DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

LABORATORY OBSERVATION

BOOK

NAME:……………………… ………………………………………………

B.Tech - I YEAR ..................................... SECTION

Branch:_

ROLL NO : ………………………………………………
 Engineering Physics Lab Manual

LAB INSTRUCTIONS
1. Come prepared for the day’s experiment by bringing OBSERVATION BOOK
(printed copy of lab manual), LAB FILE (one side ruled and one side blank page)
with graph-sheets and other necessary stationeries such as pen, pencil, eraser,
scale, non-programmable calculator.
2. Present in the lab well on time.
3. Get the attendance marked in the attendance register.
4. Collect the necessary equipment from the issue counter against your signature.

5. Go to the allotted work area. Inform the staff in-charge at the counter about any
damages in the equipment.

6. Listen to the instructions given by instructor/staff on the allotted experiment. One

should not start doing experiment by their own without listening the
instructions.

7. Show the electrical connections or any other adjustments to the faculty concerned
before switching on or proceeding for taking readings.

8. Show the readings and calculations done on the Observation book to the
faculty/lab instructor concerned and get them verified before leaving the lab.

9. Take signature from the concerned faculty in all the Observations,

Calculations and Graphs done in the lab before leaving and preserve those
properly.

10. Return the instruments taken at the counter, after the experiment.

11. Transfer the observations, calculations, results of each experiment from the
Observation book to the Lab File and get them valued. Paste the graph related
to the experiment in the Lab File. A graph without the signature of the
Faculty/Lab instructor will be considered as an invalid one.

12. While evaluating the Lab File, a student may be asked to show the
Observation Book for verifying the authenticity of the presented
observations.

13. Make sure that marks obtained in the Lab File for a particular experiment are
entered into the Attendance register (kept at the LAB).

Department of Physics, MUJ

 Engineering Physics Lab Manual

14. Be disciplined in the lab.

15. Be regular to the practical classes.

16. Day-to-day evaluation of the experiment will be done out of 10 marks and the
assessment will depend on student’s preparedness, skill to make proper
adjustments, connections, ability to make proper observations, accuracy of
the result, answering the questions in viva voce (if any), etc.

17. Write only the aim of the experiment, the related theory, the observation &
calculations (along with the signed graph properly pasted) and the
discussions (conclusion & precaution) in the Lab File.

18. Lastly, one must come in the lab with two copies - Observation book and Lab
File. The Lab File should contain details about previous day’s assigned
experiment completed in all respect (i.e. after transferring the observations
and calculations of the previous day’s experiment).

DO NOT-

1. -Bring valuables, mobile phones, programmable calculators, food materials

and drinking water to the lab.

2. -Copy or manipulate readings.

3. -Go out of the lab without permission.

4. -Have a casual attitude while performing experiments thinking that accidents

can’t happen.

5. -Try to deface valuable furniture or instruments.

6. -Be in a rush to finish the assigned experiment.

Department of Physics, MUJ

 Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Instructions for Lab file preparation

• Students should fill up the FRONT and INDEX page of LAB FILE properly and should
get the signature of the instructor with date mentioned against each experiment in the
INDEX page.

• Students must write about the assigned experiment (procedure not to be written) in the
Lab file and transfer the data/observations, calculations, and results properly to Lab file
from the Observation book and get the Lab file valued for each of the 8 experiments.
• The 8 experiments are to be performed in a specific sequence to ensure optimum
occupation of the lab space.
• Each of the 7 experiment is to be evaluated out of 10 marks.
• After performing all the 7 experiments, the Total score out of 70 marks secured by a
student in the lab file will be normalized out of 10 Internal ( CWS) marks.

