call to
action with regard to the topic. A concluding paragraph should tie everything together
and be good enough to leave the reader with a clear understanding of the topic.
 2.2

2.2 USE OF CONNECTIVES

At the time of speaking or writing, we use some words

or phrases that help maintain the cohesion and
continuity of sentences. Those words or phrases are
called connectives (linking words). They connect ideas
and help writing flow easily.

Examples:

 As a result
 Furthermore
 Despite
 In brief
 On the other hand etc.

So, connectives work as conjunctions to join two or more words, phrases and clauses together.

Study the following sentences to get the idea of how connectives of different functions join
ideas.

1. Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result, sales increased by 15%.
2. Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than laptops; furthermore, they are
more flexible.
3. She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn’t mind cooking.
4. Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
 5. I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned.

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVES

1. CONNECTIVES USED TO SHOW SEQUENCE OR CHRONOLOGY

First, firstly, at first, in the beginning, to begin with, secondly, thirdly, in the end, lastly,
finally, to sum up, in conclusion, last but not least, next, afterwards, then, after that etc.
Usage:
In order to gain admission at Soofia International School, you have to follow these steps.
First, you have to log in to the school website. Then fill up the form accordingly. you
need to submit the form to helpdesk@soofiainternational.org through the submit button.
Finally, the admissions officer will send an admission letter to your email.

2. CONNECTIVES USED TO PROVIDE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

And, additionally, besides, furthermore, not only…but also, moreover, both…and, or,
either…or, as well as, likewise, also, in addition, so on, apart from, again etc.
Usage:
 Both Yanga and his sister obtained the same grade.
 Not only does he enjoy reading, but he also writes well.
 I went to the library, as well as the post office.

3. CONNECTIVES USED TO GIVE EXAMPLES

Such as, namely, for example, for instance, that is, to illustrate, as an illustration, to
demonstrate etc.
Usage:
 He is an expert in a number of areas such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
 There are a lot of benefits for healthy eating. For instance, one can manage their
weight without any hurdles.
4. CONNECTIVES USED TO INDICATE CONTRAST
On the contrary, instead, on the other hand, but, yet, still, while, whereas, though,
although, even though, despite, in spite of, however, nevertheless, nonetheless etc.
 Usage:
 He studied hard but failed.
 I was tired after a long day at work; nevertheless, I decided to go to the gym
nevertheless.
 The weather was terrible; nonetheless, we still went for a walk.
 In spite of being a regular student, she could not pass the exam.

5. CONNECTIVES USED TO INDICATE CONDITION

If, otherwise, unless, till, provided, in case, as long as etc.
Usage:
 If you call me, I’ll come to help you.
 Study hard, otherwise/or you will face difficulty in the exam.
 The singer will come provided that his demands are met.

6. CONNECTIVES THAT EXPRESS PURPOSE

As much as, so that, in order that, lest, so as to etc.
Usage:
 I keep the door open so as to let air to enter the room.
 The boy is studying hard so that he can well in the exam.

7. CONNECTIVES USED TO INDICATE CONCLUSION

To sum up, in brief, in short, to summarise, on the whole, above all, in all, in conclusion,
to conclude etc.
Usage:
 We have two English teachers, two Maths teachers and one Science teacher. In
total, we have five teachers at our school.
 He has established a school in the village. He helps people in times of need and he
donates money to poor students. In brief, he is a kind heated man.
TIP: Connectors are also used as sentence starters. Sentence starters are words or
phrases that can be used to start a sentence. They add variety to one’s writing and
make it more interesting.
ACTIVITY 1

The following extracts have words deleted. Choose the connective from the lists provided, that best
completes each group of sentences.

1. When a student cheats, he reveals two things about himself. In getting help from
another student, he proclaims that someone else is more competent than himself;
………………….., the cheater shows his perfectionist tendency by suggesting that
he is being measured against unrealistic standards.
a) In addition
b) On the contrary
c) As a result
d) In short
2. The adolescent attitude towards study is that it is a task to be avoided if at all
possible. At best it is an unpleasant chore. It is begun under duress and escaped as
soon as the opportunity presents itself. The mark of truly adult learning,
………………………., is that it is done with no sense of being forced. It is entirely
voluntary and carried on with a sense of enjoyment and satisfaction.
a) Likewise
b) However
c) In other words
d) Finally
3. What we were once taught as common courtesies, ……………….. saying “please”
and “thank you”, are becoming less common
a) Thus
b) Before
c) First
d) Such as
4. Jogging provides many positive health benefits for runners in their middle and
senior years. …………………….., joggers tend to have a lower incidence of heart
attacks than do non-joggers.
a) For example
b) In conclusion
c) In addition
d) Nevertheless
ACTIVITY 2

Read the following sentences and choose the correct function of each underlined connective
from the list provided.

1. Jack is a very poor basketball player; therefore, he should be taken off the
team.
a) Example
b) Clarification
c) Cause or effect
d) Addition
2. My neighbor was very much admired as a prefect and football player, but in
his private life, he was described by some as proud and demanding.
a) Time
b) Example
c) Contrast
d) Comparison
3. There are thousands of thoughts that might enter your conscious mind at any
given moment; moreover, those thoughts are in some way related to your
interests, hopes, needs and desires.
a) Clarification
b) Addition
c) Conclusion
d) Contrast
4. The Three Faces of Eve was a highly successful book upon which a film
about multiple personality was based; similarly, Sybil was a book that
became a movie depicting a young woman’s struggle with this puzzling
condition.
a) Contrast
b) Example
c) Addition
d) comparison
 2.3

2.3 SENTENCE VARIETIES

Sentence structure variation is one of the most important aspects of writing Sentences are
divided into two categories based on their structure and their function or purpose. We will be
first looking at different structures (arrangement of words and phrases in sentences.)

