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3
20MA302 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

DEPARTMENT CSE/CSD/IT

BATCH/YEAR 2021-2025/II

CREATED BY Department of Mathematics

DATE 28.07.2022

4
CONTENTS
S.No Topic Page No.

1. Course Objectives 6

2. Pre-Requisites 7

3. Syllabus 8

4. Course Outcomes 9

5. CO – PO/PSO Mapping 10

6. Lecture Notes: Unit IV 11

Lecture Plan 12

Activity Based Learning 13

4.1 Introduction to algebraic

14
structures
4.2 Semi Group, Monoid-Properties 16

4.3 Group-Properties ,Problem 20

4.4 Sub Structures of Group, Semi

Group, Monoid 32
35
4.5 Homomorphism, Isomorphism
48
4.6 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem
4.7 Normal Sub Group and Quotient
Groups 50

4.8 Rings and Fields 52

56
4.9 Practice Quiz
58
4.10 Assignment
59
4.11 Part A Questions and Answers
62
4.12 Part B Questions
7. Supportive online Certification courses 64

8. Real time Applications 65

9. Content beyond the Syllabus 66

10. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 67

11. Mini Project 68

5
Course Objectives:

S.NO TOPIC

1. To extend student's logical and mathematical

maturity and ability to deal with abstraction.

2. To introduce most of the basic terminologies used in

computer science courses and application of ideas to
solve practical problems.

3. To understand the basic concepts of combinatorics and

graph theory.

4. To familiarize the applications of algebraic structures

5. To understand the concepts and significance of lattices

and Boolean algebra which are widely used in computer
science and engineering.

6
 PREREQUISITES

S.NO TOPIC

1. Truth table technique

2. Knowledge in Set theory

3. Basics of Counting technique

4. Induction Method technique

5. Basics concepts of Group

6. Relations and Functions

7
 20MA302 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LTPC
3204

UNIT I LOGIC AND PROOFS 12

Propositional logic – Propositional equivalences – Predicates and quantifiers –

Nested quantifiers – Rules of inference – Introduction to proofs – Proof methods
and strategy.

UNIT II COMBINATORICS 12

Mathematical induction and well ordering – The basics of counting – The

pigeonhole principle – Permutations and combinations – Recurrence relations –
Solving linear recurrence relations – Generating functions – Inclusion and exclusion
principle and its applications

UNIT III GRAPHS THEORY 12

Graphs and graph models – Graph terminology and special types of graphs – Matrix
representation of graphs and graph isomorphism – Connectivity – Euler and
Hamilton paths.

UNIT IV ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES 12

Algebraic systems – Semi groups and monoids – Groups – Subgroups –

Homomorphism‘s – Normal subgroup and cosets –
Lagrange‘s theorem – Definitions and examples of Rings and Fields.

UNIT V LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 12

Partial ordering – Posets – Lattices as posets – Properties of lattices – Lattices as

algebraic systems – Sub lattices – Direct product and homomorphism – Some special
lattices – Boolean algebra.

8
COURSE OUTCOMES

S.NO TOPIC

CO 1 Examine the validity of the arguments.

CO 2 Demonstrate various proof techniques and

application of principles.

CO 3 Apply graph theory techniques to solve real life

problems.

CO 4 Identify algebraic techniques to formulate and

solve group theoretic problems..

CO 5 Utilize the significance of lattices and Boolean

algebra in computer science and engineering

9
 20MA302 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Course Outcome mapping with POs / PSOs

POs
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
COs

CO1 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - 1 2 - -

CO2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - - - -

CO3 2 2 - 2 - - - - - - - 1 2 - -

CO4 2 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - - - -

CO5 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 - -

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

10
 UNIT – IV
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

11
Lecture plan

Proposed Actual CO Taxonomy Mode of

S. Topics to be No of
date Lecture level Delivery*
No. covered periods
Date
Introduction to 13.10.2022 CO4 K1 PPT
1 algebraic 1
structures
Semi Group, 2 15.10.2022 CO4 K1 PPT
Monoid-
2
Properties
,Problem
Group- 2 18.10.2022 CO4 K1 PPT
3 Properties
,Problem
Sub Structures 2 20.10.2022 CO4 K1 PPT
4 of Group, Semi
Group, Monoid

Homomorphism, 2 22.10.2022 CO4 K1 PPT

5
Isomorphism
6 Cosets and 2 26.10.2022 CO4 K2 PPT
Lagrange’s
Theorem
7 Normal Sub 2 28.10.2022 CO4 K2 PPT
Group and
Quotient Groups

8 Rings and Fields 2 31.10.2022 CO4 K2 PPT

12
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Activity based learning helps students express and embrace their curiosity.
Once the students become curious, they tend to explore and learn by themselves.
To evoke curiosity in students, Practice quiz is designed for al the five units.

S.N Topic Activity Link

O
1. Basic Online Quiz https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/61665e8747
concepts of f645001d1d30f6
Algebraic
structures
2. Subgroup Online Quiz https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/61665f2d
ca9df2001df3bc13

3. Ring and Online Quiz https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/61665fb5

Fields 54aefb001e82468c

13
 UNIT- IV
Algebraic Structures
4.1 INTRODUCTION: Binary Operation
Definition
Let A be any non-empty sets. The binary operation ∗ is a function from
A x A i.e. a rule which assigns to every pair (a, b) ∈ A x A, a unique element
a∗b ∈ A.
Example:
Usual addition, multiplication are binary operation defined on the set of real
numbers.
Matrix addition and Matrix multiplication are binary operation on the set of
2 x 2 real matrices.

Algebraic System:
Definition
A non-empty set A together with one or more n-ary operations ∗ defined on it,
is called an algebraic system or algebraic structure or Algebra.
We denote it by (A, ∗)
Note: +, –, ∙ , x, ∗ , 𝖴, ∩ etc.., are some of binary operations.
Properties of Binary operations:
Let the binary operation be ∗ : A x A → A.
Then we have the following properties
1) Closure Property:
a ∗ b ∈ A for all a, b ∈ A.
2) Associativity:
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for all a, b, c ∈ A.
3) Identity element:
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a, for all a ∈ A, where e is called the identity element.
4) Inverse element:
If a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e, then b is called the inverse of a and it is denoted
by a–1, (i.e. b= a–1).
5) Commutative:
a ∗ b=b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ A.
6) Distributive properties: for all a, b, c ∈ A.
(i) a∗ (b ∙ c) = (a∗ b) ∙(a∗c) [Left distributive law]

14
 (ii) (b ∙ c) ∗ a = (b∗ a) ∙ (c∗ a) [Right distributive law]
7) Cancellation properties: for all a, b, c ∈ A
(i) a∗ b = a∗ c ⇒ b = c [Left cancellation law]
(ii) b∗ a = c ∗ a⇒ b = c [Right cancellation law]

Note:
If the binary operations defined on G is + and x, then we have the following table

Properties For all a, b, c ∈ (G, +) For all a, b, c ∈ (G, x)

1. Closure a+b ∈ G axb∈G

2. Associativity (a + b)+ c =a + (b + c) (a x b) x c =a x (b x c)

3. Identity element a+0=0+a=a, Here 0 is a x 1=1 x a=a, Here 1 is

Additive Identity Multiplicative Identity

4. Inverse element a+(–a) = 0, 1 1

ax = x a=1, Here
Here (–a) is Additive a a
inverse 1
is multiplicative inverse
a
5. Commutative a + b=b + a a x b=b x a

Notation:

ℤ The set of all integer.

ℚ The set of all rational number.
ℝ The set of all real number.
ℝ⁺ The set of all positive real number.
ℚ⁺ The set of all positive rational number.
ℂ The set of all complex number.

Example 1:
The set of integers ℤ with the binary operations + and x is an algebraic system
since it satisfies all the above properties.

15
Example 2:
The set of real numbers ℝ with binary operations + and x is an
algebraic system.

2.SEMIGROUPS & MONOIDS

View the video lecture on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ihQyZ7bJcRE
Semi group
Definition: If a non-empty set S together with the binary operation ∗
satisfying the following two properties.
(a) Closure property
(b) Associative property
is called a semigroup. It is denoted by (S, ∗).
Example:
1. Let X be any non-empty set. Then the set of all functions from X to X
is the set Xx , is a semigroup w.r.to ∗, the composition of functions.

2. (Z, +), (Z, ×) are semigroups, where + is the usual addition and × is
the usual multiplication.

3. (P(A), ∩) and (P(A), 𝖴) are semigroups. Where P(A) is the powerset

of A (the set of all subsets of A).
4. W= {0, 1, 2 …} then (W, +), (W, x) are semigroups.N is not
a semigroup w.r.to the operation subtraction.
Commutative Semigroup
The semigroup (S, ∗) is called commutative semigroup if

a∗b=b∗a, ∀ a, b ∈ S.

Solved Examples
1. Show that the set of all natural numbers N is a semigroup w.r.to
operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = max {a, b}.
Solution: N is closed under the operation ∗ .
For a, b, c ∈N

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = max {a, max {b, c}} = max {a, b, c} (1)

(a ∗b)∗c = max{max {a, b}, c}
(a ∗b)∗c = max {a, b, c} (2)
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 From (1) and (2),
(a ∗ b) ∗ c =a ∗ (b ∗ c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ N
∴ ∗ is associative.
∴ (N, ∗) is a semigroup.
2. Show that the set of rational numbers Q is a semigroup for the operation
∗ defined by a ∗ b = a + b – ab.
Solution: Q is closed for ∗.
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c – bc)
= a + b + c – bc – a (b + c – bc)
= a + b + c – ab – bc – ca + abc (1)
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b – ab) ∗c
= a + b – ab + c – (a + b – ab) c
= a + b + c – ab –ac – bc + abc (2)
From (1) and (2),
(a ∗ b) ∗ c =a ∗ (b ∗ c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ Q
∴ ∗ is associative.
∴ (Q, ∗) is a semigroup.
3. Show that the set of rational numbers Q is a semigroup for operation ∗
defined by a ∗ b = 𝑎𝑏2 ∀ a, b ∈ Q

Solution: Q is closed for ∗.

