Sustainability 15 02342 With Cover

3.3 6.
Review
Renewable Energy in Indonesia:

Current Status, Potential, and
Future Development
Nugroho Agung Pambudi, Ridho Alfan Firdaus, Reza Rizkiana, Desita Kamila Ulfa,
Muntasy Syahrul Salsabila, Suharno and Sukatiman
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032342
sustainability
Review
Renewable Energy in Indonesia: Current Status, Potential, and
Future Development
Nugroho Agung Pambudi 1,2, *, Ridho Alfan Firdaus 1 , Reza Rizkiana 1 , Desita Kamila Ulfa 1 ,
Muntasy Syahrul Salsabila 1 , Suharno 2 and Sukatiman 3
1 Energy and Society Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret,
Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
2 Mechanical Engineering Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
3 Civil Engineering Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
* Correspondence: agung.pambudi@staff.uns.ac.id
Abstract: The current use of fossil fuels has a significant impact on increasing greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. Subsequently, renewable energy is significantly needed to reduce GHG, thereby
limiting the impact of extreme weather and climate while ensuring reliable, timely, and cost-effective
supply. As a big country with a huge amount natural resource, the demand for renewable energy in
Indonesia has increased along with the rise in consumption. Following this, energy consumption
increased by 0.99%, which was approximately 939.100 million BOE in 2021 for biogas, oil, electricity,
natural gas, coal, LPG, biodiesel, and biomass. Energy consumption in several sectors including
transportation has the largest energy consumption with approximately 45.76% of oil. In industries
and households sector, the consumption rates are 31.11% for boiler steam generation purposes and
16.89% for electricity as well as LPG. Furthermore, the commercial sector consumes 4.97% of energy
for lighting and air conditioning, while the remaining 1.27% is used for other sectors. Meanwhile,
Indonesia has high potential for renewable energy at 419 GW including 75 GW of hydro energy,
23.7 GW of geothermal, 32.6 GW of bioenergy, 207.8 GW of solar, 60.6 GW of wind, and 19.3 GW
of micro-hydro. Therefore, the main focus of this paper is to provide a detailed analysis of the
current status, prospects, and information on Indonesia’s renewable and sustainable energy sources.
Citation: Pambudi, N.A.; Firdaus, Furthermore, the novelty of this research entails updating the latest data related to renewable energy
R.A.; Rizkiana, R.; Ulfa, D.K.; and its availability in Indonesia. The essence is to portray a picture of its potential development in
Salsabila, M.S.; Suharno; Sukatiman the future.
Renewable Energy in Indonesia:
Current Status, Potential, and Future Keywords: carbon emission; energy consumption; potential energy; renewable energy
Development. Sustainability 2023, 15,
2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su15032342
Academic Editor: Daniele Duca 1. Introduction

Received: 10 November 2022
Energy production and consumption are essential for economic growth in all coun-
Revised: 12 January 2023 tries [1]. Therefore, the current use of fossil fuel, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, has a
Accepted: 17 January 2023 significant impact on carbon emissions. This causes an increase in greenhouse gas emis-
Published: 27 January 2023 sions (GHG), leading to an unstable climate, as well as a rise in the earth’s temperature and
sea level [2–4]. The research proved that CO2 emissions had made the biggest contribution
to climate change [5–7]. However, fossil energy cannot be renewed, hence its availability
decreases. Future growth in the energy sector will likely lead to a shift toward renewable
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. energy, which can help reduce GHG emissions by limiting the impact of extreme weather
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and climate while ensuring reliable, timely, and cost-effective supply [8,9].
This article is an open access article According to Yin et al. (2022), climate change reduces carbon emissions, and this
distributed under the terms and depicts the existence of dynamic factors. The impact of forest carbon sequestration efficiency
conditions of the Creative Commons
was analyzed using the data envelopment method. In addition, gross domestic product
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
(GDP) per capita urbanization and the highway network were also evaluated, and it was
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
reported that these factors have a significant positive impact on carbon sequestration
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032342 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 2342 2 of 29
efficiency. The entire import and export activities tend to have a significant negative impact.
The results obtained are extremely important for improving financial investment efficiency,
forest quality, and carbon sinks [10].
Efforts to reduce CO2 emissions can be realized through poverty alleviation initiatives,
which is highly prioritized in developing countries. This is also in a bid to achieve Sustain-
able Development Goal 7 (SDG7), namely affordable and clean energy, as well as reduced
CO2 emissions. In addition, these efforts also has an impact on state policies in terms of
realizing a sustainable environment through renewable energy, economic activities, and
trade freedom [11].
In 2020, Indonesia succeeded in reducing its GHG by 25.93%, but in 2021, it weakened
to 23.55% [12]. Therefore, low-carbon development actions should be carried out optimally
for 2022 and subsequent years by increasing government programs and budgets [13]. The
actions can be reforestation, prevention of deforestation, increasing renewable energy ca-
pacity, and energy efficiency. Therefore, restoring economic and social activities particularly
after the COVID-19 pandemic needs to be in line with efforts to reduce GHG emissions [14].
The vision of switching energy sources from fossil to renewable can be called transition [15].
Several countries have strengthened international cooperation to facilitate access to clean,
renewable and efficient energy technologies, including Indonesia [16,17].
According to data from the government [18], the country total primary energy supply
without biomass in 2020 was 201.6 million TOE, as shown in Table 1. Figure 1 indicates that
Indonesia is still dependent on fossil, despite its transition to the use of renewable energy.
This transition is realized by increasing the percentage of the renewable energy mix from
11% in 2021 to 23% in 2025 and 31% in 2050 [19–21]. The percentage of the fossil energy
mix is projected to decrease despite the increase in the demand for primary fossil energy
supply [22].
Table 1. Primary energy supply in Indonesia in 2020 [18].
Fuel Type Primary Energy Supply (TOE) Total (%)

Coal 77.5 million 38.5%
Oil 66.2 million 32.8%
Gases 35.2 million 17.4%
Renewable energy including hydro,
geothermal, solar, wind, biofuel, –
22.7 million 11.3%
and biogases
Figure 1. Projected GHG emissions reduction [12].

The demand and potential for renewable energy are increasing largely due to the
significant growth in energy consumption globally. However, Indonesia is a country
that has a large enough potential for renewable energy, hence it should be optimized
in future [23,24]. The novelty of this research entails updating the latest data related to
’
renewable energy and its availability in Indonesia. The essence is to portray a picture of its
potential development in the future.
ture studies and boost one’s knowledge about the potentials of renewable energy. It can
This research is mainly focused on providing a detailed analysis of the current sta-
’
tus, prospects, and information on Indonesia’s renewable and sustainable energy sources.
Based on these objectives, the results obtained are expected to serve as a reference in future
ture studies
studies andand boost
boost one’s
one’s knowledge
knowledge about
about the potentials
the potentials of renewable
of renewable energy.
energy. It canItalso
canbe
used to enact energy-related policies, especially the renewable type, intended for future
purposes. Figure 2 shows a layout of the content including methods (Section 2), energy pol-
icy in Indonesia (Section 3), energy consumption in Indonesia (Section 4), available energy
sources (Section 5), current energy situation (Section 6), potential and future development
(Section 7), and conclusion (Section 8).
Figure 2. Layout of the content.
2. Methods
As shown in Figure 3, this systematic review is carried out based on the following steps.
(1) Identification of the topic;
(2) Literature study;
(3) Screening;
(4) Analysis and synthesis;
(5) Compilation of article review.
Figure 3. Systematic review of the entire process.
Referring to the research carried out by Ramdhani, et al. (2014), the following steps
were employed in conducting an article review (1) selecting the topic to be reviewed,
(2) tracking the appropriate or relevant articles, (3) analyzing and synthesizing diverse
literatures, as well as (4) compiling writings for article review [25]. Furthermore, the
synthesis step is the most relevant one. This is performed by collecting various related
articles and then compiling them into a conceptual or empirical analyses relevant to the
research conducted.
3. Energy Policy in Indonesia