• The day-to-day assessment of 10 marks (Lab File) for each of the experiment will be
done based on the following points:

Student’s preparedness, skill to make proper experimental

adjustments / electrical connections, ability to make proper
observations without the help of technician/lab instructor

Mentioning of Aim, Theory and working formula of the experiment

Schematic Diagram of Apparatus/ Ray Diagram/ Circuit Diagram

Observation data / Observation Table/ Graphical Plot

Calculations/ Result(s)/ Accuracy of the result(s) / % error

calculation/Conclusion

Department of Physics, MUJ

 Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Marks in the lab file will be deducted due to the following reasons:
✓ Students getting their lab file verified from the instructor after due date

✓ Missed units in final results/ observation table/graphical plots

✓ Improper labelling in Schematic Diagram of Apparatus/ Ray Diagram/ Circuit

Diagram

✓ Wrongly labelled axes and missed scale in graphical plots

✓ Calculations with each and every steps explicitly shown

✓ Manipulated or copied data/observations of the experiment in the observation copy

(to verify the same technician/instructor may check the live observations of the
experiment during performance or may compare one’s observation with the observations
taken by a fellow student)

✓ Last but not the least, act of any misconduct which is judged as malpractice by the
technician/instructor.

Note: Late submission of the LAB FILE will receive a deduction of 30-50% of the
marks available.

Lab File submitted at any time between 24 hours and up to 48 hours late will
receive a deduction of 30% of the marks available and Lab File submitted after
48 hours will receive a deduction of 50% of the marks available.

Department of Physics, MUJ

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the given the lens by Newton’s ringsmethod.
Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens of largeradius
of curvature, optically flat glass plate, reflecting glass plate etc.

Fig 1: Newton’s ring set up

Fig 2: Schematic Diagram of the light Rays

Principle: Newton’s rings are circular interference fringes formed at a thin air film
between a plane and curved surface or two curved surface of large radii of curvature.
In fig.1, curved surface DOC of air film has been completed into a circle of radius R.
Let there be nth dark ring at point C, then its radius, rn = DB = BC. Now, from the
geometry of the circle DB x BC = AB x BO
rn2 = (AO – OB) OB = (2R – t) t ≈ 2 R t, ………(1) neglecting t2 ( << 2 R t )
The condition for destructive interference is 2 µ t = n λ ……… (2)
Where µ is refractive index, is wavelength of monochromatic light
Substituting value of 2t from equation (1) , µ rn2 / R = n λ
on rearranging the terms rn2 = R n λ / µ ……… (3)
2 4Rnλ
or the diameter of nth order dark ring is related as Dn =
µ
(4)

Figure 3: Newton’s rings

Procedure: The least count of the Vernier of the traveling microscope is found out. The given
plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate to get an air film of
circular symmetry. This set up is placed below a traveling microscope. The air film is illuminated
normally by reflecting the horizontal beam of sodium light using an inclined glass plate. The
traveling microscope is focused and the Newton’s rings (bright and dark circular interference
fringes) are observed. The crosswire is made tangential to various dark rings on the left side, and
then on the right side, noting the microscope readings each time. The diameters Dn of these dark

rings are calculated. Mean value of (D2 n+ m - D2 n ) is found out. Knowing the wavelength (λ)

of the monochromatic light, the radius of curvature (R) of the convex surface of the lens is
calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

1. To calculate the least count of the traveling microscope:

Distances travelled along pitch scale
Pitch of the screw = =
No of rotations given to the screw head

Pitch = ......................................... cm

Number of divisions on the head scale (HSD) = ...................... div

Pitch
Least Count (LC) = = ……………….. = ………………….
Total no.of HSD

(TOTAL READING) TR = PSR + (HSD × LC)

(PITCH SCALE READING) (COINCIDING HEAD SCALE DIVISION)

2. Wavelength of the sodium light λ = 5.893 x 10–5 cm

 3. To find the diameter of the dark rings:
(n + m) – n = 8

Dn+m2
2
– Dn
Diameter D2
Sr. No. No. of LHS reading in RHS reading in D=(L~R) in cm2 In (cm2)
the ring
cm cm
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
1. 18
2. 16
3. 14
4. 12
5. 10
6. 8
7. 6
8. 4

(4) Radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens:

Note: calculate the radius of curvature (R) for different set of D (n + m) - D n values and take a mean of ‘R’
→ R mean = R observed

[|𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 − 𝑅𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 |
(5) Error Analysis: 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

Result: Radius of curvature of the lens =____________cm with a % error of ______.

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do’s and don’ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they
performed. For example: cautions when aligning optical components to avoid beam misalignment, which
could lead to inaccurate results or safety hazards.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the experiential
learnings gained during the experiment.)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Aim: To determine the forbidden energy gap of a given semiconductor.