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ 𝑏𝑐2 =
𝑎𝑏𝑐
4
𝑎𝑏𝑐
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = 𝑎𝑏2 ∗ c=
4
(a ∗ b) ∗ c =a ∗ (b ∗ c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ Q
∴ ∗ is associative.
∴ (Q, ∗) is a semigroup.
4. Let (A,∗ ) be a semigroup. Show that for a, b, c in A if a ∗ c = c ∗ a and
then b ∗ c = c ∗ b then (a ∗ b) ∗ c = c ∗ (a * b).
Solution: L.H.S. (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) [∵ ∗ is associative]

= a ∗ (c ∗ b) [∵ b ∗ c = c ∗ b]

=(a ∗ c) ∗ b [∵ ∗ is associative]

= (c ∗ a) ∗ b [∵ a ∗ c = c ∗ a]

= c ∗ (a * b) [∵ ∗ is associative]
=R.H.S.
17
5. Let (S,∗) be а commutative semigroup. If х ∗ х = х, у ∗ у = y, prove
that (x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ y) = x ∗ y.
Solution: L.H.S.: (x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ y)
=x ∗ (y ∗ (x ∗ y))
=x ∗ ((y ∗ x) ∗ y)
= x ∗ ((x ∗ y) ∗ y)
= x ∗ (x ∗ (y ∗ y))
= x ∗ (x ∗ y)
= (x ∗ x) ∗ y
=x∗y
= R.H.S.
6. Let {{х, у} , ∙ } be а semigroup where x ∙ x = у. Show that
(i) x ∙ y = y ∙ x ii) y ∙ y=y.
Solution: (i) x ∙ (x ∙ x) = (x ∙ x) ∙ x (Since ∙ is associative)
Given х ∙ х = у
∴x∙y=y∙x
(ii)То ргоvе: y ∙ y=y
Since the set {х, у} is closed for operation ‘∙’,
x ∙ y = x (or) x ∙ y = y

Assume x ∙ y = x
y ∙ y= y ∙ (x ∙ x)
= (y ∙ x) ∙ x
= (x ∙ y) ∙ x
∴ y ∙ y= y
Next consider the case x ∙ y = y,
y ∙ y= (x ∙ x) ∙ y
= x ∙ (x ∙ y)
∴ y ∙ y= y
7. Let (A, ∗) be a semi group. Further more for every a,b ∈ A, if a ≠ b then
a ∗b≠b∗a
(i) Show that for every a ∈ A, a ∗a=a
(ii) For every a ∈ A, a ∗
∗ a) = a.
(b
(iii) For every a, b, c ∈ A, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ c.

18
Solution:
(i) a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗b)∗c
Put b = a and c=a
a ∗ (a ∗ a) = (a ∗a)∗a
Since (A, ∗) is not commutative, a ∗ a = a.
Let us assume that b ∈ A then we have for b ∈ A, b ∗ b = b.
Let a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗b [∵b ∗b=b]
(a ∗ b) ∗ b = a ∗b [∵ associative]

Hence a ∗ b = a (1) (Using Right Cancellation law)

∴ a ∗ (b ∗ a) = (a ∗b)∗a From [∵ associative]
=a∗a
=a
(i)(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ c [∵ a ∗ b = a]

Monoid:
A semigroup (S, ∗) with an identity element w.r.t. ‘∗’ is called Monoid.
It is denoted by (M, ∗).
In other words, a non-empty set 'M' with respect to ∗ is said to be a monoid,
if ∗ satisfies the following properties.
(a) Closure property
(b) Associative property
(c) Identity property
Examples:
1. W= {0, 1, 2 …} then (W, +), (W, x) are monoids.
2. (Z, x), (Z, +) are monoids.
3. The set of even integers E= {……,−4, −2,0,2,4, … . }, Then (E, +) is a monoid
and (E, x) is a semigroup but not a monoid.
4. (P(A),𝖴) is a monoid with identity element ∅.
(P(A),∩) is a monoid with identity element A, where A is any set.
Problem:
Show that the set of integers, is a monoid for the operation ∗ defined by
a∗b=a+b−ab, for a, b ∈ Z .
Solution: Z is closed for the operation ∗ .
Further ∗ is a associative.

19
 The element 0∈ Z is the identity Element
Since x ∗ 0 = x + 0 – x ∙ 0 = x and 0 ∗ x = 0 + x − 0 ∙ x = x, ∀ x ∈ Z.
∴ (Z,∗)is a monoid with identity 0∈ Z.

Commutative Monoid:
A monoid (M,∗) is said to be commutative of a∗ b = b ∗ a, ∀ a, b ∈ M.
Example: (I, +), (I, x) are commutative monoids.
4.3 GROUP
View the video lecture on YouTube: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/106/111106113/

Definition
A non-empty set G with binary operation ∗ is called a group if the following
axioms are satisfied.
1. ∗ is associative, i.e.(a∗b)∗c= a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ G.
2. There exists an element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a, ∀ a ∈ G.
(e is the identity element).
3. For every a ∈ G, ∃ an element a-1∈ G, such that a∗ a-1 =a−1 ∗ a = e.
(a -1 is called the inverse element of a).
Abelian Group (or) Commutative Group
A group (G,∗) is called abelian if a∗b=b∗a, ∀a, b ∈ G. i.e. ∗ is commutative
in G.

Example

1. (Z, +) is a group called the additive group of integers.

2. M2 (R), the set of all 2 x 2 matrices is a group w.r.to matrix addition.
3. The set of all non-singular 2 x 2 matrices is a group w.r.to matrix
multiplication.
4. The set of nth roots of unity {1, w, w2, ......, wn-1} is a group w.r.to the
operation multiplication of complex numbers.
5. G= {1, -1, i, -i}. In G, the operation ‘∙ ’ is defined by the following table.
Then (G,∙ ) is an abelian group.
∙ 1 -1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
Here ‘ ∙ ’ is the multiplication of complex numbers.

20
6. (R, +) and (R, ∙ ) are groups, where R is the Set of real numbers.
Note:
A monoid in which every element is invertible is called a group.
Example:
(Z , x) is monoid but not a group where Z is the set of integers and x is
the usual multiplication of integers.
Examples
1. Show that [Z5 , +5] is an abelian group.
Solution: The table for addition modulo 5 is.

+5 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]

[0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0]
[2] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1]
[3] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2]
[4] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3]

[a] +5 [b]= remainder when the sum is divided by 5.

From the table for [a], [b], [c] ∈ Z5
[a] +5 ([b] +5 [c]) = ([a] +5 [b]) +5 [c]
[0] ∈ Z5 is the identity element.
The inverse of [1] is [4].
The inverse of [2] is [3].
The inverse of [3] is [2].
The inverse of [4] is [1].
The element [0] ∈ Z5 has self-inverse.
Further [a] +5 [b] = [b] +5 [a],∀ [a], [b] ∈ Z5.
∴ (Z5, +5) is an abelian group.
2. Show that [{1,2, 3, 4}, x5] is an abelian group.
Solution: The table for the x5 is as follows
Z5 = {1,2,3,4} and x5 is multiplication operation

×5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1

21
 Here a ∈ Z5 means a = [a]
a x5 b = remainder when ab is divisible by 5.
For a, b, c ∈ Z5.
a x5 (b x5 c) = (a x5 b) x5 c
1 ∈ Z5; is the identity element.
The inverse of 1 is 1
The inverse of 2 is 3
The inverse of 3 is 2
The inverse of4 is 4
Further a x5 b=b x5 a, ∀ a, b ∈ Z5.
∴ [{1,2, 3, 4}, x5] is an abelian group.

Properties of Group
Property 1:
The identity element in a group is unique.
Proof: If (G, ∗ ) be a group and e1 and e2 be two identity elements of G.
Let x ∈ G; x∗ e1 = x and x∗ e2 = x
∴ x∗e1= x∗ e2, By using left cancellation law, we get e1 = e2
∴ Identity element is unique
Property 2:
The inverse of every element in a group is unique.
Proof: Let (G, ∗ ) be a group, with identity element e. Let b and c be
inverses of a element a ∈ G.
a ∗ b=b ∗ a = e
a ∗ c=c ∗ a = e
b=b ∗ e
=b ∗ (a ∗ c)
= (b ∗ a) ∗ c
=e ∗c
b=c
Property 3:
If a is an element in a group (G, ∗) then (a-1)-1 = a.
Property 4:( Reversal law)
If a and b are two elements in a group (G, ∗) then (a ∗ b)-1 = b-1 ∗ a-1.
[ prove (a ∗ b) ∗ (b-1 ∗ a-1) = e and (b-1 ∗ a-1) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e]

22
Property 5: Cancellation laws
In a group (G,∗), for every a, b, c ∈ G, then
(i) a∗ c = b∗ c implies a=b (Right Cancellation law)
(ii) c∗ a = c∗ b implies a=b (Left Cancellation law)

Property 6:
In a group (G,∗), the equations x ∗ a=b and a ∗ y=b has unique solution.
Proof: Consider x ∗ a=b
Post multiplying by a-1
x ∗ (a ∗ a-1) = b∗ a-1
i.e. x ∗ e = b∗ a-1
∴ x = b ∗ a-1
Proof of Uniqueness
Let x1 and x2 be two solutions of x ∗ a= b.
Then x1 ∗ a= b and x2 ∗ a= b.
∴ x1 ∗ a = x2 ∗ a
⇒ x1 = x2 [By Right cancellation law]
∴ The solution is unique.
In a similar manner, the equation a ∗ y=b has a solution y = a-1 ∗ b and
it has unique solution.
Examples
1. Show that a group (G,∗ ) is abelian iff (a∗ b)2= a2 ∗ b2
Solution: First we assume that (G,∗ ) is abelian,
(a∗ b)2=(a ∗ b) ∗ (a∗ b)
=a∗ (b ∗ (a ∗ b))
=a∗ ((b ∗ a)∗ b)
Since G is abelian,
a ∗ b=b ∗ a.
∴ (a ∗ b)2= a ∗ ((a ∗ b) ∗ b)
= (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b)
= a2 ∗ b2

Conversely, we assume that (a ∗ b)2= a2 ∗ b2.

To prove G is abelian:

23
 (a ∗ b)2 = a2∗ b2
(a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ b) = (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b)
a ∗ (b ∗ (a ∗ b)) = a ∗ (a ∗ (b ∗ b))
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ (b ∗ b) [by Left cancellation law]
(b ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b∗ a = a∗ b [by Right cancellation law]
∴ a ∗ b = b ∗ a, ∀ a, b ∈ G
∴ G is abelian.

2. Show that (G, ∗ ) is abelian iff (a ∗ b)-1 = a-1 ∗ b-1.

Solution: Assume that G is Abelian.
∴(a ∗ b) = (b ∗ a),∀ a,b ∈ G
(a ∗ b)-1= (b ∗ a)-1
=a-1 ∗ b-1
Conversely assume (a ∗ b)-1 = a-1 ∗ b-1
But a-1 ∗ b-1 = (b ∗ a)-1 (By Reversal law)
∴ (a ∗ b)-1= (b ∗ a)-1 From given
Taking inverses both sides, ((a ∗ b)-1)-1 = ((b ∗ a)-1)-1
⇒ a ∗ b = b ∗ a, ∀ a, b ∈ G
∴ (G, ∗) is abelian
3. Show that if every element in a group is its own inverse, then the
group is abelian.
Solution: Let G be a group such that every element in G is its own
inverse.
∴ For a ∈ G, a-1=a
Let a, b ∈ G, then (a ∗ b) ∈ G and so
(a ∗ b)-1 =a ∗ b (1)
But (a ∗ b)-1 = b-1 ∗ a-1
Since b-1 = b, a-1 = a.
⇒ (a ∗ b)-1 = b ∗ a (2)
From (1) and (2) we have a∗ b = b ∗ a ∀ a, b ∈ G
∴ G is abelian.

