Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

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Kuwait Journal of Science

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Full Length Article

Environmental geomorphology of Wadi Al-Batin, Kuwait: Unveiling natural

and anthropogenic influences
Adeeba Al-Hurban a,* , Ahmed Hassan b
a
Earth and Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait
b
Faculty of Education, Matrouh University, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Wadi Al-Batin is an ancient valley that acts as the natural boundary between Iraq and Kuwait and is part of the
Desert geomorphology larger Wadi Al-Rummah Basin in Saudi Arabia. Since the 1980s, human activities like military zones, oil fields,
Surface deposits and camps have caused significant environmental changes in the area’s geological, geomorphological, and hy­
Land degradation
drological conditions. This study investigates changes in the geomorphology, sedimentology, and topography of
Man-made landforms
Wadi Al-Batin, land degradation and environmental changes caused by artificial landforms and natural factors
Anthropogenic
Geographic information system and provides an update to the sedimentological map of Wadi Al-Batin. The study utilized field observations,
Remote sensing geographical information systems (GIS), and remote sensing (RS) techniques to develop a geodatabase across
various disciplines. A detailed map of the environmental geomorphological changes in Wadi Al-Batin was created
using satellite imagery from 2000 to 2023 to provide up-to-date and precise information. The study also
considered changes in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and normalized difference water index
(NDWI) as indicators of environmental change. The results indicate that the surface deposits exhibited polymodal
and trimodal modes (40% and 36%, respectively), were sandy and medium-coarse-grained, and showed vari­
ability in sorting, skewness, and kurtosis. They originated from the Upper Member of the Dibdibah Formation,
were frequently fluvially reworked, and predominantly consisted of quartz with lower amounts of calcite. This
study contributes to the preservation of environmental systems and assists decision-makers in protecting the
rights of future generations to a sustainable environment.

1. Introduction However, the Dibdibbah Delta was developed by the accumulation of

post-Eocene fluvial sediments within the Dibdibbah Basin and covers the
Kuwait is located on the Arabian Plate, which was once part of the northern and western parts of Kuwait (Khalaf et al., 2019; Al-Helal et al.,
Proterozoic Gondwana Supercontinent, and shares the geological his­ 2023). In its upper reaches, located in the extreme southwestern part of
tory and tectono-stratigraphy of the Arabian Peninsula (Milton, 1967; Kuwait, the valley is directed N35◦ E and is deeply scoured by erosion as
Al-Naqi et al., 2023). Although the surface geology appears limited and a group of deep ravines with steep walls that are 4–6 m high (Al-Sarawi,
is mainly covered by Quaternary deposits with only a few Oligo-Miocene 1980). Along the flanks of the valley, Pleistocene gravel deposits as an
to Pleistocene outcrops (Al-Naqi et al., 2023; Al-Sarawi, 1995). Wadi outwash fan occupy 60,000 km2 (Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995). Its apex is
Al-Batin is a large valley extending 180 km northeast, delineating the directed southwestward in Saudi Arabia at 28◦ N and 45◦ 30′E. It spreads
northwestern geomorphological borders between Kuwait and Iraq, and northwest to reach the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, covering the south­
merging with the Dibdibbah fan-shaped deposits (Fig. 1) (Al-Sarawi, western part of the northern desert of Kuwait and the northeastern
1980; Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995). It can be traced another 850 km corner of Saudi Arabia (Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995).
westward in Saudi Arabia, named Wadi Al-Rummah (Al-Sarawi et al., Anthropogenic activities significantly affect natural arid ecosystems
1996), with a 7–10 km width and an average elevation of approximately (Al-Ali et al., 2021). Desertification and soil compaction dramatically
187 m above sea level (Al-Sarawi, 1980; Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995). affect these ecosystems, leading to severe losses of ecosystem services
The Wadi Al-Batin-Wadi Al-Rummah system formed along a (Verón et al., 2018). As a result of these activities, natural ecosystems
northeast-southwest lower Miocene fault system (Powers et al., 1966). are becoming more degradable (Xu, 2018; Halmy, 2019). In desert

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adeeba.alhurban@ku.edu.kw (A. Al-Hurban), ameh812000@gmail.com, ahmed.hassan.edu@mau.edu.eg (A. Hassan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2024.100314
Received 28 January 2024; Received in revised form 9 September 2024; Accepted 10 September 2024
Available online 11 September 2024
2307-4108/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Kuwait University. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