Apparatus: A semiconductor diode, constant current source, current meter, voltmeter, heater, water bath,
thermometer, etc.

Principle: Forbidden energy gap EG of a material is the energy difference between the upper limit of its
valance band and the lower limit of its conduction band. The semiconductor used is in the form of a p-n
junction diode. For a small forward current (I < 0.1mA), the voltage V across the diode varies approximately
with the absolute temperature T as
eV = EG –kT
Here, EG is the energy gap of the semiconductor
 is a constant that depends on the type of the semiconductor
e is the electronic charge =1.6 ×10 −19 C
k is the Boltzmann constant= 1.38 × 10−23 J / K
EG
A graph of V versus T is a straight line with a V-intercept = at T = 0 K. Thus the energy gap
e

of the semiconductor can be determined by calculating the V-intercept.

Graph of V versus T
Circuit Diagram DIODE
THERMOMETER

WATER
A BATH
(T1, V1)

V
(T2, V2)
CONSTANT V
CURRENT
SOURCE

T
Procedure: The circuit is built up as shown. The diode is connected under forward bias. A constant current
(IF < 100 A) is passed through the diode. At the room temperature the junction voltage is noted down. The
diode is then suspended along with a thermometer in a hot water bath at about 90 C taking care to seethat
the bulb of the thermometer is at the same level as the diode. As the water bath cools down, the voltageacross
the diode is noted for different temperatures. A graph is drawn with the temperature in Kelvin on thex axis
and voltage across the diode along the Y-axis. The V-intercept of the line at zero Kelvin is found using the
slope of the straight line obtained and the energy gap of the semiconductor calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

Semiconductor used: …………………………………………………………

Constant forward current through the diode, IF = ………………………………mA

To find the voltage across the junction at various temperatures:

Temperature in °C Temperature ( K ) Junction Voltage (V)
 EG
= .................................. V
e

 Energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG = …………………………. eV

Si Standard Value EG = 1.10 eV

|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

Percentage Error: × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result: The energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG = …………………………… with a % error of ______.

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do's and don'ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they
performed. For example: Ensure connections are firm and wires are not loose, which could affect the
readings.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the
experiential learnings gained during the experiment.)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

Aim: To find (i) the velocity of sound in the given liquid

(ii) the characteristic acoustic impendence of the liquid

Apparatus: The main parts of the interferometer are the high frequency generator and
the measuring cell. The high frequency generator is designed to excite the quartz
crystal fixed at the bottom of the cell at its resonant frequency to generate ultrasonic
waves in the experimental liquid taken in the cell. The high frequency generator
consists of an analog current meter which records the change in the anode current.
The deflection in this meter can be adjusted using the knobs provided in the
instrument. The measuring cell is a specially designed double walled cell for
maintaining the temperature of a liquid constant during the experiment. A fine
micrometer screw has been provided at the top which can lower or raise the reflector
plate in the cell.

1. Principle: Mechanical, longitudinal waves of frequency more than 20 kHz are

known as ultrasonic waves. These waves can be generated either by piezo-electric
method or by magnetostriction method. A suitably cut quartz crystal when subjected
to an alternating electric field undergoes alternate compressions and expansions (by
inverse piezoelectric effect) there by producing longitudinal waves. If the applied
v 1 Y = 1  5500
frequency coincides with natural frequency of the crystal, f = =
 2t  2t

m/s resonance will occur and hence amplitude of the waves will be large. The waves
so generated will travel in the liquid taken in a cylindrical column and is made to reflect
from a metallic plate. The ongoing waves and reflected wave superpose to form
standing wave. These standing waves are characterized by nodes and antinodes. The
distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is half and wavelength of the
ultrasonic waves. If the liquid column length between quartz crystal and the reflector
is an integral multiple of /2, then the situation is called resonance. In this condition,
surfaces of both reflector and quartz crystal are positions of nodes (considering the
waves as displacement waves) or antinodes (considering the waves as pressure
waves). Under resonance condition the waves draw more power from thesource and
accordingly the current meter shows a maximum reading. In other words maximum
reading of the current meter indicates that the reflector surface is the position of node
(considering the waves as displacement waves) and can be noted onthe micrometer.
 Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up

Moving the reflector plate either up or down using the micrometer screw takes the
reflector plate to series of resonances indicated by maximum current meter readings.
The peaks decrease in amplitude as the distance from the source (quartz crystal) is
increased. For low attenuation, the resonance peaks are sharp and the decrease in
amplitude with distance is small, but with high attenuation the peaks are broad and die
down rapidly. The non-parallelism of quartz crystal and the reflector plate and also the
diffraction effects may give rise to the appearance of unwanted additional peaks.