24
4. Prove that if for every element a in a group (G, ∗), a2 = e then G is an
abelian group.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G

Then (a ∗ b) ∈ G and so (a ∗ b)2 = e (1)

Since a ∈ G, a2=e ⇒ a ∗a=e

b ∈ G, b2=e ⇒ b ∗b=e
From (1) (a ∗ b)2 = e

⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e ∗e
= (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b)

a ∗ (b ∗ (a ∗ b)) = a ∗ (a ∗ (b ∗ b))
b∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ (b ∗ b) [by Left cancellation law]
i.e. (b ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
∴ b ∗ a =a ∗ b [by Right cancellation law]

∴ G is abelian.

25
Permutation Groups (Sn)
View the video lecture on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPkabtWBKW0
Definition:
A permutation of a set A is a one-to-one and onto function from set A to
itself.
Example.:
If A={1,2,3,4,5}, then a permutation is function σ where: σ (1)=4, σ (2)=2, σ
(3)=5, σ(4)=3, σ (5)=1. This can be represented with permutation notation

1 2 3 4 5 .
as:  =  
4 2 5 3 1
Symmetric Set:
If S is a finite set having n distinct elements then we shall have n! distinct
permutations of the sets. The set of all distinct permutations of degree n
defined on the set S is denoted by Sn called symmetric set of permutations of
degree n.

Note: O(Sn)=n!.
Problems:
1. List all elements of the symmetric set S3, where S={1,2,3} and prove
that (S3, °) is a non abelian group.

Solution: Given S={1,2,3}.

Total number of permutation on S=3!=6.
Elements of symmetrical set S3= {P1,P2,P3,P4,P5,P6}
where

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
P1 =  ;P = ;P = ;
1 2 3  2  1 3 2  3  2 1 3 
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
P4 =   ; P5 =   ; P6 =  .
2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 

The operation ’°‘ product of permutations defined on the set S3=

{P1,P2,P3,P4,P5,P6} is given in the table.

26
 ° P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
P1 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
P2 P2 P1 P4 P3 P6 P5
P3 P3 P5 P1 P6 P4 P2
P4 P4 P6 P2 P5 P1 P3
P5 P5 P3 P6 P1 P4 P2
P6 P6 P4 P5 P2 P3 P1

 1 2 3  1 2 3 =  1 2 3
P1 P2 =       = P2.
 1 2 3  1 3 2   1 3 2 
To prove: (S3, °) is a non abelian group.
(i) Closure: Since the body of the table contains only the elements of S3.
 (S3, °) is closed.
(ii)Associativity: We know composition of function S is associative and so
it is true in S3 also. (S3, °) is associative.

P1 (P3 P4 ) = P1 P6 = P6 .
(P1 P3 ) P4 = P3 P4 = P6 .
 P1 (P3 P4 ) = (P1 P3 ) P4 .

 1 2 3
(iii) Identity: P1 =   is the identity element of S3.
 1 2 3
(iv) Inverse: From the above table
P −1 = P ;P −1 = P ;P −1 = P ;P −1 = P ;P −1 = P ;P −1 = P . Thus inverse exists
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 4 6 6

for every element. Hence inverse axiom is verified.

 (S3, °) is a group.
Commutative: From the table; P3 ° P4=P6 and P4 ° P3=P2.
 P3 ° P4≠ P4 ° P3. Hence (S3, °) is not commutative.

Dihedral Group: Dn
The group of symmetries of a regular polygon of n sides is called a dihedral
group (Dn, *), where the transformations are n rotations about its centre
2 4 2n
through angles , , , in the anticlockwise sense.
n n n

27
Note: By considering the symmetries of a regular polygon of n sides, we obtain a
set of permutations and the set of these permutations form a group with respect to
the product of permutations.

Problems:
1. List all the elements of dihedral group (D3, °) and form the composition table.
Solution: The elements of (D3, °) are the permutations obtained by
considering the symmetries of an equilateral triangle labeled 1,2,3
respectively. If n=3, D3 is the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle.
Since regular polygon of 3 sides is the equilateral triangle. The symmetries
are the rotation about the centre o and the reflections R1,R2,R3 about the
altitudes through the vertices 1,2,3 respectively.

The rotations are:

 1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
P1 = R 360 =   ; P2 = R 240 =   ; P3 = R120 =  .
 1 2 3  2 3 1  3 1 2

The Reflections through median

 1 2 3 ; P =  1 2 3 ; P =  1 2 3 .
P4 =   5 3  6 2 
 1 3 2  2 1  1 3

Composition table for Dihedral group (D3, °)

° P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
P1 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
P2 P2 P3 P1 P5 P6 P4
P3 P3 P1 P2 P6 P4 P5
P4 P4 P6 P5 P1 P3 P2
P5 P5 P4 P6 P2 P1 P3
P6 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1
Note: D3= S3. Therefore S3 is permutation group. D3 is also permutation
group.

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 1. List all the elements of the Dihedral group (D 4 , °).
Solution: If n=4, D 4 is the dihedral group of symmetries of a regular
polygon with 4 sides, which is a square. Let 1,2,3,4 are the vertices of
the square. The symmetrices are the rotations about the centre o
through 90 o , 180 o , 270 o , 360 o and the reflections about the diagonals
and the bisectors of the sides.

The rotations are,

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 
P 4 = R 90 =   ; P 3 = R 180 =  ;
 4 1 2 3   3 4 1 2 
1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
P2 = R 270 =   ; P1 = R 360 =  .
2 3 4 1  1 2 3 4 
The reflections through the diagonals and the bisectors of the sides are
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
P5 =   ; P6 =   ; P7 =  ;
1 4 3 2 3 2 1 4 2 1 4 3 
1 2 3 4
P8 =  .
4 3 2 1

Therefore D 4 consists of 8 symmetries of the square.

Note: Permutation group, S 4 ={1,2,3,4}.
O(S 4 )=4!=24 elements.
Dihedral group, D 4 =8 elements. Therefore D 4 is a subset of S 4 . Indeed
D 4 is a subgroup of S 4 . Hence D 4 is a permutation group.

Cyclic group:
View the video lecture on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMzDlaNad0M
Definition: A group (G,*) is called the cyclic group if there exists an element
a  G such that every element a  G is expressed as a  G or ma for any
m

integer m.

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 • `a’ is called the generator of the cycle group G.
• G=<a> denote the cyclic group G generated by the element a.

Example:
1. Consider the group G={1, -1, i, -i} under multiplication.
G can be generated by i, <a>={i1, i2, i3, i4}={i, -1, -i, 1}=G.
G can be generated by –i, <a>={-i1,(- i)2, (-i)3, (-i)4}={-i, 1, i, -1}=G.

2. Consider the group G={1, w,w2} under multiplication.

G can be generated by w, <w>={w,w2,w3}={1, w,w2}=G.
G can be generated by w2, <w2>={ w2,w4,w6}={ w2,w,i}=G.
3. In the group (Z12,+12), {[0], [3], [6], [9]} is the cyclic subgroup generated by
[3].
Therefore <3>={0, 6, 9, 0}={0, 6, 9}.
Theorem: Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof:
Let (G,*) be a cyclic group with `a’ as a generator. Then G={an| n ∈ Z}.
Let x, y∈G  x=am , y=am for some m , m ∈Z.
1 2 1 2
x*y= am * am =am +m
= am +m
= am * am =y*x.
1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1

Therefore x*y= y*x.

 G, cyclic group is abelian.
Note: Converse of the above theorem need not be true.
Consider Klein’s four group

G={e,a,b,c} with operation * defined by the following table.

∗ e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e

This group G is Abelian group with identity element e but it is not cyclic.

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Theorem: Let (G,*) be a finite cyclic group generated by an element a ∈ G.
If O(G)=n then an=e and so G={a, a2, a3, …, an-1, an=e}. Further O(a)=n.
That is n is the least positive integer such that an=e.

Proof: Given (G,*) is a finite cyclic group generated by a.

To prove: am=e is not possible for m<n.
Assume, it is possible. ie., am=e, m<n.
Since G is a cyclic group generated by`a’, any element x∈G is an integral
power of a.

x=ak for some integer k.

Now for the integers m,k by Euclidian division algorithm, we can finite integer
a and r such that k=mq+r, 0  r  m .
 x=ak=amq+r=amq*ar=e*ar=ar. Thus any element of G is ar for r<m. This
means the number of elements of a is atmost m.

 O(G)=m<n  [ O(G)=n]. Hence am=e is not possible for m<n.

an=e.
To prove: The elements a, a2, a3, …, an-1, an are all distinct.
Suppose it is not true, then there are repetitions. ie.,
a s = a r , 0  r  s  n.
 a s * a −r = a r * a −r
 a s −r = a 0 = e , 0  s − r  n .
 to first part.

 All the elements are distinct. Hencea, a2, a3, …, an-1, an are all distinct.
 O(G)=n, it follows G={a, a2, a3, …, an-1, an=e} , so O(a)=n.

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4.4 SUBGROUP
View the NPTEL video lecture on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Izw1BkWP9os&feature=youtu.be
SUBGROUP
Definition: Let (𝐺, ∗) be a group. Let 𝑒 be the identity element in 𝐺 and let 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.
If 𝐻 itself is a group with the same operation ∗ and the same identity element 𝑒.
(or)
Let (𝐺, ∗) be a group and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺. (𝐻, ∗) is called a subgroup of (𝐺, ∗), if 𝐻 itself is
a group with respect to ∗.

Example: (𝑄, +) is a subgroup of (𝑅, +).

TRIVIAL SUBGROUP OR IMPROPER SUBGROUP

For any group (𝐺, ∗), {{𝑒}, ∗} and (𝐺, ∗) are subgroups, called trivial subgroups.

NON TRIVIAL SUBGROUP OR PROPER SUBGROUP

All other subgroups other than {{𝑒}, ∗} and (𝐺, ∗) are called non trivial subgroup.

CONDITION FOR A NON-EMPTY SUBSET H TO BE A SUBGRUOP OF G.

