LECTURE NOTES IN CRS 2207; SOCIOLOGY OF

RELIGIONS

COURSE LECTURER(S)

JOSHUA AONDOAWASE AJIM

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE

GOMBE STATE NIGERIA

ajimjoshuaa@gmail.com

07035849406

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 INTRODUCTION/COURSE DESCRIPTION

The subject matter of Religion has engaged the attention of

scholars for a long period of time. Right from the medieval ages,

explanations to social phenomenon were based on religious

consideration. For example, evil doers were considered to be

possessed by demons. This line of thinking has persisted in some

societies for a long period until now that modern science is

challenging such assumptions. Indeed, Religion permeates all

facets of society and is therefore a useful tool in the stability and

development of societies.

The course therefore undertakes a sociological examination

of the extent of involvement of religion in the cultural, social,

economic, and political development of the people. It focuses on

issues of violence, politics, culture, and development with

particular reference to the Nigerian societies. The course will

expose Students to issues relating to Religion and how

sociologists consider them.

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 The general aim of this course is to introduce Students to

how religion is involved in all aspects of societal life. In this

course, the students will be learning the meaning of sociology and

sociology of Religion, the nature of Religious beliefs, issues in

sociology of Religion, the importance of Religion to society,

Religion and violence in Nigeria as well as the role of Religion in

politics. Also issues relating to Religion and culture as well as

religion and social change. Thus this course aims generally at

enabling the students to understand the relationship between

religion and the society. The Specific objectives of this course are

therefore to;

(i) Define sociology and Sociology of Religion.

(ii) Explain the concepts of Religion and society.

(iii) Describe the nature of Religious beliefs.

(iv) Outline and explain the elements of Religion

(v) Discuss the theories of Religion and society

(vi) Explain the relationship between Religion and society

(vii) Outline and explain the major institutions of society as

agencies of Religion

(viii) Discuss Religion as an aspect of culture

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 (ix) Examine Religion and change in the society

(x) Outline the importance of Religion to society

(xi) Discuss Religion and violence in Nigeria

(xii) Explain the role of Religion to the development of the

society.

The Meaning of Sociology

The word sociology was coined by the French Philosopher

and Sociologist, Auguste Comte in 1837 (Peil:1977). Comte

combined the Latin word “socio” (meaning society) with the

Greek word “logy” (meaning science) to arrive at the term

sociology which he defines as the science of society. To Comte, a

science of the society was possible. This science should base its

findings on systematic observation and classification of facts

rather than casual, offhand observation, tradition, speculation and

rumor. Sociology therefore is the scientific study of human,

environmental, material and ideological components of society. It

analyses human ideas, behavior, grouping, organizations,

administration, law, crime and punishment.

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Moreover, human problems of hunger, disease, homelessness,

unemployment, ignorance, divorce and violence attract the

attention of Sociologists.

The founding fathers of Sociology such as Auguste Comte,

Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and Talcott

Parsons have various ideas as to the focus of sociology. Comte

was of the opinion that sociology should focus on social statics

and social dynamics. Social statics refers to structures and

functions of subsystems, institutions and persons. Social dynamics

refers to the changes occasioned to institutions over time. The task

of sociologists is therefore to make understandable the

fundamental laws of nature and why people behave the way they

do under different prevailing conditions. Comte formulated the

law of three stages in societal growth i.e theological, metaphysical

and scientific. The theological stage is the primitive or preliterate

state where the powers of priest and the clergy dominated human

society and explanations to events were purely religious. The

metaphysical stage marks the period of enlightenment and

reformation as well as reasoning. People began to seriously

challenge the religious explanations for social phenomenon. The

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enlightenment scholars were pre-occupied with seeking answers to

questions of nature through reasoning based on overt facts. The

scientific stage is the stage of individual revolution and scientific

discoveries as well as technological growth and development.

Following Comte, Herbert Spencer regard sociology as the

study of society and likens society to a biological organism with

interdependent but inter-related parts functioning independently

and interdependently so as to ensure the survival of the entire

system. Society as a system has subsystems comprising of

institutions and persons with status and roles necessary for their

existence and survival. Durkheim considers the network of human

relationship and societal growth as progressing from a simple

undifferentiated and homogeneous forms, to highly differentiated

or complex forms of industrial society. To Durkheim, society is a

moral entity that is external to the individual but coerces his

compliance through belief system into a moral community of

adherents.

Other founding fathers of sociology such as Karl Marx were

equally concerned with the nature of human society and focused

largely on the role of conflict in human societies that are highly

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stratified along class dimensions. The existence of classes in

human societies makes conflict over material resources inevitable.

Marx contended that all human societies have progressed from

primitive communism, to slavery, to feudalism and to capitalism

characterized by high exploitation. The continued exploitation of

the masses will lead to the overthrow of the bourgeoisie, resulting

in socialism, a classless and egalitarian society.

Marx, Weber considers sociology as dealing with the study

of organizations and the role of ideas in the development of human

society. He contended that modern contemporary societies are

being organized especially along bureaucratic dimensions as

demonstrated by his theory of Bureaucracy. The role of ideas is

also significant in transforming the societies as was demonstrated

in the protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. Weber has also

drawn the attention of sociologists to the study of power and

authority relationships in the society which he called domination.

He argued that legitimated power results in authority which leads

to three types of domination. These are legal or rational,

traditional and charismatic domination. Rational domination is the

basis for modern bureaucracies with definite hierarchical

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arrangements and structures as well as functions. The traditional

domination is through customs and traditions, while that of

charismatic is through gift of grace or extra-ordinary qualities of

the individual or person.

Parsons also lend his contributions to sociology (Parsons:

1964). He was concerned with human behavior in the society

which he christened social action. It is known as social action

analysis which sociologists should also concern themselves with.

Parsons therefore classify human behavior based on motivations

for human action. He describes human behavior as been

determined by the motives of the actor. Parsons further argued that

for society to survive and develop it requires functional

prerequisites. These he identified to include; pattern maintenance,

tension management, goal attainment, adaptation to environment

and integration of the various components.

Definition and Subject Matter of Sociology of Religion

Sociology of Religion is the study of the Society from a religious

perspective. It is the systematic study of societal variables from a

religious view. Sociology of religion therefore constitutes an

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integral part of a more general study of culture and knowledge.

Culture is a total way of life of a people learned and passed from

generation to generation. Religion as a cultural element found in

all societies is powerful and pervasive. Religion is found to be at

the Centre of political, economic, social, educational,

technological and scientific life of a people. Inbuilt in religion are

theological and doctrinal teachings as well as values, laws, ethics,

creeds and beliefs that shape the life of adherents in a society.

Sociology of religion therefore is interested in understanding the

extent of involvement, participation and contribution religion has

made in patterning and providing direction in the society. It is

interested in studying the extent to which religion has brought

about change and development in the society.

Sociology of Religion also examines the historical

development of religion, its origin and the various forms religious

beliefs have taken over time. Sociology of religion also, seeks to

understand the impact of religion on the individual as well as

institutions of the society. It tries to understand the impact of

religion on families, marriages, politics, technology and

development in a society. Indeed, the sociologist of religion

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studies the entire society paying particular attention to human

interactions, relationships, beliefs, norms and values among the

various religious groups in the society. It studies changes that have

taken place among the various religious denominations found

today and seek to understand the dynamics and dialectics of such

changes including the direction such changes take. Sociologists of

religion study social aggregates, groups and organizations as well

as institutions, law and crime as they relate to religion. The

discipline study conflict, deviance and tries to undertake research

that will enhance peace, order and stability in the society.

The Concept of Religion

Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to

sacred things; things set apart and forbidden which unite into a

single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to

them (Durkheim 1917). Religion is a cultural institution and is an

instrument, for the satisfaction of needs. It is an institution

consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally

postulated superhuman beings. Religion comprises those aspects

of our behavioural complexes that are organized around beliefs, in

spiritual or super natural beings. Two concepts that are important

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in the definition of religion are the supernatural and the sacred.

The concept of the super natural is basic and crucial in the

definition of religion. The supernatural beings are of three main

internal different categories, God, spirits and ghosts (Otite: 1979).

The great and supreme God is believed to have created the

universe and control all that is in it. God, who is considered all

powerful, rules the world from above and is accessible to

believers. The highest God is found in many cultures of Africa.

Among the Tiv of Benue, He is called Aondo; the creator, who is

omnipotent and has absolute control and final authority over the

universe.

Among the Nupe, in Niger State, the concept of God is the

most basic and central concept in religious life. The Nupe call God

“Soko” The one who dwells in the sky. The Tangale tribe in

Gombe call Him Yamba, that is the biggest being. The Tula call

him kwama; the Supreme being. God is generally believed to rule

from the sky where he resides. The Urhobo tribe in Delta state call

God Oghene meaning the Sovereign One. He is approached

through intermediaries. Mbiti (1969) adds that the human

intermediaries are of two kinds; human and spiritual beings. The

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human intermediaries consist of priests, diviners, ritual elders who

lead prayers and making of sacrifices to God. Spiritual beings

comprised of ancestral spirits, spirits of national heroes and even

gods such as those of the sky, thunder, rivers, etc. Among African

religion, spirits are varied. They are animated in rivers, road

junctions, trees, houses and even mountains, such spirits are

believed to be closer to man as guardian spirits.

The third category of supernatural beings is ghosts who are

sometimes considered to be spirits of dead relatives. Ancestral

spirits or ghosts are said to be souls freed from dead bodies that

retain an active link with their living kinsmen. Based on their

close relationship with the living and their previous existence in

the society, they are considered different from spirits. They are

believed to share the emotions of the living. Sociologists have

traced the origin of religion to ancestor worship (Spencer: 1896).

The living and their departed kinsmen are linked through emotions

and religious practices.

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 The Concept of Society

The world society emerged in the 16th century, derived from the

French société which stemmed from the Latin societas, a “friendly

association with others,” from socius meaning “companion,

associate, comrade or business partner.” The Latin word is

probably related to the verb sequi, “to follow,” and originally may

have meant “follower.” In the social sciences, a society has been

used to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed social

system in which most interactions are with other individuals

belonging to the group. Society is a group of people who share a

common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feel

themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity. It is a

network of relationships that binds members together. This is

because human beings live in groups known as communities

whose members share common and peculiar culture. A community

is a unit which has common boundaries. Communities require

planning, organization, administration and control. In several ways

there is stratification in the society. Members of a society are

educated on how to think, act, work, relate to their neigbours and

make decisions on their own. Society has several elements. As

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identified by Dzurgba (2009), these elements include; land,

population, relationships, institutions and work. People need land

for production of food, water supply, housing, mineral resources,

construction etc. people are the users of land and other resources

found on land. Human beings interact with land to produce various

useable commodities required for human development. Land has

influential implications for all human activities. To be able to

manifest its full potentialities man must interact with land in such

a manner that enable the land establish its importance and be

useful to all.

Population is another important element of society. A society

does not exist without people living in it. People provide labour

which work on land to produce results. Therefore, the issue of

knowledge and skills possessed by members of a society becomes

very vital in considering the characteristics of a particular society.

Again, the dimension of relationship becomes very vital in any

society. In the course of interaction, people create various forms of

relationships in the society. Such relationships exist in form of

marriage, friendship, family and neighbours, business and working

relationships. Institutions such as education, government, law,

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religion and health exist in the society in order to ensure proper

social conduct for effective order and stability.

Politics is also an important element of society. Political

parties, house of assemblies, senate, House of Representatives and

electoral bodies responsible for conduct of elections are sub-

institutions of politics. These institutions are important in any

society because they are related to power and the process of power

acquisition in any society. Power is used for the control of

resources both human and material. Political institutions carry out

several valuable functions such as information dissemination,

education, mobilization and governance. Another important

element of society that is worthy of mention here is history. The

history of a people provides a store-house for their past and

present events. It provides a window to understanding the present

conditions of a people with a view to improving on their present

predicaments. History provides the necessary information about

the background of a people; their customs, values, institutions,

technology, progress and development of society.

Work also forms an important element of society. Work

engages a large number of people. While many people work as

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Agriculturist, many others work as civil servants, industrial

workers, health workers etc. By engaging in various working

activities, peoples earn salaries through which they provide food

stuff and other needs for members of their families.

Types of Society

Sociology recognizes many types of society and defines these

types of society in a very clear manner. The following are some of

those types of society and their characteristics. 1. Tribal Society

A tribe is group of people occupying a common territory or

territories having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous

similarities in culture, frequent contacts and a certain common

interests. A tribe may also be defined as a social group with

territorial affiliation that are endogamous with no specialization of

functions ruled by tribal leaders, hereditary or otherwise, united in

language or dialect recognizing social distance with other tribes. A

large section of tribal population depends on agriculture for

survival.

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Characteristics of Tribal Society

The tribe inhabits and remains within definite and common

topography. The members of a tribe possess a consciousness of

mutual unity. The members of a tribe speak a common language.

The members generally marry within their own group but now due

to increased contact with outsiders there are instance of tribes

marrying outsider as well. The tribes believe in ties of blood

relationship between its members. They have faith in their having

descended from a common, real or mythical, ancestor and hence

believe in blood relationships with other members. Tribes follow

their own political organization which maintains harmony.

Religion is of great importance in the tribe. The tribal political and

social organization is based on religion because they are granted

religious sanctity and recognition.

2. Agrarian Society

According to Collins dictionary of Sociology Agrarian society

refer to any form of society especially very traditional societies

primarily based on agricultural and craft production rather than

industrial production. Wallace and Wallace described agrarian

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societies as employing animal drawn ploughs to cultivate the land.

The mode of production of the agrarian society that is cultivation

distinguishes it from the hunter-gatherer society which produces

none of its food.