Acoustic Impedance: There is a similarity between the variations of sound wave

characteristics and those of certain quantities used in a.c.-electricity theory. Thus
acoustic pressure (p) may be regarded as being analogues to electrical voltage,
particle velocity (u), to electric current and particle displacement (y) to electrical charge
using the acoustic equivalent of Ohm’s law a quantity known as the specific acoustic
impedance ZA, equivalent to electrical impedance may be defined as ZA=p/u. Like
electrical impedance, ZA is in general a complex quantity but for a plane progressive
wave, the imaginary component disappears leaving the real quantity. This real quantity
is called the characteristic impedance RA and is equal to the product of the density 
and the velocity v of sound for the material i.e, RA = v [ in kg m-2 s-1 ].
Procedure: The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high
frequency generator through a shield cable. The cell is filled with the experimental
liquid. When the high frequency generator is switched on, the quartz crystal produces
ultrasonic waves in the liquid. The waves move normal to the crystal and are reflected
back from the movable metal plate, producing stationary waves in the liquid medium.
The micrometer is moved slowly till the anode current meter shows a maximum
reading. At this instant, the micrometer reading (position of the reflector plate) is noted
down. In this way, the micrometer readings are obtained for a number of successive
maxima readings of the anode current. The wavelength of the ultrasonic waves
produced by the high frequency generator is noted down. The velocity of the ultrasonic
waves in the liquid is calculated.

Figure 2: A schematic plot showing the variation of Anode current with reflector position

.
2. To find the wavelength of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid:

Micrometer reading for Maximum Current

Order of PITCH SCALE
READING
COINCIDING
TR = PSR+(HSD  LC) 2 = (Xn+4 – Xn)
Maxima HSD
PSR [Xn] (mm) (mm)
(n) (div)
(mm)

Mean 2 = ................................... mm

3. Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves,  = ............................... mm

4. Frequency of ultrasonic waves, f = ..................... MHz

5. Density of the given liquid,  =................................ kg/m3

6. Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid, v = f  = ………………………

v = ............................m/s
7. Characteristic impedance of the liquid, RA =  v = ………………………………. ……………
RA = ……………………………

RA (Standard) = ……………………………
V (Standard) = .....................m/s

|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

Percentage Error: × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Results: Velocity of sound in the given liquid = ............................... m/s with a % error of ______.

Characteristic impedance of the liquid =… ............................. kg/m2/s with a % error of

______.

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do's and don'ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they
performed. For example: Don’t miss the position consecutive maxima/minima, which could affect the
readings.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the
experiential learnings gained during the experiment.)

Reference Book: Fundamentals of Acoustics by Kinsler & Frey, 1962, John Wiley & Sons, NewYork.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Aim: To determine Planck’s constant and the work function of the material of the
photocathode in the given photo-emissive cell.

Apparatus: Photo-emissive cell, a white light source, optical filters, a micro-ammeter, a

voltmeter, and connecting wires.

Principle: When the light of a particular frequency falls on a photo-cathode, photoelectrons

are ejected. The kinetic energy (Kmax) of the most energetic photoelectron depends on the
frequency (f) of the incident light. These electrons can be retarded by the application of a
retarding potential and the electrons can be stopped completely by increasing the retarding
potential to a value called the stopping potential (V0). Then no current (Ip) flows in the external
circuit. In the experiment, the stopping potentials are measured for the light of different
frequencies. Light source and optical filters are used to get the light of a particular frequency.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is Kmax = hf – hf0, where h is the Planck’s constant and f0, is
the threshold frequency. In the experiment Kmax = eV0, where e is the electronic charge. Hence
the equation takes the form eV0 = hf – hf0.