(𝐻,∗) is said to be a subgroup of (𝐺, ∗) if
(i) 𝐻 is closed for the operation ∗, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
(ii) 𝐻 contains the identity element 𝑒 (i.e) 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 where 𝑒 is the identity of 𝐺.
(iii). For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR A SUBGROUP:

THEOREM 1: A non-empty subset 𝐻 of a group (𝐺, ∗) is a subgroup of 𝐺 if and
only if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
PROOF: Necessary Condition:
Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a group 𝐺 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
To prove: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Since 𝐻 is a subgroup and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏−1 must exist and 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Now, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻. [By closure property]
Sufficient Condition:
Assume 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
To prove: 𝐻 be a subgroup of a group 𝐺.
(i). IDENTITY:
Now, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence the identity element, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.
(ii). INVERSE:
𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

32
 ⇒ Every element ′𝑎′ of 𝐻 has its inverse 𝑎−1 is in 𝐻.
(iii). CLOSURE:
If 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 then 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏−1)−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
(iv). ASSOCIATIVE:
Now 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 and the associative law hold good for 𝐺, as 𝐺 is a group. Hence it is
true for the element of 𝐻.
Thus all axioms for a group are satisfied for 𝐻. Hence 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

THEOREM 2: The intersection of two subgroups of a group (𝐺, ∗) is also a

subgroup of (𝐺, ∗).
PROOF: Let 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroups of (𝐺, ∗).
To prove that: 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is subgroup of (𝐺, ∗).
We have 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ≠ ∅. [∵ atleast identity element is common to both 𝐻 and 𝐾].
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾
𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾
Now, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 [𝐻 is a subgroup , Theorem 1],
𝑎 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾 [𝐾 is a subgroup , Theorem 1].
Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
Thus 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺. [By Theorem 1]

NOTE: The union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup.

Ex: Let (𝑍, +) is a group.
Let 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroup of (𝑍, +)
where 𝐻 = {… . −4, −2,0,2,4,6 … . } = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6. . }
𝐾 = {… . −6, −3,0,3,6,9 … . } = {0, ±3, ±6, ±9. . }
𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 = {0, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±9. . }
3, 8 ∈ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 but 3 + 8 = 11 ∉ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾.
Therefore, 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is not closed with respect to addition.
Therefore, 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is not a subgroup of 𝐺.
THEOREM 3: The union of two subgroups of a group 𝐺 iff one is contained in the
other.
PROOF: Assume 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroups of 𝐺 and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾 or 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻.
To prove that. 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is a subgroup.
∵ 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroups and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾 ⟹ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 = 𝐾.
or 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroups and 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 = 𝐻.
Therefore, 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is a subgroup.
Conversely, Suppose 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is a subgroup.
To prove that, one is contained in the other (i.e) 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾 or 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻.

33
Suppose, 𝐻 ⊈ 𝐾 or 𝐾 ⊈ 𝐻.
Then, ∃ elements 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∉ 𝐾 ----------------(1)
𝑏 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑏 ∉ 𝐻 ----------------(2)
Clearly, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾.
Since, 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝖴 𝐾.
Hence, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 or 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐾.
Case 1: Let 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. ∵ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence, 𝑎−1(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, which is a contradiction (2).
Case 2: Let 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐾. ∵ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾.
Hence, 𝑏−1(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾, which is a contradiction (1).
Therefore, Our assumption is wrong.
Thus, 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾 or 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻.
PROBLEMS:
1. Let (𝐻 , . ) be a subgroup of (𝐺 , . ). Let 𝑁 = {𝑥/ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻}. Show that
(𝑁 , . ) is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Solution: Let 𝑥ℎ1𝑥−1, 𝑥ℎ2 𝑥−1 ∈ 𝑥𝐻𝑥−1 when ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻.
Now, (𝑥ℎ1 𝑥 −1 )(𝑥ℎ 2𝑥 −1) = (𝑥ℎ1 𝑥 −1 )((𝑥 −1)−1 ℎ2𝑥 −1)
= 𝑥ℎ1 (𝑥 −1 (𝑥 −1 )−1 ℎ2 −1 𝑥 −1 )
= 𝑥ℎ1 𝑒ℎ2 −1 𝑥 −1 = 𝑥ℎ1 ℎ2 −1 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝑥𝐻𝑥−1 [∵ ℎ1 ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻].
∵ 𝐻 is a subgroup.
𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
2. Find all the non-trivial subgroup of (𝑍6, +6).
𝑂(𝐺)
Solution: 𝑍6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] } of 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝑍 6then .
𝑂(𝐻)
Hence, 𝑂(𝐻) = 1,2,3, or 6.
𝑂(𝐻) = 1 ⟹ 𝐻 = [0] +6 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝑂(𝐻) = 2 ⟹ 𝐻 = {[0], [𝑥]} 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
⟹ 𝐻 = {[0], [3]} [∵ [𝑥] + [𝑥] = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3] 1 1 2 3 4 5 0
𝑂(𝐻) = 3 ⟹ 𝐻 = {[0], [𝑥], [2𝑥]} 2 2 3 4 5 0 1
⟹ 𝐻 = {[0], [2], [4]} 3 3 4 5 0 1 2
𝑂(𝐻) = 3 ⟹ 𝐻 = {𝑍6 , +6 } 4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

3. Check whether 𝐻1 = {0, 5,10} and 𝐻2 = {0, 4,8,12} are subgroups of 𝑍15 with
respect to +15 .
Solution:

34
 𝐻1 = {0, 5,10} 𝐻2 = {0, 4,8,12}

+15 0 5 10 +15 0 4 8 12
0 0 5 10 0 0 4 8 12
5 5 10 0 4 4 8 12 1
10 10 0 5 8 8 12 1 5
(𝐻1 , +15 ) 12 12 1 5 9
(𝐻2 , +15 )
Table 1: (𝐻1, +15): All the entries in the addition table for 𝐻1 are the elements of
𝐻1.
Therefore, 𝐻1 is a subgroup of 𝑍15.
Table 2: (𝐻2 , +15): All the entries in the addition table for 𝐻2 are not the
elements of 𝐻2 .
Therefore, 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝑍15.
1. Find all the subgroups of (𝑍9 , +9 ).
Solution:
𝑍9 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} ×9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑂(𝐺)
= 𝑂(𝐻)|𝑂(𝐺) 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑂(𝐻) 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
Hence, 𝑂(𝐻) = 1, 3. 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1
𝑂(𝐻) = 1 ⟹ 𝐻 = {0} 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2
𝑂(𝐻) = 3 ⟹ 𝐻 = {0, 3, 6} 4 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4
+9 0 3 6
6 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 3 6
7 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 3 6 0
8 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 6 0 3

4.5 HOMOMORPHISM & ISOMORPHOSIM

Semi group homomorphism:

Let (𝑆,∗) and(𝑇,∘) be two semi groups. A mapping

𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑇 is called a semi group homomorphism if
𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.

Semi group Monomorphism:

If 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1, then 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑇 is called Semi group Monomorphism.
Semi group Epimorphism:
If 𝑔 is onto, then 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑇 is called Semi group Epimorphism.
Semi group Isomorphism:
If 𝑔 is both 1 − 1 and onto, then 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑇 is called Semi group Isomorphism.

35
Property 1: A semi group homomorphism preserves the property of associative.
Proof: Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
𝑔[(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐] = 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑐) = [𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏)] ∘ 𝑔(𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑐)
𝑔[𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)] = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ [𝑔(𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑐)] = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑐)
But in 𝑆
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔[(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐] = 𝑔[𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)]
⇒ [𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏)] ∘ 𝑔(𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ [𝑔(𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑐)]
∴ The property of associativity. preserved.
Property 2: A semi group homomorphism preserves the idempotency.
Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 be an idempotent element.
⇒ 𝑎∗𝑎 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎)
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎)
This shows that 𝑔(𝑎) is idempotent element in 𝑇.
Property 3: A semi group homomorphism preserves the commutativity.
Proof: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
Assume that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑏 ∗ 𝑎)
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑏) ∘ 𝑔(𝑎)
This means that the operation ‘∘’ is commutative in 𝑇.
∴ The semi group homomorphism preserves the commutativity.
Property 4: Let (𝑆,∗) be a semi group. Then there exists a homomorphism
𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑆𝑆 where (𝑆𝑆,∘) is a semi group of functions from 𝑆 → 𝑆 under the operation
of (left) composition.
Solution: to prove 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑆 𝑆 is a homorphism.
That is 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
We define 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑆 𝑆 by 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎 for 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆
Where 𝑓𝑎 : 𝑆 → 𝑆 such that 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 for 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
Since 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎 ∗𝑏 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
To prove 𝑓𝑎 ∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏
Consider 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) [since ∗ is associative]
= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑏 (𝑐)
= 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑐))
= (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑐)
∴ 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑐)
∴ 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 ) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
To prove 𝑔 is homomorphism.

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Consider 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
Hence 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑆 𝑆 is a homorphism.
Problems:
1. If (𝑍, +) and (𝐸, +) where 𝑍 is the set of all integers and 𝐸 is the set of all positive
integers. Show that the two semi groups (𝑍, +) and (𝐸, +) are isomorphic.
Solution: Let 𝑓: (𝑍, +) → (𝐸, +) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍.
(i). To prove 𝑓 is homomorphism:
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)
∴ 𝑓 is homomorphism.
(ii). To prove 𝑓 is 1 − 1:
Assume 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 2𝑥 = 2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
∴ 𝑓 is 1 − 1.
(iii). To prove 𝑓 is onto:
For all 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
Now, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦2
∴ For all 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 the corresponding pre image is 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍
2
Since 𝑓: (𝑍, +) → (𝐸, +) is bijective and homomorphism
∴ 𝑓: (𝑍, +) → (𝐸, +) is isomorphism.
2. If 𝑆 = 𝑁 × 𝑁, the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with the operation ‘∗’
defined by (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑) and if 𝑓: (𝑆,∗) → (𝑄, +) defend by
𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏 , then show that 𝑓 is semi group homomorphism.
Solution: To prove (𝑆,∗) is semi group
((𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓) = (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓)
= {(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
= {𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ ((𝑐, 𝑑) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓)) = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒, 𝑑𝑓)
= {𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒), 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
= {𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
∴ ((𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓) = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ ((𝑐, 𝑑) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓))
∴ 𝑆 is associative with respect to ‘∗ ′ and hence it is a semi group.
Monoid Homomorphism:
Let (𝑀,∗, 𝑒) and(𝑇,∘, 𝑒′ ) be any two monoids. A mapping 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 is called a monoid
homomorphism if
(i). 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀
(ii). 𝑔(𝑒) = 𝑒′

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Monoid Monomorphism:
If 𝑔 is 1 − 1, then 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 is called a monoid monomorphism.
Monoid Epimorphism:
If 𝑔 is onto, then 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 is called a monoid Epimorphism.
Monoid Isomorphism:
If 𝑔 is 1 − 1 and onto, then 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 is called a monoid Isomorphism.

Problems:
1. Show that Monoid Homomorphism preserves the property of invertability.
Solution: Let (𝑀,∗) and (𝑀′,∘) be two monoids with identities 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′
respectively.
Let 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑀′ be a homomorphism.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑀 be an element with inverse 𝑎−1.
To prove 𝑔(𝑎−1) = [𝑔(𝑎)]−1
Since 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎, we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Now 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1) = 𝑔(𝑒)
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎) ∙ 𝑔(𝑎−1) = 𝑒′ …..(1)
Similarly,
𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑒)
⇒ 𝑔(𝑎−1) ∙ 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑒′ …..(2)
∴ From the equations (1) and (2)
𝑔(𝑎) ∙ 𝑔(𝑎−1) = 𝑔(𝑎−1) ∙ 𝑔(𝑎)
Hence 𝑔(𝑎−1) is the inverse of 𝑔(𝑎).
∴ 𝑔(𝑎−1) = [𝑔(𝑎)]−1.