ecosystems, the growth of native desert vegetation is significantly National Strategic Plan, 2005). It is crucial to monitor environmental
affected by anthropogenic activities and climate conditions (Al-Ali et al., changes in the Wadi Al-Batin region, which is almost a quarter the size of
2021). The harsh environment in arid regions causes anthropogenic Kuwait. This region is naturally diverse and requires sustainable
activities (quarrying, overgrazing, distinctive camps, and off-road development to ensure a sustainable homeland for future generations
vehicle movements) that significantly affects the vegetation (Zhu (Hassan, 2023). The primary aim of this study was to investigate the
et al., 2018). geological and historical development of the valley’s environment and
Advanced remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system drainage system, in addition to evaluating the geomorphological land­
(GIS) technologies can play a significant role in providing a synoptic forms and land degradation, as well as the environmental impacts of
view of vast territories and extracting accurate information rapidly and human-made structures, such as trenches and bund walls, over the past
continuously with acceptable cost-effectiveness analysis (Al-Ali et al., 25 years.
2021). According to previous studies, RS can generate a significant
amount of information needed to evaluate environmental changes 2. Study area
through many indicators, such as normalized difference vegetation
index (NDVI) and the normalized difference water index (NDWI) (Al-Ali The Wadi Al-Batin alluvial fan is considered the largest of many non-
et al., 2021; Hassan, 2023). Evaluating environmental degradation active alluvial fans in the Arabian Peninsula. Studies suggest that the Al-
caused by natural or human factors requires observation of changes in Batin Fan, like other deposits in the Arabian Peninsula, formed after a
the environment (Khalaf et al., 2013). These technologies are used for paleo-river to the west breached a scarp barrier and flowed southward
hydrological, morphotectonic, and environmental analyses (Albhadili down the entire peninsula (Fig. 1) (Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995;
et al., 2023). They are also used to assess land use changes caused by AlShuaibi and Khalaf, 2011). Al-Sarawi (1980) demonstrated that the
human activities, such as agricultural expansion and community intense folding of the Zagros Orogeny, trending northwest to southeast,
growth, and to monitor vegetation coverage (Mohamed and Alshehri, controlled the topography of Kuwait. The Compagnie Genéral de
2023; Al-Ali et al., 2021). Géophysique (Compagnie Générale de Géophysique, 1968) mapped the
The Wadi Al-Batin region and its floodplain in Kuwait are notable for faults of the parallel trend to the Zagros Orogeny and those of the
having a nature reserve and are the proposed locations for two cities, Al- northwest and southeast directions throughout Kuwait without surface
Naayim and Al-Salmi, as part of the Kuwait 2030 Plan (Hassan et al., evidence. In the same context, Al-Sarawi provided subsurface evidence
2021; Natural National Strategic Plan, 2005). These two cities are ex­ showing that the Wadi Al-Batin Valley is a structurally controlled
pected to have a combined population of approximately 100,000. In geomorphological landform (Al-Sarawi, 1980). This landform was
addition, five historical sites were located within the study area (Natural formed by the action of a fault and fracture system that occurred in the

Fig. 1. The location of the study area.

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Eocene, Miocene, and possibly Pliocene, with no Quaternary fractures oil and gas reserves (Al-Sulaimi and Mukhopadhyay, 2000).
(Fig. 2) (Al-Sarawi, 1980; Al-Naqi et al., 2023).
About one-third of the wadi is covered by Quaternary and Tertiary 2.2. Geomorphology
gravels of igneous and metamorphic rock class transported by large
streams from the Saudi Arabian and Syrian deserts during Pleistocene Khalaf et al., 1984 identified six geomorphological landforms asso­
pluvial episodes (Al-Sarawi, 1978, 1980; Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995). In ciated with the valley, including a calcrete plain with silcrete deposits,
contrast, six geomorphological landforms are associated with the valley, rock debris consisting of gravel sheets and residual gravel, a smooth,
active sand sheets, desert floor deposits of calcified debris, barchan sand flat, and low-lying sand plain, scattered dune fields along the channel
dunes, gravel lag, deflated rugged sand sheets, and fall dunes (Fig. 3a). tributaries, paleolakes covered with gypcrete, calcrete, and some sil­
crete, cuestas, and isolated hills covered with gravel lag. According to
the sedimentological map in (Al-Hurban, 2014) (Fig. 5), a significant
2.1. Geology portion of the terrain is covered by sand sheets. Additionally, the wadi’s
fill deposits extend from northeast to southwest. The valley shows evi­
Most formations in Kuwait are from the Neogene and Quaternary dence of drainage, with most of the playa covered by vegetated sand
periods, consisting mainly of clastic deposits with limestone and gypsum sheets (Al-Hurban, 2014). Table 2 shows the main geomorphological
(Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995; Al-Sulaimi and Mukhopadhyay, 2000). landforms of the Wadi Al-Batin region.
Geological mapping and studies of Wadi Al-Batin are essential for un­ Wadi Al-Batin’s geomorphology is characterized by several distinct
derstanding the geological history of the region, identifying potential landforms, including the wadi itself, a dry riverbed that fills during rare
mineral resources, assessing seismic hazards, and planning sustainable heavy rainfall and is shaped by erosion over millennia. The area features
development and infrastructure projects. alluvial fans and cone-shaped deposits formed at the base of hills where
The Wadi is primarily characterized by a deep Wadi, carved out over water flow decreases, representing much of Kuwait’s territory. Badlands
millennia by intermittent water flow (Al-Refai et al., 2023; Sissakian and heavily eroded terrains with intricate gullies and ridges are also
et al., 2014). Tectonic forces and movements within the Earth’s crust prevalent due to the arid climate and intense rains. Aeolian processes
influence the geology of this region. Moreover, the wadi area may have created wind-formed features like sand sheets and dunes
display various structural landforms such as faults, folds, and fractures (Al-Hurban and Gharib, 2004). The wadi includes terraces and benches
(Fig. 4a) (Al-Gurairy et al., 2017). As previously mentioned, this in­ from sediment deposition, and its formation is influenced by a Miocene
dicates past tectonic movements and ongoing geological processes that fault system, resulting in canyons and steep-walled sections. Human
shaped the region. On the other hand, the geology of Wadi Al-Batin activities have added various man-made landforms, such as dirt mounds
predominantly consists of sedimentary rocks. These rocks include and military structures. Understanding Wadi Al-Batin geology and
sandstones, siltstones, shales, and conglomerates (Al-Refai et al., 2023). geomorphology is important for land use/land cover planning, hazard
These formations often contain evidence of ancient marine environ­ assessment, and environmental planning. For example, knowledge of
ments and river systems. However, Wadi Al-Batin is subject to inter­ the area’s geology is essential for identifying suitable locations for
mittent flash floods during rare heavy rains (Sieker, 2015) (Fig. 4). infrastructure development. Additionally, understanding the geo­
These events contribute to sediment deposition in the wadi, influence morphology of Wadi Al-Batin can help in assessing potential hazards
ongoing geological processes, and reshape the valley over time. Table 1 such as flooding, landslides, and erosion, enabling effective risk miti­
shows the geological formations of the wadi. On the other hand, the gation strategies to be put in place. Furthermore, a comprehensive un­
geology of Wadi Al-Batin contains various mineral resources, including derstanding of the region’s geology and geomorphology is important for
environmental conservation efforts, such as preserving landforms, pro­
tecting wildlife habitats, and managing natural resources
(Alcántara-Ayala, 2002).