A plot of V0 verses f gives a straight-line graph with a slope equal to h/e and f- intercept f0.
The work function of the photo-cathode is given by ϕ= hf0 .

Procedure: The circuit is built up as shown in the circuit diagram. An optical filter is placed
in the patch of the light from a light source. The wavelength of the light is noted down from
the filter and the frequency is calculated.

The photocathode is illuminated using this light. A retarding potential is applied, and its value
is increased so as to make the photo-electric current zero. This stopping potential is noted down.

Similarly, the stopping potential is found for lights of different frequencies using other filters.
A straight-line graph of stopping potential versus frequency of the light is drawn. The slope is
found, and the Planck’s constant is calculated. Also, the threshold frequency is found and the
work function of the photo cathode is calculated.
Figure: Circuit Diagram of Photoelectric Effect and graph of stopping potential versus
frequency.

Observation and calculation:

To find the stopping potential for lights of different frequencies:

Frequency

𝟖
Optical Filter 𝟑𝐱𝟏𝟎 𝐦/𝐬 Stopping
f= 𝝀
Potential
V0
Wavelength (λ) (Hz)
(Volt)
Colour (m)
 A graph of Stopping Potential versus frequency of radiation

Planck’s constant, h = (slope) * (e)

h=( ) (1.602 x 10-19 C)

h = .................................... Js

Threshold frequency, f0 = ........................................... Hz

h (Js) * f0 (Hz)
Work function, ϕ = hf0 =
(1.6 ×10−19 𝐽/𝑒𝑉 )

ϕ Observed = ______ eV

|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

Percentage Error: × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Results: The work function of the metal used (estimated from the calculation) is ϕ Observed = _____ eV
The work function of the metal used (estimated from the graph) is ϕ Graph = ______eV
The Observed value of Planck’s constant is h = ________ Js with a % error of ______.

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do's and don'ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they performed. For
example: Phototube particularly should not be exposed to direct light.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the experiential learnings
gained during the experiment.)

.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Single Slit Diffraction

Aim: To determine the width of narrow slit using the laser light source.
APPARATUS: A laser source, single slit, optical bench, screen.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛
Wavelengh of laser beam =
𝑁
where, n = order of maxima
sin (θn) = angle of diffraction
N = Number of lines per cm on grating

LASER: The name Laser is an acronym of “Light Amplification by Stimulated. Emission of

Radiation.” A laser is a device that produces an intense, concentrated and highly parallel beam of
coherent light. The transition of energy (atom) in a system can occur in two ways. In one way, the atom
can absorb energy and go to higher energy level (or become excited). In another way, it can also come
back to the lower energy level by liberating energy (emission or deexcitation). Thus, the transfer of
energy can take place by either absorption or emission. Emission or excitation of atom can occur by
spontaneous or stimulated emission. The rate of transition of atoms by absorption of radiation is equal
to the rate of transition by emission of radiation. In the presence of incident radiations (photons) the
equilibrium is disturbed, and the ratio of emission and absorption rates is given by following equation:

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅21 [𝐴21 + 𝐵21 𝑢(𝑣)]𝑁2

= =
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅12 𝐵12 𝑢(𝑣)𝑁1

Since, B12 = B21

𝑅21 1+𝐴21 𝑁2
Therefore, =[ ]×
𝑅12 𝐵12 𝑢(𝑣) 𝑁1
For laser action, two conditions should be satisfied;
(i) The probability of spontaneous emission which produces incoherent radiations should be
much smaller than the probability of stimulated radiation i.e. A21 B21u(v) or stimulated
emission.
Thus, with this condition equation becomes
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑁2
=
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑁1
(ii) The emission rate should be larger than the absorption rate.

Typical Laser system

A typical He-Ne laser system is shown in figure below. The He-Ne laser uses a mixture of Helium and
Neon in the ratio of 10:1, kept in a narrow Pyrex glass tube with an internal diameter of 2mm and
length of about 40 cm.