2. Let (𝑀,∗) be a monoid. Then there exist a subset 𝑇 ⊆ 𝑀𝑚 such that (𝑀,∗) is
isomorphic to the monoid (𝑇,∘) where 𝑀𝑚 is the set of all functions 𝑀 to 𝑀 and
′ ∘ ′ is the operation composition of function.
Solution: For any element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑀, let 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎 where 𝑓𝑎 ∈ 𝑀𝑚 is defined by
𝑓𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 for any 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀.
Clearly g is a function from 𝑀 to 𝑀𝑚
Now 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 where
𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) [since ∗ is associative]

38
 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑏 (𝑐)
= 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑐))
= (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑐)
∴ 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑐)
∴ 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 ) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀.
Hence 𝑔𝑎∗𝑏 = (𝑔𝑎 ∘ 𝑔𝑏 ) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀𝑚 .
∴ 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑀𝑚 is Homomorphism.
Corresponding to an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑀 the function 𝑓𝑎is completely determined
by from the entries in the row corresponding to the element ′𝑎′ in the
composition of (𝑀,∗).
Since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎), every row of such a table determined the image of ′′𝑎′
under homomorphism 𝑔.
Let 𝑔(𝑀) be the image of 𝑀 under the homomorphism 𝑔 such that 𝑔(𝑀) ⊆
𝑀𝑚 .
Let for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎 and 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑓𝑏 are element in 𝑔(𝑀)
Also 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∈ 𝑔(𝑀) ∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀
∴ 𝑔(𝑀) is closed under the operation composition of
function. The mapping 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑔(𝑀) is onto.
∴ The mapping 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑔(𝑀) is 1 − 1 and onto.
∴ 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑔(𝑀) is isomorphism.
If 𝑒 is the identity element of 𝑀, then we define 𝑓𝑒(𝑎) = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑀
Clearly this function 𝑓𝑒 ∈ 𝑇 = 𝑔(𝑀)
Now 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑔(𝑒). Also 𝑓𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑒) = 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑒) = 𝑔(𝑎)
∴ 𝑓𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎)

This shows that 𝑓𝑒 is the identity element of 𝑇 = 𝑔(𝑀)

∴ 𝑓𝑎 , 𝑓𝑏 ∈ 𝑇, 𝑓𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑏 ∈ 𝑇
∴ 𝑇 is closed for the operation composition of function.
∴ 𝑇 = 𝑔(𝑀) is a monoid.
Further 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 is a isomorphism.
Hence (𝑀,∗) is isomorphic to the monoid (𝑇,∘).

Group Homomorphism:
Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺1,∘) be two groups. A mapping 𝑔: 𝐺 → 𝐺1 is called
group homomorphism if 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
 Properties of group homomorphism:
A group homomorphism preserves identities, inverses and sub groups.
39
Theorem 1: Homomorphism prese r ves identities.
(or)
If 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒1 where 𝑒 and 𝑒1 are the identity elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺1 respectively.
Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, If 𝑒 is the identity element 𝐺,
then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑎)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism
⇒ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒1
∴ 𝑓 preserves identities.

Theorem 2: Homomorphism preserves inverse (or) 𝑓(𝑎−1) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1

Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Since 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1) = 𝑓(𝑒)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ 𝑓(𝑎−1) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒1 ∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism
∴ 𝑓(𝑎 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)] .
−1 −1

∴ 𝑓 preserves inverse
Theorem 3: Homomorphism preserves subgroup
(or)
If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 then 𝑓(𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺1.

Proof: Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻

Let 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) and 𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻).
[∵ 𝐻 is a subgroup]
To prove 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)
Consider 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ 𝑓(𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) ∵ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∘ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) ∀ 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) and𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻).

∴ 𝑓(𝐻) ⊆ 𝐺1 is a subgroup of 𝐺1.

Theorem 4: Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a group homomorphism and 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .

Then 𝑓−1(𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Proof: Let 𝑓−1(𝐻) = {𝑎 = 𝑓−1(𝑐) ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻}
Clearly 𝑓−1(𝐻) will be a non empty subset of 𝐺 [∵ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.]
Now let us consider 𝑎 = 𝑓−1(𝑐) ∈ 𝑓−1(𝐻) and b= 𝑓−1(𝑑) ∈ 𝑓−1(𝐻).
For 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝐻 with 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 and 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑑.
Let a, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑓−1(𝐻) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝐻 [∵ 𝐻 is a subgroup.]
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) ∈ 𝐻

40
 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) ∈ 𝐻 [∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism.]
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝑓−1(𝐻)
∴ a, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑓 −1 (𝐻) ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝑓 −1 (𝐻)
Hence 𝑓−1(𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺 1.

KERNEL OF A HOMOMORPHISM:
View the NPTEL video lecture on YouTube:
https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc19_ma24/unit?unit=57&lesson=60

Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. The set of elements of G which are

mapped into 𝑒′ (identity element in 𝐺′) is called the kernel of 𝑓 and it is denoted by
ker(𝑓).
ker(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ } , 𝑒 ′ is identity of 𝐺 ′ .

then ker(𝑓) = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

Example: 1. 𝑓: (𝑍, +) → (𝑍, +) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 then ker(𝑓) = {0}
2. 𝑓: (𝑅∗,∙) → (𝑅+,∙) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|, then ker(𝑓) = {1, −1}.

Theorem 1: If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is a homomorphism then ker 𝑓 = {𝑒} iff 𝑓 is 1-1.

Proof: Assume 𝑓 is one to one
Then 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′ ∴ ker 𝑓 = {𝑒}
Conversely, Assume ker 𝑓 = {𝑒}
Now 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥)[𝑓(𝑦)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥𝑦−1) = 𝑒′
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ ker 𝑓 ⇒ 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
Hence 𝑓 is one to one.

1) Prove that Kernel of a homomorphism is a normal subgroup of G.

Proof: Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺′ ,∙) be the groups and 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a group homomorphism.
By the definition of homomorphism,𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏)∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
By the definition of kernel, 𝐾 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒′}
i.e., 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑒′ is the identity element of H.

41
To prove that ‘K’ is a normal subgroup of G. i.e., to prove
i) 𝐾 is nonempty
ii) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾
iii) 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐾, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
i) Identity element ‘𝑒’ of G is mapped to identity element of e’ of G’.
i.e., 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾 ⟹ 𝐾 is non-empty.
ii) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒′
𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) {∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism}
= 𝑓(𝑎)[𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ . (𝑒′)−1
= 𝑒′ . 𝑒′ = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾.
Hence K = ker f is a subgroup
iii)Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐾 be any element.
⟹ 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑒′
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥−1) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(ℎ) ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1)
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 ′ ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1) = 𝑒
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥−1) ∈ 𝐾
Hence K = ker f is a normal subgroup of G.
2) Show that the Kernel of a homomorphism of a group (𝐺,∗) into an another group
(𝐻, ∙) is a subgroup of G.
Proof: Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐻, ∙) be the groups and 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻′ is a group homomorphism.
By the definition of homomorphism,𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏)∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
By the definition of kernel, 𝐾 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒′}
i.e., 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑒′ is the identity element of H.
To prove that ‘K’ is a normal subgroup of G. i.e., to prove
i) 𝐾 is nonempty
ii) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾
iii) 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐾, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
i) Identity element ‘𝑒’ of G is mapped to identity element of e’ of H.
i.e., 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾 ⟹ 𝐾 is non-empty.
ii) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺

42
 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒′
𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) {∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism}
= 𝑓(𝑎)[𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ . (𝑒′)−1
= 𝑒′ . 𝑒′ = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾.
Hence K = ker f is a subgroup

3) State and prove the Fundamental Theorem Of Group Homomorphism.

Statement: Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺′ , ∙) be two groups. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism
of groups with kernel K, then 𝐺/𝐾 is isomorphic to 𝑓(𝐺).
i.e., 𝐺/𝐾 ≅ 𝐺 ′
Proof: Given that 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a homomorphism of groups with kernel K.
We have to prove 𝐺/𝐾 is isomorphic to the image of 𝑓.
Define the map ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎), ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
i) ∅ is well defined:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝐾∗𝑎 =𝐾∗𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾 --------→ (1)
−1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) = 𝑒′ {∵ 𝐾 is kernel}
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . 𝑓(𝑏 ) = 𝑒′ {∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism}
−1

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 . 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′ . 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) {∵ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 . 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′ }
⇒ ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏)
∴ ∅ is well defined.
ii) ∅ is one to one:
To prove that ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ⇒ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏
We know that ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑏) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1)
= 𝑓(𝑏 ∗ 𝑏−1)
= 𝑓(𝑒)
−1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 ) = 𝑒′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) = 𝑒′
⇒ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) ∈ 𝐾
⇒𝐾∗𝑎 =𝐾∗𝑏
∴ ∅ is one to one.
iii)∅ is onto:
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺′
Since 𝑓 is onto, there exists 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑦

43
 ⇒ ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑦 {∵ 𝑓(𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) }
Thus every element of 𝐺′ has preimage in 𝐺/𝐾
∴ ∅ is onto.
i) ∅ is a homomorphism:
∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
= 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
= 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏)
= ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏)
∴ ∅ is a homomorphism.
Since ∅ is one to one, onto and homomorphism, ∅ is isomorphism between 𝐺/𝐾
and 𝐺 ′ .
∴ 𝐺/𝐾 ≅ 𝐺 ′

4) Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism of groups with kernel K, and then prove that

K is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐺/𝐾 is isomorphic to the image of f.
Solution: To prove a) K is a normal subgroup of G
b) 𝐺/𝐾 ≅ 𝐺′
a) To prove K is a normal subgroup of G:
Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ ,∙) be the groups and 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a group homomorphism.
By the definition of homomorphism,𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏)∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
By the definition of kernel, 𝐾 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒′}
i.e., 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑒′ is the identity element of H.

To prove that ‘K’ is a normal subgroup of G. i.e., to prove

i) 𝐾 is nonempty
ii) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾
iii) 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐾, ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐾, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
i) Identity element ‘𝑒’ of G is mapped to identity element of e’ of G’.