According to the Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, the govern-
ment had joined the Clean Energy Demand Initiative (CEDI). This is a way of supporting
the international community in implementing climate change mitigation and improving
the green economy. Therefore, the president’s directives concerning the CEDI is needed
to accelerate the steps necessary for achieving the nationally determined contribution
(NDC) and net zero emissions (NZE), targeted at 2030 and 2060, respectively. Indonesia’s
transformation policy towards renewable energy should be promoted and strengthened.
Furthermore, it has a vision and mission of achieving 23% renewable energy in the primary
energy mix by 2025, with a relative decrease in emissions of from 29 to 41% [11,26].
Generally, most ASEAN countries allow the spread of only 16.9% renewable energy
sources, with a 6.3% gap. To close this gap, each of these nations, including Indonesia,
contributes to the rise in renewable energy share [27,28]. Moreover, the future national
energy policy is enacted in government regulation no. 79 of 2014. This law serves as a
guideline for the independent realization of national energy management and security for
sustainable development [29].
4. Current Energy Situation

Energy usage in Indonesia is still significantly dependent on non-renewable sources,
known as fossil fuels, which are still higher than renewable energy [30]. The country’s
energy balance in 2021 is shown in Table 2. In 2021, coal was the largest supplier at
558.782 million BOE and for renewable sources it is only 180.509 million BOE. Solar energy
was the smallest supplier at 0.789 million BOE. Coal was also extensively used in the
industrial sector with consumption of 87.820 million BOE, and dependent on fuel with a
total consumption of 429.999 million BOE, part of which was satisfied from imports, and
natural gas of 119.647 million BOE. Meanwhile, in 2021, only biogas energy was utilized in
the household sector at a consumption rate of 0.180 million BOE.
Table 2. Indonesia energy balance in 2021 (million BOE) [31].
Final Energy Consumption

Fuel Type Primary Energy Supply Power Plant
Industry Transportation Household Other
Coal 558.782 470.962 87.820 0 0 0
Oil 133.009 17.512 25.776 388.157 2.657 10.788
Natural gas 324.608 83.804 88.841 0.066 0.308 0.701
Hydro 45.948 45.948 0 0 0 0
Geothermal 29.533 29.533 0 0 0 0
Solar energy 0.789 0.789 0 0 0 0
Wind energy 1.071 1.071 0 0 0 0
Biofuel 65.567 0 0 0 0 0
Biogases 0.180 0 0 0 0.180 0
In 2021, coal also was still the largest contributor to electricity generation, with a
total of 470.962 million BOE. The energy used in electricity is only 114.762 million BOE for
renewable energy, which is smaller to fossil. The largest renewable energy supplier is hydro
with a total of 45.948 million BOE, while solar is the lowest with a total of 0.789 million BOE.
Energy is the most important part of survival in this world. Humans’ dependence
on fossil continuously impacts the occurrence of a crisis [32], as marked by the continued
decline in oil and natural gas reserves yearly [18].
The data in Figure 4a shows a decrease in oil reserves by 6% and 8% in 2019 and 2020
from 2018. In Figure 4b, natural gas reserves also decreased by 0.53% and 5% in both years.
’
In contrast, renewable energy production increased compared to the previous year, mainly
due to the rise in the production of hydro, geothermal, and solar power plants [18].
30% 30% 35%

38%
32% 35 %
2018 2019 2020 2018 2019 2020
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Oil reserve; (b) natural gas reserve [31].
The production of solar power plants (Figure 5a) increased from 4.56 GWh in 2018 to
5.66 GWh in 2021. Meanwhile, utilization of hydropower also increased from 10,729 GWh
in 2018 to 11,869 GWh in 2021. Similarly, geothermal increased from 4013 GWh in 2018
to 4217 in 2021 (Figure 5b). This means that renewable energy is starting to increase and
reduce the use of fossil sources [31].
6
(a)
Electrical Energy (GWh)
5 5.65 5.66
4 5.00
4.56
3
2 Solar Energy
1
0
2018 2019 2020 2021
Year
(b) 14000
Electrical Energy (GWh)
12000
10000 11,949 11,869
10,729
8000 9877
6000 Water Energy
4000 Geothermal
2000 4013 4110 4186 4217
0
2018 2019 2020 2021
Year
Figure 5. (a) Solar energy production; (b) production of hydro and geothermal power plant [31].
5. Available Energy Sources

Energy sources, such as fuel, electricity, mechanical and heat, are part of the ba-
sic needs of people in any country, including Indonesia [33,34]. It plays an important
role in the development process of the social and environmental, which supports the
national economy [35,36]. Furthermore, energy is also needed as the spearhead of var-
ious sectors of life such as technology, information, agriculture, education, health, and
transportation [37,38]. Over time, the demand is increasing rapidly in line with economic
and population growth [39–41]. Therefore, the availability of sustainable energy is impor-
tant in maintaining sustainable development [42,43].
Indonesia has a wealth of natural resources, which can be used to produce energy
directly or through a transformation process [44,45]. It consists of fossil primary sources
such as oil, gas, and coal, as well as renewable ones such as hydro, geothermal, mini- and
micro-hydro, solar, wind power, nuclear, and others [46,47]. Some of these sources can
be processed to fulfil the community’s needs, and the management should refer to the
principles of sustainable development [47–49].
The energy balance in Indonesia has continuously changed over the years. Primary
energy supply without biomass from 2015 to 2020 showed an increase from 169.8 million
TOE to 201.6 million TOE, with an average growth of 3.5% per year. Meanwhile, the energy
production in 2020 showed a total of 443.1 million TOE, with 94.9% from fossil including
oil, gas, and coal [18].
Currently, the share of final energy consumption is still dominated by fossil fuels,
which are found in almost all regions, including the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Kali-
mantan. The supply of oil reserves is approximately 4.17 billion barrels, with 2.44 billion
barrels reserved. Meanwhile, natural gas reserves are 62.4 trillion cubic feet with proven
reserves of 43.6 trillion cubic feet. Oil and gas reserves are estimated to be available for up
to 9.5 years and 19.9 years, respectively. This is with the assumption that there are no new
discoveries, and the level of oil production is approximately 700,000 barrels of oil per day
(BOPD) and gas of 6 billion standard cubic feet per day (BSCFD) [50].
Figure 6 shows a decrease in oil and gas production due to a natural decline in reservoir
performance and the inability to discover new large reserves [50]. Therefore, oil and gas
reserves are predicted to decline continuously until 2024. The country projected that the
remaining oil reserves in 2024 will be 1137.86 MMSTB, or a decrease of 48.56% from 2020
(Figure 7). This will also occur with natural gas, which will experience a decline of 22.02%.
–
Figure 6. Oil and gas production 2018–2021 [50].
’ estimated oil and gas reserves in the years 2020–2040