M1 M2

The reflectors M1 and M2 are two dielectric coated spherical mirrors having a high reflectivity. One
mirror acts a perfect reflector and the other is partly transparent for the emergence of laser light. Thus,
a cavity resonator system is formed. The spacing between the mirrors is equal to an integral number of
half wavelength of laser light. Pumping is achieved by an electrical discharge produced in the gas by
means of electrodes placed outside the tube connected to a source of high frequency alternating current.
Diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen usually, on–graph paper
𝑦𝑛
sin Ɵ𝑛 =
(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑛2 )1/2
2

𝑦𝑛 1
So, 𝜆 = . 𝑐𝑚
(𝑥 +𝑦𝑛2 )1/2
2 𝑁𝑛

Again, sin Ɵ𝑛 = (𝑁𝜆). 𝑛

i.e., graph between Sinθn and n should be a straight-line having slope = Nλ
Thus, a graph will be plotted between
𝛥(𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ𝑛 )
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ =
𝛥𝑛

PROCEDURE
1. Place different graphs in front of laser so as to get the diffraction pattern on the graph paper.
2. Central maxima (the brightest one) are due to undeviated rays. Measure distances of first order
diffraction spot from central spot. Also measure the distance from slit to screen.
Hence, width of slit a sin θn = (m+1/2) λ
3. Repeat step 2th for second and third order diffraction spot to find sinθ2 sinθ3 hence plot the graph
between sin θn vs n and calculate λ as per as equation.
 Observation table for determination of slit width:
S. Order of Position of Distance of Diffraction
No. Diffraction Screen Spot from Central 𝑦𝑛
sin Ɵ𝑛 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑛2 )1/2
n x (cm) Spot y (cm)

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

Distance of screen from Single slit (D) = __________ cm.

CALCULATION

a sin θn = (m+1/2) λ

The wavelength of Laser = 6328 Å

Width of single slit =______________________mm
Standard value of width of single slit = 0.25 mm

|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

Percentage Error: × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result: Width of single slit =______________________mm with a % error of ______.

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do’s and don’ts (3-4 points) for the
experiment they performed. For example: Avoid direct exposure of the laser beam to the
eyes.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the
experiential learnings gained during the experiment.)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

HALL EFFECT

Aim: To determine the Hall coefficient of a given semiconductor and hence its charge carrier density.
Apparatus: Electromagnet, Hall probe, variable DC power supply, milliammeter, millivoltmeter.
Principle: Consider a semiconductor (assumed to be n-type) in the form of a rectangular strip of width w,
thickness t and electron density n (See fig. 1). Let a current  flow along its length in X direction and a
transverse magnetic field B be applied across its thickness t along the Y direction. The moving electrons
experience a force FM due to the magnetic field. Due to FM, the electrons tend to move in the Z direction
leaving behind the + ve charges.
FM = -e VD B
where, VD is the drift speed of the electrons and e is the charge on the electron.
This separation of charges results in an electric field EH across the width of the specimen (in Z direction).
EH exerts a force on the electrons given by
FE = - e EH
 Fig. 1 Hall Effect in n-type semiconductor

Fig. 2 Experimental arrangement of Hall effect and a graph between Hall voltage and external magnetic field.
Procedure:
➢ Initially the millivoltmeter is adjusted to read zero Hall voltage when the Hall probe is not in
the magnetic field.
➢ The distance between the pole pieces of the electromagnet is adjusted to a prescribed value of 10
mm (see fig. 2).
➢ A current I ( < 80 mA ) is passed through the hall probe.
➢ The probe is introduced midway between the pole pieces and oriented to have the Hall
voltage maximum.
➢ The current through the electromagnet is varied (in the given range 100-500 mA) and
corresponding values of the Hall voltage VH are noted.
➢ The values of the magnetic induction B corresponding to these magnet currents are read from the
chart provided.
➢ A graph of VH versus B is drawn.
➢ The slope of the straight line obtained is found. RH and n are calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

Material of the Hall specimen = Indium-Arsenide

Thickness of the Specimen = 0.14 x 10-3 m
Current in the probe (I) = 50 mA

Magnetic current Magnetic Induction, B Hall Voltage, VH

(mA) (Gauss) (mV)

27
Precautions: (The student should write a list of do’s and don’ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they performed. For
example: probe current should be fixed.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the experiential learnings
gained during the experiment.)

28
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Diffraction Grating

Aim: To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury by plane diffraction grating in
first and second order spectrum by minimum deviation method.