44
 i.e., 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾 ⟹ 𝐾 is non-empty.
ii) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒′
𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) {∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism}
= 𝑓(𝑎)[𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ . (𝑒′)−1
= 𝑒′ . 𝑒′ = 𝑒′
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾.
Hence K = ker f is a subgroup
iii) Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐾 be any element.
⟹ 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑒′
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥−1) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(ℎ) ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1)
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 ′ ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(𝑥−1) = 𝑒
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥−1) ∈ 𝐾
Hence K = ker f is a normal subgroup of G.
b) To prove 𝐺/𝐾 ≅ 𝐺 ′ :
Given that 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a homomorphism of groups with kernel K.
We have to prove 𝐺/𝐾 is isomorphic to the image of 𝑓.
Define the map ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎), ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
i) ∅ is well defined:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝐾∗𝑎 =𝐾∗𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾 --------→ (1)
−1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) = 𝑒′ {∵ 𝐾 is kernel}
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . 𝑓(𝑏 ) = 𝑒′ {∵ 𝑓 is homomorphism}
−1

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) . [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 . 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′ . 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) {∵ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 . 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′ }
⇒ ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏)
∴ ∅ is well defined.
ii) ∅ is one to one:
To prove that ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ⇒ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏
We know that ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1) = 𝑓(𝑏) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1)
= 𝑓(𝑏 ∗ 𝑏−1)
= 𝑓(𝑒)
−1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 ) = 𝑒′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) = 𝑒′
⇒ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1) ∈ 𝐾
⇒𝐾∗𝑎 =𝐾∗𝑏
∴ ∅ is one to one.
iii)∅ is onto:

45
 Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺′
Since 𝑓 is onto, there exists 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑦
⇒ ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑦 {∵ 𝑓(𝑎) = ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) }
Thus every element of 𝐺′ has preimage in 𝐺/𝐾
∴ ∅ is onto.
iv) ∅ is a homomorphism:

= 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
= 𝑓(𝑎) . 𝑓(𝑏)
= ∅(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) . ( 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏)
∴ ∅ is a homomorphism.
Since ∅ is one to one, onto and homomorphism, ∅ is isomorphism between 𝐺/𝐾
and 𝐺 ′ .
∴ 𝐺/𝐾 ≅ 𝐺′
Thus, 𝐾 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐺/𝐾 is isomorphic to the image of 𝑓.

5) State and prove the Cayley’s representation theorem.

(or)
Prove that every finite group of order ‘n’ is isomorphic to a permutation group of
order ‘n’.
Proof: To prove the theorem, we have to show the following.
i) To form a set 𝐺 of permutation
ii) To prove 𝐺′ is a group
iii) Exhibit an Isomorphism ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ .
i) To form a set 𝐺 of permutation:
Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order ‘n’ and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element.
Corresponding to ‘a’ we define a map 𝑓𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑓 is one to one.
∵ 𝑓𝑎 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑦)
⇒ 𝑎∗𝑥 =𝑎∗𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 (by left cancellation law)
Now 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 (Co-domain), then
𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑓𝑎 (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑦 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦
∴ 𝑓𝑎is onto.
Thus 𝑓𝑎is a one to one and onto function from 𝐺 → 𝐺 and so it is a permutation on
G.
ii) To prove 𝐺′ is a group:
Let 𝐺 ′ = {𝑓𝑎 /𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}
We verify axioms of the group.
Let 𝑓𝑎 , 𝑓𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ′ be any two elements, then
(𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑥)) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏 ∗ 𝑥) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑥) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏

46
 ∴ 𝐺′ is closed.
Composition mapping is also associative.
Since ‘e’ is the identity element of G, 𝑓𝑒∈ 𝐺 ′ is identity mapping.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺
𝑓𝑎−1 𝑓𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑎−1 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑥) = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑒(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺′
Hence G’ is a group.
iii)Isomorphism ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ :

To prove 𝐺 and 𝐺′ are isomorphic.

Let ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be defined by ∅(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Now for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
∅(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎 ∗ 𝑓𝑏 = ∅(𝑎)∅(𝑏)
∴ ∅ is a homomorphism.
Suppose ∅(𝑎) = ∅(𝑏) then
𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 ⟹ 𝑓𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑏(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 {Right Cancellation law}
∴ ∅ is one to one
𝐺′
Since 𝑓𝑎 is onto, ∅ is onto.
Thus ∅ is an isomorphism of 𝐺 onto 𝐺′.
∴ 𝐺 ≅ 𝐺′
Factor group (or) quotient group

Definition: Let (𝑁, ∗) is a normal subgroup of (𝐺, ∗).Then the set off all left cosets
of N in G is denoted by G/N is called quotient group. G/N = {𝑎 ∗ 𝑁/𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}

47
4.6 COSETS and LAGRANGE’S THEOREM:

Definition: Let (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of (𝐺,∗). Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element. Then the se

𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎 ∗ ℎ /ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the left coset of H in G determined by 𝑎.

Sometimes 𝑎𝐻 can be written as 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻.

The set 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ ∗ 𝑎 /ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the right coset of H in G determined by 𝑎.

Points to remember:

1. Since 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎
2. Also 𝑒𝐻 = {𝑒 ∗ ℎ/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} = {ℎ/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} = 𝐻
and 𝐻𝑒 = {ℎ ∗ 𝑒/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} = {ℎ/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} = 𝐻
So 𝐻 itself is a left coset as well as right coset.
3. In general, 𝑎𝐻 ≠ 𝐻𝑎. But if G is abelian, then 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 That is every left
coset is a right coset.

Theorem: Let (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of (𝐺,∗). Then the set of all left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺
form a partition of 𝐺.

Proof: Let 𝑎𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 be any two left cosets. We shall prove either 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻

(or) 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 = ∅.

Suppose 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 ≠ ∅, then there exists an element

𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑏𝐻

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑏 ∗ ℎ2, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 ............(1)

Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 = 𝑏 ∗ ℎ2, ⇒ (𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 ) ∗ ℎ−1 = (𝑏 ∗ ℎ2 ) ∗ ℎ−1

1 1

⇒ (𝑎 ∗ (ℎ1 ∗ ℎ−1) = (𝑏 ∗ (ℎ2 ∗ ℎ−1 )

1 1

⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ (ℎ2 ∗ ℎ−1
1 )

a = 𝑏 ∗ (ℎ2 ∗ ℎ−1
1 )………………(2)

If 𝑥 is any element in 𝑎𝐻, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ

48
⇒ 𝑥 = (𝑏 ∗ (ℎ2 ∗ ℎ−1
1 )∗ℎ

= 𝑏 ∗ ((ℎ2 ∗ ℎ−1
1 ) ∗ ℎ ) ∈ 𝑎𝐻

Therefore 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑏𝐻 therefore 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝑏𝐻 ................(2)

Similarly we can prove 𝑏𝐻 ⊆ 𝑎𝐻.......................................(3)

From (2) and (3) we get 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻.

Thus any two left cosets are either equal or disjoint. Further 𝖴
𝑎∈𝐺𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐆 since union
of subsets is a subset.If 𝑥 is any element in G, then 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 ∈ 𝑥𝐻

Therefore 𝑥 is a left coset and hence 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎∈𝐺𝖴𝑎𝐻 . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝖴

𝑎∈𝐺 𝑎𝐻 ⇒
𝐺 ⊆ 𝑎∈𝖴 𝑎𝐻 . Therefore 𝐺 = 𝖴 𝑎𝐻 . Thus all the left cosets partition G.
𝐺 𝑎∈𝐺

Theorem: There is a one to one correspondence between any two left cosets of H
in G.

Proof: (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of (𝐺,∗). Let 𝑎𝐻 be any left cosets of 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. We know 𝐻

itself is a left coset. So it is enough to prove that there is a one-one correspondence
between 𝐻 and 𝑎𝐻.

Let 𝑓: 𝐻 → 𝑎𝐻 be defined by 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ ∀ℎ ∈ 𝐻

The mapping is one to one.

For any ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 if 𝑓(ℎ1) = 𝑓(ℎ2) then 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ2 ⇒ ℎ1 = ℎ2 (left cancellation

law)

We have to prove 𝑓 is onto.

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 be any element, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻. For this ℎ we have

𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ = 𝑥. So 𝑓 is onto. Hence 𝑓 is a bijective function of 𝐻 onto 𝑎𝐻.Therefore

𝑓 set up a one to one correspondence between 𝐻 and 𝑎𝐻.

Lagrange’s theorem: The order of a subgroup 𝐻 of a finite group 𝐺 divides the

order of the group. (i.e) order of 𝐻 divides order of 𝐺.

49
Proof: Let (𝐺,∗) be a group of order n and (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of order m.

Since 𝐺 is a finite group, the number of left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is finite.

Let r be the number of left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺

Let the r cosets be 𝑎1 𝐻, 𝑎2 𝐻 … . 𝑎𝑟 𝐻.

We know that the left cosets of 𝐺 forms a partition of 𝐺. (by previous theorem)

Therefore 𝐺 = 𝑎1𝐻 𝖴 𝑎2𝐻 𝖴 … .𝖴 𝑎𝑟 𝐻

Therefore 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑜(𝑎1𝐻 𝖴 𝑎2𝐻 𝖴 … .𝖴 𝑎𝑟 𝐻)

= 𝑜(𝑎1 𝐻) + 𝑜( 𝑎2 𝐻) + ⋯ . 𝑜(𝑎𝑟 𝐻)

But 𝑜(𝑎𝑖𝐻) = 𝑜(𝐻) (by previous theorem)

Therefore 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑜(𝐻) + 𝑜(𝐻) + ⋯ … 𝑜(𝐻) 𝑟 times

⇒ 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑟𝑜(𝐻)

⇒ 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑟 Thus 𝑜(𝐻) divides 𝑜(𝐺).

𝑜(𝐻)

4.7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS AND QUOTIENT GROUP

Definition: A subgroup (𝐻, ∗) of (𝐺, ∗) is called normal subgroup of G

𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 , ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

They play an important role in the study of homomorphism and quotient

groups.

Theorem: Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal

Proof: Let (𝐺,∗) be a abelian group and (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of G.

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element.

Then 𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎 ∗ ℎ /ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

={ℎ ∗ 𝑎 /ℎ ∈ 𝐻} (since G is abelian) = Ha

50
Since 𝑎 is arbitrary, 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

Therefore H is a normal subgroup of G.

Theorem: (𝑁,∗) is a normal subgroup of (𝐺,∗) iff 𝑎 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁

∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 and ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

Proof: Let (𝑁,∗) is a normal subgroup of (𝐺,∗). Therefore 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑁𝑎 ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑁

Therefore for any 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁

Conversely, if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺,

To prove 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 ⇒ x = a ∗ n for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

x=a * n * e ⇒ x= a * n *( a-1 * a)

⇒ x = (a ∗ n ∗ a −1) ∗ a ∈ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎

⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 ⊆ 𝐍 ∗ 𝑎 ......................................................................(1)

Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎 ⇒ y = n ∗ a for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

Then 𝑦 = 𝑎 ∗ (a−1 ∗ n ∗ a) = a ∗ (a−1 ∗ n ∗ (a −1)−1) ∈ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁

Therefore 𝑦 ∈ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎 ⇒ y ∈ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 therefore 𝑁 ∗ 𝑎 ⊆ 𝐚 ∗ 𝑁 ...........(2)

Therefore from (1) and (2) we get 𝑎 ∗ 𝑁 = 𝐍 ∗ 𝑎 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Hence N is a normal

subgroup of G.

Theorem: prove that intersection of two normal subgroup of (𝐺, ∗) is a normal

subgroup of (𝐺, ∗).