Figure 7. Indonesia’s – [50].
The increasing demand for oil and gas energy is indicated by a rise in fuel oil pro-
duction and imports in 2021 compared to 2020 (Figure 8). Its use is considered more
economically profitable than other conventional energy, especially in the transportation
sector as the largest energy user. Most of the transportation sector uses fuel oil because
using renewable energy is considered not economical; hence, oil is still the best option.
Figure 8. Annual domestic fuel production and fuel imports from 2018 to 2021 [50].
In addition to oil and gas, coal is a non-renewable natural resource with strategic value
regionally and nationally. This natural resource is the mainstay of the Asia Pacific region in
providing affordable and cheap sources, especially in the current situation of pandemic and
the Russian–Ukrainian War. – Coal reserves in Indonesia are spread across 21 provinces with
38.84 billion tons at an average production of 606.22 million tons produced per year. This is
a 7.2% increment compared to 2020, which was 566 million tons, as shown in Figure 9. The
coal reserves are estimated to be available for the next 65 years, assuming no new reserves
are found. Furthermore, there are also coal resources of 143.7 billion tons, with the largest
located in Kalimantan with 62.1% or 88.31 billion tons of resources and 25.84 billion tons of
reserves. Coal is also found in Sumatra, with a total of 55.08 billion tons of resources and
12.96 billion tons of reserves [50].
–
Figure 9. Annual coal production 2018–2022 [50].
The use of coal is divided into two, namely as raw material and fuel. Its use as raw
material includes the manufacture of coal briquettes, metal processing, coal liquefaction,
gasification, and upgrading. Meanwhile, it is used in the power generation sector, industry,
small businesses, and households as fuel [50,51]. Coal is an essential resource of state rev-
enue, which is economically very important. Therefore, its management needs to be carried
out in an optimal, transparent, accountable, and fair manner to provide great benefits to
the community [52–54]. Government policies in terms of supporting the development
of coal mining should also pay attention to environmental changes, both nationally and
internationally [55–57].
There is a need for renewable energy sources in Indonesia due to the high probability
of a decrease in the availability of non-renewable energy sources. The enormous potential
and use of renewable energy increased from 4.9% in 2015 to 11.3% in 2020 due to the rise in
the share of biofuels and its use in the construction of off-grid power plants such as hydro,
geothermal, solar power plants, etc. Presently, renewable energy supply in Indonesia is
22.7 million TOE or 11.3% consisting of hydro, geothermal, solar, wind, biofuel, and biogas.
Meanwhile, the production is only about 5.1% of the national energy production [50].
6. Energy Consumption in Indonesia

Energy is globally needed in daily consumption and production activities in the in-
dustry, transportation, and agriculture sectors [58]. As a natural resource, it is used for the
prosperity of the community, hence, proper management is needed to ensure sustainable
development. The government has targeted a 17% reduction in final energy consumption
by 2025 and a 1% decrease in energy intensity. Furthermore, approximately 10% to 30% re-
duction is targeted at the industrial, transportation, commercial, and household sectors [59].
Energy consumption is classified based on type and sector in the following section [31].
6.1. Energy Consumption Per Type

In Indonesia, energy consumption increased by 0.99% or 939.100 million BOE in 2021.
This consumption included 45.72% biogas oil consisting of gasoil, biodiesel, and blended
products in values of 15.76%, 7.10%, and 22.86%, respectively (Figure 10). Other energy
consumption includes oil, electricity, natural gas, coal, LPG, biodiesel, biogas, and biomass.
The amount of energy per type is presented in detail in Table 3.
Figure 10. Energy consumption per type 2021 [31].
Table 3. Total energy per type (Million BOE) [31].
No. Energy Type Total

1. Gasoil 133.767
2. Biodiesel 60.292
3. Blended product 194.059
4. Oil 60.292
5. Electricity 194.059
6. Natural gas 89.557
7. Coal 87.820
8. LPG 72.921
9. Biogas 180
10. Biomass 60.392
Total 939.100
Fossil energy is used as a temporary energy sources in the country, especially during
the transition period before it is converted to 100% renewable energy in power plants.
Natural gas was used as some form of fuel support for intermittent renewable energy plants,
while minerals were mainly utilized for downstream processes. However, the government
has started reducing the use of coal as an energy resource by adopting CCS/CCUS (carbon
capture, utilization, and storage) technology, using dimethyl ether (DME) to replace LPG
and increasing the added value of minerals through domestic downstream. In Indonesia,
the energy sector emissions in 2021 amounted to 530 million tons of CO2 e. It was predicted
that increased peak emissions to 706 million tons of CO2 e are bound to occur around 2039.
However, they will be significantly reduced after 2040, following the completion of fossil
plant contracts [60].
6.2. Energy Consumption Per Sector

The energy consumption sector, including transportation, industry, household, com-
mercial firms, etc., are shown in Figure 11. The largest energy consumption is in the
transportation sector, which consumes approximately 45.76% of gasoline. In industries

and household, the consumption rates are 31.11% for boiler propulsion purposes and
16.89% for electricity and LPG consumption. Furthermore, the commercial sector consumes
4.97% of energy for lighting and air conditioning in elevators and escalators, while the
remaining 1.27% is used for other sectors. The energy consumption per sector has a total of
909,244.973 million BOE, as shown in Table 4.
Figure 11. Energy consumption per sector [31].
Table 4. Total energy per sector (million BOE) [31].
Energy Type Total

1 Transportation 388,417.946
2 Industry 317,568.463
3 Household 148,985.796
4 Commercial 43,484.632
5 Other 10,788.136
Total 909,244.973
Energy saving is currently being accomplished by accelerating the global energy

transition, which is supported by a mutual agreement among all the International Energy
Agency (IEA) members regarding energy efficiency. This acceleration can achieve the target
of net-zero emissions in a global scope [61]. Indonesia has designed the implementation of
energy management, especially in government regulations on energy conversion. Another
effort made by the government is to expand the minimum performance standards (MEPS).
Also, this regulation applies energy savings such as electric vehicles, induction cookers
through the implementation of government programs, including diesel-to-gas generators,
rooftop solar power plants, and electric motor conversion [62].
6.2.1. Transportation Sector

In 2021, the highest energy consumption rate was in the transportation sector (Figure 12),
reaching around 388,417.946 million TOE. The percentage of fuel used in this sector is
approximately 55.1%, while the remaining 44.23% and 0.07% are allocated to biogas, as
well as gas and electricity, respectively. Of the total energy consumption, the use of gasoline
RON 88-100 reached 54.32%, followed by gasoil, avtur and fuel oil at 3.29%, 3.08%, and
0.04%.
Figure 12. Energy consumption in the transportation sector [31].
emissionscenario,
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To support a zero-emission scenario, at
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least 47% aofgeneration’s
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come from renewable energy by 2030. In the next 10 years, solar PV capacity is anticipated
to multiply a hundredfold to 108 GW. This is intended to usefully support increased
electrification in the industrial and transportation sectors. The government has undertaken
budget tagging to mark the utilization of public finance for climate change mitigation and
adaptation, including energy and transportation activities. However, it had not been able to
reduce emission and this in turn has an impact on budget allocations. In the past five years,
the state budget has been used to fund the energy and transportation sectors, amounting to
IDR 221.6 trillion (81.73%). The current budget allocations and expenditures still fall short
of that needed to achieve the nationally determined contribution (NDC) targeted at IDR
318.18 trillion per year from 2020 to 2030 [63].
6.2.2. Industrial Sector

Energy consumption in the industrial sector without biomass was 317,568.463 million
TOE, with the largest consumption of gas at 33.50%, followed by coal and electricity at
33.25% and 23.09%, respectively. However, in 2020, coal consumption decreased by 7.17%.
Figure 13 is a detailed overview of energy use in the industrial sector.
Figure 13. Energy consumption in the industrial sector [31].