2.3. Topography

The study area’s topographic characteristics (Table 3, Fig. 6) spans

four sectors from west to east, including the V-shaped main valley
course. Additionally, the border strip between Kuwait and Iraq exhibits a
unique topographical feature known as "inverted topography” (Fig. 7).
This landform occurs when materials resist erosion, causing depressions
or landforms to become exposed over time due to erosion or tectonic
activity. The distinctive landform inverted topography has been detailed
by Zaki et al. (2018).

3. Materials and methods

The Wadi Al-Batin area has undergone significant environmental and

morphological changes due to human activities impacting hydrological
conditions (Al-Hurban et al., 2023). Studying these changes to under­
stand their impact and preserve biodiversity is crucial (Goudie and Viles,
2016). The study uses several methodologies (Fig. 8), including field­
work, mechanical and mineralogical analysis of sediments, geographic
information systems, and remote sensing to create a geodatabase for the
study area and show this in maps and graphical forms.

Fig. 2. Structure map of the top of Dammam Limestone showing major faults 3.1. Fieldwork
F1 and secondary faults F2 and F3. These faults are about parallel and trend
east-northeast (Al-Sarawi, 1980). Detailed field sampling and investigations were conducted in the

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 3. A) Geomorphology and b) geology of Wadi Al-Batin area ((EPA, 2023), (Environment Public Authority, 2019)).

Fig. 4. Ground and drone photos of some landforms in the Wadi Al-Batin alluvial fan in Kuwait. a) The fault direction in main Wadi, b) Sabkha/Khabra in the Abraq
area, c) Desert pavement in Abraq Area, d) Man-made ridges by oil pipeline, e) An artificial alluvial fan developed in front of a bund wall in the Shaqayah area, f) The
border trench and the 42-inch pipeline supplied the oil trenches with crude oil, g) Mudflats (out washed silt & clay) at one of the tributaries of the Wadi Al-Batin
Shaqayah area, and h) An active tongue of sand crossing the border between Iraq and Kuwait.

sedimentological landforms, including ridges and depressions. Twenty-

Table 1
five surface sediment samples from diverse depositional environments
Geological formation in the study area.
are shown in Fig. 9. At each site, the surface sediment samples were 3 cm
Geological formation Area km2 % thick and covered an area of 50 cm2 to acquire the most recent sedi­
Aeolian Sand 444.7 14% mentation unit.
Desert Floor Deposits 536.06 17%
Lower Dibdibah Formation 1663.25 53%
Upper Dibdibah Formation 473.76 15%
3.2. Mechanical analysis
Sum 3117.77 100%

To examine the distribution of sediment grain sizes, their potential

study area. The field survey described geomorphological and geomorphological significance was examined using standard sieving
mechanical analysis (Folk, 1974). The results are presented graphically

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 5. Sedimentological map of Kuwait showing the major classes and subclasses of the recent surface deposits (Al-Hurban, 2014).

parameters and geomorphological, sedimentological, and morphos­

Table 2
tructural factors was explored by analyzing these graphical represen­
Geomorphological landforms of Wadi Al-Batin.
tations and statistical measurements.
Geomorphological Type Area km2 %