Proof: Let (𝑁1, ∗) and (𝑁2, ∗) be two normal subgroups of (𝐺, ∗).

To Prove ((𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2), ∗) is a normal subgroup of (𝐺, ∗). It is enough to show

51
𝑎 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2 (by previous theorem)

Since 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are normal subgroup of G, they are basically subgroups. We know

𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2 is a subgroup of G. Now we shall prove it is a normal subgroup of G.

Let n ∈ 𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2 be any element and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element

Then n ∈ 𝑁1 and n ∈ 𝑁2, Since N1 and N2 are normal, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁1 and

𝑎 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁2, Therefore 𝑎 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2 . Hence 𝑁1 ∩ 𝑁2 is normal.

4.8 RINGS AND FIELDS

Definition: A non-empty set R with two binary operations + and . called addition and
multiplication is called ring if the following axioms are satisfied.

(i) (𝑅, +) is an abelian group with 0 as identity

(ii) (𝑅, . )is a semigroup
(iii) The operation . is distributive over +
(i.e) 𝑎. (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎. 𝑏 + 𝑎. 𝑐 and
(𝑏 + 𝑐 ). 𝑎 = 𝑏 . 𝑎 + 𝑐 . 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 ∈
𝑅
Definition: A ring (𝑅, +, . ) is said to be commutative if 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

Definition: A ring (𝑅, +, . ) is said to be a ring with identity if there exists an element
1 ∈ 𝑅 such that 1. 𝑎 = 𝑎. 1 = 𝑎 ∀∈ 𝑅

Definition: If (𝑅, +, . ) is a commutative ring, then 𝑎 ≠ 0 ∈ 𝑅 is said to be a zero- divisor

if there exists a non-zero 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 0.

Definition: If in a commutative ring (𝑅, +, . ), for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0 ⇒

𝑎𝑏 ≠ 0 then the ring is without zero divisors.

In a ring without zero divisors, a. b = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0.

Definition: Integral domain: A commutative ring (R, +, . ) with identity and without
zero divisors is called an integral domain.

Definition: Field: A commutative ring (R, +, . ) which has more than one element such
that every non zero element of R has a multiplicative inverse in R is called a field.

52
 Problems:

1. Show that 𝑍5 = {[0], [1] , [2], [3], [4]} is an integral domain under +5 and ×5 .
Solution:
+5 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] ×5 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [0] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [4] [3] [2] [1]

We can easily verify (𝑍5 , +5, ×5 ) is a commutative ring with identity [1]. From the table
for ×5 , we see product of non zero elements is non zero and so (𝑍5 , +5 , ×5 ) ring
without zero divisors is an integral domain.

2. Prove the set 𝑍4 = {[0], [1] , [2], [3]} is a commutative ring with respect to +4 and
×4.

Solution:

+4 [0] [1] [2] [3] ×4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [0] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3]
[2] [2] [3] [0] [1] [2] [0] [2] [0] [2]
[3] [3] [0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [3] [2] [1]

(i) All entries in both the tables +4,×4 , belongs to 𝑍4 . Therefore 𝑍4 is closed under +4
, ×4 .

(ii)The entries of the first row is same as those of first column. Hence 𝑍4 is
commutative with respect to +4 , ×4

53
(iii) If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍4 we can verify
(𝑎+4𝑏)+4𝑐 = 𝑎+4(𝑏+4𝑐)
(𝑎 ×4 𝑏) ×4 𝑐 = 𝑎 ×4 (𝑏 ×4 𝑐)

Also the law is true for +4 , ×4 .

(iv) 0+4𝑎 = 𝑎+40 = 𝑎 ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍4

1×4 𝑎 = 𝑎 ×4 1 = 𝑎 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍4
0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity of 𝑍4 with respect
to +4 , ×4 .

(v) From the table +4 additive inverse of 0,1,2,3 are 0,3,2,1 respectively. And
multiplicative inverse of non zero element 1,2,3 are 1,2,3 respectively.

(vi) Also we can verify distributive law

(vii) 𝑎 ×4 (𝑏+4𝑐 ) = (𝑎 ×4 𝑏)+4(𝑎 ×4 𝑐)
(𝑏+4𝑐) ×4 𝑎 = (𝑏 ×4 𝑎) + (𝑐 ×4 𝑎)

Hence (𝑍4 , +4 ,×4 ) is a commutative ring with unity.

Thus ∅ is an isomorphism of 𝐺 onto 𝑃. Therefore 𝐺 ≅ 𝑃.

3. Prove that every field is an integral domain.

Proof: Let F be a field. (i.e) (F,+,.) is a commutative ring with identity and non zero
element has a multiplicative inverse. To prove F is an integral domain we have to show
it has no zero divisors. Suppose 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹 with 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0 let 𝑎 ≠ 0, since 𝑎 is a non zero
element, its multiplicative invese exists (i.e) 𝑎−1exists . Therefore 𝑎−1. (𝑎. 𝑏) = 𝑎−1. 0 ⇒
(𝑎−1. 𝑎). 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 1. 𝑏 = 0

Thus (𝑎. 𝑏) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0. Therefore F has no zero divisors. Hence (F,+,.) is an

integral domain.

4. Show that ( 𝑍, +, . ) is an integral domain where 𝑍 is set of all integers.

Proof: We know commutative ring with identity and without zero divisors is called
integral domain.

54
If 𝑍 is set of all integers, then
(i) (𝑍, +) is an abelian group.

(ii) (𝑍, ×) is a semi ring.

(iii) 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑏 × 𝑎 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍
(iv) 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) + (𝑎 × 𝑐) ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍

Hence ( 𝑍, +, . ) is a commutative ring with identity.

If 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0 ∈ 𝑍 then we know 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 0. So 𝑍 is without zero divisors.

Hence ( 𝑍, +, . ) is an integral domain.

5. Find the left cosets of 𝐻 = (5𝑍, +) which is a subgroup of ( 𝑍, +)

Solution: If 𝐻 = 5𝑍 then (𝐻, +) is a subgroup of ( 𝑍, +).

Then the distinct left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍 are

0 + 𝐻 = 𝐻 = {5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

1 + 𝐻 = {1 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

2 + 𝐻 = {2 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

3 + 𝐻 = {3 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

4 + 𝐻 = {4 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

5 + 𝐻 = {5 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

= {5(1 + 𝑥)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍} = 𝐻

6 + 𝐻 = {6 + 5𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}={1 + 5(1 + 𝑥)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑍} = 1 + 𝐻 and so on.

Therefore number of different left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is 5.

55
1. A non-empty set A is termed as an algebraic structure
a) with respect to binary operation *
b) with respect to ternary operation?
c) with respect to binary operation +
d) with respect to unary operation –
2. Condition for monoid is
a) (a+e)=a
b) (a*e)=(a+e)
c) a=(a*(a+e)
d) (a*e)=(e*a)=a
3. A monoid is called a group if
a) (a*a)=a=(a+c)
b) (a*c)=(a+c)
c) (a+c)=a
d) (a*c)=(c*a)=e
4. A group (M,*) is said to be abelian if
a) (x+y)=(y+x)
b) (x*y)=(y*x)
c) (x+y)=x
d) (y*x)=(x+y)
5. A group (M,*) is said to be abelian if
a) (x+y)=(y+x)
b) (x*y)=(y*x)
c) (x+y)=x
d) (y*x)=(x+y)
6. A cyclic group can be generated by a/an element.
a) singular
b) non-singular
c) inverse
d) multiplicative
7. How many properties can be held by a Abelian group?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 5
d) 4
8. Which sentence is true?
a)Set of all matrices forms a group under multiplication
b) Set of all rational negative numbers forms a group under multiplication
c) Set of all non-singular matrices forms a group under multiplication
d) Both (b) and (c)

56
9. A cyclic group is always
a) abelian group
b) monoid
c) semigroup
d) subgroup

10.{1, i, -i, -1} is

a) semigroup
b) subgroup
c) cyclic group
d) abelian group
11. The set of all real numbers under the usual multiplication operation is not a group
since
a) multiplication is not a binary operation
b) multiplication is not associative
c) identity element does not exist
d) zero has no inverse
12.If (G, .) is a group such that (ab)- 1 =𝑎−1𝑏−1∀ a, b ∈ G, then G is an
a) Commutative semi group
b) Abelian group
c) non-abelian group
d) None of these
13. The inverse of - i in the multiplicative group, {1, - 1, i , - i} is
a) 1
b) -1
c) i
d) –i
14. What is the identity element In the group G = {2, 4, 6, 8) under multiplication
modulo 10?
a) 5
b) 9
c) 6
d) 12
15. Which statement is false?
a) The set of rational integers is an abelian group under addition
b) The set of rational numbers form an abelian group under multiplication
c) identity element does not exist
d) None of these

57
4.9 Assignment

Assignment 1
1. Let G be a nonempty set closed under product , which in addition satisfies:
(a) There exists an e ∈ G such that ae = a for all a ∈ G.
(b)Given a ∈ G, there exists an element y(a) ∈ G such that a y(a) = e.
Prove that G must be a group under this product.
2.If G is a group in which (𝑎𝑏)𝑖= 𝑎𝑖 𝑏𝑖 for three consecutive integers i for all a, b ∈ G,
show that G is abelian.
3.Let a, b be elements of a group G. Assume that a has order 5 and 𝑎3 b= b𝑎3
Prove that ab = ba.

a b
4. Let G be the set of all 2×2 matrices   where a, b, c, d are integers modulo 2,
c d 
such that ad − bc ≠ 0. Using matrix multiplications as the operation in G prove that G is
a group of order 6.
5.Let G be the group of all non-zero complex numbers a + bi (a, b real, but not both
zero) under multiplication, and let H = {a + bi ∈ G | a 2 + b 2 = 1}.Verify that H is a
subgroup of G.
6. Let G be a finite group whose order is not divisible by 3. Suppose that (ab) 3 = a 3 b 3

for all a, b ∈ G. Prove that G must be abelian.

7. Let G = {1, −1, i, −i} be the group of four complex numbers under multiplication.
(a) Is {1, −1} a subgroup of G? Why? (b) Is {1, i} a subgroup of G? Why?
8.If N is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup of G, prove that NH is a
subgroup of G
9.Suppose that N and M are two normal subgroups of G and that N ∩ M = {e}. Show
that for any n ∈ N, m ∈ M, nm = mn
Assignment 2
10. If in a ring R every x ∈ R satisfies x 2 = x, prove that R must be commutative
11. Prove that any field is an integral domain.
12.Show that the commutative ring D is an integral domain if and only if for a, b, c ∈ D
with a≠ 0 the relation ab = ac implies that b = c.
13. If F is a field, prove that its only ideals are (0) and F itself.