Increased industrial and vehicular activities contributes significantly to the surge in

energy demand in both sectors. In the industrial sector, the demand is projected to align
with its growth as stipulated in “Indonesia Vision 2045”. Meanwhile, in the transportation
“ ”
sector it is affected by the growing number of motor vehicles, the substitution program
relating to the transformation from conventional to electric cars, the mandatory biodiesel
and bioethanol initiatives as well as the shift from private to mass automobiles [64].
6.2.3. Household Sector

In 2021, energy consumption in households without biomass reached 148,986.796 million
TOE consisting of electricity, LPG, kerosene, gas, and biogas at 49.03% and 48.78%, re-
spectively, 1.85%, 0.21%, and 0.12% (Figure 14). The electricity is generally used for air
conditioning (AC), washing machines, pumps, ironing, and lighting. Meanwhile, LPG
is used for daily cooking, and kerosene is used in some remote areas for both cooking
and lighting.
Figure 14. Energy consumption in households [31].
The program initiated by the government concerning the gas network construction for
households was predicted to reach 4.7 million SR. Meanwhile, it is intended to be used as
a reference in the projection of natural gas demand. In order to achieve the gas network
development targeted for 2025, there is need to build approximately one million SR per
year. In the BaU scenario, it is assumed to align with the country energy plan, while in
the PB and RK, the growth is one million SR/year, and greater than one million/year,
respectively. Based on the projection results, by 2050, natural gas demand in the BaU, PB,
and RK scenarios is bound to reach 2.2 MTOE, 3.4 MTOE, and 4.5 MTOE, respectively [64].
6.2.4. Commercial Sector

Total energy consumption in the commercial sector without biomass, such as hotels,
malls, hospitals and offices, is 43,485 million TOE with electricity, fuel, LPG, and gas values
of 87.53%, 6.22%, 4.59%, and 1.66%. The electricity is used for cooling and lighting, while
fuel is used for power plants. Meanwhile, gas and LPG are mostly used for cooking. The
energy use in the commercial sector is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Energy consumption in commercial [31].
The large use of electricity is anticipated to affect the growth of electric vehicles by
2035, and this tends to follow a yearly trend. The government supports the application
of induction cookers and the gas network development that encompasses the energy
transition roadmap and neutral carbon by 2022. Furthermore, improving energy efficiency
in commercial buildings should also consider its conservation from the design stage to
building operations through the use of efficient equipment and systems [65].
6.2.5. Other Sectors

In 2021, other sectors consumed biodiesel, gasoline, fuel, diesel, and kerosene, reaching
10,788.136 million TOE (Figure 16). Generally, this energy is used for tractors, excavators,
dump trucks, wheel loaders, belt conveyors, crushers, and generators to drive machinery
in the construction sector.
Figure 16. Energy consumption in other sectors [31].
The projected energy demand of other sectors, including the industrial field, is cal-
culated based on the development of its GDP and their usage intensity. Data from the
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and Statistics Central Bureau are used to discern
the intensity of other sectors. Meanwhile, the projected GDP growth of other sectors is
assumed to be comparable to the industrial field [65].
7. Potential and Future Development

Indonesia is an archipelago with wealthy energy potentials spread across its 34 provinces.
Therefore, a comprehensive map illustrating the technical potentials of renewable energy
should be prepared. This also needs to support its transition towards the utilization of 100%
renewable energy to achieve an emission-free Indonesia by 2050 [66]. The development of
renewable energy is possible for the current geographical conditions; some power plants
have been developed by the government and installed in several places. The population
and economy have also grown exponentially, and presently this has an impact on climate,
ecosystem processes, and biodiversity. The indicators of socioeconomic status and other
ecological impacts tend to correlate with energy usage. Energy is the fuel used for global
economic activities, such as population expansion, improved quality of life and growth in
consumption. In Indonesia, fossil fuel in the form of oil, gas, and coal is still being used.
Its massive use drives economic growth, although it is often accompanied by ecological
damage that brings about potential natural or man-made disasters.
In respect to the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), all the countries world-
wide, including Indonesia, were committed to maintaining a global temperature rise of
1.5 ◦ C to 2 ◦ C, in the first period. This is aimed to reduce emissions by 29% based on
personal efforts and 41% assuming there is international cooperation. The no-action ini-
tiative, anticipated to be implemented in 2030, will be realized through the forestry sector,
energy including transportation, waste, industrial processes, and product use, as well as
agriculture. This commitment is strengthened by the government law on the ratification of
the Paris Agreement on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCC). To achieve this, Indonesia set a renewable energy target in the national energy
mix of at least 23% and 31% by 2025 and 2050, respectively. In addition, it has all the
potentials for renewable energy, such as solar, hydro, wind, geothermal, and bioenergy or
biomass [67].
Although Indonesia has a high potential for renewable energy at 419 GW, its utilization
is still minimal, as shown in Table 5. Therefore, optimizing the use of renewable energy for
power generation is part of the strategic plan for the development of NZE [68,69].
Table 5. Energy potential in Indonesia [18].
Energy Type Potency (GW)

Hydro energy 75
Geothermal 23.7
Bioenergy 32.6
Solar 207.8
Wind 60.6
Micro-hydro 19.3
Total 419
The lack of renewable energy utilization for electricity is due to the relatively high pro-
duction price of the plants. This makes it difficult to compete with fossil plants, especially
coal. Moreover, lack of domestic industrial support and difficulty in obtaining low-interest
funding are also some causes that tend to obstruct renewable energy development.
7.1. Hydro Energy

Hydro is a type of reliable power plant first built in 1938 during the Dutch era and
known as the Jelok Hydro Power Plant. Figure 17 shows that the micro-hydro power
plant has a potential of 95 GWh per year [70], consisting of hydro of 75,000 MW and a
micro-hydro of 19,370 MW [18]. However, according to the updated data report in the
fourth quarter of 2021, the potential for newly utilized hydro was 6601.80 MW, which
included a hydro power plant of 5638.7 MW and micro-hydro of 126.4 MW and mini-hydro
of 375.5 MW or approximately 6.5% of the potential of the hydro power plant [50].
Figure 17. Installed capacity of hydro power plant up to the fourth quarter 2021 [50].
The target for constructing a hydro power plant will be 21.9 GW in 2030 [66]. Mean-
while, the national energy strategy contains a roadmap for renewable energy plants, which
targets at building a 7.7 GW by 2030. In Indonesia, almost all provinces have hydro energy
potential, with the distribution shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Potential of hydro energy in every province [18].

No.
No. Island Hydro (GW) Micro-Hydro (GW)
1. Sumatra 15.6 5.73
2. Java 4.2 2.91
3. Kalimantan 21.6 8.1
4. Sulawesi 10.2 1.67
Bali and Nusa
5. 0.62 0.14
Tenggara
6. Maluku 0.43 0.21
7. Papua 22.35 0.62
Total 75.00 19.37
The utilization of hydro potential into electricity based on its scale is grouped in three,
namely hydro, micro-hydro and mini-hydro power plants. The target for an additional
installed capacity of micro-hydro in 2021 was 557.9 MW, and the realization of installed
capacity by the fourth quarter was 461.19 MW with details of 350 MW hydropower and
111.19 MW mini-hydro.
In 2022, a hydro power plant with a capacity of 515 MW in Poso, Central Sulawesi,
was started. In the same year, the Jatigede Plant, which was supposed to operate in 2021,
but due to geological constraints, started operation. The plant of Peusangan 1 is targeted to
operate in July 2023, and then in 2024, the Asahan 3 will also be able to operate.
Hydro Dam Potential