Active Sand Sheets 237.56 8%

Desert Floor Deposits Calcretic Debris 1079.75 35% 3.3. Mineralogical analysis
Barchan Sand Dunes 77.59 2%
Gravel Lag 347.29 11%
Deflated Rugges Sand Sheets 1348.99 43% 3.3.1. XRD analysis
Fall Dunes 26.52 1% To identify minerals in the fine-grained sediments and sedimentary
Sum 3117.7 100% rocks, 25 samples were analyzed using a Siemens D.500 X-Ray Diffrac­
tometer. Sample homogeneity was ensured using the quartering tech­
nique to obtain a representative portion of the sample. The samples were
Table 3 crushed into a fine powder in an agate mortar to a size of 0.036 mm.
The topographic analysis of the slope profiles in the study area. Uniform particle sizes were obtained by alternating crushing and
Profile Distance Min. Avg. Max. Max. Avg. sieving. Smears were prepared for each sample by using acetone and
No. (Km) Elevation Elevation Elevation Slope Slope clean glass slides. The smears were scanned on the X-ray instrument
(m) (m) (m) (%) (%) from 4◦ 20′ to 64◦ 20’ to identify all major and secondary peaks.
1 87.9 95 178 237 4.7 0.7
2 85.2 130 197 249 2.5 0.5 3.3.2. XRF analysis
3 87.9 95 178 237 4.7 0.7 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry aims to determine the elements
4 85.2 130 197 249 2.5 0.5
qualitatively and quantitatively in a sample by measuring their char­
Avg 86.5 112.5 187.5 243 3.6 0.6
acteristic radiation. As the sample is exposed to a beam of X-ray quanta
from a tube, a proportion of these X-rays also reach the detector in the
through histograms, allowing for a direct comparison of the distribution form of a radiation background due to physical scattering processes.
of various size classes across different samples. Cumulative frequency While the scattered bremsstrahlung generally produces a continuous
curves were also used to calculate statistical size parameters (such as background, the scattered characteristic radiation of the anode material
mean size, sorting, skewness, and kurtosis) using the formulae in Folk & contributes to the line spectrum. In addition to the lines of elements from
Ward (Folk and Ward, 1954). The relationship between the size the sample, the lines of the anode material and the scattered braking
spectrum usually appear, as well as a background. Hence, 18 of the 25

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 6. Topographic profiles of the study area (Google Earth Pro, 2023).

collected samples were processed and analyzed by X-ray fluorescence images, such as Landsat 7 & 8, WorldView2-50 cm, QuickBird-60 cm,
(XRF) for the quantitative and qualitative determination of their mineral and Google Earth Pro images. In addition, The Kuwait Municipality
composition. maps and system (https://epa.gov.kw/eMISK) were essential sources of
information for this study. Furthermore, this study uses drone photo­
3.3.3. Grain counting analysis grammetry to model the terrain and for easier access to hard-to-reach
To determine the origin of the sediments, a thorough analysis was locations within the demilitarized zone between Iraq and Kuwait.
performed on the different size fractions of specific samples. The main Fig. 8 shows the three steps of this investigation.
mineral components of the coarse and very fine sand fractions were To create NDVI and NDWI using Google Earth Engine (GEE) with
examined under a microscope. Using a binocular microscope, the sand Landsat 7 and 8 imageries, import the respective Surface Reflectance
fractions of all collected samples were analyzed to determine the per­ image collections and determine your area of interest (AOI) along with
centages of quartz, carbonate grains, feldspar, and other fragments the desired date range. Filter the image collections based on these pa­
present. rameters. Create functions to calculate NDVI and NDWI using the suit­
able spectral bands: Band 4 (NIR) and Band 3 (Red) for NDVI and Band 4
(NIR) and Band 5 (SWIR) for NDWI in Landsat 7, and similarly adjusted
3.4. Remote sensing and GIS analysis bands for Landsat 8. Generate median composite images for NDVI and
NDWI to minimize noise and ensure accuracy. Define visualization pa­
The study used ArcGIS 10.8 desktop to perform spatial analysis, and rameters and add these composite images to the map for easy viewing.
the remote sensing software Google Earth Engine was utilized to Optionally, you can export the results to ArcGIS for further analysis.
perform this study (Cardille et al., 2024). Depending on the satellite

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 7. Inverted topography (a) Satellite imagery for the southern part of Wadi Al-Batin (QuickBird, 2003), b) Drone image for the inverted topography showing
inverted steam channel. Image sources: (a) Misak (2017) and b) Fieldwork.

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 8. Flowchart of the methodology of environmental geomorphology of Wadi Al-Batin.