3. Industrial Society

The Industrial mode of production began some 250 years ago

in Britain and from there it spread to the entire world. In the

simplest sense an industrial society is a social system whose mode

of production focuses primarily on finished goods manufactured

with the aid of machinery. According to Wallace and Wallace, in

industrial societies the largest portion of the labour force is

involved in mechanized production of goods and services. The

term industrial societies originated from Saint Simon who chose it

to reflect the emerging central role of manufacturing industry in

the 18th century Europe in contrast with previous pre-industrial

and agrarian society.

Characteristics of Industrial Society

Industrial society is associated with the emergence of

industrialization which transformed much of Europe and United

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States by replacing essentially agriculture based societies with

industrial base on the use of machines and non-animal sources of

energy to produce finished goods. Industrial societies are in a

continual state of rapid change due to technological innovations.

The high level of productivity in industrial societies further

stimulates population growth where people start living in cities

and urban areas.

New medical technologies and improved living standards serve to

extend life expectancy. The division of labour becomes complex

with the availability of specialized jobs. The status is achieved

rather than ascribed. The family and kinship as social institutions

are relegated to the background. There is breakup of extended

family system and nuclear family units becomes prominent. The

influence of religion diminishes as people hold many different and

competing values and beliefs. The State assume central power in

the industrial societies. Industrialism is associated with the

widening gap between two social classes of ‘haves’ and ‘have

nots.’ The rich or the capitalist class is seen as exploiting the class

of the poor known as working class, however in most of the

industrial societies there is steady reduction in social inequalities.

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Industrial societies have given rise to a number of secondary

groups such as corporations, political parties, business houses and

government bureaucracies, cultural and literary associations. The

primary groups tend to lose their importance and secondary groups

come to the prominence.

4. Post-Industrial Society

The concept of post-industrial society was first formulated in

1962 by D. Bell and subsequently elaborated in his seminar work

‘Coming of postindustrial society’ (1974). It describes the

economic and social changes in the late twentieth century. To

Bell, theoretical knowledge forms the axial principle of society

and is the source of innovation and policy formulation. In

economy this is reflected in the decline of goods production and

manufacturing as the main form of economic activity, to be

replaced by services. With regard to the class structure, the new

axial principle fosters the supremacy of professional and technical

occupations which constitute a new class, in all spheres of

economic, political and social. Decision making is influenced by

new intellectual technologies and the new intellectual class. Other

writers have also commented on the growing power of technocrats

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in economic and political life. Galbraith (1967) believes that

power in the United states economy and therefore in American

society as a whole lies in the hands of a technical bureaucracy of

the techno-structure of large corporations.

Features of Post-Industrial Society

Post-Industrial societies are marked by:

• A declining manufacturing sector, resulting in de-

industrialization.

• A large service sector

• An increase in the amount of information technology, often

leading to an “information age”. Information, knowledge,

and creativity are the new raw materials of such an

economy.

The industry aspect of a post-industrial economy is sent into

less developed nations which manufacture what is needed at

lower cost. This occurrence is typical of nations that

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 industrialized in the past such as the United States and most

Western European countries.

The Nature of Religious Beliefs

Beliefs are strongly and deeply held ideas or views about a thing.

Beliefs provide guidance to social behavior whether this be

religious, scientific, or political behavior. In life, human beings are

faced with a bewildering array of choices to take. We often have

to cope with pressures and counter pressures to follow this or that

alternative course of action. In the absence of beliefs, we will

probably find ourselves switching undecidedly between alternative

courses of action and perhaps end up accomplishing nothing. Our

beliefs provide us with direction and guidance and the sense of

purpose that we need to decide and select a particular course of

action. Belief in what we are doing, why we are doing it and how

we are doing it, is necessary as a motivation factor within the

individual.

The beliefs we hold also influence our perception and

interpretation of the things going on around us. This means that

our actions are based on beliefs. Beliefs differ from person to

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person, from group to group, and from society to society. Beliefs

do not exist in isolation but normally belong to one or other of the

complex belief system together that form part of a society’s

culture. Beliefs hang and connect together in a compound

integrated way. Belief systems are learned simultaneously as we

learn the other aspects of our culture in the process of

socialization.

Beliefs can be verifiable or non-verifiable. Religious beliefs

are largely non-verifiable (in terms of the “scientific method”)

whether nonreligious or secular beliefs are largely verifiable.

Beliefs systems give rise to systems of values and ethics which are

evaluative systems that specify how people ought to behave or

what social good or evil they ought to pursue or refrain from.

When such value or ethical system flow from some religious

beliefs, they a referred to a religious morality, but when they

derive from secular or non-religious sources they are called

secular morality. These two typologies are however not mutually

exclusive.

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 In a great number of cases secular ethics and religious

morality support each other. Indeed, much of secular ethics are

derived from religious ethics. This is explained by the fact that

both the religious and the secular are parts of the same whole

which we call the social system. Being parts of the same whole

one cannot be isolated from the other except in an analytic sense

only.

Religion is a cultural phenomenon which reflects man’s attempts

to come to terms with his environment particularly as it concerns

those aspects of it which he does not understand such as death,

pain and suffering. In their explanations of the origin of religion

(in the form or animism” which means belief that the forces of

nature e.g volcanoes, thunder, lightning etc. have supernatural

power). Edward B. Tylor and F. Max Muller stated that religion

originated to satisfy man’s intellectual nature, to meet his need to

make sense of death, dreams and visions.

All societies have one form of religion or the other. In these

different cultures, there exists different systems of religious

beliefs. What is however common among the different belief

systems is that in each case such beliefs are centered around a

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fundamental belief in the supernatural being or something which is

above and beyond the natural world.

The human person is limited in his thought processes such

that he can conceptualize phenomena only in terms which he is

familiar with i.e in terms of the conditions operative in the natural

world of which he personally is a part. Consequently, gods and

spirits in the unseen supernatural world are perceived as good or

evil, proud and jealous, they marry and beget children, can be

offended and appeased when offended, can revenge either in the

present life or in the afterlife. These beliefs about the supernatural

beings and the supernatural world are couched in the form of

religious creeds and myths in order to make them meaningful.

They present pictures of heaven, hell, hades, the elysian fields

paradise, purgatory, limbo, Nirvana etc. and characterize them as

places inhabited by God, Satan or gods and spirits.

Religious beliefs formulated as creeds and myths also explain

the link or relationship between the natural world and the

supernatural world. Such relationships often hinge upon a belief in

the ability of God or gods to assume human likeness or form and

come into human communities to associate directly with mortal

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men. The supernatural being or beings are also believed to

maintain contact with the natural world through an ability to beget

children through human mothers and in such manner establish an

indirect relationship with the human world.

In every society, there are certain objects (e.g tree, stone, animal)

which are associated with religious beliefs and are regarded as

sacred. Such objects are usually treated with reverence. What is

sacred in one society may not be sacred in another society, but

what is common among societies is that each share its peculiarities

and people treat religion with some degree of seriousness. Thus

Beliefs are found amongst all religions of the world. Beliefs

provide the necessary foundations for religion. Beliefs are strongly

held ideas of individuals in objects of the sacred. The phenomenon

of belief is centered around the existence of a supernatural being

that wields influence over adherents. The supernatural may be

perceived as benevolent, wicked, protective and generous or kind.

Consequently, reverence, honour and adorations are accorded the

object of worship based on the belief that he is capable of

influencing decisions for the people of a society, draws a dividing

line between what is sacred and what is profane or secular. For

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Christians as an example, the cross is regarded as sacred, for the

Jews the Ark of the covenant Muslims regard the Black stone of

Kaaba as sacred while the Hindus treat the cow as a sacred object.

It is also on record that most preliterate societies had one

form of animal totem or the other. In some societies it is the turtle,

the python, the monkey, fish, or whatever other animal a group

has chosen as a sacred religious totem or object, and which it

treats with reverential respect and an attitude of worship. To keep

creeds, myths and sacred objects from losing their religious force

in the minds of people, and thus keep them from dying away, they

are backed up with religious rituals and ceremonies which are

occasions for re-enacting and reinforcing those religious beliefs.

For instance, the Tiv treat the green snake as sacred, while for the

people of Machina in Yobe, all snakes are sacred and must not be

killed.

The structural elements of Religion

Religion all over the world has been found to comprise of four

structural elements. The elements as identified by Eddiefloyd

(2003) to include; Belief, ritual, emotions and organization.

Beliefs are strongly held conviction by the people who are

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adherents to a religion that their object of worship is capable of

solving their problems. Religions of the world are based on belief

and the recognition and creation of a sacred supernatural being.

The sacred supernatural being is therefore venerated and worship

by followers. Indeed, without belief, there would be no religion.

Ritual as an element of Religion refers to religious acts,

ceremonial practices and customs that are geared towards the

worship of the sacred. Religious rituals are a way of venerating

and honouring the sacred. Rituals reaffirm the total commitment

of adherents and reinforces their belief in the sacredness of the

object being worshiped. They constitute practical avenues where

members demonstrate their strong religious belief. Normally,

religious rituals require the observance of certain special types of

behaviour such as prayers, offering of sacrifices, observance of

feast, meditations and the wearing of particular clothes

(Eddiefloyd: 2003). Ritual observance is identified with groups

and sects that practice particular religious’ doctrines. Among the

Roman Catholic Churches in the world, several rituals exist

inform of sacraments which members are obliged to partake, for

example, the ritual of baptism, the consecration of the holy

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Eucharist, the genuflection in the church are seeing as rituals that

must be imbibed by all practicing Catholics. A very important

function of ritual is that it brings faithful together for mutual

stimulation and motivation and for reaffirming their belief in the

power of the sacred object of worship. Rituals also provide an

avenue for expression of emotional unity and open declaration that

members have absolute commitment to the supernatural being

which is being worshipped.

The third element of religion is emotions. This is a reference

to the spirit of reverence, humility, ecstasy, excitement and even

terror that is evoked in the believer as he presents himself in the

presence of the sacred. The notion that one is present in the midst

of the sacred evokes behavior that is considered appropriate for

the occasion. When faithful engage in religious rituals and

ceremonies, there is a tendency for them to become engrossed by

the presence of the sacred. At such a period, individuals are

emotionally attached to each other and may be persuaded to do

whatever their leaders would ask them to do. This is because they

are at this point overshadowed by the presence of the supernatural.

You will find that most religious conflicts in Nigeria involving

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Christians and Muslims often commence immediately after

religious meetings. They are made to be overwhelmed by the

presence of the sacred as they are psyched to consider their fellow

brothers who do not belong to their faith as unbelievers who

deserve no fairer treatment but to be eliminated from the surface

of the earth. To Christians, God is emotional as he does not want

his own to suffer. Emotion, therefore becomes an important

element of Religion

The fourth element of religion is organization. All Religions

are characterized by some form of organization. There are trained

officials; priests, cardinals, Bishops, pastors, church assistants,

catechists, church leaders etc who occupy the church hierarchy

with full powers and authority vested in them. There are also

ordinances, rules and laws that govern the day to day conduct of

members. Indeed, depending on the type of society one comes

from, religion exhibit different degrees of organization. In

developed societies of the west, religion is organized along

Bureaucratic lines with a list of officials and hierarchy. There are

rules that govern relationship among members. In developing

societies however, religion is not differentiated in terms of

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organization. In a nutshell Religion as an integral part of culture

in any society and it has four basic structural elements. These

elements include, belief, emotions, ritual and organization. Beliefs

provides the basic foundations for religious faith and trust in the

ability of the supernatural to control and intervene in situations.

Rituals provide an avenue for the re-enactment of religious belief

and open proclamation of adherents in the ability of the object of

worship. During rituals and ceremonies, emotions are easily

displayed as adherents become overwhelmed by the presence of

the sacred. Religions are also characterized by some form of

organization. There is a hierarchy of officials and a body of rules

and regulations which govern the conduct of members.

Theories of Religion

1. Structural functionalism

The theory of structural functionalism has its roots from the

works of the founding fathers of sociology such as Auguste

Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and Talcott Parsons.

Functionalism takes society as its unit of analysis. The theory

likens society to a living organism that has different but

interrelated systems which functions to maintain the whole.

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According to Herbert Spencer societies like living organism

exhibit varying degrees of structural differentiation or complexity

which can be understood in terms of the number of units or

elements in the system. There exists greater interdependence of

parts of the same system when it is internally differentiated than

when it consists of identical elements. According to Spencer,

greater differentiation of internal structures leads to greater

integration of the whole system. Consequently, due to these

differentials, the organism or system witness functional harmony

of the structures and it is able to survive and endure overtime, by

reducing the internal disharmony. Functionalism assumes that an

entire way of life may lose its purpose or function through the

process of change. According to Comte human understanding,

development and societal changes have been through three major

stages. This has been the basis for his law of three stages. These

are the theological or fictional stage, the metaphysical and the

positive or scientific. The theological was the stage when social

events were explained by means of superstition and religious

beliefs. Events and social happenings were explained in terms of

the sacred, deities, divinities, and God. The meta physical stage

32
marked the period when reasoning and logical deductions of

arguments and discussions prevailed. The development to positive

stage marked the period or era of scientific endeavours or

scientific discoveries. Technological development and

industrialization began. It was at this stage that Comte evolved his

social physics which he later changed to Sociology placing it at

the pinnacle of all the sciences. Sociology for Comte was to serve

as a tool for human fulfillment and expression of worth so that

man could reshape the workings of the society by adopting and

applying those scientific tools to thoughts and human action and

reconstruct society. Comte thought it necessary to give Sociology

its pride of place among the sciences and the understanding of

human society through social statics and dynamics. Social statics

Comte (1839) further argued should aim at discovering the laws

that would explain how whole societies have changed overtime.

The theory assumes that society has sub systems and institutions

such as the family, marriage, economy, politics, as well as

religious institutions. The survival of these institutions depends on

their ability to perform on the average net beneficial functions to

the society. The theory also assumes that stability in the society is

33
a function of value consensus. That people share common values

and that account for the continued stability and order in the

society. The theory further assumes that human society has certain

basic needs called functional pre-requisites. These are the need for

adaptation, goal maintenance, integration and pattern maintenance.