Indonesia has a large hydro dam potential with a total of 95,003 MW. This can sup-
port the development of the renewable energy-based industry program for hydro power
plants [71]. The Cipanas dam, located in Cibuluh, Sumedang, with a size of 9243 ha and
a height of 65 m, is commonly used for irrigation. Based on the calculations, this power
plant has a 2 × 1.8 MW or 3.6 MW capacity and production energy of 28,309.7 MWh per
year [72]. Meanwhile, Bagong dam in Sumurup and Sengon, Trenggalek, with a height of
82 m, the capacity of 15.5 million m3 and a water supply of 0.3 m3 has the potential power
of 0.52 MW.
The Tugu dam, located in Nglinggis Village, Tugu sub-district, Trenggalek, with an
area of 104 ha, depth of 27.85 m, and height of 81 m, has a power of 0.4 MW. Hence, on
average, the two dams can produce electrical power of 0.92 MW, which is 22.08 MWh per
day [73]. Furthermore, the Merangin dam has been through a simulation of the operation
pattern of the hydro power plant for 19 years. Hydrological, HEC-HMS model generation
and technical data on dam planning had average power gain, Pb, and total energy of
103.8 MW, 98.53 MW, and 636.66 GWh/year [74].
7.2. Geothermal
Geothermal energy started developing 100 years ago with the first geothermal well
drilled in Kamojang by the Dutch in 1926 and has been operational since 1983 [75,76]. It
has a geothermal potential of 23,766 MW, with the distribution as shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Distribution of geothermal potential in 2021 [50].
No. Location Potency (MW)

1. Sumatra 9517
2. Java 8050
3. Bali 335
4. Nusa Tenggara 1399
5. Kalimantan 175
6. Sulawesi 3071
7. Maluku 1144
8. Papua 75
Total 23,766
As shown in Figure 18, the installed capacity based on updated data in the fourth
quarter of 2021 was 2185.7 MW, which means a lot of geothermal energy has not been uti-
lized. Therefore, the government targets an increase in geothermal utilization to 7241.5 MW
or 16.8% in 2025 [66]. The installed capacity of geothermal power plant was 2185.7 MW
until the fourth quarter of 2021, when an additional 155.35 MW, comprising 56.95 MW and
98.4 MW in Sorik Merapi Unit 2 and Rantau Dedap Unit 1, were added.
Figure 18. Installed capacity of geothermal power plant up to the fourth quarter of 2021 [50].
7.3. Bioenergy
In addition to the electricity sector, bioenergy as a renewable energy source can also be
used to meet energy needs in the transportation, industry, and household sectors [77]. The
diversity of raw materials such as livestock manure, agricultural, plantation, and urban
waste is easy to discover. This energy can be used as a power plant for biomass, biogas,
municipal waste, household biogas, bioenergy furnaces, etc.
Table 8 shows the distribution of bioenergy potentials in 34 provinces, and in addition
to its amount is also affected by the diverse regions.
Table 8. Bioenergy potential in Indonesia in 2021 [50].
Technical Technical
No. Province Area (km2 ) No. Province Area (km2 )
Potential (MW) Potential (MW)
West Nusa
1. Riau 87,023.66 4195.1 18. 18,572.32 394.1
Tenggara
2. East Java 47,803.49 3420.9 19. Lampung 34,623.80 7763
North Central
3. 72,981.23 2911.6 20. 61,841.29 326.9
Sumatra Sulawesi
East Nusa
4. West Java 35,377.76 2554,1 21. 48,718.10 240.5
Tenggara
D.I.
5. Central Java 32,800.76 2232.5 22. 3133.15 224.2
Yogyakarta
South Bangka
6. 91,592.43 2132.6 23. 16,424.06 223.1
Sumatra Belitung
West
7. Jambi 50,058.16 1839.9 24. 16,787.18 205.9
Sulawesi
Central
8. 153,564.50 1498.9 25. Bali 5780.06 191.6
Kalimantan
North
9. Lampung 34,623.80 1492.1 26. 13,892.47 164.0
Sulawesi
West Southeast
10. 147,307.00 1308.2 27. 38,067.70 1677
Kalimantan Sulawesi
South
11. 38,744.23 1289.9 28. Gorontalo 11,257.07 130.6
Kalimantan
12. Aceh 57,956.00 1174.3 29. Jakarta 664.01 126.6
East/North
13. 129,066.64 964.3 30. Papua 319,036.05 96.5
Kalimantan
South
14. 46,717.48 959.4 31. West Papua 102,955.15 54.9
Sulawesi
West North
15. 42,012.89 957.8 32. 31,982.50 34.5
Sumatra Maluku
16. Bengkulu 19,919.33 644.8 33. Maluku 46,914.03 32.6
17. Banten 9662.92 465.1 34. Riau Islands 8201.72 15.9
Total 32,653.8 MW
Until the fourth quarter of 2021 as shown in Figure 19, bioenergy power plants installed
capacity was 2284 MW [50]. This was in addition to 19.5 MW consisting of 8.5 MW, 2 MW
and 9 MW biomass, biogas, and waste power plants. The national energy plan is targeted
to reach 9.6 GW from bioenergy power plants and 1.09 GW from biomass, biogas, and
waste bioenergy.
The abundant potential of bioenergy opens wider opportunities for the younger gen-
eration to contribute directly to efforts for the development of bioenergy and clean energy
through various lines [78]. In the academic sector, research and innovation development
opportunities must be explored more deeply to maximize the domestic bioenergy potential.
Community service programs organized by universities can also contribute to innovations
in the daily use of bioenergy at the community level.
Figure 19. Installed bioenergy power plant until the fourth quarter of 2021 [50].
7.3.1. Biomass
Biomass is material from living organisms, including plants, animals, and their by-
products [30]. In Indonesia, it can be extracted from industrial waste such as palm oil,
tapioca, pulp and paper, sugar cane, rice, and wood. The biomass potential for electricity
is 32,654 MW with an installed capacity of 151.52 MW on-grid and 1969.64 MW off-grid
in 2021 [79]. The prospect of biomass energy in the future is that it can be utilized by the
co-firing method by mixing with coal in a steam power plant. In this co-firing, the raw
materials are waste and wood.
7.3.2. Biogas
The potential for biogas in the country is 2602.6 MW. The capacity of on-grid and
off-grid biogas power plants in 2021 was 22.10 MW and 112.69 MW [79]. In addition to
being able to be used as a power plant, biogas can also be used for households by utilizing
cow dung and household waste, known as communal biogas development [80]. Based on
data on the implementation of biogas development, the realization of biogas performance
achievements until the fourth quarter of 2021 was 28,392 thousand m3 , which is 101.90% of
the target.
7.3.3. Biofuel
Generally, biofuels contain energy and components obtained from plants and biomass.
Research on biofuels produced from biomass resources by environmentally friendly meth-
ods keeps increasing [81]. Various liquid and gaseous biofuels can be produced from
biomass, such as ethanol, biodiesel, methane, methanol, and bio-oil [82]. To increase the
use of renewable energy, efforts have been made to mix palm oil with diesel oil to pro-
duce biodiesel. Furthermore, efforts have also been made to mix ethanol from sugarcane
processing with gasoline to produce bioethanol.
The realization of biofuel utilization until the fourth quarter of 2021 has reached
6.66 million kL of the initial target of 10.2 million kL for domestic usage. However, there is
an adjustment to the 2021 target to 9.2 million kL. The prospect of biofuel in the future is
that it can be a substitute for petroleum; hence, those derived from land or marine plants,
such as microalgae, have started to be pursued as a source of alternative energy.
7.3.4. Waste
The waste produced by the community can be one of the energy sources that can
produce approximately 2000 MW [83]. Currently, the operational waste power plant located
in Benowo, Surabaya has a capacity of 12 MW, which was started on 6 May 2021. The
prospect is quite good, with several locations including Surabaya, Jakarta, Tangerang,
Bandung, Semarang, Surakarta, Makassar, Denpasar, Manado, Palembang, Bekasi, and
South Tangerang City. The development plan is 9 MW, 10 MW, 20 MW, 20 MW, 38 MW,
and 29 MW in Bekasi City, Surakarta, Palembang, Denpasar, Jakarta, and Bandung. The
three remaining cities, including Makassar, Manado, and South Tangerang have the same
capacity of 20 MW each [18].
7.4. Solar Energy