It is important to know the different structures of sentences to be able to use them variably in
writing. Using these sentence structures and lengths create a more engaging and dynamic writing
which helps to maintain the reader’s interest and makes writing to be more expressive and
engaging.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES:
They are made up of one independent clause. An independent clause has a subject
and verb and can stand on its own as a complete single idea.

Examples:

 My friend, Layla, studied French at university.

 She brushes her teeth in the morning.
 The principal laughed.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES:
A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).

Examples:

 (I arrived at the office at 9am) and (my assistant came ten minutes later.)
Coordinating conjunction
Independent clause Independent clause
  (She brushes her teeth in the morning) so (her teeth are nice and clean.)
Coordinating conjunction
Independent clause Independent clause

3. COMPLEX SENTENCES:
It is made up of one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clauses
joined by a subordinating conjunction. Examples of these conjunctions include
unless, whenever, while, because, since etc. A dependent clause has a subject and
verb combination but cannot stand by itself as a complete idea. It is important to note
that we use a comma after the clause when the dependent clause begins the sentence,
but if the sentence begins with an independent clause, then we don’t use a comma.
Examples:
Subordinating conjunction
 (She brushes her teeth in the morning) (after she has woken up.)

Independent clause Dependent clause

Subordinating conjunction

 (The baby laughed) (because the cartoon was funny.)

Independent clause Dependent clause

TIP: Dependent clauses don’t only begin with a subordinate conjunction (although, after,
because etc.), but they also begin with a relative pronoun (who, which, that).

4. COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES:

It is a sentence that has two (or more) independent clauses and one (or more
dependent) clauses.
 Examples:
Independent clause dependent clause

 (Bill voted against the measure) (because he felt that it wasn’t strong enough,)
but (he also offered to continue discussions which we will do next week.)

Independent clause

 She was tired from working all day, so she decided to take a nap, but she
couldn’t fall asleep because her neighbor was playing loud music.

ACTIVITY 1

Choose the category (structure) of sentences to which the following sentences belong:

1. He went to the pub last night to get drunk.

2. He went to the pub last night to get drunk as he had fought with his wife.
3. If I had a lot of money, I would open a school for poor kids whose parents can’t
afford to pay the school fee.
4. Because it was raining, we decided to stay inside and watch a movie.
5. I wanted to be an army officer, but I couldn’t clear the exam.
6. Don’t let your mind do stupid things.
7. I love Gary, for he inspires people to be better.
8. Although I love to read, I don’t have much time for it and I usually only get to
read on the weekends.

ACTIVITY 2

Create a narrative paragraph about a family tradition that is special to you. Use at least one
of each type of sentence (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex sentence) and
underline them
 2.4

2.4 TYPES OF SENTENCES BASED ON FUNCTION

1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE:

These are sentences which make statements or declaration. Declarative sentences are
used to convey information and express facts, opinions or ideas.

Examples:

 Agatha Christie wrote The Mysterious Affair at Styles.

 She is a talented musician.
 The choir led the assembly earlier today
today.

TIP: A Declarative sentence ends with a full stop

stop.
 2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
They ask questions and seek information. Typically begin with a question word such
as who, when, how, where or can begin with an auxiliary verb like do, does, will.
Examples:
 Who is that officer?
 Does he live here?

TIP: Interrogative sentences end with a question mark, however, we do not end indirect
questions with question marks e.g. I wonder how your parents are doing.

3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:
They express command, make requests or give instructions. They are used to tell
someone what to do or what not to do and normally begin with a verb. Imperative
sentences end with a full stop or an exclamation mark. The difference between full
stop and exclamation mark in an imperative sentence is the level of intensity or
urgency conveyed. A full stop indicates a neutral or normal tone, while an
exclamation mark adds emphasis or urgency to the command or request. For
example, “Please close the door.” is a polite request, while “Close the door!”
conveys a sense of urgency or importance.
Examples:
 Go to your room!
 Please open the window.
 Don’t touch the hot frying pan!

TIP: Imperative sentences often times do not include a subject, a subject is

implied.

4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:
They express surprise, grief or some other strong emotion; excitement, joy, anger
and any other intense feeling. They end with an exclamation mark.
Examples:
 What a beautiful sunset!
  I can’t believe you are engaged!
 You are not listening to me!

It is important to pay close attention to the purpose of the sentence before deciding what type of
sentence it is. Not all sentences that begin with a question word are interrogative Example:

What a fantastic surprise! (Exclamatory)

Not all that end with an exclamation mark are exclamatory
e.g. Stop talking right now! (Imperative)

ACTIVITY 1

Identify the sentence type of each of the following:

1. Should we go to the mall next weekend?

2. Mom needs to buy a new black purse.
3. I can’t believe he insulted you like that!
4. Paint the bathroom walls with the white paint I just gave you.
5. Stop acting like a spoilt brat!

ACTIVITY 2

The following paragraph is consisting of sentences which perform the same function-
statements. Rewrite the paragraph so that the functions are different.

It is a well-known fact that reading is important for children. Some experts believe that
reading to children at an early age helps them develop language skills and prepares them for
school. However, there are those who argue that technology has made reading obsolete. They
claim that children today are more interested in video games and social media than in books.
This is a really sad reality.