58
4.10 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWER

00S.N Question & Answer K Level CO

o
Define Algebraic system.
1. Ans: A set together with one or more n-ary operations on
it is called an algebraic system. Example (Z,+) is an K2 CO4
algebraic system
Define Semi Group.
2. Ans: Let S be non-empty set, * be a binary operation on
S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a semi group, if
K1 CO4
the operation is associative. In other words (S,*) is a semi
group if for any x, y, z ∈ S,
x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.
Define Monoid.
3. Ans: A semi group (M, *) with identity element with
respect to the operation * is called a Monoid. In
other words (M,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z ∈ K1 CO4
M, x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z and there exists an
element e ∈ M such that for any x ∈ M then e* x =
x* e = x.
Define Group.
4. Ans: An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it
satisfies the following properties:
(i) G is closed with respect to * K1 CO4
(ii) * is associative.
(iii) Identity element exists.
(iv) Inverse element exists. State
any two properties of a group.
5. Ans: (i) The identity element of a group is unique. K1 CO4
(ii) The inverse of each element is unique.
Define a Commutative ring.
6. Ans: If the Ring (R, *) is commutative, then the ring (R, K1 CO4
+, *) is called a commutative ring.
Show that the inverse of an element in a group (G, *) is
7. unique.
Ans: Let (G,*) be a group with identity element
e. Let b and c be inverses of an element a.Then K1 CO4
a * b = b * a = e, a * c = c * a = e.
b = b * e = b * ( a * c) = ( b * a ) * c = e * c = c
b = c. Hence inverse element is unique.
8. Give an example of semi group but not a Monoid.
Ans: The set of all positive integers over addition form a K1 CO4
semi-group but it is not a Monoid.
9. Prove that the semigroup homomorphism preserves
idempotency. K1 CO4

59
 ∴ a*a=a
g(a*a)=g(a)
g ( a ) ° g ( a ) =g ( a )
This shows that g ( a ) is an idempotent element in T.
Therefore the property of idempotency is preserved under
semigroup homomorphism.
10. Define cyclic group.
Ans: A group (G,*) is said to be cyclic if there exists an
element a G such that every element of G can be K1 CO4
written as some power of „a‟.
11. Find a subgroup of order two of the group (𝑍8, +8).
Solution: 𝑍8 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] , [6], [7]}
∵ 𝑍8 is a cyclic group, there is a unique subgroup of order 2. K1 CO4
Therefore, The subgroup of order 2 is {[0], [1]} .

12. Find all the non-trivial subgroup of (𝑍6, +6).

Solution: Here (𝑍6, +6) is a cyclic group. The non-trivial
subgroups are of order 2 and 3 , which are divisors of 𝑂(𝑍6) =
6 where 𝑍6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] } K1 CO4
The subgroups are 𝐻1 = {[0], [3]} and 𝐻1 = {[0], [2], [4]}.

13. Prove that the identity of a subgroup is the same as that of

the group.
Solution: Let 𝐺 be a group. Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺.
Let 𝑒 and 𝑒′ be the identity elements in 𝐺 and 𝐻.
Now , if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 [∵ 𝑒 is the identity K1 CO4
element in 𝐺].
Again, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, then 𝑎𝑒′ = 𝑎 [∵ 𝑒′ is the identity element in 𝐻].
𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎𝑒′ ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑒′
14. Show that the set of all element ′𝑎′ of a group (𝐺, ∗) such
that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑎 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Solution: Clearly, 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 = 𝑥∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺.
Therefore, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝐻 is non empty.
Now, let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. Then 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥𝑏.
Now, 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥𝑏 ⟹ 𝑏−1(𝑏𝑥)𝑏−1 = 𝑏−1(𝑥𝑏)𝑏−1
⟹ 𝑏−1𝑏(𝑥𝑏−1) = 𝑏−1𝑥(𝑏𝑏−1)
⟹ 𝑥𝑏−1 = 𝑏−1𝑥 …….(1) K1 CO4
Now, (𝑎𝑏−1)𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑏−1𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥𝑏−1) = (𝑎𝑥)𝑏−1 =
(𝑥𝑎)𝑏−1 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑏−1)
(𝑎𝑏−1)𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑏−1)
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence 𝐻 is a subgroup.

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15. Define homomorphism and isomorphism between to
algebraic system.
Solution: Let (𝐻, ∗) and (𝐵, ° ) be two algebraic
system. A mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called a homomorphism K1 CO4
if 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎)°𝑓(𝑏)∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.
If the homomorphism 𝑓 is 1-1 and onto then 𝑓 is called
an isomorphism
16. If 𝑓 is a homomorphism of a group 𝐺 into a group 𝐺′, then
prove that a group homomorphism preserves identities.
Solution: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎.
𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑎 K1 CO4
𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑎)° 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑎)°𝑒1 [𝑒1 ∈ 𝐺 ′ , 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐺]
∴ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒1.[ using left cancellation]
17. State Lagrange’s theorm.
Solution: The order of a subgroup H of a finite group G
divides the order of the group. (i.e) order of H divides order K2 CO4
of G.

18. Define a ring.

Solution: A non-empty set R with two binary operations +
and . called addition and multiplication is called ring if the
following axioms are satisfied.
(i) (R, +) is an abelian group with 0 as identity
(ii) (R, . ) is a semigroup K2 CO4
(iii) The operation . is distributive over +
(i.e) a. (b + c) = a. b + a. c and
(b + c). a = b. a + c. a ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

19. Define a field in an algebraic system.

Solution: A commutative ring (R, +, . ) which has more than
one element such that every non zero element of R has a K2 CO4
multiplicative inverse in R is called a field.

20. Define a commutative ring.

Solution: A ring (R, +, . ) is said to be commutative if a. b = K2 CO4
b. a ∀ a, b ∈ R
21. Give an example of an integral domain which is not a field.
Solution: A commutative ring (R, +, . ) with identity and
without zero divisors is called an integral domain. Example K2 CO4
the ring Z is an integral domain which is not a field.

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4.12 Part B Questions

S.No Part B (Question) K CO

Level
1. Show that group homomorphism preserves identity, inverse
K2 CO4
and subgroup.
2. Let (S, *) be a semi-group. Prove that there exists a
K2 CO4
homomorphism g: S SS
3. Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup
under the operation x * y = max {x, y}. Is it a Monoid? K2 CO4

4. Prove that if (G, *) is an Abelian group, if and only if (a * b)2 =

a 2 * b2 K2 CO4
5. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for a non
empty subset H of a group (G, *) to be a subgroup of G if
K2 CO4
for a , b ∈H iff a * b - 1 ∈ H
6. Prove that intersection of two subgroups is a subgroup, but
their union need not be a subgroup of G K2 CO4
7. State and prove Lagrange’s theorem on groups. K2 CO4
8. Let f: G→ H be a homomorphism from the group (G,*) to the
group (H, ∆). Prove that the kernel of f is a normal subgroup of K2 CO4
G.
9. State and prove the cayleys theorem on permutation group
K2 CO4
10. Define a normal subgroup of a group. Give an example. Let G
be a group and N ={xG: xy = yx, y  G} Show that N is a
normal sub group of G. K2 CO4

11. Prove that the set Z4 = {[0], [1], [2], [3]} is a commutative ring
with respect to the binary operation addition modulo and
multiplication modulo +4,×4 K1 CO4

12. (i) Prove that every finite group of order ‘n’ is isomorphic to
permutation group of degree ‘n’.
(ii) If f is a homomorphism from a group(G,  ) into K2 CO4
(G',  ) then prove that

f ( a −1)=( f ( a))−1 for all a ∈G.

13. (i) Prove that kernel of group homomorphism is a normal
subgroup of a group.
K2 CO4
(ii) Prove that every field is an integral domain.

62
14. (i) Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups is also
a normal subgroup.
(ii)State and prove the fundamental theorem of group
K2 CO4
homomorphism

15. (i) Prove that every homomorphic image of a group G is

isomorphic to some quotient group of G.
K2 CO4
(ii) Discuss rings and fields with suitable examples.

16. Obtain all the distinct left-cosets of {[0],[3]} in the group

(Z6, +6 ) and find their union.
K2 CO4

63
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64
 Real life applications of Abstract
Algebra

View the video lecture on YouTube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DEShQ59gpc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWIC1Wsc4eM
Abstract algebra is used in many fields of mathematics and
science. Group theory, the ultimate theory for symmetry, is a powerful tool that
has a direct impact on research in robotics, computer vision, computer graphics
and medical image analysis. Instead, it relies heavily on intuitions in (1) 3D
Euclidean space, images and patterns; (2) a geometric computational model; and
(3) concrete, real world applications in robotics, computer vision, computer
graphics and medical image analysis drawing from the instructor’s many years of
research experience and from an emerging, vibrant, interdisciplinary international
research community. In physics, groups are used to represent symmetry
operations, and the usage of group theory could simplify differential equations.
In gauge theory, the requirement of local symmetry can be used to deduce the
equations describing a system.

65
 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

View the lecture on You tube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qd3YZy6Kwwg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3xj16shDuw

66
Assessment Schedule (Proposed Date &
Actual Date)
Assessment Schedule Assessment

Test Name From To

FIAT 16/09/2022 22/09/2022

SIAT 02/11/2022 08/11/2022

Model Exam 01/12/2022 10/12/2022

67
PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXTBOOKS: 20MA8302 Notes Discrete Mathematics

1. Rosen, K.H., “Discrete Mathematics and its Applications”, 7th
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi, Special
Indian Edition, 2011.
2. Tremblay, J.P. and Manohar. R, ” Discrete Mathematical
Structures with Applications to Computer Science”, Tata McGraw
Hill Pub. Co. Ltd, New Delhi, 30th Reprint, 2011.

REFERENCES: 20MA8302 Notes Discrete Mathematics

1. Grimaldi, R.P. “Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics: An
Applied Introduction”, 4th Edition, Pearson Education Asia, Delhi,
2007.
2. Lipschutz, S. and Mark Lipson., “Discrete Mathematics”,
Schaum’s Outlines, Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi,
3rd Edition, 2010.
3. Koshy, T. “Discrete Mathematics with Applications”, Elsevier
Publications, 2006.

68
 Mini project on Algebraic Structures

Group theory, the ultimate theory for symmetry, is a powerful tool

that has a direct impact on research in robotics, computer vision,
computer graphics and medical image analysis.
Here given some mini project topics in algebra

1. The Genetic Code

https://tbiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1742
-4682-8-21#Sec3
2. Cell Cycle and Multi-Nucleated Cells
https://tbiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1742
-4682-8-21#Sec4
3. Network Dynamics and the Groupoid Formalism
https://tbiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1742
-4682-8-21#Sec6
4. Real time applications
http://www.math.uconn.edu/~kconrad/math216/whygrou
ps.html
5. Languages associated with saturated formations of groups
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01248004/document
6. Group Formation based on Students’ Learning Styles by
Circular Genetic Algorithm
https://www.temjournal.com/content/103/TEMJournalAug
ust2021_1016_1021.pdf

69
 Thank you

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