A geomorphic map of the study area was produced using integrated clustered in the medium-coarse sand size field and the very poorly to
remotely sensed data and the extracted GIS-ready layers. The resulting poorly sorted zone. The remaining two samples were in the very poorly
geomorphological map was then analyzed and compared with previ­ sorted zone. One was in the very coarse sand size zone, and the other in
ously prepared sediment geomorphic maps to produce the final sedi­ the granular size zone (Fig. 11a). Plotting skewness versus mean size
ment morphic map of the study area (Kleo, 1990; Al-Hurban, 2014). shows that the clustering of most of the samples in the field of medium-
However, field studies are crucial for correcting errors in maps and coarse sand size in the negative coarse-strongly coarse skewness. Other
satellite images (Zhang et al., 2019). Site investigations, sample samples were in the medium size near symmetrical skewness and one
collection, photography of geomorphological landforms, and laboratory sample was in the medium sand size-fine skewed domain.
analyses were necessary to present the composition and characteristics The other sample was in the granule-near symmetrical zone
of surface sediments. (Fig. 11b). Kurtosis-mean size bivariate plotting showed that most of the
samples were clustered in the medium-coarse sand size and mesokurtic-
4. Results and discussion leptokurtic zone; one sample was in the medium sand-very leptokurtic
zone, one sample was in the very coarse-platykurtic zone, and the other
4.1. Surface deposits sample was in the granular-platykurtic domain (Fig. 11c). Based on the
sorting and skewness data, most of the samples appeared to fall into a
Mechanical analysis showed that the predominant modes were pol­ very poorly sorted domain and a coarsely skewed-strongly coarse-
ymodal (40%) and trimodal (36%), while bimodal (12%) and unimodal skewed zone. A few samples were in the poorly sorted and near-
(12%) were less frequent. This indicates a deviation of the grain size symmetrical skewness categories. One sample had a moderately sorted
distribution from the normal, as the same sample consists of multi-sized fine skew (Fig. 11d). In the bivariate plot of sorting and kurtosis, most of
grains. Table 4 displays the statistical textural grain size parameters of the sample clusters were in the very poorly sorted field and mesokurtic-
the samples collected from the study area. Fig. 10 shows graphical leptokurtic zone, with one sample in the medium sand size-very lep­
representations of these textural statistical grain-size parameters. Ac­ tokurtic zone and the other in the medium sand-platykurtic zone
cording to the formulas in Folk & Ward (Folk and Ward, 1954), the (Fig. 11e). When plotting kurtosis and skewness, most of the samples fell
samples are almost entirely within the sand size class (− 1.0–4.0 Φ). in the mesokurtic-leptokurtic and coarsely skewed-strongly skewed
predominantly in the medium sand size fraction (1.02–1.84 Φ, 64%) fields, with a few samples in the mesokurtic-leptokurtic field that were
followed by the lower coarse sand fraction (28%), and the least being the nearly symmetrical. One sample fell under the platykurtic-near sym­
very coarse sand and granular size fractions (4%) of each (Fig. 10a). The metrical category, another under very leptokurtic-strongly coarse
sorting ranges from very poor (2.08–3.04 Φ, 52%) to poor (1.31–1.96 Φ, skewed, and another under leptokurtic-fine skewed (Fig. 11f). Table 5
44%), with a minor occurrence of moderate sorting (4%) (Refer to shows the grain counts of the components in percentages per gram of the
Fig. 10b). The skewness varies from negatively coarsely skewed (− 0.30– samples collected from the study area. The components include quartz,
(-0.12) Φ, 48%), strongly negatively coarsely skewed (− 0.60–(-0.35) Φ, calcite, feldspar, rock fragments, and black minerals. This reveals the
28%), nearly symmetrical (− 0.08–0.02 Φ, 20%), and least finely skewed remarkable dominance of the quartz component over the other com­
(4%) (Fig. 10c). The prevailing kurtosis class is mesokurtic (0.91–1.09 ponents of much lesser amounts, ranging from 26.11 to 99.52% per
Φ, 52%) with a lower percentage of leptokurtic class (1.12–1.45 Φ, 40%) gram with an average value of 80.04% per gram.
and minimal transitional platykurtic and very leptokurtic classes (4%) Fig. 12 shows the results of the mineral analyses (XRD, XRF oxides,
each (Refer to Fig. 10d). and XRF elements). According to the XRD results (Fig. 12a), the pre­
Fig. 11 shows the bivariate plots of the textural grain size parameters vailing mineral was quartz, with an overall average of almost 62%,
of the samples collected from the Wadi Al-Batin area. The plot compared to the next existing mineral, which coated some of the quartz
comparing sorting and mean grain size indicates that most samples grains and had a much lower average percentage of nearly 6%. The XRF

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 9. Sampling map showing the sites of the surficial samples collected from the Wadi Al-Batin area.