These needs are met by the economic, political, legal, family,

religious and educational systems respectively. In order to ensure

the survival of the society, these functional pre-requisite must be

met. Functionalists believe that religion is important in the society.

That there is no society that is without one form of religious

practice or the other. Functionalists insist that religion unites

members of the society. Durkheim regards religion as purely a

social phenomenon. Society he argues, is a constraining moral

force as well as a creative one with external constraints. It

provides people with the moral rules and norms which they

comply with and cultural resources to which they depend upon. By

using the religious activities of the Australian Aborigines,

Durkheim demonstrated that religion serves the function of

integrating the society into a moral whole. The moral order set

aside by the members of society becomes sacred and ritual

34
activities are collective action of group solidarity and response.

Society, according to Durkheim, exist over and above us known as

moral entity or moral reality. Religious rituals increase group

consciousness and loyalty. Religion reinforces a given social

structure. It also restrains deviant behavior and strengthens social

harmony and solidarity. Religion also promotes obedience and

loyalty in the society. Durkheim believed that Religion is the

worshipping of society. This led him to study Australian

traditional religion among the Aboringes. He studied the ‘totem’

and found that religion provided the thoughts, perceptions, attitude

and actions of the people. Respect for sacred symbols is also

reflected in social obligations and duties of adherents.

2. Marxist Theory of Religion

Marxist theory of Religion has its roots from the works of Karl

Marx and takes the orientation of dialectical materialism. Marx

derived his concept of materialism from the word matter. He

argued that, ideas derive their origin from matter which refers to

35
material conditions of human existence. It is these material forces

that determine thoughts, and ideas of men. He thus contended that

‘it is not the consciousness of men that determines their social

existence but on the contrary their social existence determines

their consciousness’. Moreover, ideas do not exist in a vacuum,

they must be related to a historical context, so that they can have

sufficient bearing on social reality. The nature of social reality also

changes over time. Hence his conclusion that human progress or

social development must go through five major stages namely,

primitive communalism, slavery, feudalism and the final stage

communism. Hegel had earlier conceived of materialism as the

movement of reality itself, reaching its completeness through the

process of logical development. He believes that reality evolve

from one stage to the other by the process of dialectics. It is this

very idea that Max developed and arrived at his theory of

dialectical materialism. Marx argued that reality evolved through

contradictions i.e from thesis to Anti- thesis, then synthesis. Thesis

is referring to affirmation, Anti-thesis i.e negation and

contradiction then reconciliation i.e synthesis, bringing about the

new social order. Dialectical materialism therefore, refers to the

36
contradictions or conflicts and resolutions that characterize the

material forces resulting to changes from one historical epoch to

the other.

The peculiar feature of Marxists analysis of conflicts in society

based on dialectics derives from the fact that he tempered

philosophy with some degree of reality. Hegel, an idealist,

believed that the external world i.e, reality is a mere reflection or

embodiments of matter. This point of view is known as

materialism, which has been the basis for Marx’s dialectical

materialism. According to him therefore, ideas are derived from

matter. Ideas must be related in a historical context and to the

material world. It is in fact the material world that determines

thoughts and ideas of men and women. The material world forces

do not also exist in an unchanging and timeless fashion. They

change through contradictions over historical period of time. This

is primarily because material world today is different from that of

the past centuries. It is this material world that is referred to as

historical materialism. This is especially so when the ideas are

backed with social action, which can significantly shape the

society or nature of social reality.

37
 Thus for Marx historical materialism as already indicated has

been through five major stages namely slavery, feudalism,

capitalism, socialism and finally communism. Each historical

epoch has specifically designated mode of production forming the

basis of relationships in the supernatural arrangements of the

society. It is historical materialism that is the extension of the

principles of dialectical materialism or theory of dialectics as

already explained.

The mode of production is not static, but dynamic and it changes

with historical development of society. When the existing

structure accommodates further development of productive forces

the old system of production is overthrown and a new mode arises,

delineating new relations. According to Marx therefore, critical

human differences are generated by socio-economic division of

labour and relationship to the mode of production.

The character of the mode of production and social relations are

determined by the level of development of the society and by the

character of productive forces. Productive forces and production

relations together constitute the mode of production. The various

modes that exist over historical period of time succeed each other.
38
For example, slavery mode was succeeded by feudal mode, then

capitalist mode etc. Also contradictions often arise between the

productive forces and the relations of production. This is because,

the techniques, skills and working experience advance more

constantly, whereas, the production relations change rather slowly,

and behind the production forces.

Due to this unequal changes in the productive forces and the

production relations, discrepancy arises and conflicts develop in

the production relations since the obsolete production relations

hinder further development of productive forces. Conflict

therefore, leads to the destruction of obsolete production relations

and to the replacement of new ones corresponding to the new

character of the productive forces that have grown up. A new

mode of production begins a new circle of development, which

passes through the same process. Each stage corresponds to

definite mode of production, which also conditions the social,

political and intellectual life of the society in general, as already

indicated.

Consequently, Marxism is often criticized for deriving all other

aspects of society from the economic activities of man in the

39
society. Marx sees the interplay between the economic base of

society, determined by the mode of production, with the

supernatural. However, more than his contemporaries, Marx is

credited with concrete attempt to formulate more universal laws

that govern the society.

It has thus contributed largely to the study of general laws of

society and detailed, empirical materials for sociologists and other

social sciences. It has also demonstrated the linkages between

historical and science, and the nature of human society based on

materialism, created by economic forces at the base of society,

determining every relationship. However, Marx has been accused

of being a false prophet.

According to Marx (1930), man is an exclusive being that is born

and developed in the society. He is socialized based on the

complex series of interactions and relationships which help pattern

his perception of events and shape his consciousness. Marx

considers the mode of production stemming from capitalism as the

basis for exploitation. The mode of production is made up of

factors of production and the social relations of production.

Relations of production refers to definite relationships entered into

40
in the course of production of material goods and services or

material conditions of life. According to Marx, it is the mode of

production that determines the nature of relationships in society in

fact, in the super structural arrangements of the society. Marx

adopted the principle of historical dialectical materialism in

seeking an understanding to the society. Karl Marx directed his

intellectual powers against capitalism. Capitalism is a system of

production and trade based on property and wealth being owned

privately. A society where capitalism exists is a class society since

capitalism is based on exploitation. Consequently, Karl Marx

identified the existence of two major classes in the historical

development of society; the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The

bourgeoisie owns the means of production and as such employs

the proletariat for a wage. The proletariat has no other asset but his

labour power which he sells for a wage. Marx argued that the

bourgeoisie extorts the proletariat of the proceeds of his labour.

The labour surplus generated from the productive interactions

between the two classes is often expropriated by the bourgeoisie

class. This creates a situation of mutual antagonism between the

two classes. The resultant fallout from the situation painted above

41
is the development of a class consciousness by the proletariat class

who would mobilize themselves and overthrow the bourgeoisie

class and the reinstatement of a new social order known as

socialism.

Using the concept of base and superstructure, Marx argued that

the economic base of any society determine its superstructure (the

government and its institutions). He explains that since the

bourgeoisie owns the economic base, they manipulate the

superstructure to suit their various purposes. Marx denounced

religion as an illusion and advocated for the elimination of religion

from society. He looks at religion as an opium of the people.

Religion hinders the proper growth of creative powers which are

capable of scientific exploration, discovery, invention,

administration and organization of society. Religion encourages

the masses to resign from productive activities and accept poverty

as a condition for religious faith. Marx explained that religion

supports capitalism in making the poor more desperate and

frustrated. Religion endorsed the capitalist system of production

and distribution of goods and services. It supports the conditions

whereby skilled and unskilled workers are exploited in kind, time,

42
wages and the provision of social services such as electricity,

water supply and medical services. In spite of all these inhuman

treatments melted out to the people, religion demands that

adherents submit themselves to exploitative authorities. Marx

explained that religion was capable of making the problems of life

more bearable than they actually are. Marx accused religion of

making its adherents docile, stupid and unable to claim their rights

to a decent life involving the security life and property.

Criticisms

Criticism of Marxism or Marxian analysis arise from the fact that

he predicted a revolution that failed to occur in capitalist Europe.

It rather took place in China and Russia, which had never attained

the capitalist stage in their historical development before the

revolution. Also the middle class which Marx foresaw and

predicted will disappear has emerged as the dominant class in

most capitalist societies today.

Ralf Dahrendorf criticized Marx of thinking that class conflicts

will always mechanically lead to a revolution. There can be

institutionalization of conflicts. Accordingly, he argued that

43
authority structure rather than class structure is very important in

modern societies in preventing conflicts from escalating into a

revolution. Moreover, according to Mayo, Marxist theory of class

and class struggle does not explain change from Feudalism to

capitalism by revolution. And that if class struggle dominant the

feudal period it was certainly not between the landlords and serfs.

Marx has also been criticized for inadequate conceptualization of

the mode of production in his analysis of class when he referred to

it as resources, techniques, and labour. He ignored the

enterpreneural functions and seems to include capital among

materials. Dahrendorf (1959) also observed that Marxian analysis

of class and class struggles and historical evolution of society was

accurate for the 19th Century Europe, but now obsolete for the post

capitalist epoch. Furthermore, the theory of dialectics recognizes

conflicts as well as consensus as the basis for social change i.e

Anti- thesis constituting conflict, and synthesis reconciliation

being the consensus.

Marxian analysis of society, based on conflicts amongst groups,

classes etc. is significant for bringing to our understanding the

nature of inequality and conflicts in society as well as classes and

44
class struggles. Furthermore, his work illuminated the

development of society from one stage to the other I,e primitive

communism, to slavery, feudalism to capitalism and eventually

socialism and communism. Dahrendorf praises Marx for

systematically exploring this phenomenon of social conflicts by

stating that as obvious as it may seem that social conflicts often

result in the modifications of acceptable patterns of behaviours. It

has neither been explored as systematically by anybody as by

Marx. Indeed, this eloquent testimony by Dahrendorf leaves us

without any as regards the significance of Marxian as an approach

in sociological analysis and understanding the nature of human

society.

3. Symbolic Interactionist theory

The theory of symbolic interactionism is traced to the works of

Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead. Herbert Mead’s

central concern was the understanding of the relationship between

human minded activities and nature. He posed the question that,

can those techniques of natural sciences be usefully applied to the

study of human mind, to human social activities. Mead tried to

demonstrate that the methods of the natural sciences can be

45
usefully applied in the study of human minded interactions and

activities. According to him, human mind can be studied

scientifically like any phenomena, using all the scientific methods.

The methods of natural sciences include experimentation causal

relationships, observations and interpretations. It also involves

applying the procedures and processes used in physics, chemistry,

biology, etc as well as the relationships amongst variable. Herbert

Blumer provided a more elaborate analysis on symbolic

interactionism through his criticisms of variable analysis. Variable

analysis deals with the explanations of relationships amongst

variables especially between two or more variables i.e frustration

causes aggression. Here we are having two variables i.e frustration

and aggression. We can demonstrate scientifically the independent

and dependent variables. But Blumer argues that the transfer of

this procedure without modification in the study of human mind

(the principle of symbolic interaction) is inacceptable.

Blumer suggests that “in order to act, the individual has to

identify what he wants, establish an objective, or goal, map out a

prospective line of behavior, note and interpret the actions of

others, size up his situation, check himself at this point or that

46
point, and frequently, spur himself on in the face of dragging

dispositions or discouraging setting.

In any case, symbolic interactionism according to Herbert Mead,

has the following:

(a) That human beings are minded individuals who are perpetually

involved in active interactions with one another. These

interactions can change behavior etc. It is therefore, based

on the following concepts

(i) Language:

Language can take the form of utterances i.e gestures,

gesticulations, and movement, in the process of

communication with others, and perhaps self or the

individual. Gestures arising from interaction process can

communicate silent gestural language. It can also involve

vocal utterances. The vocal language may be sacred or

profane, formal or informal, vulgar or polite.

(ii) Interactional setting or arena

This includes all forms of interaction that take place within

an arena or captive audience. Settings are immoveable and

47
 refer to physical settings but an arena can be created out of

social situations or circumstance. It is the individuals that

produce arena, be it physical or social.

(iii) Self can be regarded as the thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and

actions, as well as utterances any person has within himself

as a distinct object. It is a social process that arises from

covert, and silent conversations and behavioural

dispositions, observed through one’s communicative acts

and conversation involving gestures.

(iv) Joint-Act or activity refers to the situation whereby

communication takes place between two or more persons.

Joint-Act may take many forms depending upon people

involved in the interaction process.

(v) Interaction occasion which includes all behaviours that

demonstrate those involved in the interaction process, their

symbolic presence to each other or those interactions which

are in one another’s physical if not symbolic presence.

(vi) Encounter:

48
 It takes place during interaction occasions. Occasions are the

stage for encounters which may be defined as an act

between two or more person whereby those activity

involved in the interaction symbols visual, auditory, and

tactile contact. Encounter lasts as long as two or more

persons can sustain mutual understanding and relationship.

Mead goes on the demonstrate that human beings make

gestures, to each other which are expected to elicit particular

responses, and this is through taking the role of the other in

the process of interaction. According to him

“The child, for example, gradually acquires the capacity to

respond in a kind of imaginative way to his own projected

conduct. Within himself he rehearses precisely what he is going to

do, and inwardly he responds to himself. Should the response that

he obtains prove to be unsatisfactory, he will then try again until

an act is pictured in his mind which elicits within himself, the

reflection of the satisfactory response.

An individual therefore directs behavior towards himself or

herself, converses with himself or herself and goes ahead to pass

judgment upon himself or herself. The self-concept, which is non-

49
existence at birth is now gained through social experience i.e by

taking on the role of the others. Furthermore, Mead contended

that:

“Thinking is thus preparatory to social action. It is

interesting to note that Mead considers that sperman “x” factor in

intelligence is simply this ability of the individual to take the

attitudes of the other, or the attitudes of others generally, thus

realizing the significance of the gestures and symbols in terms of

which thinking proceeds and so being enabled to carry on with

himself the internal conversation by means of gestures and

symbols.