APPARATUS:
Spectrometer, Mercury lamp, Plane Diffraction Grating, readings lens, sprit level etc.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

An arrangement of large number of equidistant parallel slits constitutes a grating. It is prepared by drawing
fine lines extremely close together on the surface of an optically flat glass plate using a diamond point. The
lines act like opacities and region between two lines act like transparencies.
The grating spectrum formed in the direction 𝜃 is given by
(e + b) sin 𝜃 = n
(e + b) sin
 =
n
Where (e + b) = grating element (cm)
 = Angle of diffraction
n = Order of the spectrum

PROCEDURE:
Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made.

1. Setting the Grating for Normal Incidence

(a) The spectrometer is well adjusted for parallel beam using the usual procedure of seeing a far object.
(b) The position of the telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is focused on the vertical
crosswire of the telescope. In this position, the collimator and the telescope are in the same line. The reading
is noted on the circular scale.
(c) The telescope is now turned through 90° and clamped.
(d) Prism table is now rotated through an angle of 45° or 135° as the case may be, so that it becomes normal
to the incident light. The slit of the collimator is also adjusted, so that sharp spectral lines parallel to the
rulings of the grating are formed. The prism table is clamped in this position.

2. Determination of Diffracting Element ( 𝑒 + 𝑏 )

On every grating, number of rulings (lines) per inch are marked by the manufacturer.

1 inch 2.54
Thus grating element will be (𝑒 + 𝑏) = N
= N
cm

Where N = number of lines on the grating, 2.54 cm = 1 inch.

3. Determination of diffracting Angle ( 𝜃 )
(a) When the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, the beam gets dispersed by gating
and in each order, a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is observer.
(b) The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum. The cross wire is adjusted on the line for
which wavelength is to be determined (say red). The position of the telescope is fixed and the readings of
the vernier are recorded.
(c) The telescope is then turned on the side and the crosswire is adjusted on the same colored line of the first
order spectrum. The reading of the two verniers are again recorded.
(d) The differences of the readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of diffraction for that lines in
the first order. The average of two vernier is taken.
(e) Procedure (b) to (d) is repeated for other lines and for other orders. The arrangement is shown in figure
9.1. Thus knowing grating element (𝑒 + 𝑏), diffraction angle 𝜃𝑛 and order of spectrum 𝑛, one can compute
the wavelength of desired spectral line.

Figure 9.1: Determination of Wavelength of light by Plane Transmission Grating.

Engineering Physics Lab Manual

OBSERVATION:
(i) Grating element:
Number of lines on grating = 15,000 per inch

2.54
Grating element (𝑒 + 𝑏) = 15000= 1.69 X 10−4 𝑐𝑚
⬚

(ii) Angle of diffraction 𝜃:

Least count of main scale 𝑥 = …………….
Number of divisions on the vernier scale 𝑚 = ……………….
Least count of vernier scale = ……….

Table 1:
Color Spectrum to the left of the Spectrum of the right of
Order of 2𝜃
ofthe Vernier direct image the direct image =𝜃1−𝜃2 Mean
the
spectral 𝜃
spectrum TR TR
line MSR VSR MSR VSR
(𝜃1) (𝜃2)

First Violet V1
Order V2
(n = 1)
Green V1
V2

Yellow V1
V2

CALCULATIONS:

1. For first order 𝑛 = 1

(a) Wavelength of violet color:

(e + b) sinv
v = = ........ Å
1

(b) Wavelength of Yellow color:

(e + b) siny
y = =......... Å
1
 (c) Wavelength of green color:

(𝑒+𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔
𝜆𝑔= = ………..
1 Å

|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

Percentage Error: × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

RESULTS:
For mercury light the mean wavelength of different colors are:

S. No. Observed Standard Percentage Error

1. v = ........Å
v = 4078 Å
2. g = .........Å
g = 4960 Å
3. y =.........Å
y = 5893 Å

Precautions: (The student should write a list of do's and don'ts (3-4 points) for the experiment they performed. For
example: The optical bench must be properly labeled.)

Conclusions: (The student should write a point-wise discussion (2-3 points) highlighting the experiential learnings
gained during the experiment.)