One source of renewable energy that is developing quite rapidly all over the world
is solar energy. As a tropical country that obtains sunlight throughout the year, energy
needs to be optimized [84]. The potential for developing solar energy (Table 9) is very large
with 207,898 MW [85–88] and an average solar light intensity of 4.80 kWh/m2 /day [85,89].
The availability of solar potential is a necessary first step in the utilization of solar energy
in Indonesia.
Table 9. Potential of solar energy in 34 provinces of Indonesia [83].
Technical Technical
1. Aceh 57,956.00 7881 18. Riau Islands 8201.72 753
2. Bali 5780.06 1254 19. Lampung 34,623.80 7763
Bangka-
3. 16,424.06 2810 20. Maluku 46,914.03 2238
Belitung
North
4. Banten 9662.92 2461 21. 31,982.50 2020
Maluku
West Nusa
5. Bengkulu 19,919.33 3475 22. 18,572.32 3036
Tenggara
East Nusa
6. D.I. Yogyakarta 3133.15 996 23. 48,718.10 9931
Tenggara
7. DKI Jakarta 664.01 225 24. Papua 319,036.05 7272
8. Gorontalo 11,257.07 1218 25. West Papua 102,955.15 2035
9. Jambi 50,058.16 8847 26. Riau 87,023.66 6307
West
10. West Java 35,377.76 9099 27. 16,787.18 1677
Sulawesi
South
11. Central Java 32,800.76 8753 28. 46,717.48 7588
Sulawesi
Central
12. East Java 47,803.49 10,335 29. 61,841.29 6186
Sulawesi
West Southeast
13. 147,307.00 20,113 30. 38,067.70 3917
Kalimantan Sulawesi
South North
14. 38,744.23 6031 31. 13,892.47 2113
Kalimantan Sulawesi
Central West
15. 153,564.50 8459 32. 42,012.89 5898
Kalimantan Sumatera
East South
16. 129,066.64 13,479 33. 91,592.43 17,233
Kalimantan Sumatera
North North
17. 75,467.70 4643 34. 72,981.23 11,851
Kalimantan Sumatera
Total 207,898 MW
The utilization of solar energy is accomplished by the production of on-grid and off-
grid energy with a total installed capacity of 190.15 MW in 2021 (Figure 20). The data was
updated in the fourth quarter of 2021 with the addition of 31.45 MWp capacity, consisting
of solar power for customers’ roofs of 27.4 MWp and ground mounted solar power plants
of 4.05 MWp [50]. Until the fourth quarter of 2021, solar ground mounted with commercial
operation date (COD) was on off-grid Papagarang and Sei Make.
’
Figure 20. Solar power plant installed capacity until the fourth quarter of 2021 [50].
The solar power plant is targeted to reach 6.5 GW in 2025 and 14.2 GW by 2030. Mean-
while, the installed capacity is expected to reach 11.2 GW in 2030. The solar power plant
is intermittent, meaning the energy is unstable, with the output dependent on seasonal
conditions, humidity, temperature, cloud movement, and other weather conditions. This
makes the generator to be unable to operate continuously at its installed capacity. Further-
more, the construction is also related to the high investment costs, hence the selling price of
electricity is not economical.
In 2019, the government issued the regulation concerning the use of rooftop solar
plant by consumers. This regulation was intended to open up opportunities for all con-
sumers from the household sector, business, social government, and industry to partici-
pate in the utilization and management of renewable energy to achieve energy security
and independence.
In addition to the rooftop solar power plant, solar energy in the future can be used
as energy saving solar lamps. Furthermore, the government has accelerated the imple-
mentation of providing energy-efficient solar lights for people who do not have access
to electricity. This policy is related to the distribution of energy saving solar lights in the
border, underdeveloped, and isolated areas far from the electricity network.
The next prospect is the construction of a solar streetlight, a light that uses sunlight as a
source of electrical energy. From 2016 to 2020, 65,501 solar street light units were built, with
18,888 units installed [18]. Meanwhile, in 2021, 4829 units of quarter four were installed
with a focus on road locations without access to the electricity network. In 2020, the solar
plant installation work was divided into two, namely the installation on rooftops and in
cold storage facilities. It can also be applied in buildings, both as the main source and as a
backup from existing power sources. One of the uses of electricity from solar plant is cold
storage, and in 2021, 100 units comprising 88 units of rooftop and 12 units were found in
cold storage public facilities.
Potential Map of Floating Solar Power Plant

Apart from being able to be applied on land, a solar plant can also be applied in
water in accordance with the condition of Indonesia as an archipelagic country. This
is also a large potential for solar energy in a tropical country. Subsequently, a floating
solar power plant was made and placed on water bodies such as lakes, reservoirs, etc.
The components include solar modules, platforms, pontoons, mooring systems, inverters,
power conditions stations, cabling, network interconnection infrastructure, supporting
facilities, meteorological centers, remote monitoring, and data collection systems (Figure 21).
It has more challenges than a common solar power plant on land due to the lack of track
record, the uncertainty of costs, and its impact on the environment. This model is also
relatively complicated in designing, building, and operating because it is related to electrical,
anchoring, and mooring systems [90].
Figure 21. Example of a floating solar plant layout and its constituent components [90].
A floating solar plant has many advantages, such as not requiring land, which is
generally valuable, reducing the occurrence of water evaporation, and inhibiting the growth
of other weeds such as water hyacinth and evaporation. Furthermore, it is held back by the
PV module creating a cooling system, which increases the efficiency of electricity generated.
Information on the location, potential lakes, and areas (ha) spread across Indonesia is
presented in the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources One Map [71]. Currently, the
Citara floating plant is estimated to be completed in 2022, with another built in the Sutami
Reservoir, Malang, in 2023.
In Central Java province, the increase in renewable energy mix was predicted to
reach 21.82% by 2025, especially in solar and geothermal potentials. This province has an
average solar potential of 4.05 kWh/kWp per day (greater than the national average of
3.75 kWh/kWp per day). Based on the national data sources obtained (Pusdataru Central
Java and WRDC), there are 43 reservoirs located in Central Java except for the Kedunguling,
which was excluded because it was experiencing drought. Incidentally, of the 42 artificial
reservoirs, the potential for floating solar power plants is 727.25 MWp. A total of 92.3% (or
671.85 MWp) was contributed by the technicality of large reservoirs (11 reservoirs), 7.36%
(53.25 MWp) from medium types (24 reservoirs), and the rest (2.14 MWp) was realized by
the small ones (7 reservoirs) [91]. The potentials of the floating solar power plant in Central
Java are shown in Tables 10–12.
–
Table 10. Technical potential of floating solar power plant in large reservoirs (>100 ha) [91].
Surface Area Potential Generation

No. Reservoir Year Built Reservoir Floating Solar Power Plant Potential
Total (ha) 5% Area (ha) (MWp) (GWh/Years)
1 Kedung Ombo 1985–1989 4600 230.00 267.95 367.39
2 Gajahmungkur 1976–1982 2539 126.90 147.88 201.67
3 Wadaslintang 1983–1987 1320 66.00 76.89 90.26
4 Mrica 1984–1989 1250 62.50 72.80 87.36
5 Cacaban 1951–1959 790 40.00 46.02 57.48
6 Sempor 1974–1978 275 13.75 16.10 19.38
7 Cengklik 1923–1928 253 12.65 14.80 23.94
8 Jombor 1920 164 8.21 9.61 14.61
9 Penjalin 1930–1934 120 6.00 6.98 9.92
10 Jatibarang 2009–2014 111 5.55 6.40 10.00
11 Gembong 1930–1933 110 5.50 6.41 9.48
Total 671.85 MWp 891.5 GWh/years
Table 11. Technical potential of floating solar power plant in medium reservoirs (10–100 ha) [91].