The community or organized social group that provides the

individual unity of self is classified by Herbert Mead as, first the

generalized social other, which reflects the attitudes of the whole

community. As a member of the community or organization, or

the society, the individual anticipates the behavior of others and

performs a variety of roles simultaneously. These roles, according

to Mead, specify rules and techniques which the individual

identifies or conforms with, and thus, observes the generalized

pattern of behavior, i.e the role of the generalized others. In a

50
highly stable society, the generalized image is fairly settled and

varieties of interpretations do not exist because the roles are

appreciated and well understood. Whereas, in heterogeneous, fast

changing and disorganized societies, there exist series of

generalized others, due to existence of many competing and

difficult roles. However, it is due to the generalized other that the

individual identifies with the society’s aspirations, problems and

goals and learns to solve them.

Cooley (1902) argued that symbols are important in the process

of interaction which determines and affects the socialization of the

individual. Cooley explains that the self-develop out of a complex

series of interaction process. Employing the concept of looking

glass self, Cooley explains that we learn who we are by interacting

with others. Our view of ourselves comes not only from direct

contemplation of our personal qualities but also from our

impression of how others perceive us. He used the phrase “looking

glass self” to emphasize that the self is the product of our social

interactions with other people.

51
 Mead (1934) explains that the self-developed out of a

complex series of interaction. One important aspect in the

development of the self is the process of role taking. Role taking is

the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another,

thereby enabling one to respond from imagined view point. Mead

used the term “generalized others “to refer to those attitudes,

viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole; He also use the

term ‘significant others’ to refer to those persons who are

important in the development of the self of the individual.

Symbolic interactionists insist that religion consist of a body of

symbols used by the society to obtain meaning to the unexplained

things of life. Symbols used in religion include objects such as

stones, rivers, mountains and even animals such as oxen, Tigers

etc. These animals and objects are considered sacred and

venerated in worship by adherents. God is considered to be a

spiritual being and unapproachable by human beings who are

considered sinful. Also rituals involved in religious worship are

perceived as outward symbols of an innermost righteous life of

worshippers. The individual person has to mould his self in line

with the percepts of God as indicated by his religious group.

52
Theories thus provide the necessary framework for explanation of

social phenomenon in the society. In sociology of religion, various

theoretical frameworks exist for the explanation of religion as a

social fact. Structural functionalism, Marxist and symbolic

interactionism, provide such basis for explanation of religion. The

choice of any particular theory is however based on the orientation

of the user as well as the prevailing socioeconomic realities on the

ground.

1.

ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGY OF

53
 RELIGION

The Relationship between Religion and

society

The religious institution has been found to be an institution

that has exerted profound influence on the society. Religion has

been found to be a viable tool for the order and stability of many

societies. Religion is the worshiping of society (Durkheim: 1961).

The society makes religious rules for its peace, order, harmony

and stability. Religious beliefs and practices therefore do not exist

in a vacuum. They exist in the society and are practiced by

individuals who live in the communities that form the society.

Religious values are themselves a reflection of values of the

society where a particular religion is practiced. The mode of

religious practices and worship reflects the nature of the society

where such religions exist. In traditional African societies the

practice of Ancestral worship, beliefs in magic, witchcraft,

divination, secret societies and indigenous medicine are

widespread. These various practices and beliefs are aimed at

creating unity and solidarity among the people. For example, the

54
practice of Ancestral worship among African societies has its roots

in the belief that there exist a link between One’s dead ancestors

and the living members of the community. The dead is believed to

know and reward or punish its descendants. Ancestors are

therefore in constant watch over the behavior of the living. At

death anybody may be called by the body of ancestors to render

account of his or her relationships with the kinsmen left behind on

Earth. This belief which is widespread among African societies

help maintains morality, discipline and order.

Society receives rewards or punishments from supernatural

beings based on their observance and adherence to laws handed

down by such supernatural beings. The development and

transformation of societies is also tied to the level of adherence to

its religious practices. Consequently, evil communities are visited

with diseases, draughts and floods. Evil societies are dominated by

witches and switchyards. Witches are believed to poses

supernatural elements and powers by which they do harm to their

fellow human beings. They are also believed to meet and operate

chiefly at night and in secret places. Religion therefore ensures

55
that members of society maintain a high level of morality so as to

avoid punishment from their God or gods.

Members of the society also depend on religion for their

wellbeing. The gift of rains, bounty harvest and good health

depends on the extent to which members of a society obey the

supernatural. Among societies of Africa it is believed that drastic

droughts, pestilence, turmoil and other forms of misfortune and

sicknesses befall a community because of their evil deeds and

disobedience to the will of God.

Thus the relationship between religion and society existed

from times immemorial. Members of a community practice

religion so as to find answers to questions relating to life after

death, meaning of life and relationship between God and man.

Religion is therefore an inevitable part of society. It is an integral

part of all societies of the world. Societies depend on religion to

provide meaning to life, provide answers to questions of life after

death as well as emotional, and psychological support.

56
Major Institutions of society as agencies of Religion

Social institutions refer to an enduring complex of norms,

roles, values and sanctions which embrace a distinct segment of

social life. A social institution is an organized system of social

relationship which embodies certain common values and

procedures that are geared towards meeting the needs of the

society. In this unit we will be looking at some major institutions

of the society as agencies of religion. The institutions to be

covered here include the family and the school.

1 The family as an agency of religion.

The family is a domestic group in which parents and

children live together and in its elementary form consists of a

couple with their children (Mair, 1972). It is a kinship grouping

which provides for the rearing of children and for certain other

human needs (Horton and Hunt: 1976). Although different

definitions emphasize different things, what is clear about the

family as a sociological concept is that it involves sex, children,

parenthood, kinship and sometimes marriage and common

residency. The presence of some of these elements in any given

57
concrete case may depend on the type of family one is talking

about. The family as an agency of religion comes in handy inform

of socialization duties placed on it by the society. The family as a

basic unit of the society is charged with the responsibility of child

rearing and upbringing. Every individual in the society comes

from a family. The family is expected to socialize its members in

such a manner as to place God first in all their daily activities of

life. Every family embodies a set of common values (Values about

love, children, life, family routines and religion), and a network of

roles and social statuses that determine relationship within the

family.

TYPES OF FAMILY

(a) Nuclear Family

The nuclear family consists of a man, his wife and children.

Another term for the nuclear family is elementary family. It has

also been referred to as the natural family. It is also found in other

parts of the world where in many cases it co-exists with other

types of family. The nuclear family can be further classified into a

58
number of types. These are the conjugal family otherwise known

as the family of procreation, the natal family also called the family

of orientation. The conjugal family is the family in which one is a

father/husband or mother/ wife. Natal family is the family where

one was born.

(b) Extended Family

An extended family consists of several nuclear families i.e two or

more nuclear families. A man’s conjugal family is joined through

him to his father’s conjugal family and through his father to his

grand-father’s conjugal family, in that progression (upward and

downward) to form the extended family. The extended family thus

covers one’s nuclear family plus any other kin with whom one is

related through blood. The extended family is common on the

African continent where it exits along-side the nuclear family. In

England and other western societies, the extended family was said

to have existed prior to the industrial revolution whose pervasive

influence eroded the extended.

An opposite view however contends that in these western

societies the extended family structures still persist even onto this

59
day. They are seen to serve as a form of social insurance against

the accidents and misfortunes at the industrial workplace. The

second view is probably based on studies that measured the

“currency of contacts” and “family sentiments” among western

urban dwellers and their near and distant relatives, rather than on

findings that proved geographical and common co-habitation of

blood kins. Many conflicting views of this kin often stem from

problems of level in concept operationalization.

(c) Monogamous and Polygynous Families

These terms are used to describe families in terms of the kind of

marriage contract that gave rise to them. A monogamous family is

a family composed of a man and one wife and their children. It is

equivalent to a nuclear family and has been referred to as the

simple legal family. A polygynous family on the other hand is a

family composed of one man and more than one wife and their

children. In a polygynous family each wife/mother and her

children constitute what is called a mother-centered family known

as matricentric or matrifocal family. All the matricentric families

within a polygynous family share in one father/husband.

60
In the typical African setting, each matricentric family which in

its own right is a nuclear family is sheltered in a different

apartment and maintains a separate kitchen from the rest of the

other matricentric units. In the traditional African setting the

father/husband is fed in turn by the matricentric units. It is also

important to emphasise that each matricentric family relates as a

unit or as individuals with the other members of the polygynous

family. The polygynous family has been referred to by another

term: “complex legal family” which is linked by their relationship

to a common father. One can also speak of a polygynous family.

(d) Ghost Family

A ghost family consists of the ghost (the pater), his wife, their

children, and the kinsman who became their genitor by reason of

his customary duty towards a dead relative (the ghost). A ghost

family is then a family that is set up through ghost-inheritance

marriage.

Functions of the Family

The family as a social institution performs a number of significant

functions for society and these functions justify its existence. The

61
functions include: the regulation of sexual behaviour, the

replacement of dead members, the socialization of new members,

provision of economic support or care, assignment of social status

or social placement, provision of emotional support and the

provision of physical protection.

1. The Sexual Regulation Function

The family is the major institution through which the society

organizes and regulates the satisfaction of sexual desires of its

members. No society allows its members to engage in random

sexual behaviour. There are always rules which specific who may

have sex and who may not, whom one may have sexual access to

and whom one may not mate with etc. Although many societies

provide some alternative sexual outlets or tolerate some degrees of

sexual indulgence for whatever social purpose (e.g as a

preparation for marriage or a means of determining fertility), the

marriage and family system remain the principal setting within

which most sexual intercourse must occur. Hence most, if not all

societies, have norms which prohibit sex outside marriage and the

family.

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2. The Reproduction Function

All societies need to replace its members as many grow old

and die off. Without such a replacement a society will soon

disappear or vanish. The family provides it with the means of

reproducing its number and ensuring generational replacement. In

no society can one most procreation encourage outside the family

setting even in the most promiscuous and permissive of all

societies. It is within the family up that adequate role positions

have been prepared for the caring of the children that are born.

3. The Socialization Function

The family in all societies serves as primary agency for child

socialization. Newly born children need to be taught the

customary ways of their society. In the helpless years of their

infancy, they need to be cared for and provided for. Without being

taught the rudiments of their societies they cannot grow up into

functional adults. All of this task even though there are other

socialization agencies which can play contributory roles.

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The reason is simple. Because the newly-born child belongs to the

parents, the latter take special care and interest in monitoring it

development and progress. Because parent have personal stake in

the growing child they conscientiously pass onto the child

everything it requires to mature into a full adult member of society

language, values, norms, beliefs, food, protection etc. The family

is thus the most significant and influential agency of socialization.

4. Provision of Economic Support

Human beings need food, shelter, clothing in order to survive.

These basic needs of life are provided by the family. Within the

family set-up those who are unable to take care of themselves by

reasons of illness, unemployment, youth or old age find ready

assistance from other siblings or family members who are

productive and active and who earn income. Parents also

recognize a social duty to fend for their children or family

members. In small-scale societies the family is the basic economic

unit. This means that members work together as a household team

and share commonly in the proceeds of their labour. Which means

that the family plays a great economic role by ensuring economic

sustenance for its members or by making it possible for its

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members to obtain material support which cannot be readily

obtained outside the family context.

5. The Status Placement Function

A person’s family of birth determines his initial status in society.

When we are born, we enter into the statuses of our parents: we

belong to the same religious and social class of our parents. It is

from our parent’s classification that we must start out in life and

then possibly change it over the course of time for better or for

worse. Thus, not only material goods and wealth are inherited

from the family but also a variety if ascribed and achieved

statuses.

In any society that is stratified according to class, the status of a

child’s family greatly determines the opportunities and rewards

available to that child, and this head-start substantially determines

his entire life chances including his adult status. All things being

equal, a child attains or maintains the class status of his parents at

adult age. This is because the family of orientation prepares the

child for class position identical to it own. As the child grows, he

internalizes from its family a set of cultural norms, values,

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interests, beliefs and life-habits which enable him to continue in or

re-enact his family class status.

Strangely enough, this process of imbibing our family’s social

class outlook imposes on us a class ceiling or blockade which

makes it difficult or impossible for us to achieve status levels

above those of our parents. Quite clearly, our family background

is the most significant single determinant of our status in society.

6. Emotional Support

Every human being needs a warm, affectionate relationship with a

close circle of intimate associates. Lack of love and intimate

responses from others lead individuals to the brink of emotional

instability and possible neuroses. In the harsh industrial

environment of today’s modern society which is characterized by

disappointments, dissatisfactions and failures, there is a great need

for a safe-haven, a place of emotional refuge into which a victim

can run for comfort. The family provides one such place.

The family is a primary group that is composed of blood relatives.

In this primary setting emotional needs can be fulfilled and very

deep personal feelings can be expressed with no reservations

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whatsoever. The family provides us with the companionship and

intimate human responses with we need to remain emotional

stable and to lead happy lives. This is a very important function.

7. The Protection Function.

In every society the family undertakes the task of protecting its

members. It offers them physical protection in addition to

economic and emotional or psychological protection. In many

societies family members so much identify with one another such

that anything that affects any one member of the family affects the

entire family. An attack against a member is taken as one against

the whole family. There is a mutual responsibility among

members to protect one another.

In primitive societies, there was a practice known as group

revenge. Revenge of an injury inflicted by an external aggressor

was organized at the level of the group. The individual was not left

along to revenge a wrong done to him personally. Revenge was

recognized as the responsibility of the group in which a person

belonged. This could be a family or clan etc. Physical protection

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even in modern society is a role which most families will be quite

ready to play in the lives of their members.