results (Fig. 12b) also show the remarkable prevalence of SiO2 over suggest that these sediments are fluvial transported sediments, either as
other oxides, and Si followed much lower amounts of Ca and Fe outwash, flooding planes, or alluvial fan action, and are frequently
(Fig. 12c). According to Sissakian et al. (2014), the exposed formation in reworked and winnowed by variable velocity runoff streams feeding the
this study is the Upper Dibdibbah Formation, which consists of poorly valley seasonally with different types of sediments. In addition, the
sorted sand and sandstone with gravel. According to Al-Sulaimi & Pitty prevailing northwestern wind direction feeding the area with airborne
(Al-Sulaimi and Pitty, 1995), the primary component of sand and sediments, mainly of sand size deposited later in the area, forms
sandstone is quartz. All mineral analyses revealed the dominance of different desert geomorphological features in the study area. Fig. 13
quartz minerals in the samples collected from the study area. According shows the recent surface deposition map of the Wadi Al-Batin area
to Albhadili et al. (2023), the Wadi Al-Batin alluvial fan crosses the Wadi prepared in this study.
Al-Batin central valley in the west-northwest direction (where the study
area is located) and the northern area adjacent to the national borders 4.2. Remote sensing indices for environmental changes (Google Earth
between Iraq and Kuwait. The significant deposits in this alluvial fan in Engine)
the Kuwaiti portion are alluvium, aeolian sand, and the Upper Member
of the Dibdibbah Formation. Although climate change has emerged as a major issue, it is now
The mechanical analysis and the results obtained showed that the accepted that anthropogenic activities have modified the global envi­
sediments were mainly very poorly to poorly sorted, medium to coarse ronment (Schneider, 2022). In the same context, land degradation and
sand size fractions, and coarsely to very poorly coarsely skewed. This environmental changes are significant challenges worldwide, limiting
suggests that the deposits are sandy, coarse-grained, and originate from socioeconomic development and risking biodiversity associated with
The Upper Member of the Dibdibbah Formation. The predominant changes in land use and climate variability (Silva et al., 2022; Tenneson
polymodality-trimodality indicates that the sediments deviate from the et al., 2024). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows that
average grain size distribution and consist of grains of different sizes. the world’s soils are undergoing environmental degradation on a large
The very poorly sorted, poorly sorted medium-coarse sand grains scale, especially in arid regions, reducing environmental services and

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Table 4 impacting agriculture, livestock, and food security (Silva et al., 2022).
Grain size parameters for the collected samples from the study area. Studying the environmental changes in Kuwait, a region with a pre­
Sample No. Mean size (ɸ) Sorting (ɸ) Skewness (ɸ) Kurtosis (ɸ) dominantly arid climate and unique environmental challenges requires
specific indicators relevant to its landscape and environmental condi­
1 0.16 2.23 − 0.16 1.12
2 1.15 0.93 0.33 1.17 tions. In this section, we discuss indicators using the Google Earth En­
3 0.50 3.04 − 0.41 1.02 gine to monitor environmental changes over the last two decades,
4 − 1.29 2.14 − 0.07 0.80 including the NDVI and the NDWI.
5 1.84 2.54 − 0.60 1.84
6 1.19 1.83 − 0.24 1.04
7 1.03 2.08 − 0.14 0.93
4.2.1. Normalized difference vegetation index
8 1.42 1.53 0.02 0.91 Red and near-infrared bands provide considerable information about
9 0.21 2.69 − 0.41 1.00 vegetation because of the high reflectance of vegetation at these wave­
10 1.14 2.18 − 0.28 0.93 lengths (Dyson et al., 2024). Given Kuwait’s arid climate, the NDVI is
11 1.02 2.33 − 0.29 0.93
relevant for monitoring vegetation health and changes, which are
12 1.28 1.31 0.02 1.09
13 0.61 2.20 − 0.36 0.94 essential in understanding the region’s environmental dynamics. The
14 1.40 1.96 − 0.30 1.19 data from 2002 to 2022 reveals a 17% reduction in vegetation cover (See
15 1.47 1.68 − 0.16 1.25 Fig. 14). This decline is attributed to heightened human activity in the
16 1.82 1.31 0.00 0.94 region such as camping and increased traffic, as well as a decrease in
17 1.64 1.84 − 0.22 1.25
18 0.63 2.25 − 0.39 1.00
rainfall rates caused by climate change. In contrast, anthropogenic ac­
19 1.54 1.44 − 0.12 1.45 tivities, such as urbanization, industrialization, and camping, have a
20 0.82 1.96 − 0.25 1.00 significant impact on the native vegetation of deserts. These activities
21 1.19 2.24 − 0.36 1.23 can lead to habitat destruction, soil degradation, and changes in water
22 0.79 2.25 − 0.35 0.92
availability, all of which can have a profound effect on the delicate
23 1.12 1.92 − 0.28 1.23
24 − 0.23 2.29 − 0.08 1.17 desert ecosystems. (Al-Ali et al., 2021). Based on the NDVI results, a
25 1.19 1.98 − 0.30 1.24 noticeable increase in vegetation cover was observed during COVID-19
(Al-Ali et al., 2021). Most changes occurred in open areas, potentially
impacted by anthropogenic activities, which impacted vegetation cover.

Fig. 10. Graphical representation of the textural size parameters for the collected samples from the study area: a. mean size, b. sorting, c. skewness, and d. kurtosis.

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 11. The bivariate plots of the textural grain size parameters among the collected samples from the Wadi Al-Batin area. a. Sorting vs mean size, b. skewness vs.
mean size, c. kurtosis vs mean size, d. skewness vs. sorting, e. kurtosis vs sorting, and f. kurtosis vs skewness.