Total (ha) 5% Area (ha) (MWp) (GWh/Years)
1 Logung 2014–2018 88.50 4.43 5.15 7.54
2 Malahayu 1935–1940 70.00 3.50 4.08 6.13
3 Klego 1943 68.60 3.43 3.97 6.49
4 Garung 1978–1983 67.00 3.35 3.90 5.14
5 Lalung 1940 63.96 3.20 3.71 5.76
6 Lodan Wetan 1994 60.54 3.03 3.40 5.20
7 Mulur 1918–1926 59.40 2.97 3.40 5.23
8 Greneng 1919 51.00 2.55 2.91 4.32
9 Delingan 1920–1923 47.00 2.35 2.73 4.14
10 Ketro 1975–1984 47.00 2.35 2.73 4.35
11 Gunung Rowo 1918–1925 44.28 2.21 2.56 3.77
12 Krisak 1942–1943 44.00 2.20 2.52 3.74
13 Banyukuwung 1996 34.94 1.75 2.08 3.07
14 Ngancar 1944–1946 34.00 1.70 1.90 2.71
15 Grawan 2004 17.92 0.90 1.05 1.54
16 Nglangon 1911–1914 17.00 0.85 0.97 1.50
17 Parangjoho 1973–1980 16.72 0.84 0.96 1.41
18 Panohan 2005–2009 16.20 0.81 0.95 1.42
19 Plumbon 1918–1928 13.75 0.69 0.80 1.17
20 Botok 1942 13.44 0.67 0.78 1.20
21 Kembangan 1939–1940 13.40 0.67 0.77 1.18
22 Sanggeh 1909–1911 13.00 0.65 0.75 1.16
23 Nawangan 1974–1976 10.40 0.52 0.60 0.87
24 Gebyar 1944–1945 10.00 0.50 0.58 0.89
Total 53.25 MWp 79.93 GWh/years
Table 12. Technical potential of floating solar power plant in small reservoirs (<10 ha) [91].

Total (ha) 5% Area (ha) (MWp) (GWh/years)
1 Butak 1901–1902 8.39 0.42 0.47 0.73
2 Songputri 1977–1984 8.20 0.41 0.47 0.68
3 Simo 1904–1907 6.67 0.33 0.37 0.58
4 Pejengkolan 1984–1986 4.85 0.24 0.28 0.42
5 Tempuran 1914–1916 4.72 0.24 0.27 0.39
6 Brambang 1939–1940 4.05 0.20 0.23 0.36
7 Blimbing 1922–1922 1.07 0.05 0.06 0.09
3.24
Total 2.14 MWp
GWh/years
In the large reservoir category, Kedung Ombo, Gajah Mungkur, Wadaslintang, and
Mrica have the greatest potentials, of 267.95, 147.88, 76.89, and 72.80 MWp, respectively.
Meanwhile, in the medium reservoir category, Jatibarang, Logung, and Malahayu have
the third largest potentials, with a capacity of approximately 5 MWp each. For the small
reservoir category, the seven of them have a capacity of less than 0.5 MWp. Supposing all
these reservoirs are fitted with floating solar power plants with these potential capacities,
the resulting electricity generation was predicted to reach 974.66 GWh per year or relatively
3.47% of the net electricity production in Central Java and Yogyakarta by 2018 [91].
7.5. Wind Power Plant

Wind power plant is targeted to reach 7 GW in 2030 with an installed capacity of
2.2 GW. Several areas in Indonesia have wind potential with a speed of 4 m/s–6 m/s.
Table 13 shows wind potential per province.
Table 13. Wind power plant potential in 34 provinces of Indonesia [66].
Technical Technical
East Nusa
1. 48,718.10 10,188 18. Riau Islands 8201.72 922
Tenggara
Central
2. East Java 47,803.49 7907 19. 61,841.29 908
Sulawesi
3. West Java 35,377.76 7036 20. Aceh 57,956.00 894
Central
4. Central Java 32,800.76 5213 21. 153,564.50 681
Kalimantan
South West
5. 46,717.48 4193 22. 147,307.00 554
Sulawesi Kalimantan
West
6. Maluku 46,914.03 3188 23. 16,787.18 514
Sulawesi
West Nusa North
7. 18,572.32 2605 24. 31,982.50 504
Tenggara Maluku
Bangka
8. 16,424.06 1787 25. West Papua 102,955.15 437
Belitung
West
9. Banten 9662.92 1753 26. 42,012.89 428
Sumatra
North
10. Bengkulu 19,919.33 1513 27. 72,981.23 356
Sumatra
Southeast South
11. 38,067.70 1414 28. 91,592.43 301
Sulawesi Sumatra
East
12. Papua 319,036.05 1411 29. 129,066.64 212
Kalimantan
North
13. 13,892.47 1214 30. Gorontalo 11,257.07 137
Sulawesi
North
14. Lampung 34,623.80 1137 31. 75,467.70 73
Kalimantan
D.I.
15. 3133.15 1079 32. Jambi 50,058.16 37
Yogyakarta
16. Bali 5780.06 1019 33. Riau 87,023.66 22
South
17. 38,744.23 1006 34. DKI Jakarta 664.01 4
Kalimantan
Total 60,647 MW
According to updated data in the fourth quarter of 2021, Indonesia has an installed
wind plant of 154.3 MW, while the target capacity in 2025 is 255 MW. Therefore, the country
contains two large plants, namely Sidrap and Tolo. Sidrap is located in Sidenreng Rappang
with 30 windmills at a capacity of 75 MW. Tolo is located in Turatea, in South Sulawesi, and
has a capacity of 72 MW with 20 wind turbines comprising 3.6 MW each.
The prospect of wind energy is also fairly good, with the future possibility of building
plant in South Garut in three sub-districts, namely Pameungpeuk, Cibolang, and Cisompet.
Several plants will also be built in 2023, such as the Sukabumi Project and the Tolo II
in Jeneponto.
7.6. Nuclear Power

Two of the basic raw materials in nuclear manufacture are uranium and thorium,
which are radioactive elements. Indonesia has a total of 81,091 tons of uranium resources
and thorium deposits of 140,411 tons. Table 14 shows the potential for uranium and thorium
in Indonesia [18].
Table 14. The potential for uranium and thorium in Indonesia [18].
Region Uranium (Ton) Thorium (Ton)