The family as the first point of contact with the child in the

socialization process plays a vital role in serving as an agency of

religion. Because the newly born child belongs to the parents, the

latter takes special care and interest in monitoring his development

and progress. Because parents have stake in the growing child they

conscientiously pass onto the child everything he requires to

mature into a full adult member of society. Religious values form

an important component of what the family teaches her young

ones. In most families, priority is placed on adherence to a routine

of activities including reading the bible every morning and night.

Family members gather at night to say prayers before going to bed

and early morning before commencement of the day’s activities.

The family there serves as an important agency of religion.

2 The Educational Institution as Agency of Religion

Educational institution comprises that segment of the basic

structure of society which meets the educational needs of the

people. These educational needs of the society include

transmission of social heritage, new ideas, skills and values

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including religious values. Education therefore involves the

transmission of knowledge, skill and values which the individual

need to master in order to control his physical and social

environment and adapt himself to the demands of the society of

which he is a member (Eddiefloyd: 2003). Education has several

types. These include, formal, Non-formal and informal education.

Formal education is that education which takes places in the

classroom. It is school based education and involves all

experiences that are provided by Professional teachers and experts.

Formal education is organized body of knowledge that is

structured in curriculum. It is learning in which individuals

undertake consciously under formal schools with rules, regulations

and organized curriculum and methods of teaching.

Informal education is that type of education which takes place

with or without its receiver being conscious of its effects on him.

Informal education takes places every day and at all times. There

is no formal setting for it but as individuals discuss, observe

events and imitate others, learning takes places. Informal

education is not planned and organized and as such has no

consciously planned curriculum.

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Non-formal education comprises those highly specific educational

experiences which are provided in non-school environments. This

type of education is organized to some extent but do not represent

full developed curriculum. Examples of non-formal education

include trade apprenticeship schemes, Agricultural extension

program, National youth service schemes etc.

Educational institution serves as agencies of religion in a number

of ways. In the first instance, the curriculum of schools involves

teaching of religion as a subject. The pupils are taught religious

beliefs and practices as a way of life which they come to grow up

and mature with. Education also involves imparting on of religious

values into learners. Thus learners imbibe values of honesty,

humility, dedication and loyalty molded on sound morality which

ensures the projection of society interest as paramount.

Education ensures the integration of various diversified religious

sects and denomination into one body of believers. Most modern

societies contain with them diverse religious groups whose

cultures and religious practices are not only discordant but may be

in actual conflict with one another. In such a situation education

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comes in handy as a means of integrating the different sub-cultural

groups into a common culture of shared beliefs and values.

This how religious beliefs and practices get transmitted

from generation to generation through social institutions that serve

as agencies of religion. Such institutions include the family and

educational institutions. The family is the first point of contact

between the child and the outer world. The family therefore serves

as an important agency of religion. Because it is saddled with the

primary socialization of its members, the family transmits values

and morality to its members for their effective’s integration into

the society. Educational institution provides formal, Nonformula

and informal types of education to religious adherents. The

institution transmits values and morality to learners. The

curriculum of schools is designed in such a manner as to impart

religious instructions to learners.

Religion and Culture

Religion and culture are often perceived as two sides of the same

coin. Religion stems from the culture of a people and their desire

to provide answers to culturally defined problems of life. The

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Religion of a people portrays an aspect of their culture. As an

aspect of culture, religion provides psychological and emotional

remedy to the problems of man in the society. In this unit therefore

we shall examine religion and culture. We shall look at culture and

its various components and proceed to examine the relationship

between religion and culture of society.

The Concept of Culture

The concept of culture has several definitions. To many, culture

represents the totality of way of life of a people. More clearly,

culture is defined as the complex whole of man’s acquisitions of

knowledge, morals, beliefs, art, custom, technology etc which are

shared and transmitted from generation to generation (Otite and

Ogoinwo: 1979). Culture is therefore everything that is socially

learned and shared by members of a society. The concept of

culture is used in reference to a group or society. The architectural

designs and responses to environmental cues which we

collectively refer to as culture are not God given but are

deliberately fashioned out by members of a society to guide life

and living in all aspects of society. This implies that different

societies have different cultural patterns.

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Culture develops out of the desire by a group to overcome their

problems as they try to control their environment so as to improve

their economic, religious, security and technological needs. As a

group work towards providing its needs, it becomes necessary to

devise rules and norms of behavior, create values and principles

that will govern social interaction and relationship. Culture is

therefore a distinctive and transmissible network of symbols

which characterize a designated aggregate of people (Eddiefloyd:

2003). Culture embraces such things that are man -made, artifacts

(Chairs, Cars, planes etc), ideals, beliefs and feelings (e.g. about

the existence of God). Culture thus covers all aspects of life

religion inclusive.

In scientific usage, culture is often defined in blanket terms as the

total of life of a people. More specifically, culture is defined as the

complex whole of man’s acquisitions of knowledge, morals,

belief, art, custom, technology etc which are shared and

transmitted from generation to generation. Many anthropologist

and sociologist accept this definition of culture which was given

by E.B.Tylor in his primitive culture first published in 1891. The

definition stresses that culture is not a personal item. Culture is

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used with reference to a society or a group of societies. Culture

does not die with the death of an individual or a group of such

people vanish under such mishaps as earthquakes. Even here there

is the possibility that the materials and the technology of such a

people may be dug up at some future date by archeologist and the

buried culture of the society reconstructed.

Culture has both material and non-material aspects. Material

culture relates to overt or explicit aspect of culture. It is a

reference to the visible or concrete acquisition of man in society.

Examples of material culture include bridges, hoes, houses,

cooking utensils, handicrafts etc. on-material aspect of culture

consist of knowledge, moral, philosophy, language, attitudes,

values, norms, religion etc of a people shared and transmitted in a

society. Non-material aspects of culture are not visible or tangible

but are manifested through thinking and behavior of a people.

Both of these aspects of culture – material and non-material go

together as the culture of a people. They are however important in

the analysis of cultural patterns of a people, that is their general

mode of conduct the systematic and integrated content of

behaviour which is characteristic of that society. Because of this, it

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is possible to predict or anticipate the behaviour of members of a

given culture.

In Sociological studies we do not consider any society and

individual as uncultured. Every person who is a member of a

society has a culture. Ideally, no one culture is better than another.

The concept of cultural relativity is an important one in

sociological studies. By this concept, every cultural trait or

behaviour is judged in the context of the particular culture and its

value system. The concept implies that both the diversities of

cultures and their comparative appraisals. Whereas there are

universal traits in culture, there are also traits which are found

only in certain cultures. Hence there are specific elements which

characterize a culture and general elements which cut across

cultures. However, because culture is an abstraction, it is

impossible to say even in scientific terms that one culture is richer

than the other. The richness and comparability of such cultural

elements as language, morality, systems of ideas, philosophy etc

are obviously impossible to measure.

Cultural accumulation is the process by which new traits or

elements are added to a particular culture. Hence there is cultural

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growth. This increases in the number of items or traits in a culture

is possible through inventions or discoveries by members of the

society or though diffusion. These processes of cultural

accumulation and of cultural evolution are fraught with change.

culture is not static. It has continuous growth and is therefore

always changing through the acquisition of more cultural traits and

borrowing. The introduction of a cultural element may mean the

introduction of an initial conflict. But such conflict usually

disappear as the cultural trait becomes accepted. However, it is not

in every case that new cultural traits are accepted. A new cultural

element can be rejected by a society and also there can be

continuities and discontinuities in the culture of a people. There

may be continuities in the central traits of a culture whereas only

the peripheral ones may be discontinued. Cultural change,

sometimes referred to as cultural dynamics occurs when the

culture of a people is modified though time. A people’s culture

can be is shown in their behaviour and manifested in their

artefacts and art forms. Culture therefore cannot be observed

directly. What we can observe is the behaviour of people and their

techniques and manner of constructing material artefacts.

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Similarly, dancing is not culture itself; it is one form through

which culture manifest itself. Human behaviour, speeches, dances,

songs etc are important in a study of culture only because of the

light they shed into the way people are trained and brought up to

be members of a society. What we refer to earlier as material and

non-material aspects of culture including carvings, paintings,

dress, philosophy, etc represent the end product of culture of a

people.

Every culture is distinct, with its own history and dynamics.

Because of this it can only be evaluated in its own terms hence the

term cultural relativity. In its dynamic yet distinct form, culture

functions as a mechanism of adaptation to a particular

environment be it social or physical. It is because of this

adaptation that a people and their culture can survive in a

particular environment.

Changes in culture are thus caused by several factors: ecological

changes and the need to survive, inventions to exploit the

environment efficiently, culture contact leading to the availability

of alternatives, elements, innovations, process of cultural

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transmission from generation to generation and the dynamic

process involved in the interaction between society and its culture.

Religion constitute a major aspect of culture; the non-material

culture. Every religious practice, value or norm is based on the

cultural background of a people. Again, every religious ceremony

practiced among the people of a community is traceable to earlier

cultural practices. Among the Roman Catholics, many of their

religious rituals and ceremonies have a link to the Roman Culture.

The celebration of feasts and festivals such as Christmas has their

roots in Roman Culture. Religion is culturally determined and as

such it expresses the very nature of belief prevalent in a people. In

Africa, the advent of missionary activities portrays Western

religion as superior to any other form of religion. The politicized

belief that one religion is superior to another made early Christian

Missionaries to Africa come into contact with stiff opposition

from the natives. This resulted in the destruction by fire and

disappearance through other means of what was derogatorily

labeled idols in several West and East African societies. The

inability of the missionaries to understand the culture of the people

as was exemplified by their religious practices and values often

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brought them into open conflict. For example, the agrarian nature

of African communities require that men marry a number of wives

so as to own a large number of workers. Again ancestral link

between the living and the dead requires that Africans indulge in

ancestral worship through pouring of libations and offering of

sacrifices using animals. Virtually, the Christian church forbade

Africans from marrying many wives, ancestral worship and the

use of blood of animals in sacrifices and pouring of libations.

Hence there is often conflict between different cultures and moral

standards. Religion is measured in terms of Western Christian

ethical standards and requirements. This phenomenon many

scholars have argued facilitated the gradual erosion of and

destruction of African cultural values.

One of African’s reaction to the perceived encroachment on their

culture was the formation of independent indigenous churches and

religious movements (Otite and Ogwoinwo: 1979). Example of

such churches include the cherubium and seraphim and the Christ

Apostolic Church.

In Conclusion, Culture as the totality of way of life of people

is related to religion in several ways. Religious beliefs and

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practices stems from the culture of a people. As an aspect of

culture, religion reflects the morals, values, norms and standards

adopted by society for its members. The advent of western religion

tends to destroy the culture of indigenous Africa. Western religion

perceives African values and norms as barbaric and as such need

to be abolished.

Religion and social change in society The

concept of social change

Social change refers to the significant alterations of culture, social

structure and social behavior over time. It is a reference to the

modifications that occur within social institutions, in social

attitudes, values, beliefs, and patterns of relationship. When

change occurs in a society, patterns of cultural behavior are

altered; new institutions emerge to take care of the needs of the

emerging structures and social relationship. Examples of social

change include changes in language, use of new forms of

transportation, changing ideas about sex and equality, new dance,

dress and even marriage. Social structures everywhere undergo

continuous change. The myriad of observable differences in social

phenomena over time call attention to the universal and

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continuous nature of social change. In sociology everything

changes, nothing is constant except change itself. Otite and

Ogionwo (1978) has used the example of the changing economic

and social roles of women in Nigeria within the past four decades

to illustrate the concept of change. They explain that the

traditional image of woman has been that of a wife and mother

and her duty was to serve the man. The working woman was

associated with promiscuity and indecent behavior. Nowadays, the

traditional role of the Nigerian woman is changing. This change is

due largely as a result of modernization. Women are no longer

restricted to the kitchen and domestic duties. Women are now

becoming more involved in economic, political and cultural

events. With improved communication and transportation system

rural women are getting more involved in trade and commerce.

Women are increasingly being involved in education and politics.

Also, women are increasingly being involved in religious activities

with some of them starting up their independent ministries.

Sources of Social Change

Sociologists have over the years identified several factors

responsible for social change in the society. The direction which

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change takes as a result of any causative factor depends on the

peculiar social and historical conditions that prevail in a particular

society. Some of the sources of social change include;

(a) Invention: - This is a reference to new use of existing

knowledge to produce something that was not in existence. Two

types of inventions exist; material inventions and social

inventions. Material inventions involve producing tangible

products such as cameras, automobiles and computers. Social

inventions involve creating democratic institutions, slavery, and

corporations. Invention is not strictly an individual matter but a

social process which involves continuous series of improvement

and modification towards improving the existing condition.

(b) Discovery: - This is another source of social change in

society. A discovery is a new perception of an aspect of reality

that already exists. When a discovery is put to use then it becomes

a source of social change. Discoveries themselves are useless until

they are put to use and can produce change. For example, the

ancient Greeks were reputed to have discovered the principle of

steam power and actually built a toy steam engine in Alexandria

about 100 AD. They did not put this principle to any serious use
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and as such could not generate any significant change until the era

of industrial revolution in Europe.

(c) Increases in population: - Increases in population of n area

may lead to decline in informal relations, the growth of secondary

group relations and the growth of formal institutional structures.

Population increases also mean increase pressure and demand on

available resources. Thus, there is increased demand on available

infrastructure such as housing, roads, electricity and pipe borne

water. There may also be increases in poverty, diseases and crime

as a result of population increases. These developments generate

social change in the society.

(d) Conflict: - This has remained a major source of change

over the years. Conflicts when they occur may degenerate into

open hostilities and even war. Conflicts that degenerate into war

have caused untold hardship on the people leading to outbreak of

diseases, destruction of infrastructure and maiming or outright

killing of people. This development is noted to have brought

social changes in many parts of the world. For example, the

people of Afghanistan, Iraq, Nigeria and Palestine etc. are known

to have develop a high resistance spirit due to frequent wars.