4.2.2. Normalized difference water index can be used to detect vegetation experiencing drought or to differentiate
The NDWI was developed by Gao (1996) as an index of vegetation crop irrigation levels. Kuwait is facing challenges related to water
water content. This index is sensitive to changes in the liquid content of availability and management. The NDWI can help monitor changes in
vegetation canopies (Dyson et al., 2024). This indicates that the index water bodies, such as seasonal variations in groundwater, lakes, and

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Table 5
The grain counting of the components, in percentage per gram of, the samples collected from the study area.
Percentage frequency (% per gram)

Sample No. Quartz Calcite Feldspar Rock fragments Black minerals Others Remarks

1 97.54 0.00 1.08 0.00 0.36 1.01 dark brown color, quartz grains are coated with calcite
2 99.52 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 Yellow clean quartz
3 98.52 0.00 0.42 0.42 0.00 0.64 Quartz grains are coated with calcite
4 97.27 0.00 0.66 0.98 0.66 0.44 ​
5 90.91 0.00 0.00 9.09 0.00 0.00 ​
6 83.54 3.03 2.18 10.29 0.48 0.48 ​
7 79.39 2.56 2.05 15.36 0.64 0.00 ​
8 86.84 0.00 7.89 0.00 0.00 5.26 ​
9 75.79 4.94 3.16 8.42 0.95 0.07 ​
10 81.56 3.13 4.02 4.02 0.00 2.91 ​
11 83.20 3.08 2.31 11.09 0.31 0.00 ​
12 95.56 2.32 1.74 0.00 0.39 0.00 Rounded quartz grains
13 80.88 0.00 1.96 15.69 1.47 0.00 Very poorly sorted
14 97.33 0.00 0.00 2.67 0.00 0.00 ​
15 72.84 5.31 0.00 21.24 0.61 0.00 ​
16 93.99 1.96 2.35 1.04 0.65 0.00 Clear rounded quartz grains
17 82.58 0.00 1.29 10.97 0.00 5.16 Flaky quartz
18 97.04 0.00 0.65 1.89 0.43 0.00 Minute Flaky quartz
19 99.24 0.00 0.76 0.00 0.00 0.00 Angular clean quartz
20 44.55 0.00 5.34 50.12 0.00 0.00 ​
21 45.05 0.00 0.00 54.95 0.00 0.00 Quartz grains are coated with calcite
22 51.66 0.00 0.66 47.68 0.00 0.00 Quartz grains are coated with calcite
23 51.39 0.00 0.58 47.34 0.69 0.00 Quartz grains are coated with calcite
24 88.78 4.90 4.84 0.29 1.16 0.00 Yellowish clean quartz, prismatic grains
25 26.11 2.54 0.54 69.63 1.18 0.00 ​

reservoirs. Fig. 15 shows significant changes in the NDWI, with an in­ and the direction of runoff is towards the east in Kuwait and to the west
crease in blue indicating a decrease in soil moisture content. This sug­ in Iraq.
gests that many changes have occurred in the soil, confirming the According to Alghais (2019), the drainage network, the flood risk for
increase in drought and soil degradation over the past two decades. On the study area is moderate to high (Fig. 16b). Table 6 lists some of the
the other hand, these indicators will provide valuable insights into the morphometric parameters of the drainage basins in the area. Basin (2)
environmental changes specific to Kuwait’s arid climate (Environment has the largest area (2103.3 km2), whereas basin (1) has the smallest
Public Authority, 2019) including vegetation health, water dynamics, area (69.9 km2). Stream orders 3 and 4 were absent in Basin (1), whereas
dune movement, and urbanization effects. Leveraging satellite imagery basins (3 and 4) lacked stream order 4. Basin (1) has the highest length
and utilizing the Google Earth Engine or similar platforms can aid in ratio (2.5), whereas basin (4) has the lowest. Basin (2) has the highest
efficiently calculating and analyzing these indicators for monitoring drainage density (0.6 km/km2), whereas basin (1) has the lowest
environmental changes in Kuwait. drainage density (0.4 km/km2), and basins (3 and 4) are of the same
drainage density (0.5 km/km2).
4.3. Drainage system According to Deju (1971), there are three classes of drainage density
including poor (0.5 km/km2), medium (0.5–1.5 km/km2) and excellent
The hydrology of Wadi Al-Batin is influenced by its catchment area, (1.5 km/km2). Accordingly, basins (1, 3, and 4) are of poor drainage
which encompasses northern Kuwait and extends to the southern re­ density, meaning they are coarse-textured drainage systems, whereas
gions of Iraq (Al-Refai et al., 2023). The wadi experienced sporadic and basin (2) has a medium drainage density, reflecting a medium-textured
transient flows, primarily driven by occasional rainfall events in the drainage system. This can be explained by the exposure of the Upper
catchment area. Owing to the arid climate, these flows are often Member of the Dibdibbah Formation in the study area, which is
short-lived, with water rapidly evaporating or infiltrating dry soil composed of poorly sorted sands and gravely calcretic sandstones with
(Youssef et al., 2021). The hydrological regime of Wadi Al-Batin plays a high porosity, permeability, and resistance. This is also depicted in
crucial role in sustaining local ecosystems and facilitating groundwater constant channel maintenance (C), which is highest in basin (1) and
recharge, although variability in precipitation poses challenges to lowest in basin (2).
consistent water availability. In the study area, the four drainage basins
varied in shape, size, and water flow speed depending on several factors. 5. Conclusion
These factors include the land slope and drainage basin size, as shown in
Fig. 16a. The total length of the valley streams for ranks (1, 2, 3, and 4) This comprehensive study of the Wadi Al-Batin area employed a
are 918.8, 451.8, 227, and 133.1 km for each, respectively. Proper multidisciplinary approach that combined field surveys, laboratory an­
management and understanding of the hydrology of Wadi Al-Batin are alyses, and advanced remote sensing techniques to unveil its geomor­
essential for its sustainability. phological, sedimentological, and environmental changes. The field
The highest order was 4, as depicted in Basin (2). The drainage survey revealed diverse sedimentary environments, including calcrete
pattern in the study area changed from parallel near the main valley plains, sand sheets, and dune fields, reflecting the complex geological
course to rectangular or parallel-rectangular farther from the main history of the region. Laboratory analyses, particularly sediment grain
valley course, indicating a steep slope and reflecting a regional pattern size distribution studies, indicated the prevalence of polymodal and
of intersecting joints or faults, which often form in resistant sandstone in trimodal modes (40% and 36%, respectively), deviating from typical
arid climates. Compared with earlier maps of drainage basins, the area distributions. The sediments were characterized by a dominance of
was not subject to considerable changes in the drainage pattern. Ac­ medium-coarse sand, with notable variability in sorting, skewness, and
cording to Misak et al. (2013), the Kuwait Wadi Al-Batin Basin is cate­ kurtosis. The abundance of quartz, as evidenced by grain counting and
gorized as an interior discharging basin that discharges water inland, mineral analysis, indicates the influence of the Upper Dibdibbah