Sumatra 31,567 126,821
Kalimantan 45,731 7028
Sulawesi 3793 6562
Total 81,091 140,411
According to 2015 data, the country’s thorium and uranium reserves are 130,974 tons
and 74,397 tons. In addition to the Babylon Islands, thorium potential is also found on
Singkep Island, West Kalimantan, and Mamuju.
Indonesia has the potential to build nuclear power plants to fulfil domestic needs with
the help of the economic and industrial sectors. It can be the first country in Southeast
Asia to have a nuclear power plant due to the availability of uranium, which has the
potential to become a major export source. In terms of impact, this energy can overcome
the waste produced without affecting electricity costs. The outcome, which cannot pollute
the environment, is deposited into the ground because it will not negatively affect the
surrounding community [92].
8. Conclusions
In conclusion, renewable energy is sustainable, affordable, reliable, and a safer means
of supplying electricity for social and economic infrastructure development. The Indone-
sian government has developed project on the use of renewable and sustainable energy.
Therefore, this paper recommends the extraction of large-scale energy by properly utilizing
hydro, geothermal, solar, bioenergy, and wind energy sources. The project is supported
through reforestation, prevention of deforestation, increasing renewable energy capacity,
and energy efficiency; hence, the process of restoring economic and social activities after
the COVID-19 pandemic is in line with efforts to reduce GHG emissions.
Furthermore, Indonesia has also transitioned to renewable energy through the real-
ization of energy policy and energy plan, as well as by increasing the percentage of the
renewable energy mix from 11% in 2021 to 23% in 2025 and 31% in 2050. This paper also
provides some information about the current energy situation. For instance, in 2021, coal en-
ergy was the largest supplier with a total energy of 558.782 million BOE and 180.509 million
BOE for renewable energy. The equilibrium between energy availability, production, and
consumption is interrelated. Its current conditions can be used to determine the next steps
in the utilization of renewable energy. The sources available under conditions of energy
balance in Indonesia from primary energy without biomass show the average growth by
3.5% yearly from 2015 to 2020. Meanwhile, energy production in 2020 shows a total of
443.1 million TOE, with 94.9% from fossil energy comprising oil, gas, and coal. Energy
consumption per type in 2021 is currently experiencing an increase of 0.99%, which is
939.100 million BOE. Transportation is the sector with the largest energy consumption rate
at 45.76%. This sector almost entirely uses gasoline as a fuel source. In accordance with the
current energy consumption data, the use of fossil energy is still dominant and continues
to increase. Therefore, with Indonesia’s abundant renewable energy potentials, it needs to
be utilized appropriately and maximally.
Optimizing renewable energy sources for power generation is part of the strategic
plan to develop NZE power plants. Some of the performance targets for the renewable
energy and energy conversion sub-sector in 2022 are the primary energy mix of 15.7%, with
366.4 MBOE produced. Several renewable power plants also support the government in
reducing fossil fuels such as coal in steam power plants and these include:
a. Hydro energy sources have a potential of 95 GW, consisting of 75,000 MW and
19,370 MW of hydro and micro-hydro potential.
b. Geothermal energy sources are used in geothermal power plants with a potential of
23,965 GW. They are distributed on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua.
c. Bioenergy is used for several plants such as biomass, biogas, municipal waste, house-
hold, and power plants, etc. The total potential of bioenergy is 32,653.8 MW.
d. Solar energy has a potential of 207,898 MW at an average intensity of 4.80 kWh/m2 /day.
e. Wind energy, from the latest data in the third quarter of 2021; Indonesia has an
installed capacity of 154.3 MW, while the target in 2025 is 255 MW.
Based on these conclusions, the present paper is expected to play a role in planning
and implementing policies regulating the utilization of renewable energy. The electricity
supply from fossil fuels will likely be used in the next few generations as a renewable
energy reserve. The shift from fossil to renewable energy sources can contribute to the
country’s economy. The cost of this shifting needs to be also lowered by incorporating
private sector investment in renewable energy projects.
Author Contributions: The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception
and design: N.A.P.; data collection: R.A.F., R.R., and M.S.S.; analysis and interpretation of results:
N.A.P., S. (Suharno), and S. (Sukatiman); draft manuscript preparation: D.K.U. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia (Grant Number 254/
UN27.22/PT.01.03/2022); PUT-UNS; LPPM Universitas Sebelas Maret; Ministry of Education and
Culture of Indonesia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Universitas Sebelas Maret,
Indonesia (Grant Number 254/UN27.22/PT.01.03/2022); PUT-UNS; LPPM Universitas Sebelas Maret;
Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
List of abbreviations
AC Alternating current
BaU Business as usual
BOE Barrel oil equivalent
BOPD Barrels of oil per day
BOSS Biomass operation system of Saguling
BSCFD Billion standard cubic feet per day
CCS/CCUS Carbon capture, utilization, and storage
CEDI Clean energy demand initiative
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2e Carbon dioxide equivalent
COD Commercial operation date
COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease 19
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gas
GW Gigawatt
GWh Gigawatt hours
Ha Hectare
Hydrologic engineering
HEC-HMS
Center-hydrology modelling system
HMS Hydrology modelling system

kL Kiloliter
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LTSHE Energy-saving solar light
m3 Cubic meter
MBOED Million barrel oil equivalent
MEPS Minimum performance standard
MMSTB Million stock tank barrels
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hours
MWp Megawatt peak
NDC Nationally determined contribution
NZE Net-zero emission
PB Sustainable development
Pb Base load
Pp Peak load
RK Low Carbon
RON Research octane number
Indonesian national
SKKNI
work competency standards
SN National standard
SR Household connection
TOE Ton of oil equivalent
USD United States dollar
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3.3 6.

Renewable Energy in Indonesia:

Academic Editor: Daniele Duca 1. Introduction

Sustainability 2023, 15, 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032342 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Table 1. Primary energy supply in Indonesia in 2020 [18].

Fuel Type Primary Energy Supply (TOE) Total (%)

Figure 1. Projected GHG emissions reduction [12].

Figure 2. Layout of the content.

Figure 3. Systematic review of the entire process.

3. Energy Policy in Indonesia

4. Current Energy Situation

Table 2. Indonesia energy balance in 2021 (million BOE) [31].

Final Energy Consumption

Sustainability 2023, 15, 2342 5 of 29

30% 30% 35%

2018 2019 2020 2018 2019 2020

Figure 4. (a) Oil reserve; (b) natural gas reserve [31].

5. Available Energy Sources

’ estimated oil and gas reserves in the years 2020–2040

6. Energy Consumption in Indonesia

6.1. Energy Consumption Per Type

Figure 10. Energy consumption per type 2021 [31].

Table 3. Total energy per type (Million BOE) [31].

No. Energy Type Total

6.2. Energy Consumption Per Sector

transportation sector, which consumes approximately 45.76% of gasoline. In industries

Figure 11. Energy consumption per sector [31].

Table 4. Total energy per sector (million BOE) [31].

Energy Type Total

Energy saving is currently being accomplished by accelerating the global energy

6.2.1. Transportation Sector

Figure 12. Energy consumption in the transportation sector [31].

6.2.2. Industrial Sector

Figure 13. Energy consumption in the industrial sector [31].

Increased industrial and vehicular activities contributes significantly to the surge in

6.2.3. Household Sector

Figure 14. Energy consumption in households [31].

6.2.4. Commercial Sector

Figure 15. Energy consumption in commercial [31].

6.2.5. Other Sectors

Figure 16. Energy consumption in other sectors [31].

7. Potential and Future Development

Table 5. Energy potential in Indonesia [18].

Energy Type Potency (GW)

7.1. Hydro Energy

Table 6. Potential of hydro energy in every province [18].

Hydro Dam Potential

Table 7. Distribution of geothermal potential in 2021 [50].

No. Location Potency (MW)

Table 8. Bioenergy potential in Indonesia in 2021 [50].

7.4. Solar Energy

Table 9. Potential of solar energy in 34 provinces of Indonesia [83].

Potential Map of Floating Solar Power Plant

Surface Area Potential Generation

Surface Area Potential Generation

Surface Area Potential Generation

7.5. Wind Power Plant

Table 13. Wind power plant potential in 34 provinces of Indonesia [66].

7.6. Nuclear Power