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(e) Human Action: - Human action has been noted to be a

major source of change. Human action can be individualistic or

collective. Throughout history, notable personalities and figures

have been found to take decisions and actions that have led to

great social change. Adolf Hitler of Germany, Julius Ceasar of the

Roman Empire amongst other has been known to have taken

actions or decisions that have turn around the fortunes of their

country. Another dimension of human action is the collective.

Collective action takes the form of social movements and revolts.

Organizations such as pro-democracy groups, civil liberties

organizations, National liberation groups etc have been known to

bring social change in the society through collective efforts.

Factors That Affect the Rate of Social Change

Social change does not occur with equal rapidity in all societies.

Also some societies are more open and more receptive to change

than others. Many factors are responsible for this. These include:

changes in our physical environment (which result from human

misuse of the environment, or from natural disaster), population

changes, and the extent of isolation or contact with other groups or

societies. From our treatment of some sources of social change,

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we can arrive at inferences on how these factors can affect the

rates of social change. Some of these inferences are that: constant

major change in the physical environment gives rise to greater

change in the social and cultural life of a people; that a more

rapidity growing population triggers off more social change, and

that being located in a geographical position of contact with other

cultures permits more social change to take place. Thus, societies

change more or less depending on whether or not they exhibit

these features.

The other factors that also affect the rate of social change are: the

structure of society and its culture, attitudes and values of a

society, the perceived needs of a society, and the cultural base of a

society.

1. The Structure of Society and Culture.

The way a society is structured affects the rate at which social

change occurs in that society. Studies have shown that a society

which emphasizes conformity and loyalty to the group is less

receptive to change than a society which encourages individual

inquisitiveness, discretion or initiative, and which is tolerant of

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cultural diversity. Again, a society which ascribes knowledge,

authority, and respect to its elderly members, rather than to its

educated intellectuals is more averse to social change. Also,

persons who are educated, who hold factory jobs, and who

maintained a newspaper reading habit were found to show more

receptiveness towards change (Ottendberg, 1959).

In societies whose culture is highly integrated such that one

element or aspect of the culture is tightly inter-wined with the rest

of the culture in mutually inseparable and interdependent way,

social change is less probable. Schneider (1959) has drawn

attention to the Masai, and Pakot peoples of Africa (as well as

others) whose cultures are integrated or centred around the cattle.

In these societies, cattle command a very high socio-cultural

value. It provides the people with a means of subsistence; it is

used for the payment of bride wealth during marriage; it serves as

a means of measuring one’s social status (the quantity one has

determines his position in the social ladder) and finally, it is an

object of love and affection for its owner who loves each cattle

just as he loved the human members of his family

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 In such a culturally integrated society where there is extreme

overlap of the economy, marriage, family, stratification and

religion etc social change is strongly resisted. On the contrary

societies whose institutions and cultural practices are less fused

together or less dependent upon one another, tend to be more

amenable to social change. Most contemporary societies are

experiencing much social change because of their loose and

flexible social and cultural structure; and their emphatic stress on

individualism and achievement orientation

(ii) Attitudes and Values of a Society

Societies differ in their attitude towards change. Likewise, some

societies have values which are favorable to change while others

do not. Some societies exist which cherish and revere their past.

They maintain a long lasting relationship with their dead ancestors

whom they recognize as spirit to be worshipped. In this kind of

society, elders are respected and obeyed, and cultural traditions,

rituals and customs are permanent features in the life of the

community. Attachment of this kind of primordial essences makes

little or no room for social change to take place. In such a static

social system there is hardly any visible notice of social change,

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neither is such a change considered desirable. When a people hold

such attitudes and values that are antagonistic to change, there is a

tendency for change to be resisted in that society.

There are however many other societies which are open to and

receptive of change. Such societies are usually rapidly changing

because the prevailing attitudes and values within them promote

change. Such values encourage skepticism, and at the same time

accommodate proposal for change in institutional structures. In

general, it is certainly true of today’s modern societies that within

them attitudes to change are highly positive. But in any given

society, it is possible to find sections of the population that are not

only conservative but also defiant of social change. Such

resistance to change may still be explainable in terms of the values

and attitudes held by the relevant group or subgroup of the

population. For example, rural farmers who refuse to adopt new

farming techniques, or villagers who refuse to patronize modern

medical facilities but prefer traditional methods.

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(iii) Perceived Needs of Society

The rate and direction of social change in any society is affecting

by the perceived needs of that society. Needs are subjective hence

different societies have different needs. This also means that a

need becomes real only when a people perceived and define it as

such. Naturally, needs call for responses that will general need

satisfaction. In the context of social change, a society will be apt

to embrace change that will solve its needs. Whereas it may show

non-challenge to change that is neutral, or at best not relevant to

its needs.

In a very poor country, the pressing needs may be those of food,

water, and housing. Members of these poor countries will

obviously show more interest in change programs that will provide

them these basic requirements. They may not be quite interested in

luxury or cosmetic items such as exotic cars, fancy dresses, or

such dispensable commodities which more prosperous countries

will crave for. Thus, social change is widely accepted and rapid

when it affects the identified needs of a society. Hence we say that

it is perceived needs (i.e necessity) that provide the stimulus for

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innovation and social change. In the language of the well-known

cliché, necessity is the mother of invention.

(iv) The Cultural Base

Members of any society normally inherit from their ancestral

predecessors a certain variety, quantity, and quality of cultural

artifacts, knowledge, and techniques which they then begin to

build upon and improve for contemporary usages. Such

accumulation of tools, knowledge, and techniques which are

available to a society at any given time is what is called the

cultural base of that society.

The first humans on earth were the pioneers and forerunners of

human culture. They did not have the privilege of inheriting any

social experiences from a previous generation. They invented

whatever they had from the scratch. Because they lacked an

existing cultural base they could not achieve much by way of

inventions and discoveries. The cave man could thus hardly go

beyond the bow and arrow technology or beyond counting by the

fingers and toes. But as the cultural base of human society grew

with succeeding generations of homo sapiens adding their own

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inventions, a yet Increasing number of discoveries and inventions

have become possible.

Today, so much technological and cultural breakthroughs are

being recorded because the present society has accumulated so

much knowledge and information which it combines in new ways

to produce new inventions. It is believed that unless the cultural

base supplies the relevant initial inventions and discoveries, an

invention cannot be completed. Today’ high rate of invention and

discovery is possible because there is already in existence a vast

accumulation of scientific technical knowledge which is freely

shared by the global world society in a cross fertilization of ideas

and knowledge. From this culture base still new discoveries and

technological breakthroughs are churned out at an exponential

rate. The more developed therefore the culture base of a society is,

the faster and more rapidly will social change occur that society.

Community Acceptance of and Resistance to Social Change

We have identified some of the factors that affect the rate of

social change in society. Questions of rate are however different

from questions that address the acceptability of change proposal

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members of society. For a given change to occur, not to talk of

occurring rapidly or slowly, it has first to be accepted by society.

There is abundant evidence that in many societies and at different

time period, some particular change proposal was accepted, while

some were resisted or rejected outright.

Certainly, not all proposals for change are accepted by the

society. Rather, there is usually in operation a process of selective

acceptance which makes it possible for some innovations to

receive automatic or instant acceptance, others accepted only after

a long period of persuasion and yet others accepted only in part, or

otherwise rejected totally. Many different factors are responsible

for this selective approach to acceptance of change. These are: the

specific attitudes and values of a community, the demonstrability

of the proposal innovation, the compatibility of the proposal

changes with the existing culture, the costs of proposal change and

the role change agents. We shall now consider each of these

factors.

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(i) Specific Attitudes and Values of the Community

Apart from the general attitude of a community towards change,

every community has some specific attitudes and values which are

tied to certain customary objects and practices within it culture.

Within every culture, there are certain specific practices (e.g

agricultural methods and practices), or certain local foods etc that

are valued intrinsically for what they are, or for what they

represent culturally to the people. A community may cling to such

an age-long practice or food preference, and resist pressures

towards its substitution simply because the proposed change

violates long-established cultural taste, or practice, or because the

new practice shocks their cultural sensibility by negating a cultural

belief that lay behind a practice.

There is the example of the Biaga community of central India

who would not abandon their primitive digging sticks to adopt the

far more effective moldboard plow implement. Their reason for

resisting the innovation is that the people loved the earth as a

benevolent and generous mother and as such they could not bring

themselves to cut her up with knives (i.e with the moldboard

plow). The Biaga preferred to gently help mother earth with the
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digging stick to bring forth her produce (Elwin,1939). People’s

established likes, beliefs and tastes, play a role in their acceptance

of or resistance to change.

A community may enthusiastically embrace a proposed adoption

of a new agricultural seed input because of its high-yield potential.

But when in course of time the community discovers that the

resulting yield does not lend itself to the preparation the of certain

valued cultural meals, or that taste of the new yield does not tie

with their preferred tastes, the community may quickly reject the

hybrid specie and return to the use of the old seedling. Thus, when

specific attitudes and values are challenged or threatened by new

innovations, such innovations tend to be resisted or rejected. But

when they conform to these specific attitudes and values, such

innovations are readily accepted.

(ii) It makes a difference as far as the acceptance of innovation is

concerned whether the usefulness of the proposed innovation can

be demonstrated. An innovation is more readily accepted when its

usefulness can be practically and easily demonstrated. When the

workability of an invention or a proposed change cannot easily be

demonstrated, acceptance of it becomes delayed if not

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unforeseeable. Many rural African would stick to herbal

practitioners simply because the former produce instant

conformable results. Demonstrability of innovations encourages

its quick acceptance. Unfortunately, to demonstrate some

inventions or innovations would require huge financial

expenditures. Some mechanical inventions can be demonstrated

on a small-scale basis whereas others will require large scale

exhibitions that will consume enormous time to arrange.

At the other extreme are social inventions (e.g the corporation

democratic government) which cannot be easily demonstrated in a

laboratory. These however can be demonstrated in the open

society but they require a long time to try out. In comparative

terms, mechanical inventions are more easily accepted than social

inventions because of the former’s relative ease of

demonstrability. Unlike mechanical inventions whose value or

workability can be demonstrated prior to acceptance, most social

inventions must first be adopted before their practical value can be

assessed. This situation hinders greatly the acceptance of social

inventions.

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(iii) Compatibility with Existing Culture

A community readily accepts an innovation when it fits so well

into the existing culture. Some innovations dove tail perfectly into

existing cultural patterns, and thereby promote the attainment of

culture goals, while some innovations conflict with existing

patterns. Incompatibility with existing cultural forms can take

several shapes. It can take the form of outright conflict with

existing patterns. In this case the proposed innovation runs

counter to what is on ground. An example is the introduction of

merit as the sole basis for hiring and promoting labour in a society

that upholds a tradition of people recognizing an obligation to take

care of their family members (or those they know) over and above

other outsiders irrespective of whether or not such relatives

deserve such appointments or promotions, or such other relevant

recognition. In many developing countries social placement based

on ascription and family connection (the “I.M. factor”) is

gradually giving way to the principle of meritocracy and social

system based on achievement.

When innovation conflicts with already existing patterns, there

possible outcomes can be anticipated: (1). The innovation may be

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rejected (2) the innovation may be culture in order to conform to

the made ways, and (3) the innovation may be accepted and its

conflict with the existing culture concealed or evaded through

rationalization. For instance, the law of a country or state may

prohibit polygyny (marrying more than one wife) and yet closes it

eyes to those who violate it. Non-enforcement of the law may be

dictated by some identifiable reasons which are persuasive.

Although it is not always the case, innovations that are in conflict

with the existing culture tend not to be accepted by the people.

Another way in which an innovation may be incompatible with

the existing culture is by calling for or requiring new patterns that

are not presently existing within that culture. Some innovations

that are introduced into a society have no existing corresponding

patterns into which they can fit. Given this situation what a society

does is generally to apply the unfamiliar innovation in ways

identical to the uses it puts similar elements in its culture. When

the old, familiar ways or uses fail to match the new innovation,

society begins to develop new ways of making effective use of the

new element that has been introduced. In this way society creates

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in response to the innovation, new patterns in the culture which

are developed over time.

When the American Indians were given cows by the government,

they first hunted them as games because of their hunting culture.

But eventually they learnt and developed the practice of animal

husbandry which suited the cows. Many innovations generate this

kind of pressure that lead to the development of new patterns

within a culture. Some innovations are therefore additive in

consequences.

Thirdly, an innovation may be incompatible with the existing

culture by the fact that the replace or substitute traits. In some

cases, an innovation has required that some familiar aspects of an

existing culture be discarded and replaced with a new culture traits

or element. In many traditional societies, many cultural values and

practices have had to give modern social innovations in such areas

as sex equality, political administration the economy and the like.

Today, a trend toward the equality of the sexes, democratic

governance, and rational business enterprise etc have displaced the

erstwhile traditional pattern. Innovations that result in the discard

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or shedding off of some familiar elements of the culture are less

acceptable than those which add to existing traits.

(iv) Costs of Change

Social change nearly always carries with it certain general and

specific costs. The general costs involved the overall disruption or

disorganization which change visits on existing culture patterns by

causing the discarding of or modification of certain elements of

the culture, and by undermining deeply held community values

and sentiments. The specific costs of change include the technical

costs and difficulties associated with technical innovation.

Whenever new technical inventions are made, such breakthroughs

are always greeted with the fear that the present stock of

machinery and equipment are at the verge of being rendered

obsolete or abandoned to waste.

This is because people’s interest in them and subsequent demand

for them soon takes a nose-dive or vanishes altogether. Not only

therefore, does the new invention threaten and often kill the

market for market for the now older models of machinery and

equipment, it also destroys the market for technical skills which

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workers have invested years to acquire but which are now no

longer in demand. To remain relevant in the emerging labour

market such skilled industrial workers require retraining in the

new techniques and designs, and this is not without some personal

and social costs.