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 12. The mineral analysis results. a) XRD, b) XRF oxides, and c) XRF elements.

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 13. The recent surface deposits map of the Wadi Al-Batin area. Source (Kleo, 1990) (Al-Hurban, 2014); Satellite imagery worldview2, QuickBird and Google
earth pro; Fieldwork; Drone image).

Fig. 14. Changes in vegetation cover from March 2002 (a) to March 2022(b).

Formation on the sediment composition. revealed significant changes in soil moisture content, indicative of
The application of XRD and XRF techniques confirmed the substan­ increased soil degradation and drought conditions. The synthesized
tial presence of quartz minerals in the collected samples, aligning with findings depict Wadi Al-Batin as a dynamic landscape shaped by fluvial
the geological context of the study area. Additionally, the analysis of processes, winds, and anthropogenic influences.
environmental changes over the past two decades using Google Earth The drainage network in the area shows a changing pattern from
Engine highlighted a 17% decrease in vegetative cover, possibly parallel to parallel-rectangular, with poor to medium drainage density
attributed to anthropogenic activities and climate variations. The NDWI and coarse to medium texture. Factors like the study area’s topography,

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

Fig. 15. Changes in the normalized difference water index in the study area from March 2002 (a) to March 2022 (b). The blue color represents a decrease in soil
moisture content. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 16. Some hydrological properties of Wadi Al-Batin and Kuwait. a) The drainage basins and stream network. b) flood risk for Kuwait (modified after:
Alghais, 2019).

Table 6
Morphometric parameters of the drainage system in the study area.
Basin Area Order-1 length Order-2 length Order-3 length Order-4 length Length ratio Drainage Constant channel maintenance
No. (Km2) (Km) (Km) (Km) (Km) (Lr) Density (C)
(Dd)
(Km/Km2)

1 69.9 20.6 8.1 ​ ​ 2.5 0.4 2.4

2 2103.3 658.9 304.6 157.4 133.1 2.2 0.6 1.7
3 332.8 76.2 39.4 38.4 ​ 1.9 0.5 2.2
4 604.7 163.1 99.6 31.1 ​ 1.6 0.5 2.1

lithology, and structural features influence this. Since 1980, the Wadi Recommendations
Al-Batin area has undergone severe environmental changes due to
human activities and tracking these changes provided practical solutions Continued environmental monitoring should integrate GIS, remote
for decision-makers. These insights contribute to a better understanding sensing, drone imagery, fieldwork, and laboratory analysis for up-to-
of the region’s past and present dynamics and lay the foundation for date insights into landform changes. Research should prioritize
informed environmental management strategies. Further research anthropogenic activities and their impacts to inform sustainable man­
should investigate the temporal aspects of environmental changes and agement. The development and implementation of climate-resilient land
their implications for sustainable land management. use planning strategies should consider future changes in vegetation and
soil moisture. Community engagement and awareness programs are

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A. Al-Hurban and A. Hassan Kuwait Journal of Science 52 (2025) 100314

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Declaration of competing interest calcrete deposits of the Dibdibba Alluvial Fan, Kuwait. J. Asian Earth Sci. 42 (3),
423–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.05.014.
Cardille, A., Morgan, A., David, S., Nicholas, E., 2024. Cloud-Based Remote Sensing with
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lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Compagnie Générale de Géophysique, 1968. Shegaya Geophysical Survey: Report to
Ministry of Electricity and Water, Kuwait.
Dr. Adeeba Al-Hurban reports financial support was provided by
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Kuwait University. If there are other authors, they declare that they have Publishers.
no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that Dyson, K., Nicolau, A.P., Saah, D., Clinton, N., 2024. Image manipulation: bands,
could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. arithmetic, thresholds, and masks. In: Cardille, J.A., Crowley, M.A., Saah, D.,
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