Furthermore, technical change such as the kind that takes place in

the factory production line which involves the introduction of

automation and machine power, and the displacement of manual

labourers entails job losses. With the introduction of automation

few workers are now needed to perform with machines the tasks

that several dozens of workers previously undertook. Such job

losses arising from technical change within the factories and

industrial are certainly counted as costs to the individual workers

who have become so disengaged.

As would be expected, the costs of social change not equally

distributed. The industry which is rendered obsolete, the workers

whose skill is rendered unmarketable and the workers who are

retrenched from industries, all as a result of technical innovation

bear directly the heavy costs of technical innovation. Consumers

of the improve products on the other hand are to the benefiting end
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and shouldering no foreseeable costs. Most social changes carry a

threat whether real or unreal. They also carry cost sometimes light

sometimes heavy. On the whole persons with vested interests who

are threatened by social and technical changes and who stand to

incur various costs as a result of such changes manifest a tendency

to oppose or resist these changes. On the other hand, those who

stand to benefit from these changes tend to accept them with

eagerness and much enthusiasm.

(v) Role of The Change Agent

The acceptance of or resistance to social change is also influenced

in the role played by the change agent. It is important to the

community or acceptors of change, who the proposer of the

planned change is. Both his identify and how the originator of the

change proposal or his agent goes about introduction the change,

also makes a difference to the success or otherwise of the change

programme. Change proposal which are first embraced or adopted

by persons who are important powerful and respected in society

tend to be accepted more rapidly by the rest of society. On the

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other hand, innovations which are first adopted by persons of low

status in society are less likely to be embraced by the rest of

society, or at best adopted rather slowly and reluctantly by those at

the upper echelons of society. This view is instructive for change

agents who desire to make success of their project.

Change agents must also make the proposed change appear

harmless by identifying or connecting it with familiar elements of

the receiving culture. By suggesting compatibility in this manner

the people are helped to perceive the intended change as a useful

addition or modification to their culture complex. This of course

presuppose that the change agent must have a good knowledge of

the culture within which he is working. Otherwise he cannot

successfully identify or tie his proposed change with existing

features of the culture in question.

Change agents must comprehensively understand the

interrelations of the culture which they tend to impact. It is only

this way that they can successfully manage or implement the

change programme, as well as predict the likely consequences of

the proposed changes without understanding the people and their

culture, the change agent may slide into costly mistake and
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assumptions that will mar the success of an otherwise well

planned project.

Perhaps a change agent who is a stranger to another culture

should first observe that culture with a view to understudying it for

a period of time. This is a mandatory first step if his efforts are not

to be counterproductive.

Belief systems in African Religion

In traditional African religion several belief systems exist. These

include Ancestor worship, magic and witchcraft. In this unit

therefore we will examine these belief systems. Since we have

looked at the general nature of belief our concern in this unit will

be more on examining these belief systems with a view to

understanding how each works.

a. Ancestors Worship

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Ancestor worship as a belief system is commonly found in Africa

where people value unilineal descent. Ancestor worship is based

on the belief that one’s dead parents have link with the living and

as such are capable of controlling events in the actual world of the

living. They are believed to be able to family. In Africa, there is a

belief in the of supernatural beings and ancestors are part of this

complex spiritualized universe. The concept of ancestor

presupposes the existence of descendants over which the ancestors

exerts control and authority. Because they have the capacity to

punish and reward, ancestors are believed to be in constant watch

over the behavior of the living. It is also believed that at death the

individual may be called upon by the ancestors to render account

of his relationship with the Kinsmen left behind on earth. This

belief help maintains morality and social control in Africa.

Communities and individuals conduct rituals in respect of dead

ancestors in order to appease them and make request for their

human needs of food, rain, children, bounty harvest and good

health etc. In addition to these rituals, there may be seasonal

occasions where elaborate ceremonies are organized for

purification, drumming, dancing and singing. During new yam

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festivals for examples many communities come together to

celebrate and thank their ancestors for giving them a bountiful

harvest. The Bini, Yoruba and Igbo in Nigeria have these forms of

ancestor worship. This form of religion is commonly found in

Africa and parts of Asia (China). Where there is ancestor worship,

the dead and past generations are structurally important to the

living. However, no one remembers all his dead ancestors and

predecessors. Generally, the dead are lumped together, known and

called by different names collectively as the ancestors or the dead.

Many Africans believe that the universe is full of supernatural

beings for example among the Asante as described by Busia(1965)

the ancestors are part of the complex spiritualize universe. The

ancestors derive their positions from the kinship and descent

systems- to be ancestor, the dead must have had descendants, that

is some status of parenthood. The dead is believed to “know” and

reward or punish only his descendants. It is over his descendants

that he is believed to have authority, they are the ones he can

discipline and also the ones that can worship him as a “living

dead”. In-marrying women also participate in ancestral religious

worship in their twin capacities as married women and as mothers.

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Busia states that in Asante, ancestors are believed to be the

custodians of the laws and customs, and punish offenders with

sickness and misfortune. Ancestors are therefore in constant watch

over the behavior of the living; at death anybody may be called

upon by the body of ancestors to render account of his or her

relationships in the world.

There are ward, town, and state rituals in connection with the

collectively of dead ancestors at these levels. Normally the chief

priest on such occasions of worship of the collective dead is the

eldest man of the social group. Many African societies have

religious worship of this kind. For example, among the Agni of the

Ivory Coast, sacrifice is offered to the royal ancestors weekly. In

this respect, cooked plantain, wine and palm oil are brought and

offered on the royal stool. Stool among the Agni, as among the

Asante and the royal shrines in several African societies are

symbols of the dead and their presence, and power. Busia noted

that “there are seasonal occasions when in addition to offerings

and prayers to ancestors, there are elaborate ceremonies involving

rites of purification, drumming dancing singing recital of (group)

history. These rites give solemn and collective expression to those

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sentiments on which the social solidarity of the group depends”.

Among many Africans, ancestors may be invoked on yearly

ceremonial occasions, for example at new yam festivals among the

Fon when goats, fowls, and pieces of yam are presented to the

ancestors eaten by the chief priest and the celebrants at the royal

shrines. The Bini, Igbo, Urhobo and Yoruba of Nigeria also have

forms of ancestor worship as key parts of their chief systems,

African religion that is focused on ancestors is significant in

creating and maintaining solidarity in the group and friendship and

love amongst its members. It is to be noted too that royal

ancestors, such as among the Swazi of South Africa, are believed

to have an interest and general concern for the people in the total

polity. Appeals are made to them for the good of the nation.

Generally, the significance of such ancestor derived from their

political position while alive. For the dead generally the state of

being worshipped is promoted by good behavior and achievements

on earth, hence an important distinction: a dead king or father may

merely be remembered (say for his evil deeds) but not worshipped.

In many respects, therefore, ancestors continue their worldly role,

they make themselves relevant to society in this regard. Ancestor

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worship is a way of re-instating the status of the dead as regulator

of social relations on earth. What ancestors are believed to do or

are capable of doing is generally esteemed to be over and above

what their capabilities and activities on earth would indicate. In

some societies, a good or bad man becomes the ancestor of his

descendants whatever his relationship with them must have been

on earth; he is believed to behave in the general manner that

ancestors are expected to behave.

Ancestor worship as a form of religion implies that the worldly

family and community life is joined to that of their dead kinsman.

Operationally, ancestor worship is a means of communion and

communication with the supernatural world. Prayers, sacrifice,

and offerings are important in African religion. While sacrifice

involves the killing and presentation of the victim (an animal,

chicken, etc) to God or any other supernatural being, an offering

involves mainly the presentation of good or other consumable

items to God or other supernatural beings. During both sacrifices

and offering prayers are addressed to the supernatural. In his

African Religions and philosophy, Mbiti offers four theories to

explain the functions and meaning of sacrifices and offerings.

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These are the theories of gift-giving, propitiation, communion, and

thanksgiving. Arinze(1970) states that sacrifice has four

objectives: expiation, warding off molestation from unknown evil

spirit, petition and thanksgiving. Thus in general sacrifices and

offerings are devices of communication between the physical and

the supernatural worlds, and with reference to the ancestors, they

function as means of appeasing the gods.

b. Magic

Magic refers to belief aimed at the control of events and the

environment. Magical activities involve secrecy and symbolism.

They are useful in solving problems relating to economic and

psychological realms. Among many African societies magic is

useful in providing rain and sunshine for crops and for the

prevention of draughts. Magicians are able to call for rain when

there is drought. The supernatural can also be conjured to bring

good luck and fortune to the people through magic. Among the

trobriand Islanders, there is belief in magic as a means of

controlling supernatural forces and especially those concerned

with the dangers associated with open see fishing. Magicians are

believed to possess enormous powers of manipulation and may be

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resorted to act in times of desperation. They may be contacted to

control weather and prevent disaster at important occasions in the

community.

C. Witchcraft

Witchcraft is a prominent belief among several African

communities and peoples. Witches are generally believed to have

some supernatural elements and powers by which they inflict harm

on people especially their Kinsmen. They are reputed for meeting

at night and in secret places where they project their will to harm

people by turning into animals. A witch and her soul is in danger

if such an animal or bird she has turned into is hurt or killed.

Among the Tiv and Urhobo where belief in witchcraft held sway,

witches are believed to leave their bodies and fly out in the form

of spirits or birds and act on their victims either visibly or through

some form of animal or bird. Witches are believed to be generally

violent and would feed on the body of their victim thereby leading

to death. Among the Nupe witches are believed to able to take the

spirit of their victims to their gathering and feasted on it. One

Puzzling aspect of this belief is that while witches travel at night,

their bodies remain at home with family members asleep. It is only

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the spirit of the witch that moves about. In some instance witches

are accused of prolonging illness, misfortunes and distress of their

victims. Thus, African societies have varying belief systems. Each

belief system has its underlying cultural background. Among the

Tiv where belief in the existence of witchcraft very pronounced,

seeing a mouse or owl in the day time is an abomination and an

indication of imminent danger. Some of the belief systems

considered here are not exhaustive. The one’s discussed are only a

few selected for the purpose of this course.

The Role of Religion in the Society

Since religion permeates all facets of life its importance to society

cannot be under estimated.

1 The Importance of Religion to Society

Religion as an aspect of culture that is so pervasive on the

people generates and sustains its existence based on its importance

to society. Sociologists are interested in the study of religion not

merely because of its central theoretical problem but also of the

import of its relationships to other areas of social life and of the

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roles, movements, and organizational strategies associated with it.

Some sociologists argue that the institution of religion arose

because of man’s fear and uncertainties and his mental limitations

in his environment. Malinowski has argued that religion provides a

patterned and familiar way of overcoming life and environmental

crisis and of the preparation and hope for comfortable future.

Radcliffe-Brown(1952:148) has however presented a counter view

insisting that ‘… if it were not for the existence of the rite and the

beliefs associated with it, the individual would feel no anxiety, and

that the psychological effect of the right is to create in him a sense

of insecurity or danger’. This means that religion and its rites to

Malinowski actually produce fear in their process rather than be a

solution to man’s fears and anxiety. Yet, in general, man normally

desires to show reverence to the supernatural and to appease and

seek their cooperation in an uncertain world. Religion then is a

mechanism of adjustment and of solving problems not only of

overcoming anxiety but also of ordering one’s relationship with

the supernatural and in the process supporting social norms and

integrating society and personalities(otite:1990:155). In this task

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religion compliments and competes with other social institutions

such as the political and economic.

Durkheim saw religion mainly as a tool for solidarity and

integration. For him religion contributes to law and order in the

society by creating conditions for social wellbeing, self-discipline,

social cohesion and the continuity of cultures and tradition.

Coser(1967) counters Durkheim by insisting that the historical

evidence available has proved religion also to be divisive. This is

especially true in situations where the existing religious groups

tend to compete each other. Durkheim’s solidarity must therefore

be different from stability. Religion may not produce the two. As

contained by Marx, religion is an ‘opiate of the masses’ designed

to make them docile. It is an instrument for maintaining

stratification systems and keeping the masses under subjugation.

Religion is therefore a diversionary technique of shifting the

attention of workers from their deplorable living and working

conditions thereby creating low class docility while protecting and

perpetuating existing inequalities. Religion make the poor look to

heaven while accepting the exploitative order of the rich.

Specifically, following are the importance of religion to society.

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(a) Group Integration and Unity

Religion unites members of the society. It serves as a form

of cementing element that bind people together into an integrated

social group. Because adherents share common religious values

and beliefs, participate in common religious rituals they become

united as one group or community. By regularly bringing

adherents together to re-enact beliefs commonly shared, religion

promotes group sense of identity, oneness and unity which ensures

cohesion. Group unity and solidarity is more prevalent during

crisis situation when the group faces imminent threat to its

existence and survival. During crisis religion provides a rallying

point for members of a society by offering them hope for

tomorrow. By partaking in religious rituals adherents believe that

their God is capable and at the appropriate time will answer them

and provide solution to their problems.

(b) The Provision of Meaning

The world today is full of problems and diseases that sometimes

make life seem meaningless. Religion provide doctrines that gives

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meaning and hope to life. Religion provide answers to the

puzzling questions of human life, it origin, existence and ultimate

opportunities of life. Religion provide answers to misfortune and

meaning to a seemingly meaningless world. It is religion that

provides the truth about the world.

(c) Provision of Emotional and Psychological Support to

Members of the Society.

In our society today that is full of problems, religion provide

some form of emotional support to members of the society during

events such as death, marriages and even when new ones are

delivered into families. Important events in the life of the

individual are marked by religious rituals and ceremonies. For

example, marriages, births, deaths, and appointment into higher

offices and promotions are marked by one form of religious

activity or the other. When misfortune befalls a member of the

society, people from religious group often sympathize with him

and rally round him to ensure that the necessary psychological

support is given. Usually, members gather round the affected

member to provide the necessary company and sharing in the

problem. If an individual is bereaved for example members would

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usually come together to provide company in form of wake-keeps

over a period of time. This is done so as to avoid fear, loneliness

that may accompany the calamity and to provide the necessary

assistance in terms of labour during burial.

(d) Religion and The Docility of People in The Society.

It is the thinking of a number of scholars especially those that

belong to the Marxian tradition that religion makes adherent docile

and unable to question events. Religious adherents are made to

unquestionably accept their lot in the society. Marxian thinkers

view religion as an extreme form of human alienation and

exploitation. To Marxist religion is a tool used by the dominants

class in the society to oppress the less privileged ones. Thus,

Marxist insists that the importance of religion to society is to

support the status quo and divert the attention of the oppressed

masses from the real source of their problems.

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(e) Religion and the Control of Stress in the Society

Majority of religions of the world preach self-denial and

rejection of the materialism of the present world. They appeal to

their members to try by all means possible to direct their energies

towards making heaven. Members are urged to see present

problems as tribulations which must come to pass. Adherents are

encouraged to keep their store of wealth in heaven where it is safe

and there is no destruction. This doctrinal condemnation of

worldly wealth and materialism pacifies the mind of members and

gives them hope for a better tomorrow thereby helping in

discharging stress, frustration and anxiety.

(f) Maintenance of Social Control.

Every society has its rules, laws, norms and legal prohibitions

which define the limits to which individual can seek legitimate

achievements. Societal laws relating to offences such as theft,

murder, rape, assault etc are derived from the laws of God found

in the bible. Religious rules legitimize secular laws and are

therefore more potent in controlling behavior in society. Indeed,

since people perceive the contravention of religious laws as sin

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against God, the link between secular laws and those of religion

help in social control of people in the society.

Thus the importance of religion in the society emanates from the

fact that religion provide meaning to life. Man is perplexed by the

seemingly meaningless world of his existence. His problems are

compounded by the fact that getting answers and solutions to the

riddles of life seems a difficult task. Religion provides solution to

most of man’s pressing problems of life. It provides psychological

and emotional support during times of distress. Religion provides

an outlet for the discharge of stress and above all provides answers

to the puzzling questions that bewildered man.

The Importance of Society to Religion

The society comprise of several elements that are fused together

to form the whole called society. Society consists of land,

population, relationship, institutions, culture and work. Religion

and its practices do not take place in a vacuum. Indeed, religious

beliefs, values, norm and practices are in themselves codified

values of the society. The society becomes important to religion in

that it is from the society that religion derives its values and

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norms. Also, religion require practitioners and adherents who are

members of the society for its existence. It requires the clergy,

worshippers and indeed members of the laity who holds beliefs in

the existence of the supernatural being projected by religion. This

body of human beings resides in the society. The society therefore

provides religion with worshippers who constitute its membership

and congregation. It is these members of the congregation that

provides the organization and manpower needed for the daily

running of the institution of religion. The institution of religion is

such a complex one that require elaborate organization and

structures to operate must be clearly set out and delineated.

Again, society convey legitimacy to religious practices indulged

in by adherents. Religious practices that are against the norms and

values of the society are rejected by the society. For example, the

practice of human sacrifice among some religious groups have

been frowned at and condemned by members of the society.

Religious rituals that involve the use of human blood,

maltreatment of members of the congregation and illicit sexual

activities involving the clergy and communicants have attracted

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condemnation from members of the society. Indeed it will be

impossible to have religion if there is no society.

The importance of society to Religion is derives from the fact that

it is the society that provide the necessary support for the

establishment and continued survival of religion. Society provides

the necessary materials management, infrastructure and moral

requirements necessary for the survival of religion. Society

legitimizes all forms of religious practices that its members

imbibe. Through this way society provides the necessary bench

marks for religious practices.

Religion and Conflict in Nigeria

The arbitrary colonial demarcations have placed people with

differing cultural and religious background together to form

entities that are not compatible with each other. This has over the

years been the root of conflicts that have engulfed Nigeria. We

will therefore look at the place of religion in conflicts in Nigeria,

the causes of religious conflicts and the effects such conflicts have

on the society.

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The Place of Religion in Conflicts in Nigeria.

The phenomenon of religion has been proved to unite people in

many societies of the world. In Nigeria however, religion has

thrown the country into series of conflicts of alarming dimension.

The plural nature of the Nigerian society may have worsened

matters as the different nationalities have different religious

beliefs. The religious situation in Nigeria is such that every

conflict that appear to be politically motivated end up turning

religious. This is because people find it easy to generate support

and membership when religion is involved in any conflict. The

background to religious conflicts in Nigeria is traceable to the

activities of colonialism which have arbitrarily demarcated and

placed people of different religious entities and background into

single group or community. In most situations, those groups are in

mutual distrust of each other. Also the development of commerce

and the emergence of cities ensure that people travel to distant

places to buy and sell goods and services. Many of these

businessmen and women became settlers in cities where they own

large shops. Again, the establishment of schools and industries

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attracted a pool of people to cities where they work for salaried

wage. Through these processes, cities like Kano, Zaria, Ibadan,

Lagos etc became full of people of different religious background.

This has been the cause of religious conflicts in Kano, Jos,

Maiduguri and Kaduna. The present day religious conflicts in

Kano can only be clearly understood within the context of modern

migrations into the city (Otite 1999). This is a reference to the

influx of Southern Nigerians into the city for trade. The first

church in Kano was established in 1911. The colonial Urban

development policy restricted the construction of churches to the

Sabon Gari area. Up to the early 1980s there was no open hostility

between the Christians and Muslims in Kano. This situation began

to change in the late 1980s. There was a rapid growth of Christian

Churches in Nigeria, with many of their members professing ‘born

again’ theology. The manner in which most of these born again

Churches carry out their activities often bring them into open

hostilities with their Muslim counterparts. The situation in Kano is

not very different from other cities such as Kaduna, Jos and Zaria

that have recently become centers of religious unrest in the

country.

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 The way Christians propagate their faith has sometimes been

considered objectionable to Muslims. For example, when

preaching Christians usually present Jesus as the only way to the

kingdom of God. All other ways including the Islamic way would

only lead one to hell. This type of preaching is conducted in buses,

market places, churches and at dawn and as such anger Muslims.

Over the years several religious conflicts have occurred in Jos,

Zaria, Kano and Kaduna. There was Kafanchan crisis in 1992, the

Reinhard Bonnke riot of 1991, the Jos crisis of September 2001

and the Kaduna riots.

Causes of Religious Conflicts

A number of causes of religious conflicts have been identified.

Some of which include:

(i) The problem of cultural integration

Religious conflicts involving Christians and Muslims have been

traceable to the problem of cultural integration. In Nigeria, when a

person migrates from his place of origin to another, he finds

himself threatened or intimidated by the dominant social, political,

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cultural and religious groups. The migrant in Nigeria continue to

be arrogated the status of a migrant no matter how long he lives in

his new community. Such a migrant is faced with three major

problems of survival; assimilation, peaceful co-existence and

animosity (Samin Amin: 1974). Where the migrant refuse to

assimilate due to deep rooted religious differences they are bound

to be treated with animosity especially when efforts at peaceful

co-existence fail to produce the desired results. This is true in the

case of religious conflicts involving Christians and Muslims in the

Northern part of Nigeria. Though Southerners has lived in many

parts of Northern Nigeria since the early twentieth Century, most

of them saw themselves as strangers. They resisted cultural

assimilation. To be completely assimilated and accepted by the

local inhabitant’s one need to accept Islam and dress in the usual

Hausa long robe, a situation the Christians objected.

Also the Igbo Christian is considered to exert control over

commercial businesses in the Northern areas where they find

themselves, for example, the Igbo Christian is known to be in

control of 80% of the total business activities around the Sabon

gari settlement. The indigenes misconstrued this as monopoly

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which they vow to break. Indeed, the 1995 crisis at Sabon gari

market in Kano stems from this fact. It was alleged that the Igbo

discourage and intimidate other ethnic groups form setting up

shops in the market and were paying landlords higher rents as a

way of depriving the local Hausa-Fulani people access to such

shops.

(ii) Religious intolerance and fanaticism.

There is high degree of religious intolerance among Christians

and Muslims in Nigeria. This partly explains why every conflict in

Nigeria has a religious undertone. In the North where most

religious conflicts take place, religious intolerance cut across all

religious groups. The Muslims are opposed to Christians and the

orthodox Muslims would have nothing to do with the members of

the fundamental sects. The Muslims would want the Christians to

respect the Islamic religion as the Koran has enjoined the Muslim

to respect people of the book. In any case, such a respect is lacking

in the case of Muslim-Christian relationship in Nigeria. Christians

openly preach to denounce the Islamic faith and would distribute

hand bills considered offensive when organizing crusades. The

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Muslim on the other hand would not tolerate foul language and

general disregard to their religion. This was the immediate cause

of the Reinhard Bonke riots in Kano in 1991.

(ii) The influence of Non-Nigerian Muslim migrants.

The conflict situation is often aggravated by the presence of

Muslim immigrants from neighboring Chad Republic, Niger and

other North African Countries. The majority of fighters who took

part in maitatsine wars were found to be Non-Nigerians. In every

religious fight that occurs in the North, police arrest has indicated

that many of the fighters are NonNigerians.

(iii) Urban Poverty: -

Poverty is important in understanding how Muslim fundamentalist

recruit their men that are used in executing religious riots. Most of

the people who fought on the side of the maitatsine in 1980 were

the urban poor and destitute. Many of these recruits are young

men who came to the city to look for jobs but found none and

decided to stay on their own. These are often recruited and used by

the militants to destabilize the society.

Impact of Religious Conflict on the Society

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Religious Conflicts has damaging impact on the society. During

each religious conflict several hundreds of lives and property

worth millions of Naira are lost.

These losses are experienced by both the original indigenes and

settlers in their midst. This has forced strangers to move to other

cities that are less violent. The impact of this movement is the

gradual decline in business activities. The religious conflicts also

divided the people of the affected areas. The much expressed

unity, stability and trusts is nonexistent as a result of riots and

killings that ensued. Consequently, no one is any longer his

brother’s keeper as trust no longer prevails.

Agricultural activities are also grounded as people who are

expected to farm crops no longer feel safe on the farms. Every

religious crisis goes with it the destruction of markets where

Agricultural produce can be sold. Also, transportation is disrupted

and this goes a long way to affect Agricultural production.

Public utilities are deliberately vandalized and damaged.

Electrical installations, telecommunication equipment and water

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works are damaged. Unreliable or poor performance of public

utilities will affect productivity.

The provision of social amenities is also affected, schools,

hospitals, clinics, markets, parks and estates are destroyed.

Religious buildings become targets of destruction by rioters.

Thus, Religious Conflicts have been a manipulated phenomenon

such that though a particular conflict may be political, communal

or even economic motivated like the farmers’ /herders crisis, yet it

will be given a religious undertone. Religion has been used by

political and ethnic based politicians to advance their cause. In

Nigeria, therefore it is at the level of religion that both the learned

and the unlearned converge.

The Role of Religion in Nigerian Politics.

The involvement of religion in political activities in

Nigeria dates back to the pre-colonial period. By 1940s embryonic

political associations began to be organized by the educated

youths who were exposed to nationalist thought from abroad. One

major characteristic of these early political associations was that

they were highly tribalized. Thus the Role of religion in politics in

128
Nigeria is traceable to the pre-independence built up as formation

of political associations began to take root. Indeed, Christian

missionaries were instrumental to the formation of political

associations and in raising the political consciousness of the local

people. The radical political changes after the Second World War

transformed the framework of missionary strategy as well as the

relationship between missionaries and converts. They were aware

of the fact that if not the right people emerge as leaders after

independence, their efforts may be in vain. Fear was based on the

experiences of missionaries in China in 1949, when they were

expelled from the country. Thus, the missionaries became

sensitive about political change which threatened their work. In

central Nigeria, for example, in order to present a coordinated

response to the political situation, the missionaries met at Bukuru

Jos in 1948 to consider a Christian response. The churches resolve

to raise the consciousness of members and to warm them about the

dangers of refusing to involve themselves in political activities.

Besides, there was the fear of Muslim domination of Christians in

the political arrangements. This lead to the formation of the

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Northern Non- Muslim League (NNML) in 1949 under the

leadership of Pastor David Lot. By

1950, the Northern Non- Muslim League was renamed the middle

zone League (MZL). As the 1951 elections drew nearer, it became

very obvious to Christians that Muslims would dominate the new

political era in the country. Churches became the rallying point for

the Christians and the missionaries began to instill in their clergy

and converts, the idea of an impending Muslim domination and

the need to sit up. The churches became involved in political

campaigns. The problem was not that of the credibility of the

candidate, it became a matter of from which religious background

he comes from.

Christian Politicians justify their involvement in politics by using

the Bible. They sought not only the political kingdom, but the

kingdom of God as well. Their work was therefore to unite the two

into a Christian political kingdom. The Christians and Muslims

alike sought to participate in politics so as to improve the

infrastructure, health system, education, economy and the

judiciary. They wanted to provide direction in politics since many

have perceived politics as a dirty game. The role of religion

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therefore is to sanitize and provide direction to politics for the

benefit of humanity. It is in the light of the above thinking that

religious bodies rose strongly to condemn the annulment of June

12 elections widely believed to have been won by chief Moshood

Abiola. The Christian Association of Nigeria rose from its meeting

with a declaration condemning the annulment and all other forms

of human injustices. In a similar vein the ecumenical council of

Nigeria condemned the annulment. By doing this religion serves

as the watch dog of the society. Like the prophets in the bible,

religious leaders in Nigeria have been criticizing government

policies that are not in favour of the people; policies that

dehumanizes the personality of the individual. Religion has also

been manipulated by politicians to serve their personal needs.

Declaration for political electioneering campaigns are made in

churches and mosques. Indeed, the politicians always see the

church or the mosque as the first place of call for political support.

Thanks giving services often become veritable grounds for

political campaigns.

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